CHAPTER OUTLINE Power Sources of Power Types of Po

CHAPTER OUTLINE
Power
Sources of Power
Types of Power and Influencing Tactics,
and Ways to Increase Your Power
Organizational Politics
The Nature of Organizational Politics
Political Behavior
Guidelines for Developing Political Skills
Networking
Perform a Self-Assessment and Set Goals
Create Your One-Minute Self-Sell
Develop Your Network
Conduct Networking Interviews
Maintain Your Network
Social Networking at Work
Negotiation

Negotiating
The Negotiation Process
Ethics and Influencing
Influencing:
Power, Politics,
N etworl<ing, and
N egotiation
Learning Outcomes
A~er studying this chapter, you should be able to:
0 Explain the differences between position power and
personal power. p. 145
e Discuss t he diffe rences among legitimate, reward, coercive ,
and referent power. p. 146
e Discuss how power and politics are related. p. I54
0 Describe how money and politics have a similar use.
p. 154
e List and explain the steps in the networking process.
p. 160
0 List the steps in the negotiation process. p. 166
f) Explain the relationships among negotiation and conflict,
influencing tactics, power, and politics. p. 166
CHAPTERS INFLUENC ING: POWER, POLITICS,
NETWORKING , AND NEGOTIATION 14S

OPENING CASE Application I
Serial entrepreneur Mark Cuban has ventured into many
OPENING CASE QUESTIONS:
diverse businesses. Cuban 's first step into the business I • What
sources and types of power does Mark
world occurred at age 12, when he sold garbage bags
Cuban have, and why has he had problems with
door to door: Soon after: he was selling stamps, coins,
power?
and baseball cards, which paid for his business degree at
2. Why are organizational politics important toIndiana
University (IU).Whlie attending IU. Cuban bought a
Mark Cuban's enterprises?Bloomington bar and named it
Motley's, raising the money
by selling shares to his friends. Cuban and Martin Woodati 3.
How has Mark Cuban used networking?
founded Micro
Solution
s, and they sold the company for 4. What types of negotiations
does Mark Cuban
$6 million. With Woodall, he also invested in the Landma1-k
engage in?
Theatres, Magnolia Pictures, AXS TV (formerly HDNet),

5. Is Mark Cuban ethical in influencing others?
and audio and video porta! Broadcast.com: he was also a
day trader. Cuban also took acting lessons and was on the Can
you answer any of these questions? You' ll find
TV show Shark Tank. But Cuban is most famous, however.
answers to these questions and learn more about Mark
for his 90 percent ownersh:p and controversial, zeaious Cuban·s
businesses and leadership style throughout the
management of the NBA team Dal!as Mavencks. Cuban is
chapter.
listed on the Forbes 400 Richest People in America, with a To
iearn more about Mark Cu ban , do an Internet
net worth of $2.5 billion. 1 search.
B
esides excellent work, what does it take to get ahead in an
organization? To climb
the corporate ladder, you will have to influence people2- to gain
power, play
organizational politics, network, and negotiate to get what you
want. These related
concepts are the topics of this chapter. Recall from our
definition of leadershir
(Chapter 1) that leadership is the "influencing" process

ofleaders and followers to achieve
organizational objectives through change. Leaders and followers
influence each other_
This chapter focuses on leadership behavior by explaining how
leaders influence others
at the individual level of analysis. Let's begin with power
because if you want to make a
difference, you need to have power. 3
Power
Power is the fundamental concept in social science,4 and power
skills can be taught and
developed. 5 Ifwe want to understand why organizations do the
things they do, we must
consider the power of managers and how power differences
affect team and organiza-
tional performance. 6 Power is about achieving influence over
others. However, power
is the leader's potential influence over followers . Because
power is the potential to influ-
ence, you do not actually have to use power to influence others.
Often, it is the perception
of power, rather than the actual use of power, that influences
others. In this section, we
discuss sources of power, types of power, influencing tactics,

and ways to increase your
power.
Learning I
Explain the differences between position power and personal
power.
Outcome -
144
https://Broadcast.com
146 PART I INDIVIDUALS AS LEADERS
Sources of Power
There are different sources of power,7 and here we discuss
position power and personal
power.
Position Power
Position power is derived from top management, and it is
delegated down the chain of

command. Position status can give you power. 8 Thus, a person
who is in a management
position has more potential power to influence than an
employee who is not a manager.
9
Some people view power as the ability to make people do what
they want them to do or
the ability to do something to people or for people. These
definitions may be true, but
they tend to give power a manipulative, negative connotation, as
does the old saying by
Lord Acton, "Power corrupts. Absolute power corrupts
absolutely." Power can also make
people more self-focused. 10
Within an organization, power should be viewed in a positive
sense. Without power,
managers could not achieve organizational objectives, so
leadership and power go hand
in hand. Managers rely on position power to get the job done.11
Dr. Martin Luther King
Jr. said, "Power properly understood is nothing but the ability to
achieve purpose. It is the

strength to bring about change."
Personal Power
Personal power is derived from the followers based on the
leader's behavior. Charismatic
leaders have personal power. Again, followers do have some
pow~r over leaders. So you
don't have to be a manager to have power.
A manager can have only position power or both position and
personal power, but
a nonmanager can have only personal power. Today's successful
leaders share power
(empowerment) by pushing power and decision making down
the organization. 12 As
former NBA coach Phil Jackson puts it, you need to empower
your players.13
Learning ,
2 Discuss the differences among legitimate, reward, coercive,
and referent power.
Outcome
Types of Power and Influencing Tactics,

and Ways to Increase Your Power
Seven types of power are illustrated, along with their source and
influencing tactics,
in Exhibit 5.1. In the late 1950s, French and Raven
distinguished five types of power
(reward, coercive, legitimate, expert, and referent). 14
Connection (politics) and information
power have been added to update the important types of power.
We will discuss these
seven types of power and explore ways to increase each type
with influencing tactics, or
actions. 15 You can acquire power, without taking it away from
others. Generally, power
is given to those who get results and have good human relations
skills that are useful to
those in power. 16
Legitimate Power
Legitimate power is based on the user's position power, given
by the organization. It
is also called the legitimization influencing tactic. Managers
assign work, coaches decide
who plays, and teachers award grades. These three positions
have formal authority from

the organization. Without this legitimate authority, they could
not influence followers
in the same way. 17 Employees tend to have a felt obligation
and feel that they ought to do
what their manager says within the scope of the job.18
CHAPTER 5 INFLUENCING: POWER, POLITICS,
NETWORKING, AND NEGOTIATION 147
Appropriate Use of Legitimate Power. Employees agree to
comply with management
authority in return for the benefits of membership. The use of
legitimate power is
appropriate when asking people to do something that is within
the scope of their job.
Most day-to-day manager-employee interactions are based on
legitimate power.
When using legitimate power, it is also helpful to use the
consultation influencing
tactic. With consultation, you seek others' input about achieving
an objective and are
open to developing a plan together to achieve the objective.
This process is also known as
participative management and empowering employees. We will

talk more about participa-
tive management throughout the book.
Legitimate Use of Rational Persuasion. When we as managers
are meeting objectives
through our employees or dealing with higher-level managers
and people over whom
we have no authority, it is often helpful to use the rational
persuasion influencing tactic.
Rational persuasion includes logical arguments with factual
evidence to persuade others
to implement your recommended action.
When we use rational persuasion, we need to develop a
persuasive case based on the
other party's needs, not ours. What seems logical and reasonable
to you may not be to
others. With multiple parties, a different logical argument may
be made to meet indi -
vidual needs. Logical arguments generally work well with
people whose behavior is more
influenced by thinking-than by emotions. It works well when
the leader and follower have
the same shared interest and objectives.

When trying to persuade others to do something for us, it is
helpful to use the
ingratiation influencing tactic. Be friendly and praising others
before you ask them
for what you want-complements cost you nothing 19 (use the
giving praise model
in Chapter 3).
•
Sources and Types of Power with Influencing Tactics
EXHIBIT
Source Position Power---------- ------------- Personal Power
f--"'-'-----+.;.;;&'-"""'....;;..".;....-+,~.;....a.;..,_d __-+-l- rr_ •__-
-+------+------+-..:..;.----+-------4 .,g,
Tactics Leg1trm1zatton Exchange Pn:s.sun, Coalmons Rational
Rational Per,;onal appeal ·i
Consultation persuasion persuasion Inspirational appeal ~g,~,,
Ratio nal Inspirational .•
appeal
~- u

~--- ~ -ln~gr_at_1a_t1o_n_~----~----~----~----~- ---~-------' 9
Using Rational Persuasion. When you develop a rational
persuasion, follow these
guidelines:
• Explain the reason why the objective needs to be met.
• Explain how the other party will benefit by meeting the
objective. Try to think of the
other party's often-unasked question: what's in it for me?
• Provide evidence that the objective can be met.
• Explain how potential problems and concerns will be handled.
Know the p otential
problems and concerns and deal with them in the rational
persuasion.
Increasing Legitimate Power. To increase legitimate power,
follow these guidelines:
• To have legitimate power, we need management experience,
which could also be a part
of the job-for example, being in charge of a team project with

peers.
• Exercise authority regularly. Follow up to make sure that
objectives are achieved.
https://actions.15
https://referent).14
https://players.13
https://organization.12
https://self-focused.10
WORK
Application 5- 1
Select a present or past
mar.ager who has or
had coe1-cive powec
Give a specific example
of how he or she Jses
or used reward and
punishment to achieve
an objective. Overall,
how effective is ( or

was) t his manager
at using rewards
and punishment?
• Follow the guidelines for using rational persuasion, especially
when authority is
questioned.
• Back up your authority with rewards and punishment, 20 our
next two types of power,
which are primarily based on having legitimate power.
Reward Power
Reward power is based on the user's ability to influence others
with something of value to
them. In a management position, use positive reinforcements to
influence behavior, with
incentives such as praise, recognition (with pins, badges, hats,
or jackets), special assign-
ments or desirable activities, pay raises, bonuses, and
promotions. Many organizations,
including Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), have employee-of-
the-month awards. Tupper-
ware holds rallies for its salespeople, and almost everyone gets

something-ranging from
pins to lucrative prizes for top performers. A leader's power is
strong or ':eak b_ased on
ability to punish and reward followers. An important part of
reward power 1s havmg con-
trol over getting and allocating resources. 21
Appropriate Use of Reward Power. When employees do a good
job, they should_ be
rewarded, as discussed with reinforcement motivation theory
(Chapter 3). When dealmg
with higher-level managers and people over whom we have no
authority, we can use the
exchange influencing tactic by offering some type of reward for
helping meet our objective.
The incentive for exchange can be anything of value, such as
scarce resources, information,
advice or assistance on another task, or career and political
support. Exchange is common
i 11 reciprocity22 (you do something for me and I'll do
something for you-or you owe me
one, for a later reward), which we will discuss in a later section
on organizational politics.
Increasing Reward Power.· To increase reward power, follow

these guidelines:
• Gain and maintain control over evaluating employees'
performance and determining
their raises, promotions, and other rewards.
• Find out what others value, and try to reward people in that
way.
• Let people know you control rewards, and state our criteria for
giving rewards.
Coercive Power
The use of coercive power involves punishment and withholding
of rewards to influ-
ence compliance. It is also called the pressure influencing
tactic. From fear of reprimands,
probation, suspension, or dismissal, employees often do as their
manager requests. Other
examples of coercive power include verbal abuse, humiliation,
and ostracism. Group
members also use coercive power (peer pressure) to enforce
group norms.
Appropriate Use of Coercive Power. Coercive power is
appropriate to use in maintain-

ing discipline and enforcing rules. When employees are not
willing to do as requested,
coercive power may be the only way to gain compliance.
Employees tend to resent man-
agers' use of coercive power. So keep the use of coercive power
to a minimum by using it
only as a last resort.
Increasing Coercive Power. To increase coercive power, follow
these guidelines.
• Gain authority to use punishment and withhold rewards.
• Don't make rash threats; do not use coercion to manipulate
others or to gain personal
benefits.
• Be persistent. If we request that followers do something, we
need to follow up to makt:
sure it is done.
YOU 5.1 Following Orders

Make the
The armed forces are hie1-archica! by rank, based on power.
Officers tend t c give orders
ETHI to troops by L:sing legitimate power.When orders are
followed, reward power is common.
Call When orders are not followed, coe rcive power is
commonly used to get the troops to
implement the order. The conditioning of the military is to
respect the power of authority
and to follow orders, usually without quest ioning authority.
I. Is it ethical and socially responsible to teach people to foiiow
orders without ques-
t ioning authority in the military or any other organization?
2. What wou !d you do if your boss asked you to fo llow orders
t hat you thought m:ght be
unethicat? (Some options include the fo llowing: just do it;
don't say anything but don't do
it; q uestion t he motives; look closely at what you are asked to
do; go to your boss's boss

to make sure it's okay to do it; tell t he boss you wil! not do it;
ask the boss to do it him-
or herself; blow the whistle to an outside so urce like the
government or media: etc.)
3, Is following o rders a good justification for unethical
practices?
Referent Power
Referent power is based on the user's personal relationships
with others. It is also called
the personal appeals influencing tactic based on loyalty and
friendship. Power stems pri-
marily from relationships with the person using power.
Charismatic leaders tend to use
referent power.
Leaders can also use the inspirational appeals influencing tactic.
You appeal to the
follower's values, ideals, and aspirations, or increase self-
confidence by displaying your
feelings to appeal to the follower's emotions and enthusiasm. So
rational persuasion uses

logic, whereas inspirational persuasion appeals to emotions and
enthusiasm. Thus, inspi-
rational appeals generally work well with people whose
behavior is more influenced by
emotions than logical thinking.
To be inspirational, we need to understand the values, hopes,
fears, and goals of fol-
lowers. We need to be positive and optimistic and create a
vision of how things will be
when the objective is achieved. You can also include the
ingratiation influencing tactic
within your inspirational appeal.
Appropriate Use of Referent Power. The use of referent power
is particularly appro-
priate for people with weak, or no, position power, such as with
peers. Referent power is
needed in self-managed teams because leadership should be
shared.
Increasing Referent Power. To increase referent power, follow
these guidelines:
• Develop people skills, which are covered in all chapters.

