Chapter 9 Data Collection Observation Interviews and Tests
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The document discusses various data collection techniques used in educational research, including observation, interviews, and tests. It provides details on how each technique is conducted and its advantages and limitations. Specifically, it describes overt and covert observation methods, structured and unstructured interviews, and different types of tests used to measure achievement, aptitude, and personality. It also highlights important considerations for properly planning and conducting observations and interviews.
Chapter 9 Data Collection Observation Interviews and Tests
- 1. Chapter 9: Data Collection: Observation, Interviews and Tests
- 2. Data Collection Techniques • Data collection is a method in which information related to a study is gathered by suitable and reliable mediums. The procedures refer to how and when the data should be collected. It is, therefore, critical that data collection exercise should be a well thought out process, and its instruments should have both validity and reliability. • In educational research and other social sciences, the following data collection techniques are widely used: Observations Interviews Tests Questionnaires Surveys
- 3. Observation Method • With this method, the researcher records the behaviour of the participants by using his or her sensory systems (including eyes and ears). In this method, judgements about the occurrence of the behaviour, its frequency, its duration or its latency (the state of existing but not being developed or manifest) are made. • Observation is a qualitative method. • Types of observation: You can observe participants in different ways. Overt observations: In this method, everyone knows that they are being observed. Covert observations: In this method, no one knows they are being observed and the observer is concealed. Direct observations: Here, the researcher watches interactions, processes or behaviours as they occur. Indirect observations: In indirect observations, the researcher watches the results of interactions, processes or behaviours.
- 4. Observation Method (Contd.) • Observations can be highly structured or non-structured. • Structured observations consist of a checklist of, for example, the incidence, presence or frequency of predetermined evidence to be observed in the situation which will either support or refute a preconceived theory. • Non-structured observations: They allow for issues to emerge from the observation. • In educational research, you can use observation method for: understanding an ongoing process or situation gathering information on individual behaviours or interactions between people knowing about a physical setting linking quality improvement resources to positive outcomes for teachers and students streamlining and promoting effective classroom interactions and teaching practices
- 5. Observation Method (Contd.) • During an observation, the areas to be observed are (a) setting, (b) track events and event sequences (c) counting, census taking and ethnographic mapping and (d) search for indicators of socio-economic difference. • There are certain key considerations to plan the observational method: (a) determine the focus of your observations, (b) design a system for data collection, (c) select the sites, (d) select the observers, (e) train the observers and (f) schedule your observations appropriately. • Advantages of observation method: The novelty of this method is its simplicity. Observations permit the measurement of actual behaviours rather than reports of intended or preferred behaviours. The method is free from reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is either eliminated or reduced. • Limitations of observation method: There is likelihood that bias in the researcher’s perception can bias the data. Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive.
- 6. Interviews • Interviews are the most widely used qualitative design for gathering information. They are used to find social meanings and to answer the critical question of ‘why’. An interview is a qualitative method of gathering evidence, data or information. • An interview is not a conversation. You have to follow a rigorous format for conducting an interview properly. You will have to watch your body language and make sure you maintain eye contact. Another equally important aspect for conducting an interview is communication skills. • When designing interviews, the first thing you have to do is to choose whether to use a structured or non- structured interview. In addition, variables such as gender and age, personal characteristics and ethnicity should also be considered. • Interviews have become the main data collection procedure closely associated with qualitative, human scientific research and there are various tips that should be remembered when composing the interview guide.
- 7. Interviews (Contd.) • Sampling for interviews: When you design your research project, you need to take into account how many people you need to interview to make the research valid or for ‘population validity’. • Preparing an interview guide: When preparing an interview guide, you should identify the topic, jot down questions that express your puzzlement with the topic, try to expand the range of enquiry, decide on your subjects and the setting and design your probes. • Transcription of interviews: Once you have completed the interview, its transcription is very important. An accurate transcription (a written or printed representation of your interview) makes sure that all the quotations are authentic and correct. • Analysis of interviews: Upon the completion of transcription of your interview(s), you may have a lot of data. Of the relevant information, you just pick out key points and quotes to illustrate your key points. Another thing that you could do is that you can code the information, that is, you could turn a qualitative interview into quantitative data.
- 8. Interviews (Contd.) • Interviews can be used at any stage of the evaluation process. Specific circumstances for which interviews are particularly appropriate include complex subject matter, detailed information sought, busy, high-status respondents and highly sensitive subject matter. • Types of research interviews: Interviews may be highly formalised and structured, using standardised questions for each research participant (often called a respondent) or they may be informal and non-structured conversations. In between, there are intermediate positions. • Structured interviews: A ‘structured interview’ or a standardised interview is a quantitative research method commonly used in survey research. The purpose of this method is to confirm that each interview is offered with exactly the same questions in the same order. • Semi-structured Interviews: With this type of interview, the interviewer asks major questions in the same way each time but he or she is free to alter the sequence and to probe for further information.
- 9. Interviews (Contd.) • Non-standardised interviews: In research, this term is used interchangeably with the terms ‘informal conversational interview’, ‘in-depth interview’, ‘non-standardised interview’ and ‘ethnographic interview’. Types of non-structured interviews are: One-to-one interviews: One-to-one interview is a common qualitative research tool. In-depth interviews are conducted between an individual respondent and a professional qualitative researcher. Telephonic interviews: Researchers have used telephone as a means of collecting data in several areas, but there are only few examples of studies where such interviews have been used to collect qualitative data. Internet (online) interviews: The online interview comes in two basic forms: a ‘screening interview’ or a ‘formal interview’. An interview is usually a behavioural interview, based on job criteria and standard questions. Focus group interviews: Through focus group interviews, the researcher gets insights into how people think. They provide a deeper understanding of the phenomena being studied.
- 10. Tests • As data-gathering devices, ‘tests’ are among the most frequently used tools of educational research, for they provide the data for most experimental and descriptive studies in education. • The following types of tests are designed for different purposes: Achievement tests: Achievement tests attempt to measure what an individual has learned from his or her present level of performance. Achievement tests are frequently used in educational and training settings. Many opponents argue that using the tests encourages teachers and educators to skew their curricula to encourage higher scores rather than focusing on individual student learning. Aptitude tests: Aptitude tests seek to assess the level of achievement that an individual is capable of doing or predict what he or she is able to learn or do given the right education and instruction, and capable of attaining in some particular academic or vocational field. In an educational setting, aptitude tests are designed for the scholastic assessment test (SAT) and the college testing exam (CTE).
- 11. Tests (Contd.) Personality tests: Personality tests are designed to study the non-intellectual aspect of human behaviour. They are used to accurately and consistently measure personality. These tests are primarily self-report instruments. The individual checks responses to certain questions or statements. Norm-referenced test: A norm-referenced test is a test which compares the individual’s performance with those other persons taking the same test. Criterion-referenced test: A criterion-referenced test evaluates an individual in a given situation with respect to specific characteristics expected in the performance. These tests measure the effectiveness of a programme or instruction. • Qualities of a good test: The qualities of a good test are validity, reliability and objectivity.