Remember that we don't have
to be a manager to have referent power.
• Work at relationships with managers and peers.
Expert Power
Expert power is based on the user's skill and knowledge. Being
an expert makes other
people dependent on you. People often respect an expert, and
the fewer people who pos-
sess an expertise and knowledge, the more power the expert
individual has. 23
The more people come to us for advice, the greater is our expert
power. Experts com-
monly use the rational persuasion influencing tactic because
people believe they know
what they are saying and that it is correct.
https://resources.21
WORK

Application 5-2
Select a past or
present Jw.Who did
( or do) you usually
go to for expertise
we lnforr:iatio r,? Give
examples of when you
wen~ to soxeone ~or
expertise and when
yo u went :o someone
for information.
WORK
Application 5-J
I, Think of a present
or past manager.
Which type of
power does ( or did)
the manager Lse
most often7 Explain.
2. Whicr. one or
two suggestions
for increasi ng your

power Dase are
the most relevant
to you? Exp iain.
Appropriate Use of Expert Power. Managers, particularly at
lower levels, are often-
but not always-experts within their departments. New managers
frequently depen~ on
employees who have expertise in how the organization runs and
know how to get thmgs
done politically. Thus, followers can have considerable
influence over the leader. Expert
power is essential to employees who are working with people
from other departments and
organizations.
Increasing Expert Power. To increase expert power, follow
these guidelines:
• To become an expert, take all the training and educational
programs the organization
provides. . . .
• Attend meetings of your trade or professional associations,

and read their publications
(magazines and journals) to keep up with current trends i n your
field. Write articles to
be published. Become an officer in the organization.
• Keep up with the latest technology. Volunteer to be the first to
learn something new..
• Project a positive self-concept (Chapter 2),24 and let people
know about your expertise
by developing a reputation for having expertise.
Information Power
Information power is based on the user's data desired by others.
Information powe r
involves access to vital information and knowledge and control
ov,er its distribution to
others. 25 Managers often have access to information that is not
available to subordinates,
giving them power. Managers also rely on employees for
information, giving them so~e
power. Some administrative assistants have more information
and are more helpful m
answering questions than the managers they work for.

Appropriate Use of Information Power. An important part of the
manager's job is t
convey information. Employees often come to managers for
infor~ation on wh~t to do
and how to do it. Leaders use information power when making
rational persuasion and
often with inspirational appeals.
Increasing Information Power. To increase information power,
• Have information flow through you.
• Know what is going on in the organization. Serve on
committees because it gives both
information and a chance to increase connection power.
• Develop a network of information sources, and gather
information from them.2
6
You
will learn how to network later in this chapter.

Connection Power
Connection power is based on the user's relationships with
influential people.
Connection power is also a form of politics, the topic of our
next major section. The right
connections can give power or at ieast the perception of having
power. If people know you
are friendly with people in power, they are more apt to do as
you request.
Sometimes it is difficult to influence others all alone. With a
coalition influencing
tactic you use influential people to help persuade others to meet
your objective. The_~ore
people you can get on your side, the more influence you can
have on others. Coaht10ns
are also a political strategy-a tactic that will be discussed again
later in this chapter.
Appropriate Use of Connection Power. When you are looking
for a job or promotio~~'
connections can help. There is a lot of truth in the statement
"It's not what you know; its
who you know:' Connection power can also help you get

resources you need.
27
WORK
Appbtion 5-4
Gve three diiferent
'nkend ng tactics you
or someone else ~sed
to achieve an objective
in an organization you
have worked for.
Increasing Connection Power. To increase connection power,
• Expand your network of contacts with important managers
who have power.
• foin the "in-crowd" and the "right" associations and clubs.
Participating in sports like
golf may help you meet influential people.

• Follow the guidelines for using the coalition influencing
tactic. When you want some-
thing, identify the people who can help you attain it, make
coalitions, and win them
over to your side.
• Get people to know your name. Get all the publicity you can.
Have your accomplish-
ments known by the people in power; send them notices without
sounding like a
bragger.
Now that you have read about nine influencing tactics within
seven types of power, see
Exhibit 5.1 for a review, and test your ability to apply them in
Concept Applications 5-1
and 5-2. Then, complete Self-Assessment 5-1 to better
understand how your personality
traits relate to how you use power and influencing tactics to get
what you want.
lnfiuencing Tactics
For each s1tuat1on, select the most appropriate individual tactic
that will enhance your chances of getting a desired

outcome. Wnte the appropriate letter in the blank before each
item.
a rational persuasion d ingratiation g coalition
b inspirational appeals e. personal appeals h. leg1t1m1zat1on
c. consultation f. exchange I pressure
I . Sonia is resisting helping a coworker thinking, "What's in it
for me?"
2. You have an employee Hank with a big ego and who is very
moody at times.You want Hank to complete an
assignment ahead of schedule.
3. You believe you have accomplished things deserving a pay
raise. So you decide to ask your manager for it.
4. Next week the committee you serve on will elect officers.
Nominations and elections will be done at the same
time.You are interested in being the president. But you don't
want to nominate yourself and you don't want to
run and lose.
5. Your employee Nikki regularly passes in assignments late.
The assignment you are g1v1ng her now 1s very
important and must be done on time.

6. You have an idea about how to increase performance of your
department But you are not too sure if it will
work or if the employees will like the idea
7. You are a production manager and heard rumors that the
company will be purchasing some new high-tech
manufacturing equipment.You would like to know if it is true,
and, 1f so, are you getting it.You know a person in
the purchasing department, so you decide to contact that person
to try to find out.
8. The purchasing person from situation 7 gave you the
information you were looking for She is calling to ask you
for some informat101 ,
9. Some of your workers did not come 1n to work today You
have a large order that a sales rep said would go out
today It will be tough for the small crew to meet the deadline.
-- I 0. Although the crew members 1n situation 9 have agreed to
push to meet the deadline, you would hke to give
them some help besides your own.You have an administrative
assistant who doesn't work on processing orders
You decide to talk to this nonunion employee about working

with the crew today
https://others.25
MailingsMailings by City and DepartmentCityDepartment#
Mailed# ResponsesAshland CityLawn &
Maintenance1690210Belle MeadePatio &
Furniture2170435BrentwoodLawn &
Maintenance938125BurnsPatio &
Furniture1475413CarthageLawn &
Maintenance1225343CentervilleLandscape
Design1260353CharlotteLandscape
Design2235618CoopertownLawn & Maintenance2380300Cross
PlainsPatio & Furniture2545550DicksonPatio &
Furniture1470322FairviewPatio & Furniture2655743Forest
HillsLandscape Design2915375FranklinPatio &
Furniture740125GallatinLandscape
Design985325GoodlettsvilleLawn &
Maintenance1555435GordonsvilleLawn &
Maintenance5885307HendersonvillePatio &
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Design1120314LebanonPatio & Furniture960175Mount
JulietLawn & Maintenance1885527MurfreesboroLawn &
Maintenance5100300PortlandLandscape
Design1430389SmyrnaLawn & Maintenance1420300Spring

HillPatio & Furniture1460460SpringfieldLandscape
Design1610450
Mailings StatsThird Quarter MailingsDepartment/GroupTotal
SentTotal ResponsesResponse RateLandscape DesignLawn &
MaintenancePatio & FurnitureTotalResponse Rate
Determination20%Excellent15-19%Very Good11-14%Good5-
10%AverageCity# of Responses
CriteriaCityDepartment# Mailed# ResponsesResponse
RateCityDepartment# Mailed# ResponsesResponse
RateCityDepartment# Mailed# ResponsesResponse
Rate
Employee InsuranceClassic Gardens and Landscape
(CGL)Dependent and Claim InformationID #Last NameFirst
NameDepartmentCity# of
Dependents# of Claims17LopezAnitaLawn &
MaintenanceBrentwood435MeandroJuanPatio &
FurnitureSpringfield528EasomNassarLawn &
MaintenanceForest Hills1111CalvertMariaLandscape
DesignGallatin2014JohnsonBurtonPatio & FurnitureForest
Hills3416PawlowskiJerryLandscape
DesignBrentwood4321SvensonImrePatio &
FurnitureBrentwood313LadewigLisleLawn &
MaintenanceForest Hills514McDonaldAlphonseHuman
ResourcesBrentwood1112AlverezBerylHuman
ResourcesSpringfield2019YagerBobbiPatio &

FurnitureBrentwood3220HughesDeloresHuman
ResourcesGallatin422StewartMaureenHuman
ResourcesSpringfield206JonasKeikoPatio &
FurnitureGallatin1010ArtagnanGeorgeLandscape
DesignGallatin2415AlvarezJoséLandscape
DesignBrentwood3518GaylordDavidPatio & FurnitureForest
Hills427HenryConradPatio &
FurnitureBrentwood219OhlbergSarahLandscape
DesignBrentwood311ConradAnnaLawn &
MaintenanceBrentwood12# of Dependents, Brentwood,
Landscape# of Dependents, Springfield, Human Resources# of
Claims, Forest Hills, Patio# of Claims, Gallatin, Lawn &
Maintenance
Full NamesClassic Gardens and Landscape (CGL)Employee Full
NamesID #Last NameFirst NameMiddle NameName as Shown
on
Policy1ConradAnnaMaria2StewartMaureenSusan3LadewigLisle
Anthony4McDonaldAlphonseJuan5MeandroJuanPedro6JonasKei
koJai7HenryConradGeorge8EasomNassarAtta9OhlbergSarahJea
n10ArtagnanGeorgePierre11CalvertMariaElena12AlverezBerylL
ynne14JohnsonBurtonJames15AlvarezJoséRafael16PawlowskiJe
rryDavid17LopezAnitaPatricia18GaylordDavidRobert19YagerB
obbiJane20HughesDeloresElizabeth21SvensonImreOscar

8
Transformational
Leadership
DESCRIPTION - - ----- ----- -
One of the current and most popular approaches to leadership
that has been
the focus of much research since the early 1980s is the
transformational
approach. Transformational leadership is part of the "New
Leadership"
paradigm (Bryman, 1992), which gives more attention to the
charismatic
and affective elements of leadership. In a content analysis of
articles pub-
lished in The Leadership Quarterly, Lowe and Gardner (2001)
found that
one third of the research was about transformational or
charismatic leader-
ship. Similarly, Antonakis (2012) found that the number of
papers and
citations in the field has grown at an increasing rate, not only in

traditional
areas like management and social psychology, but in other
disciplines such
as nursing, education, and industrial engineering. Bass and
Riggio (2006)
suggested that transformational leadership's popularity might be
due to its
emphasis on intrinsic motivation and follower development,
which fits the
needs of today's work groups, who want to be inspired and
empowered to
succeed in times of uncertainty. Clearly, many scholars are
studying trans-
formational leadership, and it occupies a central place in
leadership research.
However, others (i.e., Andersen, 2015; Anderson, Baur,
Griffith, & Buckley,
2017) have suggested that the interest in transformational
leadership may
be exaggerated and that this approach to leading may be less
significant as
millennials continue to flood into the workplace.
As its name implies, transformational leadership is a process
that changes

and transforms people. It is concerned with emotions, values,
ethics,
standards, and long-term goals. It includes assessing followers'
motives, sat-
isfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings.
Transformational
leadership involves an exceptional form of influence that moves
followers to
164 LEADERSHIP ITHEORY AND PRACTICE
accomplish more than what is usually expected of them. It is a
process that
often incorporates charismatic and visionary leadership.
An encompassing approach, transformational leadership can be
used to
describe a wide range ofleadership, from very specific attempts
to influence
followers on a one-to-one level, to very broad attempts to
influence whole
organizations and even entire cultures. Although the
transformational leader

plays a pivotal role in precipitating change, followers and
leaders are inextri-
cably bound together in the transformation process. In fact,
transformational
leadership focuses so heavily on the relationship between leader
and follower
that some (Andersen, 2015) have suggested that this bias may
limit explana-
tions for transformational leadership on organizational
effectiveness.
Transformational Leadership Defined
The emergence of traniformational leadership as an important
approach to
leadership began with a classic work by political sociologist
James MacGregor
Burns titled Leadership (1978). In his work, Burns attempted to
link the roles
of leadership and followership. He wrote of leaders as people
who tap the
motives of followers in order to better reach the goals of leaders
and follow-
ers (p. 18). For Burns, leadership is quite different from power
because it is

inseparable from followers' needs.
Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership. Burns
distinguished
between two types of leadership: transactional and
traniformational.
Transactional leadership refers to the bulk ofleadership models,
which focus
on the exchanges that occur between leaders and their
followers. Politicians
who win votes by promising "no new taxes" are demonstrating
transactional
leadership. Similarly, managers who offer promotions to
employees who
surpass their goals are exhibiting transactional leadership. In
the classroom,
teachers are being transactional when they give students a grade
for work
completed. The exchange dimension of transactional leadership
is very com-
mon and can be observed at many levels throughout all types of
organiza-
tions. While exchanges or transactions between leader and
member are a
natural component of employment contracts, research suggests

that employ-
ees do not necessarily perceive transactional leaders as those
most capable of
creating trusting, mutually beneficial leader-member
relationships (Notgrass,
2014). Instead, employees prefer managers to perform
transformational
leadership behaviors such as encouraging creativity,
recognizing accomplish-
ments, building trust, and inspiring a collective vision
(Notgrass, 2014).
In contrast to transactional leadership, transformational
leadership is the
process whereby a person engages with others and creates a
connection that
raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader
and the
follower. This type ofleader is attentive to the needs and
motives of followers
Chapter 8 ITransformational Leadership 165

d tries to help followers reach their fullest potential. Burns
points to
a~ohandas Gandhi as a classic example of transformational
leadership.
Gandhi raised the hopes and demands of millions of his people
and, in the
process, was changed himself
Another good example of transformational leadership can be
observed in the
life of Ryan White. This teenager raised the American people's
awareness
about AIDS and in the process became a spokesperson for
increasing gov-
ernment support of AIDS research. In the organizational world,
an example
of transformational leadership would be a manager who
attempts to change
his or her company's corporate values to reflect a more humane
standard of
fairness and justice. In the process, both the manager and the
followers may
emerge with a stronger and higher set of moral values. In fact,
Mason,
Griffin, and Parker (2014) demonstrated that through

transformational
leadership training, leaders were able to enhance their self-
efficacy, positive
affect, and ability to consider multiple perspectives. Their
findings suggest
that transformational leadership can result in positive
psychological gains for
both leader and follower.
Pseudotransformational Leadership. Because the
conceptualization of
transformational leadership set forth by Burns ( 1978) includes
raising the
level of morality in others, it is difficult to use this term when
describing a
leader such as Adolf Hitler, who was transforming but in a
negative way. To
deal with this problem, Bass (1998) coined the term
pseudotraniformational
leadership. This term refers to leaders who are self-consumed,
exploitive, and
power oriented, with warped moral values (Bass & Riggio,
2006).
Pseudotransformational leadership is considered personalized
leadership,

which focuses on the leader's own interests rather than on the
interests of
others (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). Authentic transformational
leadership is
socialized leadership, which is concerned with the collective
good. Socialized
transformational leaders transcend their own interests for the
sake of others
(Howell &Avolio, 1993).
In a series offour experimental studies, Christie, Barling, and
Turner (2011)
set forth a preliminary model of pseudotransformational
leadership that
reflected four components of transformational leadership
discussed later in
this chapter: idealized influence, inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimula-
tion, and individualized consideration. This model helps to
clarify the meaning
of pseudotransformational leadership. It suggests that
pseudotransforma-
tional leadership is inspired leadership that is self-serving, is
unwilling to
encourage independent thought in followers, and exhibits little

general car-
ing for others. A pseudotransformational leader has strong
inspirational tal-
ent and appeal but is manipulative and dominates and directs
followers
toward his or her own values. It is leadership that is threatening
to the wel-
fare of followers because it ignores the common good.
166 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
To sort out the complexities related to the "moral uplifting"
component of
authentic transformational leadership, Zhu, Avolio, Riggio, and
Sosik (2011)
proposed a theoretical model examining how authentic
transformational
leadership influences the ethics of individual followers and
groups. The
authors hypothesize that authentic transformational leadership
positively
affects followers' moral identities and moral emotions (e.g.,
empathy and

guilt) and this, in turn, leads to moral decision making and
moral action by
the followers. Furthermore, the authors theorize that authentic
transforma-
tional leadership is positively associated with group ethical
climate, decision
making, and moral action. In the future, research is needed to
test the validity
of the assumptions laid out in this model.
Transformational leadership and Charisma
At about the same time Burns's book was published, House
(1976) pub-
lished a theory of charismatic leadership. Since its publication,
charismatic
leadership has received a great deal of attention by researchers
(e.g., Conger,
1999; Hunt & Conger, 1999). It is often described in ways that
make it
similar to, if not synonymous with, transformational leadership.
The word charisma was first used to describe a special gift that
certain indi-
viduals possess that gives them the capacity to do extraordinary

things. Weber
(1947) provided the most well-known definition of charisma as
a special per-
sonality characteristic that gives a person superhuman or
exceptional powers
and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the
person being
treated as a leader. Despite Weber's emphasis on charisma as a
personality
characteristic, he also recognized the important role played by
followers in
validating charisma in these leaders (Bryman, 1992; House,
1976).
In his theory of charismatic leadership, House suggested that
charismatic
leaders act in unique ways that h ave specific charismatic
effects on their
followers (Table 8.1) . For House, the personality
characteristics of a charis-
matic leader include being dominant, having a strong desire to
influence oth-
ers, being self-confident, and having a strong sense of one's
own moral values.

In addition to displaying certain personality characteristics,
charismatic
leaders demonstrate specific types of behaviors. First, they are
strong role
models for the beliefs and values they want their followers to
adopt. For
example, Gandhi advocated nonviolence and was an exemplary
role model
of civil disobedience. Second, charismatic leaders appear
competent to fol-
lowers. Third, they articulate ideological goals that h~ve moral
overtones.
Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous "I Have a Dream" speech is an
example of
this type of charismatic behavior.
Fourth, charismatic leaders communicate high expectations for
followers, and
they exhibit confidence in followers' abilities to meet these
expectations.
chapter 8 I Transformational Leadership 167

ality Characteristics, Behaviors, and Effects on
Person . d h"
Followers of Charismatic Lea ers 1p
Behaviors
Sets strong role model
Shows competence
Articulates goals
Communicates high
expectations
Expresses confidence
Arouses motives
Effects on Followers
Trust in leader's ideology
Belief similarity between
leader and follower

Unquestioning acceptance
Affection toward leader
Obedience
Identification with leader
Emotional involvement
Heightened goals
Increased confidence
impact of this behavior is to increase followers' sense of
competence and
,elf. 1 ·,Ky (Avolio & Gibbons, 1988), which in turn improves
their performance.
fifth, charismatic leaders arouse task-relevant motives in
followers that may
include affiliation, power, or esteem. For example, former U.S.
president John
, Kennedy appealed to the human values of the American people

when he
tar d, ''Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you
can do for
ur ountry."Within the organizational context, charismatic CEOs
may
m rivate members of their organization by modeling and
fostering a trans-
formational leadership climate (Boehm, Dwertmann, Bruch, &
Shamir,
2015), which may result in increases in employee identification
with their
or , nization and in overall organizational performance.
• ·cording to House's charismatic theory, several effects are the
direct result of
dw-ismatic leadership. They include follower trust in the
leader's ideology, simi-
larity between the followers'beliefs and the leader's beliefs,
unquestioning accep-
tance of the leader, expression of affection toward the leader,
follower obedience,
Identification with the leader, emotional involvement in the
leader's goals, height-
ened goals for followers, and increased follower confidence in

goal achievement.
Consistent with Weber, House contends that these charismatic
effects are more
likely to occur in contexts in which followers feel distress
because in stressful
ituations followers look to leaders to deliver them from their
difficulties.
• • •
House's charismatic theory has been extended and revised
through the years (
Conger, 1999; Conger &Kanungo, 1998). One major revision to
the theory:
made by Shamir, House, and Arthur (1993). They postulated
that charismati
leadership transforms followers' self-concepts and tries to link
the identity ~
0
followers to the collective identity ofthe organization.

Charismatic leaders forge
this link by emphasizing the intrinsic rewards ofwork and de-
emphasizing the
extrinsic rewards. The hope is that followers will view work as
an expression of
themselves. Throughout the process, leaders express high
expectations for fol-
lowers and help them gain a sense of confidence and self-
efficacy.
In summary, charismatic leadership works because it ties
followers and their
self-concepts to the organizational identity.
A Model of Transformational Leadership
In the mid.:.1980s, Bass (1985) provided a more expanded and
refined ver ion
of transformational leadership that was based on, but not fully
consistent
with, the prior works of Burns (1978) and House (1976). In his
approach,
Bass ex~ended Burns's work by giving more attention to
followers' rather than
leaders' needs, by suggesting that transformational leadership

could apply to
situations in which the outcomes were not positive, arid by
describing trans-
actional and transformational leadership as a single continuum
(Figure 8.1)
rather than mutually independent continua (Yammarino, 1993).
Bass
extended House's work by giving more attention to the
emotional elements
and origins of charisma and by suggesting that charisma is a
necessary but not
sufficient condition for transformational leadership
(Yammarino, 1993).
Figure 8.1 Leadership Continuum From Transformational to
Laissez-Faire Leadership
Transformational Transactional Laissez-Faire
Leadership Leadership Leadership
Bass (1985, p. 20) argued that transformational leadership
motivates follow-
ers to do more than expected by (a) raising followers' levels of
consciousness
about the importance and value of specified and idealized goals,

(b) getting
followers to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the
team or
organization, and (c) moving followers to address higher-level
needs. An
elaboration of the dynamics of the transformation process is
provided in his
model of transformational and transactional leadership (Bass,
1985, 1990;
Bas~ &Avolio, 1993, 1994). Additional clarification of the
model is provided
by Avolio in his book Full Leadership Development: Building
the Vital Forces
in Organizations (1999).
Chapter 8 I Transformational Leadership 169
Leadershi p Factors
influence
arisma
r2

Factor 3
Factor 4
lized consideration
Transactional
leadership
Factor 5
Contingent reward
Constructive transactions
Factor 6
Management by exception
Active and passive
Corrective transactions
laissez-Faire
leadership
Factor 7

Laissez-faire
Nontransactional
an be seen in Table 8.2, the model of transformational and
transactional
leadershipincorporates seven different factors. These factors are
also illustrated in
Full Range ofLeadership modeL which is provided in Figure 8.2
on page 170.
discussion of each of these seven factors will help to clarify
Bass's model. This
discussion will be divided into three parts: transformational
factors (4), transac-
tional factors (2), and the nonleadership, nontransactional factor
(1).
Transformational Leadership Factors
Transformational leadership is concerned with improving the
performance
of followers and developing followers to their fullest potential
(Avolio,
1999; Bass &Avolio, 1990a). People who exhibit

transformational leader-
ship often have a strong set of internal values and ideals, and
they are effec-
tive at motivating followers to act in ways that support the
greater good
rather than their own self-interests (Kuhnert, 1994). Individuals'
intentions
to lead in a transformational manner appear related to effective
transforma-
tional leadership behaviors (Gilbert, Horsman, & Kell oway,
2016) .
ldeafized Influence. Factor 1 is called charisma or idealized
influence. It is
the emotional component ofleadership (Antonakis, 2012).
Idealized influ-
ence describes leaders who act as strong role models for
followers; followers
identify with these leaders and want very much to emulate them.
These
leaders usually have very high standards of moral and ethical
conduct and
can be counted on to do the right thing. They are deeply
respected by fol-
lowers, who usually place a great deal of trust in them. They

provide follow-
ers with a vision and a sense of mission.
170 LEADERSHIP ! THEORY AND PRACTICE
Figure 8.2 Full Range of Leadership Model
Effective
Passive
LF
Ineffective
LEGEND
Nonleadership
LF Laissez-Faire
Transactional
MBE-P Management by Exception, Passive
MBE-A Management by Exception, Active
CR Contingent Reward

Transformational 4 l's
Idealized Influence
Inspirational Motivation
Intellectual Stimulation
Individualized Consideration
SOURCE : From Improving Organizational Effectiveness
Through Transformational
Leadership, by B. M. Bass and B. J. Avolio, 1993, Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE. Copyright 1994
by SAGE Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
The idealized influence factor is measured on two components:
an attribu-
tional component that refers to the attributions ofleaders made
by followers
based on perceptions they have of their leaders, and a
behavioral component
that refers to followers' observations ofleader behavior.
In essence, the charisma factor describes people who are special
and who make
others want to follow the vision they put forward. A person
whose leadership

exemplifies the charisma factor is Nelson Mandela, the first
non-White pres-
ident of South Africa. Mandela is viewed as a leader with high
moral standards
'sion for South Africa that resulted in monumental change in
how the
..,d ~ Vlof South Africa would be governed. His charismatic
qualities and the ~1:•respan e to them transformed an entire
nation.
Ii ,rational Motivation. Factor 2 is called inspiration or
inspirational
~vation. This factor is descriptive of leaders who communicate
high
tlW ctations to followers, inspiring them through motivation to
become
~ mitted to and a part of the shared vision in the organization.
In prac-
:e, leaders use symbols and emotional appeals to focus group
members'

efforts to achieve more than they would in their own self-
interest. Team
spirit is enhanced by this type of leadership. An example of this
factor
would be a sales manager who motivates members of the sales
force to excel
in their work through encouraging words and pep talks that
clearly com-
municate the integral role they play in the future growth of the
company.
Intellectual Stimulation. Factor 3 is intellectual stimulation. It
includes lead-
ership that stimulates followers to be creative and innovative
and to challenge
their own beliefs and values as well as those of the leader and
the organization.
This type of leadership supports followers as they try new
approaches and
develop innovative ways of dealing with organizational issues.
It encourages
followers to think things out on their own and engage in careful
problem
solving. An example of this type of leadership is a plant

manager who pro-
motes workers' individual efforts to develop unique ways to
solve problems
that have caused slowdowns in production.
Individualized Consideration. Factor 4 of transformational
leadership is
called individualized consideration. This factor is representative
ofleaders who
provide a supportive climate in which they listen carefully to
the individual
needs of followers. Leaders act as coaches and advisers while
trying to assist
followers in becoming fully actualized. These leaders may use
delegation to
help followers grow through personal challenges. An example
of this type of
leadership is a manager who spends time treating each employee
in a caring
and unique way. To some employees, the leader may give strong
affiliation; to
others, the leader may give specific directives with a high
degree of structure.
In essence, transformational leadership produces greater effects

than transac-
tional leadership (Figure 8.3). Whereas transactional leadership
results in
expected outcomes, transformational leadership results in
performance that
goes well beyond what is expected. In a meta-analysis of 39
studies in the
transformational literature, for example, Lowe, Kroeck, and
Sivasubram~am
(1996) found that people who exhibited transformational
leadership were per-
ceived to be more effective leaders with better work outcomes
than those who
exhibited only transactional leadership. These findings were
true for higher-
and lower-level leaders, and for leaders in both public and
private settings.
Figure 8.3 The Additive Effect of Transformational Leadership
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Idealized
+Influence
TRANSACTIONAL
LEADERSHIP
Contingent
Reward
+
Management
by Exception
Inspirational Intellectual Individualized+ +Motivation
Stimulation Consideration
PerformanceExpected
BeyondOutcomes
Expectations
SOURCE : Adapted from "The Implications of Transactional
and Transformational
Leadership for Individual, Team, and Organizational

Development," by B. M. B_ass and
B. J. Avolio, 1990a, Research in Organizational Change and
Development, 4, pp. 231-272 .
Transformational leadership has an additive effect; it moves
followers to
accomplish more than what is usually expected of them. They
become moti-
vated to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the
group or orga-
nization (Bass & Avolio, 1990a). In fact, transformational
leaders are most
likely to have a positive impact on followers when followers
identify with or
find meaning in their work (Mohammed, Fernando, & Caputi,
2013) .
In a study of 220 employees at a large public transport company
in Germany,
Rowold and Heinitz (2007) found that transformational
leadership aug-
mented the impact of transactional leadership on employees'
performance
and company profit. In addition, they found that
transformational leadership

and charismatic leadership were overlapping but unique
constructs, and that
both were different from transactional leadership.
Similarly, Nemanich and Keller (2007) examined the impact
oftransformational
leadership on 447 employees from a large multinational firm
who were going
through a merger and being integrated into a new organization.
They found that
transformational leadership behaviors such as idealized
influence, inspirational
motivation, individualized consideration, and intellectual
stimulation were pos-
itively related to acquisition acceptance,job satisfaction, and
performance.
Tims, Bakker, and Xanthopoulou (2011) examined the
relationship between
transformational leadership and work engagement in 42
employees and their
supervisors in two different organizations in the Netherlands.
Findings
revealed that employees became more engaged in their work
(i.e., vigor,

. and nb orption) when their supervisors were able to boost
employ-
. ism through a transformational leadership style. These
findings
:optin1. the important role played by personal characteristics
(i.e., opti-
) in the transformational leadership-performance process.
Similarly,
, Van Yperen, Wisse, and Sassenberg (2014) found that
transforma-
1 ders were more likely than transactional leaders to promote
achieve-
of followers' mastery goals. This suggests that transformational
leaders
be c pecially effective in environments where followers need to
focus on
ng, development, and mastering job- related tasks rather than a

more
'tive or performance-based work context. Transformational
leaders can
followers to even greater levels of success when they have a
high-quality
n hip based on trust, loyalty, and mutual respect (Notgrass,
2014).
ional Leadership Factors
_,.,...__·actional leadership differs from transformational
leadership in that the
••;111'l111isactional leader does not individualize the needs of
followers or focus on
personal development. Transactional leaders exchange things of
value
followers to advance their own and their followers' agendas
(Kuhnert,
99 ). Transactional leaders are influential because it is in the
best interest
of Dowers for them to do what the leader wants (Kuhnert &
Lewis, 1987).

Contingent Reward. Factor 5, contingent reward, is the first of
two transac-
al leaden.hip factors (Figure 8.3). It is an exchange process
between leaders
and fullowets in which effort by followers is exchanged for
specified rewards.
1th this kind ofleadership, the leader tries to obtain agreement
from follow-
on what must be done and what the payoffs will be for the
people doing it.
example of this type of constructive transaction is a parent who
negotiates
'th a child about how much time the child can spend playing
video games
after doing homework assignments. Another example often
occurs in the aca-
demic setting: A dean negotiates with a college professor about
the number and
quality ofpublications he or she needs to have written in order
to receive tenure
and promotion. Notgrass (2014) found that contingent rewards,
or the leader's

use of clarifying or supporting achievement behaviors, are most
effective when
followers feel that they have a high-quality relationship with
their leader.
Management by Exception. Factor 6 is called management by
exception. It
is leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative
feedback, and negative
tti nforcement. Management by exception takes two forms:
active and passive.
leader using the active form of management-by-exception
watches follow-
ers closely for mistakes or rule violations and then takes
corrective action. An
cnmple of active management by exception can be illustrated in
the leader-
hip of a sales supervisor who daily monitors how employees
approach cus-
tomers. She quickly corrects salespeople who are slow to
approach customers

in the prescribed manner. A leader using the passive form
intervenes only
after standards have not been met or problems have arisen. An
example of
passive management by exception is illustrated in the leadership
of a supervi-
sor who gives an employee a poor performance evaluation
without ever talk-
ing with the employee about her or his prior work performance.
In essence
' both the active and passive management types use more
negative reinforce-
ment patterns than the positive reinforcement pattern described
in Factor 5
under contingent reward.
Nonleadership Factor
In the model, the nonleadership factor diverges farther from
transactional
leadership and represents behaviors that are nontransactional.

Laissez-Faire. Factor 7 describes leadership that falls at the far
right side ofthe
transactional-transformational leadership continuum (Figure
8.1). This factor
represents the absence ofleadership. As the French phrase
implies, the laissez-
faire leader takes a "hands-off, let-things-ride"
(nontransactional) approach. This
leader abdicates responsibility, delays decisions, gives no
feedback, and makes
little effort to help followers satisfy their needs. There is no
exchange with fol-
lowers or attempt to help them grow. An example of a laissez-
faire leader is the
president of a small manufacturing firm who calls ilo meetings
with plant
supervisors, has no long-range plan for the firm, acts detached,
and makes little
contact with employees. While laissez-faire leadership has
traditionally been
viewed negatively, recent research (Yang, 2015) argues that
laissez-faire leader-
ship may not be the absence ofleadership, but instead may be a
strategic behav-

ioral choice by the leader to acknowledge and defer to
followers' abilities,
decrease their dependency, and increase their self-
determination, self-
competence, and autonomy. In this case, the leader would be
strategically per-
forming laissez-faire leadership by empowering followers to
lead.
Interestingly, research does indicate that leaders may be most
effective when
they combine transformational leadership behaviors with
elements of laissez-
faire and transactional leadership (Antonakis & House, 2014).
This reiterates
what most of the leadership theories in this book suggest: All
approaches to
leadership have strengths and weaknesses, and because leading
effectively
means consistently surveying follower, task, and environmental
needs and pres-
sures, oftentimes the best approach is a combination
ofleadership approaches.
Other Transformational Perspectives

In addition to Bass's (1985, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1994) work,
two other
lines of research have contributed in unique ways to our
understanding of
the nature of transformational leadership. They are the research
of Bennis
Chapter 8 I Transformational leadership 175
(1 985) and the work of Kouzes and Posner (2002, 2017). These
.-1 imilar research methods. They identified a number of
middle- or
leaders and conducted interviews with them, using open-
aemi trucrured que tionnal re . From this information, they con-
their models o leader hip.
and , anus (2007) asked 90 leaders basic questions such as
"What
trengths and weaknesses?" "What past events most influenced
leadership approach?" and "What were the critical points in

your
?" From the answers leaders provided to these questions, Bennis
and
identified four common strategies used by leaders in
transforming
transforming leaders had a clear vision of the future state of
their
ations. It was an image of an attractive, realistic, and believable
(Bennis & Nanus, 2007, p. 89). The vision usually was simple,
under-
lc, beneficial, and energy creating. The compelling nature of the
touched the experiences of followers and pulled them into
support-
the organization. When an organization has a clear vision, it is
easier
people within the organization to learn how they fit in with the
overall
·on of the organization and even the society in general. It em
powers
bcLause they feel they are a significant dimension of a

worthwhile
rise (pp. 90-91). Bennis and Nanus found that, to be successful,
the
n had to grow out of the needs of the entire organization and to
be
l'i!.lllim~ by those within it. Although leaders play a large role
in articulating
· ion, the emergence of the vision originates from both the
leaders and
fullowers.
nd, transforming leaders were social architects for their
organizations.
· means they created a shape or form for the shared meanings
people
maintained within their organizations. These leaders
communicated a direc-
t transformed their organization's values and norms. In many
cases,
I aders were able to mobilize people to accept a new group
identity or

new philo ophy for their organiza tion .
Third, transforming leaders created trust in their organizations
by making
their own positions clearly known and then standing by them.
Trust has to
with being predictable or reliable, even in situations that are
uncertain.
For organizations, leaders built trust by articulating a direction
and then
~ istently implementing the direction even though the vision
may have
UlV lved a high degree of uncertainty. Bennis and Nanus (2007)
found that
hen leaders established trust in an organization, it gave the
organization a
nse ofintegrity analogous to a healthy identity (p. 48).
176 LEADERSHIP !THEORY AND PRACTICE
Fourth, transforming leaders used creative deployment

efselfthrough positive
self-regard. Leaders knew their strengths and weaknesses, and
they empha-
sized their strengths rather than dwelling on their weaknesses.
Based on an
awareness of their own competence, effective leaders were able
to immerse
themselves in their tasks and the overarching goals of their
organizations.
They were able to fuse a sense of self with the work at hand.
Bennis and
Nanus also found that positive self-regard in leaders had a
reciprocal impact
on followers, creating in them feelings of confidence and high
expectations.
In addition, leaders in the study were committed to learning and
relearning,
so in their organizations there was consistent emphasis on
education.
Kouzes and Posner
Kouzes and Posner (2002, 2017) developed their model by
interviewing leaders
about leadership. They interviewed more than 1,300 middle- and

senior-level
managers in private and public sector organizations and asked
them to describe
their "personal best" experiences as leaders . Based on a content
analysis of
these descriptions, Kouzes and Posner constructed a model of
leadership.
The Kouzes and Posner model consists of five fundamental
practices that
enable leaders to get extraordinary things accomplished: model
the way,
inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to
act, and
encourage the heart. For each of the five practices of exemplary
leadership,
Kouzes and Posner also have identified two commitments that
serve as strat-
egies for practicing exemplary leadership.
Model the Way. To model the way, leaders need to be clear
about their
own values and philosophy. They need to find their own voice
and express
it to others. Exemplary leaders set a personal example for others

by their
own behaviors. They also follow through on their promises and
commit-
ments and affirm the common values they share with others.
Inspire a Shared Vision. Effective leaders create compelling
visions that can
guide people's behavior. They are able to visualize positive
outcomes in the future
and communicate them to others. Leaders also listen to the
dreams of others and
show them how their dreams can be realized. Through inspiring
visions, leaders
challenge others to transcend the status quo to do something for
others.
Challenge the Process. Challenging the process means being
willing to
change the status quo and step into the unknown. It includes
being willing
to innovate, grow, and improve. Exemplary leaders are like
pioneers: They
want to experiment and try new things. They are willing to take
risks to
make things better. When exemplary leaders take risks, they do

it one step
at a time, learning from their mistakes as they go.
Others to Act. Outstanding leaders are effective a~ working
with
The>' build trust with others and promote collaboration.
Teamwork
tion are highly valued by these leaders. They listen cl osely to
•nrs of view and treat others with dignity and respect. They
also$ers co make choices, and they support the decisions that
others
ln short, they create environments where people can feel good
about
and how it contributes to the greater community.
· h·,research indicates that women tend to display
transformational
hip through more enabling behaviors whereas men tend to enact

challenging behavior (Brandt & Laiho, 2013).
,age the Heart. Leaders encourage the heart by rewarding others
for
accomplishments. It is natural for people to want support and
recognition.
leaders are attentive to this need and are willing to give praise
to
fo r jobs well done. They use authentic celebrations and rituals
to
appreciation and encouragement to others. The outcome of this
kind
rt is greater collective identity and community spirit.
, the Kouzes and Posner model emphasizes behaviors and has a
pre-
quality: It recommends what people need to do in order to
become
·ve leaders. The five practices and their accompanying
commitments
'de a unique set of prescriptions for leaders. Kouzes and Posner
(2002,

f, 13) tressed that the five practices of exemplary leadership are
available to
ne and are not reserved for those with "special" ability. The
model is
IIOt about personality: It is about practice.
To mcasure the behaviors described in the model, Kouzes and
Posner developed
die Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI). The LPI is a 360-
degree leadership
ment tool that consists of 30 questions that assess individual
leadership
mmpctend.e .1t has been widely used in leadership training and
development.
HOW DOES THE TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADERSHIP APPROACH WORK? - - - ----
Th tta.a formarional approach to leadership is a broad-based
perspective
that encompasses many facets and dimensions of the leadership
process. In

general, it describes how leaders can initiate, develop, and carry
out signifi-
cant changes in organizations. Although not definitive, the steps
followed
by transformational leaders usually take the following form.
Transformational leaders set out to empower followers and
nurture them in
change. They attempt to raise the consciousness in individuals
and to get
diem to transcend their own self-interests for the sake of others.
For example,
Jung, how, and Wu (2003) studied upper-level leadership in 32
Taiwanese
companies and found that transformational leadership was
directly related
to organizational innovation. Transformational leadership
created a culture
in which employees felt empowered and encouraged to freely
discuss and l

. ry
newthmgs.
To create change, transformational leaders become strong role
models for
their followers. They have a highly developed set of moral
values and a self-
determined sense of identity (Avolio & Gibbons, 1988). They
are confident
competent, and articulate, and they express strong ideals. •
They listen to followers and are not intolerant of opposing
viewpoints. A
spirit of cooperation often develops between these leaders and
their followers.
Followers want to emulate transformational leaders because
they learn to
trust them and believe in the ideas for which they stand.
It is common for transformational leaders to create a vision. The
vision
emerges from the collective interests of various individuals and
units in an
organization. The vision is a focal point for transformational

leadership. It
gives the leader and the organization a conceptual map for
where the orga-
nization is headed; it gives meaning and clarifies the
organization's identity.
Furthermore, the vision gives followers a sense of identity
within the orga-
nization and also a sense of self-efficacy (Shamir et al., 1993).
The transformational approach also requires that leaders become
social archi-
tects. This means that they make clear the emerging values and
norms of the
organization. They involve themselves in the culture of the
organization and
help shape its meaning. People need to know their roles and
understand how
they contribute to the greater purposes of the organization.
Transformational
leaders are out front in interpreting and shaping for
organizations the shared
meanings that exist within them. As Mason et al. (2014) pointed
out, enact-
ing transformational behaviors changes leaders too, not just
followers .

Throughout the process, transformational leaders are effective
at working
with people. They build trust and foster collaboration with
others.
Transformational leaders encourage others and celebrate their
accomplishments.
In the end, transformational leadership results in people feeling
better
about themselves and their contributions to the greater common
good.
STRENGTHS
In its present stage of development, the transformational
approach has
several strengths. First, transformational leadership has been
widely
researched from many different perspectives, including a series
of qualita-
tive studies of prominent leaders and CEOs in large, well -
known organiza-
tions. It has also been the focal point for a large body
ofleadership research

introduction in the 1970s. For example, content analysis of all
the
blished in The Leadership Quarterly from 1990 to 2000 showed
t' of the articles were about transformational or charismatic
ip (Lowe & Gardner, 2001).
tnnsformational leadership has intuitive appeal. The
transformational
,c describes how the leader is out front advocating change for
others;
cept is consistent with society's popular notion of what
leadership
conPcople are attracted to transformational leadership because
it makes
to them. It is appealing that a leader will provide a vision for
the future.
transformational leadership treats leadership as a process that
occurs

_,,.....,_,,.'n followers and leaders. Because this process
incorporates both the
rs' and the leader's needs, leadership is not the sole
responsibility of a
er but rather emerges from the interplay between leaders and
followers.
The needs of others are central to the transformational leader.
As a result,
fi,llowcrs gain a more prominent position in the leadership
process because
ir attributions are instrumental in the evolving transformational
process
(Bryman, 1992, p. 176).
Fourth, the transformational approach provides a broader view
ofleadership
that augments other leadership models. Many leadership models
focus pri-
marilv on how leaders exchange rewards for achieved goals-the
transac-
tton ,ii process. The transformational approach provides an
expanded picture

oflcadership that includes not only the exchange of rewards, but
also leaders'
attention to the needs and growth of followers (Avolio, 1999;
Bass, 1985).
Transformational leadership has also been demonstrated to
contribute to the
leader's personal growth (Notgrass, 2014).
Fifth, transformational leadership places a strong emphasis on
followers' needs,
values, and morals. Burns (1978) suggested that
involves attempts by leaders to move people to higher standards
of moral
responsibility. It includes motivating followers to transcend
their own self-
interests for the good of the team, organization, or community
(Howell &
volio, 1993; Shamir et al., 1993). Transformational leadership is
fundamen-
tally morally uplifting (Avolio, 1999). This emphasis sets the
transformational
approach apart from all other approaches to leadership because
it suggests that

leadership has a moral dimension. Therefore, the coercive uses
of power by
people such as Hitler, cult leader David Koresh, and Philippine
president
Rodrigo Duterte can be disregarded as models ofleadership.
Finally, there is substantial evidence that transformational
leadership is an
effective form of leadership (Yukl, 1999). In a critique of
transformational
and charismatic leadership, Yukl reported that in studies using
the
Multifactor Leadership C29estionnaire (MLQ} to appraise
leaders, transfor-
mational leadership was positively related to follower
satisfaction, motivation,
and performance. Furthermore, in studies that used interviews
and observa-
tions, transformational leadership was shown to be effective in
a variety of

different situations.
CRITICISMS ----------- ---
Transformational leadership has several weaknesses. One
criticism is that it
lacks conceptual clarity. Because it covers such a wide range of
activities and
characteristics-including creating a vision, motivating, being a
change
agent, building trust, giving nurturance, and acting as a social
architect, to
name a few-it is difficult to define exactly the parameters of
transforma-
tional leadership. Specifically, research by Tracey and Hinkin
(1998) has
shown substantial overlap between each of the Four Is
(idealized influence,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized con-
sideration), suggesting that the dimensions are not clearly
delimited.
Furthermore, the parameters of transformational leadership
often overlap
with similar conceptualizations ofleadership. Bryman (1992),

for example,
pointed out that transformational and charismatic leadership
often are
treated synonymously, even though in some models ofleadership
(e.g., Bass,
1985) charisma is only one component of transformational
leadership.
Others have questioned whether the four dimensions of
transformational
leadership (i.e., the Four Is) are the reasons for transformational
leadership
or if they are simply descriptions of transformational leadership
(e.g.,
Andersen, 2015; Tourish, 2013). At present researchers are not
sure if these
dimensions predict transformational leadership or just help to
explain the
presence of transformational leadership.
In addition, Andersen (2015) suggested that transformational
leadership
was created to be used within social and political contexts-not
in corpora-
tions. However, many researchers have been using the theory to
explore

managerial rather than political leadership.
Another criticism revolves around how transformational
leadership is
measured. Researchers typically have used some version of the
MLQto
measure transformational leadership. However, some studies
have chal-
lenged the validity of the MLQ In some versions of the MLQ
the four
factors of transformational leadership (the Four Is) correlate
highly with
each other, which means they are not distinct factors (Tejeda,
Scandura, &
Pillai, 2001). In addition, some of the transformational factors
correlate
with the transactional and laissez-faire factors, which means
they may
not be unique to the transformational model (Tejeda et al.,
2001). It has
also been suggested that transformational leadership could be
better mea-
sured and understood through a narrative perspective (Andersen,
2015;
Tengblad, 2012).

Chapter 8 I Transformational Leadership 181
. • · m is that transformational leadership treats leadership as a
per-
. or personal predisposition rather than a behavior that people
can
an, 1992, pp. 100-102). If it is a trait, training people in this
becomes more problematic because it is difficult to teach people
how
their traits. Even though many scholars, including Weber,
House, and
ized that transformational leadership is concerned with leader
such as how leaders involve themselves with followers, there is
an
to see this approach from a trait perspective. Perhaps this
problem
because the word transformational creates images of one person
most active component in the leadership process. For example,
even

creating a vision" involves follower input, there is a tendency to
see
· nal leaders as visionaries. There is also a tendency to see
transfor-
leaders as people who have special qualities that transform
others.
images accentuate a trait characterization oftransformational
leadership.
researchers have not established that transformational leaders
are
able to transform individuals and organizations (Antonakis,
2012).
evidence that indicates that transformational leadership is
associ-
positive outcomes, such as organizational effectiveness;
however,
have not yet clearly established a causal link between
transforma-
leadcrs and changes in followers or organizations. However,
there may

glimmer of hope in this regard as Arthur and Hardy (2014) were
able
an experimental design to evaluate the effectiveness of a
transformational
·pintervention in rerriediating poor performance in an
organization.
rovides initial evidence that transformational leadership
behaviors
result in some expected positive changes.
criticism some have made is that transformational leadership is
elitist and
atic (Avolio, 1999; Bass &Avolio, 1993).Transformational
leaders
pla ·a direct role in creating changes, establishing a vision, and
advocating
dirtttions. This gives the strong impression that the leader is
acting inde-
dy of followers or putting himself or herself above the
followers' needs.
h this criticism of elitism has been refuted by Bass and Avolio

(1993)
~ o (1999), who contended that transformational leaders can be
directive
participative as well as democratic and authoritarian, the
substance of the
· raises valid questions about transformational leadership.
_to this criticism, some have argued that transformational
leadership
from a "heroic leadership"bias (Yukl, 1999). Transformational
leader-
ltn ses that it is the leader who movesfollowers to do
exceptional things.
focusing primarily on the leader, researchers have failed to give
attention
shared leadership or reciprocal influence. Followers can
influence leaders
as leaders can influence followers. More attention should be
directed
how leaders can encourage followers to challenge the leader's
vision

hare in the leadership process.
182 LEADERSHIP ! THEORY AND PRACTICE
Another criticism of transformational leadership is that it has
the potential
to be abused. Transformational leadership is concerned with
changing
people's values and moving them to a new vision. But who is to
determine
whether the new directions are good and more affirming? Who
decides
that a new vision is a better vision? If the values to which the
leader is
moving his or her followers are not better, and if the set of
human values
is not more redeeming, then the leadership must be challenged.
However
the dynamics of how followers challenge leaders or respond to
their vision;
are not fully understood. There is a need to understand how
transforma-
tional leaders affect followers psychologically and how leaders

respond to
followers' reactions. In fact, Burns (1978) argued that
understanding this
area (i.e., charisma and follower worship) is one of the central
problems in
leadership studies today (Bailey &Axelrod, 2001). The
charismatic nature
of transformational leadership presents significant risks for
organizations
because it can be used for destructive purposes (Conger, 1999;
Howell &
Avolio, 1993).
History is full of examples of charismatic individuals who used
coercive
power to lead people to evil ends. For this reason,
puts a burden on individuals and organizations to be aware of
how they are
being influenced and in what directions they are being asked to
go. Christie
et al. (2011) warn that astute followers need to be vigilant and
pay careful
attention to the vision of their leader, whether the vision is
collective or self-

focused, whether the leader is tolerant or intolerant of opposing
viewpoints,
and whether or not the leader is caring of followers . The
potential for abuse
of transformational leadership is mitigated when followers are
aware and
engaged in how they are being led.
A final potential weakness of transformational leadership is the
fact that it
may not be well received by millennials (Anderson et al., 2017)
. As millenni-
als continue to replace baby boomers, organizations are
recognizing that they
are having to modify previous ways of doing things to meet
millennials' needs.
Transformational leadership is one such example. Drawing from
the indi-
vidualistic orientation of many millennials, Anderson and
colleagues predict
that transformational leaders may be less effective because this
cohort may be
less willing to collaborate with others to achieve common goals.
Relatedly,
today's transformational leaders communicate in a way to

encourage follow-
ers to prioritize organizational and task needs and goals over
individual inter-
ests (Anderson et al., 2017). However, it is predicted that this
will be met with
resistance as millennials have expressed a greater desire for
work-life balance
and want to "work to live" rather than "live to work" (Ng,
Schweitzer, &
Lyons, 2010). Finally, it has been suggested that because
millennials expect
frequent promotions and value extrinsic rewards, two of the
fundamental
components of transformational leadership-idealized influence
and inspi-
rational motivation-may be ineffective (Anderson et al., 2017).
Followership
While leader-centric studies have dominated the scholarship
sphere on this topic, there
is increasing evidence that follower-centric studies are showing

significant promise in
helping us understand the dynamics of the leader-follower
relationship. 54 55 Most schol-
ars would agree that there is increasing use of the words
follower and followership in
discussions of organizational leadership. 56 Past leadership
research has focused on lead-
ers and ignored the role of followers in explaining
organizational successes or failures. 57
This has led to criticism of existing leadership theories for
being too "leader-centric."58
The focus of these theories has been almost exclusively on the
impact of leader traits
and behaviors on follower outcomes. However, like leadership,
good followership is
https://leadership.56
241
240 PART 2 TEAM LEADERSHIP
increasingly being recognized as an important component for

strong organizational
performance. 59 Good followership is about 'upward
influencing.'60 Leaders have to put
aside their egos and recognize that there are times when they
have to listen to and take
their followers' counsel on how to proceed. This is a cultural
change that needs top man-
agement support, else nothing happens. 61 Robert Kelley, a
pioneer and early proponent of
followership, states that "without followers, leadership is
meaningless and leaders don't
exist."62 To adequately understand the cognitions, attributes,
behaviors, and contexts of
followership, researchers have focused on such questions as the
following: Why do some
people choose to follow? Are there different types of followers?
How does one become
an effective follower? Can the leadership-followership
relationship be nurtured? In this
section, we address these questions and more. But first, we start
with a definition of
followership.
Defining Followership
Followership is not merely the actions of a subordinate who

blindly follows the dic-
tates of formal authority figures in an organization. As such,
followership is not the
same as following. Following is reacting (consciously or
unconsciously) to a leader's
orders. In contrast, followership is a self-conscious choice of
the follower in the con-
text of his or her relationship to the nominal leader. Issues of
rank and authority play
little or no role in such a choice. Followers are in control of the
situation by the choices
made. 63 Therefore, followership refers to the behavior
offollowers that result from the
leader-follower mutual influencing relationship. It is an
interactive concept. To a large
extent, societal views about followers have contributed to our
limited understanding
of followership. From an early age we are taught that
organizations succeed because of
the leader, with very little or no mention of the role of
followers. The follower is seen
as someone whose sole duty is to carry out the instructions of
the leader. From this
perspective, the follower is defined as someone who is under
the direct influence and

authority ofa leader.
Leaders are just one part of a duality, because there can be no
leaders without follow-
ers. Effective leadership requires effective followership. Kelley
and Chaleff are two early
pioneers who brought focus to the role of followers in the
leadership process. No work
unit or organized effort can succeed and be sustained without
followers; this, according
to Kelley, is the power of followership. 64 Chaleff discussed
the fact that effective followers
are also courageous followers who tend to demonstrate certain
behaviors. He identifies
the five behaviors as courage to accept responsibility, courage
to serve, courage to ques-
tion , courage to be part of necessary change, and courage to
take a moral stand when
65 66necessary.
Effective followers do more than fulfill the vision laid out by
their leader; they are
partners in creating the vision. 67 They take responsibility for
their actions, they take

initiative in fixing problems, and they question leaders when
they think they are wrong.
According to Kelley, "Effective followers have the vision to see
both the forest and the
trees, the social capacity to work well with others, the strength
of character to flourish
without heroic status, the moral and psychological balance to
pursue personal and corpo-
rate goals at no cost to either, and above all, the desire to
participate in a team effort for
the accomplishment of some greater purpose."68
Learning S Describe the two behaviors identified in the Kelley
Model and the resulting f,ve
Outcome follower types.
CHAPTER 7 LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE AND
FOLLOWERSHIP
Types of Followers
!h~re are contextual influences that may affect both
followership constructions and behav-
~or m the foll~we: r?~e. ~or example, personal qualities such as
obedience, expressing opin-
10ns, and takmg m1tiatlve have been found to be most disparate

across different types of
69
~ollowers. In her book titled Followership: How Followers Are
Creating Change and Chang-
ing Leaders, Barbara Kellerman classifies followers into five
categories based on their level
of engagement: is~lates, bystanders, participants, activists, or
diehards. 70 Another typology
of_f?llower types_ 1s that of_Robert Kelley. 71 Based on their
intellectual capacity to think
~ntlcally and th~ir level of mvolvement in organizational
affairs- Kelley groups followers
mto five categones that we will elaborate on next.
. Ex~ibit 7.1 depicts these two behavioral dimensions-level of
independent critical
thmkmg and the level of involvement. The high independent
critical thinker refers to
the fo~lo"'.er ~~o is able to examine, analyze, and evaluate
matters of significance in the
orga~1zati~n_s hfe. Conversely, the opposite of this person is
someone who is low in ability
to thmk critically. The second behavior dimension-level of
involvement-refers to the

followe: who takes a visible and active role in organizational
affairs. The opposite of this
person 1s someone who prefers to be in the background and take
a passive role in organi-
zational affairs.
. A~c?rding to Kelley,_comb~ning these dimensions results in
five basic follower types,
1dentif1ed as the followmg: alienated, passive, conformist,
pragmatic, and effective fol-
lower (see Exhibit 7.1):
•
Follower Types
EXHIBIT
High
Conformist. Efl'eaive....
C followerQI follower
!:
~
0

>
.!: ....
]
0
Passive.
follower
low
low High
Critical Thinking
• The lower-left quadrant identifies the Passive Follower. The
passive follower is some-
one who is low on critical thinking and low on involvement.
The passive follower looks to
t~e leader or ot_hers to do all the thinking and does not get
involved. Lacking in initia-
tive and commitment to the team, this invisible follower
requires constant supervision
and never goes beyond the job description. They are often
described by their leaders as
lazy, unmotivated, and incompetent.

• The upper-left quadrant identifies the Conformist Follower.
The conformist follower
is someone who is high on involvement but low on critical
thinking. In other words,
conformists are the "yes people" of the organization. They carry
out all orders without
https://fo~lo"'.er
https://Kelley.71
243 242 PART 2 TEAM LEADERSHIP
considering the consequences of such orders. A conformist
would do anything to avoid
conflict. Authoritarian leaders prefer conformist followers.
• The upper-right quadrant identifies the Effective Follower.
The effective follower is
someone who is high on critical thinking and involvement.
Effective followers are not risk-
averse, nor do they shy from conflict. They have the courage to
initiate change and put
themselves at risk or in conflict with others, even their leaders,

to serve the best interest
of the organization. As such, they are often described as
proactive. Effective followers
tend to function very well in self-managed teams. They are a
manager's best asset in that
they complement the leader and can be relied upon to relieve
the leader of many tasks.
• The lower-right quadrant identifies the Alienated Follower.
The alienated follower
is someone who is low on involvement, yet is high on critical
thinking. The alienated
follower is someone who feels cheated, or unappreciated, by his
or her organization for
exemplary work. Often cynical in their behavior, alienated
followers are capable but
unwilling to participate in developing solutions to problems.
They are just happy to
dwell on the negatives and ignore the positives as far as
organizational life goes.
• Th e pragmatic follower exhibits a little of all four styles-
depending on which style
fits the prevailing situation. Pragmatic followers are "stuck in
tne middle" most of the

time. Because it is difficult to discern just where they stand on
issues, they present
an ambiguous image, with positive and negative sides. On the
positive side, when an
organization is going through desperate times , the pragmatic
follower knows how to
"work the system to get things done:' On the negative side, this
same behavior can be
interpreted as "playing political games:' or adjusting to
maximize self-interest.
OPENING CASE Application
5. According to the followership model of follower types, what
types of followers has Facebook
generally attracted?
Facebook has been able to recrurt and hire some of the best
minds in the industry. According to one analyst, everyone at
Facebook was a star in their previous employment. Sheryl
Sandberg, a veteran of Google, was the chief of staff for former
treasury secretary Lawrence Summers. She joined Facebook as
the company's chief operating officer (COO) . Chns Cox,

Facebook's vice president of product, was doing a master's 1n
artificial 1ntell1gence at Stanford when Zuckerberg personally
convinced him to join Facebook. "You don't get a lot of shy,
retiring types at Facebook; ' said one writer. These are
intelligent,
experienced, productive, and highly sought-after talents, "power
nerds" to say the least. Remember, the effective follower is
someone who is high on cnt,cal thinking and involvement It is a
safe bet that Zuckerberg and Facebook have mostly attracted
effective followers.
Becoming an Effective Follower
How individuals see their role as foilowers informs how they
function. While some
scholars construct follower definitions around passivity,
deference, and obedience, others
emphasize the importance of constructively questioning and
challenging their leaders.72
To be effective as a follower, it is important to acquire the
skills necessary to combine two
opposing follower roles-namely, to execute decisions made by a

leader, and yet be able
to raise issues about those decisions when they are deemed
misguided or unethical. This
is often referred to as "speaking truth to power." 73 Although
this is not always easy to do,
followers must be willing to risk the leader's displeasure with
such feedback . Moral integ-
rity and a willingness to take stands based on principle are
distinguishing characteristics
of the effective follower. 74 It could be argued that the
effective follower has the greatest
FOLLOWERSHIP
potential to become an effective leader. Developing a high level
of mutual trust and re-
spect between the leader and follower can mitigate the risk of
falling out of favor with the
leader. In such a relationship, a leader is likely to view
criticism and dissenting views as an
honest effort to facilitate achievement of shared objectives,
rather than as an intentional
expression of personal disagreement or disloyalty: 75

The effective follower has a high self-efficacy compared to the
ineffective follower.
Self-efficacy is defined as a person's beliefs in his or her
capabilities to produce at a
certain level ofperformance. 76 Self-efficacy determines how
people feel, think, and see
themselves, which in turn influences their work ethic.
How followers perceive a leader plays a critical role in their
ability to help the leader
grow and succeed. 77 Just as leaders make attributions about
follower competence,
followers make attributions about leader competence and
intentions. Followers assess
whether the leader's primary motivation is more for his or her
personal benefit or career
advancement than for their own welfare and the organization's
well-being. Credibility is
increased and follower commitment is enhanced when the leader
makes self-sacrifices to
gain support for his or her ideas, rather than imposing on
followers. Leaders who appear
insincere or motivated only by personal gain create an
atmosphere in which integrating
the two opposing follower roles is impossible. Here, followers

would play the passive role
of conforming to the leader's expectations without offering any
constructive criticism,
even when it is called for in a leader's decisions and actions.
Complete Self-Assessment
7-4 to learn how effective you are as a follower.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 7-4 Effective Followers
Select a present or past boss and answer each question
describing your behavior using the following scale.
5 4 3 2 I
I do this regularly I do not do this
I . I offer my support and encouragement to 7. I show my
appreciation to my boss, such as
my boss w hen th ings are not going well. saying thanks when
the boss does some-
2. I take initiative to do more than my nor- thing in my interest.
mal job without havi ng to be asked to do 8. I keep the boss
informed; I don't withhold
t hings. bad news,

3. I counsel and coach my boss when it is 9. I wou!d resist
inappropriate influence by
appropriate, such as with a new, inexoe- the boss; if asked, i
would not do anything
rienced boss, and in a unique situatio~ in illegal or unethical.
which the boss needs help.
4. When the boss has a bad idea, I raise Add up the numbers on
lines I through 9 and place
concerns and try to improve the plans, your score here __ and
on the continuum below.
rather than simpl y implement a poor
9 - i 5 - 25 - 3 5 - 45
decision. Ineffective Follower Effective Follower
-- 5. I seek and encourage the boss to give me
honest feedback, rather than avoid it and The higher your score,
generally, the more effective
act defensively when it is offered. you are as a follower.
However, your boss also has an
6. I try to clarify my rol e in tasks by mak- effect on your

followership.A poor boss can affect your
ing sure I understand my boss's expec- followership behavior;
nevertheless, make sure you do
tations of me and my performance try to be a good follower.
Read on to better understand
standards. how to be an effective follower.
https://succeed.77
https://performance.76
https://leaders.72
EXHIBIT •
Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower
Research focused on followership has identified certain
behaviors that are associated
with effective followers. 78 79 These behaviors distinguish
followers on top-performing
teams from their counterparts on marginally performing teams.
Exhibit 7.2 presents nine
guidelines for effective followership; note that the nine

questions in Self-Assessment 7-4
are based on these guidelines.
a. Offer support to leader.
b. Take 1nrt1ative.
c. Play counseling and coaching roles to leader when
appropriate
d. Raise issues and/or concerns when necessary
e. Seek and encourage honest feedback from the leader.
f Clarify your role and expectations.
g. Show appreciation.
h. Keep the leader informed.
1. Resist inappropriate influence of leader.
Offer Support to Leader
A good follower looks for ways to express support and

encouragement to a leader who is
encountering resistance in trying to introduce needed change in
his or her organization.
Successful organizations are characterized by followers whose
work ethic and philosophy
are in congruence with those of the organization and the leader.
Take Initiative
Effective followers take the initiative to do what is necessary
without being told, includ-
ing working beyond their normally assigned duties. They look
for opportunities to make
a positive impact on the organization's objectives. When serious
problems arise that
impede the organization's ability to accomplish its objectives,
effective followers take the
risk to initiate corrective action by pointing out the problem to
the leader, suggesting
alternative solutions, or, if necessary, resolving the problem
outright. While taking the
initiative often involves risks, if done carefully and properly, it
can make the follower a
valuable part of the team and a member of the leader's trusted
circle.

Counsel and Coach the Leader When Appropriate •
Contrary to the myth that leaders have all the answers, most
people now recognize that
followers also have opportunities to coach and counsel leaders,
especially when a leader
is new and inexperienced. 80 A mutually trusting relationship
with a leader facilitates
upward coaching and counseling. An effective follower must be
alert for opportunities
to provide helpful advice, and ask questions, or simply be a
good listener when the leader
needs someone to confide in. Because some leaders may be
reluctant to ask for help, it
is the follower's responsibility to recognize such situations and
step in when appropri-
ate. For example, a leader whose interpersonal relationship with
another follower may
be having a different effect than the leader intended could be
counseled to see the inef-
fectiveness of his approach or style by another follower: "I am
sure you intended for Bob
to see the value of being on time when you said ... , but that is
not how he took it." When
coaching and counseling a leader is done with respect, it is most
effective. Respect creates

FOLLOWERSHIP 245
symmetry, empathy, and connection in all kinds of
relationships, including that between
a leader and a follower. 81
Raise Issues and/or Concerns When Necessary
When there are potential problems or drawbacks with a leader's
plans and proposals, a
follower's ability to bring these issues or concerns to light is
critical. How the follower
raises these issues is crucial, because leaders often get
defensive in responding to negative
feedback. Followers can minimize such defensiveness by
acknowiedging the leader's su-
perior status and communicating a sincere desire to be of help
in accomplishing the orga-
nization's goals, rather than personal interest. When challenging
a leader's flawed plans
and proposals, it is important for the follower to pinpoint
specifics rather than vague
generalities, and to avoid personalizing the critique. This
guideline is consistent with the

prevailing view of the courageous follower as a person who is
highly involved and very
much an independent thinker with initiative and a well-
developed sense of responsibility.
Seek and Encourage Honest Feedback from the Leader
Followers can play a constructive role in how their leaders
evaluate them. Some leaders
are uncomfortable with expressing negative concerns about a
follower's performance, so
they tend to focus only on the follower's strengths. One way to
overcome this tendency is
for the follower to show willingness to accept both positive and
negative feedback without
being defensive. Encourage the leader to point out the strongest
and weakest aspects of
your work.
Clarify Your Role and Expectations
Where there is evidence of role ambiguity or uncertainty about
job expectations, this
must be clarified with the leader. As will be revealed in Chapter
8 on leading effective
teams, it is the leader's responsibility to clearly communicate
role expectations for fol-

lowers. Nevertheless, some leaders fail to communicate clear
job expectations, scope of
authority and responsibility, performance targets, and deadlines.
Followers must insist
on clarification in these areas by their leaders. In some cases
the problem is that of role
conflict. The leader directs a follower to perform mutually
exclusive tasks and expects
results on all of them at the same time. Followers should be
assertive but diplomatic about
resolving role ambiguity and role conflict.
Show Appreciation
Everyone, including leaders, loves to be appreciated when they
perform a good deed that
benefits others. When a leader makes a special effort to help a
follower, such as help-
ing to protect the follower's interest, or nurturing and promoting
the follower's career,
it is appropriate for the follower to show appreciation. Even if
the leader's actions don't
directly benefit a particular follower but represent a significant
accomplishment for the
organization, it is still an appropriate gesture for followers to
express their appreciation

and admiration for the leader. Recognition of this kind only
reinforces desirable leader-
ship behavior. Although some may argue that praising a leader
is a form of ingratiation
easily used to influence the leader, when sincere, it can help to
build a positive leader-
follower exchange relationship.
Keep the Leader Informed
Accurate and timely information enables a leader to make good
decisions and to have a
complete picture of where things stand in the organization.
Leaders who appear not to
know what is going on in their organizations do feel and look
incompetent in front of their
peers and superiors. It is embarrassing for a leader to hear about
events or changes taking
place within his or her unit from others. This responsibility of
relaying information to the
https://followers.78
247

WORK
Application 7-5
Give examples of how
you or someone you
worked with employed
some of the suggested
guidelines to becoming
an effective follower.
FOLLOWERSHIP
leader includes both positive and negative information. Some
followers tend to withhold amongst their peers. It is not
uncommon for a follower of such stature to exert greater
bad news from their leaders. This is just as detrimental as
providing no information at all. influence over other followers
than even the leader of the group can. Leaders who under-
stand this "follower-follower" dynamic can use it to their
advantage. Resist Inappropriate Influence from the Leader
It is not always the case that influential followers use their
influence appropriately. A leader may be tempted to use his or
her power to influence the follower in ways that

Some may employ their influence in negative ways to make the
leader's job difficult. are inappropriate (legally or ethically).
Despite the power gap between the leader and fol-
This section examines some of the key factors that have been
found to enhance follower lower, the follower is not required to
comply with inappropriate influence attempts, or
influence. We will discuss the follower's relative power
position, locus of control, andto be exploited by an abusive
leader. 82 Effective followers challenge the leader in a firm,
education/experience (see Exhibit 7.3).tactful, and diplomatic
way. Reminding the leader of his or her ethical responsibilities,
insisting on your rights, and pointing out the negative
consequences of complying are
Factors That Can Enhance Follower Influencevarious ways in
which a follower can resist inappropriate influence attempts by
a leader.
EXHIBIT
It is important to challenge such behavior early, before it
becomes habitual, and to do it
without personal hostility. Taking a moral stand may sometimes
require the follower to
psychologically and/or physically separate from the leader. •

Power
Position
Identify each guideline using the letters a-1 from Exhibit 7.2 on
page 244.
Locus of Education ro
IO I understand the leader's needs, goals, and constraints, and I
work hard to help meet them. Control and Experience w
w
~
ro
I I. I make a pornt to internally question the wisdom of the
leader's decision rather than Just dorng what I am told u w
C
<9
12. When the leader asks me to do something that runs contrary
to my professional or personal preferences, I do

you say "no" rather than "yes'.' Power Position
13. I do you assert my views on important issues, especially
when I know it will help the organization achieve its
Leaders need to realize that they are no longer the sole
possessors of power and .influ-
goals, even though it might mean conflict with my group
ence in their work units. The new reality is that no matter what
position a person holds
!4 I am actively developing my abilities in some critical areas
so that I can become more valuable to the leader and in the
workplace, they can be a force for change. Some followers
distinguish themselves
the organization. as innovators, self-managers, or risk-takers.
These are terms that have traditionally been
15. We have a new boss, and I've been filling her in on how we
do things in our department. reserved for describing leaders, not
followers. Some followers may have personal, referent,
!6. We only have performance reviews once a year But I wanted
to know what my boss thinks of my work sooner; expert,
information, and connection power that can be used to boost
upward influence.

so we had a meeting to discuss my performance. These power
sources are discussed in Chapter 5. Any of these sources of
power can give
the follower the ability to influence others at different levels of
the organization. As more17 My boss hinted about having a
sexual relationship, so I reminded her that I was happily
married and clearly told
and more employees come to rely on a particular follower for
information, expertise, orher I was not interested and not to talk
about rt again .
simply because of his or her personality, the follower's relative
power position increases. 83
18 We started a new project today but I drd not understand what
I was supposed to be doing or expected to do.
These are the followers that can influence other followers to
slow down performance, file
So I went to talk to my boss about what to do.
grievances, stage demonstrations, or even sabotage operations -
all actions that can hurt
a leader's reputation.
Locus of Control

Learning As discussed in Chapter 2, locus of control is on a
continuum between an external
6 Briefly describe the three factors than can enhance a
follower's influence.
Outcome and internal belief over who has control ofa person's
destiny. People who believe they are
"masters of their own destiny" are said to have an internal locus
of control; they believe
that they can influence people and events in their workplace.
People who believe they are
"pawns of fate" (external locus ofcontrol) tend to believe they
have no influence or control Factors That Can Enhance
Follower Influence
at work. The literature mostly supports the view that leadership
qualities are predomi-
In every organization or work setting, some followers seem to
have more influence over
nantly present in those with an internal locus of control. 84
Followers with an internal
their peers (and even their leaders) than others. These are the
followers that command

locus of control prefer a work environment that encourages
honest and open communi-
respect, trust, and loyalty from everyone, including the leader.
They are opinion leaders
cation with leaders, participation in decision making, and
opportunities to be creative.
https://increases.83
WORK
Application 7-6
Recall a work-related
incident when you
felt more qualified
to do the job than
your boss because of
your education and
experience. Describe
how this characteristic
enabled you to
infiuence your boss

They are likely to be more influential with other followers than
are those with external
locus of control.
Education and Experience
Not all followers have the same level of education and/or
experience. These differences
can have a major impact on the influencing ability of followers.
Followers with valuable
skills and experience may be able to use their expert power to
influence other followers
and even the leader. Leaders have to create opportunities to
learn from others, including
followers. Today's workforce is far more educated, mobile,
diverse, and younger than the
workforce of 30 years ago. The experienced and educated
follower can be much more
influential with other followers than cari the leader.
As workers' education and experience increase, they tend to
reject top-down
directive leadership. Leaders who ignore this fact will face
higher employee dissatis-

faction and turnover and miss out on the benefits of utilizing
the talents of effective
followers.
Determinants of Follower Influence
Identify the speofic fo/Jower-inpuencing characteristic in each
of these statements,
a. power position b. locus of control c education and expenence
19. Given my technical background and long tenure in my
department, I do help out other coworkers, making them
look good, even when I don't get any credit
20. I try to solve the tough problems (technical or
organizational), rather than look to the leader or others to do it
for me
21. I believe that no matter what I do to try to get ahead, there
are always people out there trying to sabotage my
plans.
22. Many of my peers depend on rne for technical assis'..ance
because I am the only one in the department who has
been trained to work with this new machine successfuily

23 When it comes to selling my points to peers, I easily get
them to see things my way rather than the boss's way
due to my senionty and popularity in this division
. , ,, . ~:r~-.. -~ .OPENING CASE Application
l 1' '.. -s
S. The text discusses factors that can determine follower
influence, when applied to Facebook
employees; which factor(s) in your opinion stands out?
It is clear from the case that Facebook employees are highly
skilled and experienced software engineers.They are highly
sought-after 1n the tech world.As mentioned in the case,
everyone at Facebook was a star somewhere else and you don't
find a lot of shy; retiring types there .They are described as
"power nerds." Even those who have left Facebook have gone
on to create their own ventures. Facebook employees have
expert, connection, and referent power. By all 1ndicat1ons, they
have internal locus of control. Finally, Facebook employees are
highly educated and experienced given the competitive and
high-tech environment in which they operate.

FOLLOWERSHIP 249
Dual Role of Being a Leader and a Follower
As the guidelines for becoming an effective follower reveal,
effective leadership is found
in highly effective followers. It is important to recognize that
even when someone is
identified as a leader, the same person is also a follower to
someone higher up the orga-
nizational hierarchy. 85 It is not at all uncommon to switch
between being a leader and
being a follower several times during the course of a day's
work. For example, within an
organization, mid-level managers answer to vice presidents,
who answer to the CEO, who
answers to the board of directors; within the school system,
teachers answer to the prin-
cipal, who answers to the school superintendent, w ho answers to
school board members.
Regardless of one's position in an organization, we are all in a
follower role to someone
else. To execute both roles effectively is a challenge, but one
that can be done effectively.
Delegation

We now focus on developing followers by delegating tasks to
them. Delegation is the
process of assigning responsibility and authority for
accomplishing objectives. Telling
employees to perform the tasks that are part of their job design
is issuing orders, not
delegating. Delegating refers to giving employees new tasks.
The new task may become a
part of a redesigned job, or it may simply be a onetime task.
The true art of delegation lies
in a manager's ability to know what cannot be delegated and
what should be delegated.
Some management experts believe that if there were a top ten
list of managerial mistakes,
failure to delegate would be one ofthem. 86 In this section, we
discuss delegating, delega-
tion decisions, and delegating with a model.
Delegating
Effective delegation requires that a leader carefully consider
several factors relating to the
task, time requirement, and follower characteristics before
delegating. 87 A leader should
delegate work when there is not enough time to attend to
priority tasks, when followers

desire more challenges and opportunities, and when the tasks
match follower skill levels
and experiences. Also a leader must find the proper person for
the job and provide careful
instructions. Effective delegation allows people to prosper in
their own uniqueness.
Let's begin by discussing the benefits of delegation, the
obstacles to delegation, and
signs of delegating too little.
Benefits of Delegation
When managers delegate, they have more time to perform high-
priority tasks. Delegation
gets tasks accomplished and increases productivity. Delegation
can empower followers
and give them more confidence. 88 Delegating both
responsibility and authority pushes
decision making down the ladder, encourages input from
operational employees who are
closest to problems, and promotes a participative work
environment. It enables leaders to
mobilize resources and secure better results than they could
have gotten alone. Delega-
tion trains employees and improves their self-esteem, as well as

eases the stress and bur-
den on managers. By delegating responsibilities, leaders can
focus on doing a few tasks
well instead of many tasks less effectively. Consequently, they
improve their management
and leadership potential while training others to succeed them.
It is a means of develop-
ing followers by enriching their jobs. From the organization's
perspective, delegating can
result in increased performance and work outcomes. 89 It can
also lead to more communi-
cation between leaders and followers, thus encouraging
followers to voice their opinions
on how to improve the work environment.90
https://environment.90
https://outcomes.89
https://ofthem.86
https://world.As12
---------10
Servant Leadership

DESCRI PTION ------ -------
Servant leadership is a paradox-an approach to leadership that
runs coun-
ter to common sense. Our everyday images of leadership do not
coincide
with leaders being servants. Leaders influence, and servants
follow. How
can leadership be both service and influence? How can a person
be a leader
and a servant at the same time? Although servant leadership
seems contra-
dictory and challenges our traditional beliefs about leadership,
it is an
approach that offers a unique perspective.
Servant leadership, which originated in the writings of
Greenleaf (1970,
1972, 1977), has been of interest to leadership scholars for more
than
40 years. Until recently, little empirical research on servant
leadership has
appeared in established peer-reviewed journals. Most of the
academic and

nonacademic writing on the topic has been prescriptive,
focusing on how
servant leadership should ideally be, rather than descriptive,
focusing on
what servant leadership actually is in practice (van
Dierendonck, 2011).
However, in the past 10 years, multiple publications have
helped to clarify
servant leadership and substantiate its basic assumptions.
Similar to earlier leadership theories discussed in this book
(e.g., skills
approach and behavioral approach), servant leadership is an
approach
focusing on leadership from the point of view of the leader and
his or her
behaviors. Servant leadership emphasizes that leaders be
attentive to the
concerns of their followers, empathize with them, and nurture
them.
Servant leaders put followers first, empower them, and help
them develop
their full personal capacities. Furthermore, servant leaders are
ethical
(see Chapter 13, "Leadership Ethics," for an extended

discussion of this
topic) and lead in ways that serve the greater good of the
organization,
community, and society at large.
Servant Leadership Defined
What is servant leadership? Scholars have addressed this
approach from many
different perspectives resulting in a variety of definitions of
servant leadership.
Greenleaf (1970) provides the most frequently referenced
definition:
[Servant leadership] begins with the natural feeling that one
wants
to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to
aspire
to lead.... The difference manifests itself in the care taken by
the
servant-first to make sure that other people's highest priority

needs are being served; The best test ... is: do those served grow
as
persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser,
freer,
more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?
And,
what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they
benefit,
or, at least, will they not be further deprived? (p. 15)
Although complex, this definition sets forth the basic ideas of
servant leader-
ship that have been highlighted by current scholars. Servant
leaders place the
good of followers over their own self-interests and emphasize
follower develop-
ment (Hale & Fields, 2007). They demonstrate strong moral
behavior toward
followers (Graham, 1991; Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke, 2010),
the organiza-
tion, and other stakeholders (Ehrhart, 2004). Practicing servant
leadership
comes more naturally for some than others, but everyone can
learn to be a
servant leader (Spears, 2010). Although servant leadership is

sometimes treated
by others as a trait, in our discussion, servant leadership is
viewed as a behavior.
Historical Basis of Servant Leadership
Robert K. Greenleaf coined the term servant leadership and is
the author of
the seminal works on the subject. Greenleaf's persona and
writings have
significantly influenced how servant leadership has developed
on the practi-
cal and theoretical level. He founded the Center for Applied
Ethics in 1964,
now the Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership, which
provides a clear-
inghouse and focal point for research and writing on servant
leadership.
Greenleaf worked for 40 years at AT&T and, after retiring,
began exploring
how institutions function and how they could better serve
society. He was
intrigued by issues of power and authority and how individuals
in organiza-

tions could creatively support each other. Decidedly against
coercive leader-
ship, Greenleaf advocated using communication to build
consensus in groups.
Greenleaf credits his formulation of servant leadership to
Hermann Hesse's
(1956) novel The journey to the East. It tells the story of a
group of travelers
on a mythical journey who are accompanied by a servant who
does menial
chores for the travelers but also sustains them w ith his spirits
and song.
Chapter 10 IServant Leadership 229
The servant's presence has an extraordinary impact on the
group. When the
servant becomes lost and disappears from the group, the
travelers fall into
disarray and abandon the journey. Without the servant, they are
unable to
carry on. It was the servant who was ultimately leading the

group, emerging
as aleader through his selfless care of the travelers.
In addition to serving, Greenleaf states that a servant leader has
a social
responsibility to be concerned about the "have-nots" and those
less privi-
leged. If inequalities and social injustices exist, a servant leader
tries to
remove them (Graham, 1991). In becoming a servant leader, a
leader uses
less institutional power and control while shifting authority to
those who are
being led. Servant leadership values community because it
provides a face-
to-face opportunity for individuals to experience
interdependence, respect,
trust, and individual growth (Greenleaf, 1970).
Ten Characteristics of a Servant Leader
In an attempt to clarify servant leadership for practitioners,
Spears (2002)
identified 10 characteristics in Greenleaf's writings that are
central to the

development of servant leadership. Together, these
characteristics comprise
the first model or conceptualization of servant leadership.
1. Listening. Communication between leaders and followers is
an
interactive process that includes sending and receiving
messages (i.e., talk-
ing and listening). Servant leaders communicate by listening
first. They
recognize that listening is a learned discipline that involves
hearing and
being receptive to what others have to say. Through listening,
servant lead-
ers acknowledge the viewpoint of followers and validate these
perspectives.
2. Empathy. Empathy is "standing in the shoes" of another
person and
attempting to see the world from that person's point of view.
Empathetic
servant leaders demonstrate that they truly understand what
followers are
thinking and feeling. When a servant leader shows empathy, it
is confirming

and validating for the follower. It makes the follower feel
unique.
3. H ealing. To heal means to make whole. Servant leaders care
about
the personal well-being of their followers. They support
followers by help-
ing them overcome personal problems. Greenleaf argues that the
process of
healing is a two-way street-in helping followers become whole,
servant
leaders themselves are healed.
4. Awareness. For Greenleaf, awareness is a quality within
servant
leaders that makes them acutely attuned and receptive to their
physical,
social, and political environments. It includes understanding
oneself and the
impact one has on others. With awareness, servant leaders are
able to step
aside and view themselves and their own perspectives in the
greater context
of the situation.

5. Persuasion. Persuasion is clear and persistent communication
that
convinces others to change. As opposed to coercion, which
utilizes posi-
tional authority to force compliance, persuasion creates change
through the
use of gentle nonjudgmental argument. According to Spears
(2002),
Greenleaf's emphasis on persuasion over coercion is perhaps
related to his
denominational affiliation with the Religious Society of Friends
(Qi.takers).
6. Conceptualization. Conceptualization refers to an individual's
abil-
ity to be a visionary for an organization, providing a clear sense
of its goals
and direction. This characteristic goes beyond day-to-day
operational
thinking to focus on the "big picture." Conceptualization also
equips ser-

vant leaders to respond to complex organizational problems in
creative
ways, enabling them to deal with the intricacies of the
organization in
relationship to its long-term goals.
7. Foresight. Foresight encompasses a servant leader's ability to
know
the future . It is an ability to predict what is coming based on
what is occur-
ring in the present and what has happened in the past. For
Greenleaf,
foresight has an ethical dimension because he believes leaders
should be
held accountable for any failures to anticipate what reasonably
could be
foreseen and to act on that understanding.
8. Stewardship. Stewardship is about taking responsibility for
the lead-
ership role entrusted to the leader. Servant leaders accept the
responsibility to
carefully manage the people and organization they have been
given to lead.
In addition, they hold the organization in trust for the greater

good of society.
9. Commitment to the growth ofpeople. Greenleaf's
conceptualization
of servant leadership places a premium on treating each
follower as a
unique person with intrinsic value that goes beyond his or her
tangible
contributions to the organization. Servant leaders are committed
to help-
ing each person in the organization grow personally and
professionally.
Commitment can take many forms, including providing
followers with
opportunities for career development, helping them develop new
work
skills, taking a personal interest in their ideas, and involving
them in deci-
sion making (Spears, 2002).
10. Building community. Servant leadership fosters the
development of
community. A community is a collection ofindividuals who
have shared interests
and pursuits and feel a sense ofunity and relatedness.

Community allows follow-
ers to identify with something greater than themselves that they
value. Servant
leaders build community to provide a place where people can
feel safe and con-
nected with others, but are still allowed to express their own
individuality.
These 10 characteristics of servant leadership represent
Greenleaf's seminal
work on the servant as leader. They provide a creative lens from
which to
view the complexities of servant leadership.
Chapter 10 I Servant Leadership 231
Building a Theory About Servant Leadership
For more than three decades after Greenleaf's original writings,
servant leader-
ship remained a set of loosely defined characteristics and
normative principles.
In this form it was widely accepted as a leadership approach,

rather than a
theory, that has strong heuristic and practical value. Praise for
servant leadership
came from a wide range of well-known leadership writers,
including Bennis
(2002), Blanchard and Hodges (2003), Covey (2002), DePree
(2002), Senge
(2002), and Wheatley (2002). At the same time, servant
leadership was adopted
as a guiding philosophy in many well-known organizations such
as The Toro
Company, Herman Miller, Synovus Financial Corporation,
ServiceMaster,
Men's Wearhouse, Southwest Airlines, and TDindustries
(Spears, 2002).
Although novel and paradoxical, the basic ideas and
prescriptions of servant
leadership resonated with many as an ideal way to run an
organization.
More recently, researchers have begun to examine the
conceptual underpinnings
of servant leadership in an effort to build a theory about it. This
has resulted in
a wide array of models that describe servant leadership that

incorporate a mul-
titude ofvariables. For example, Russell and Stone (2002)
developed a practical
model ofservant leadership that contained 20 attributes, 9
functional character-
istics (distinctive behaviors observed in the workplace) and 11
accompanying
characteristics that augment these behaviors. Similarly,
Patterson (2003) created
a value-based model of servant leadership that distinguished 7
constructs that
characterize the virtues and shape the behaviors of servant
leaders.
Other conceptualizations of servant leadership have emerged
from researchers'
efforts to develop and validate instruments to measure the core
dimensions of
the servant leadership process. Table 10.1 provides a summary
ofsome of these
studies, illustrating clearly the extensiveness of characteristics
related to servant
leadership. This table demonstrates how servant leadership is
treated as a trait
phenomenon (e.g., courage, humility) in some studies while

other researchers
regard it as a behavioral process (e.g., serving and developing
others).
Table 10.1 also exhibits the lack of agreement among
researchers on what
specific characteristics define servant leadership. While some of
the studies
include common characteristics, such as humility or
empowerment, none ofthe
studies conceptualize servant leadership in exactly the same
way. Most recently,
Coetzer, Bussin, and Geldenhuys (2017) analyzed the existing
literature and
created a framework that summarizes the functions of servant
leadership to
make it more practical in organizations. They highlight 8
servant leadership
characteristics (authenticity, humility, integrity, listening,
compassion, account-
ability, courage, and altruism), 4 competencies, and 10
measures and 3 outcomes
of servant leadership. Although scholars are not in agreement
regarding the
primary attributes of servant leadership, all these studies

provide the ground-
work necessary for the development of a refined model of
servant leadership.
l'J
w
l'J
Table 10.1 Key Characteristics of Servant Leadersh ip
Laub (1999)
Wong&
Davey (2007)
Barbuto &
Wheeler (2006)
Dennis &
Bocarnea (2005)
Sendjaya, Sarros,
& Santora (2008}

van Oierendonck
& Nuijten (2011)
• Developing • Serving and • Altruistic calling • Empowerment •
Transforming • Empowerment
people developing • Emotional • Trust influence • Humility
• Sharing others healing • Humility • Voluntary • Standing back
leadership • Consulting and • Persuasive • Agapaolove
subordination • Authenticity
• Displaying involving others mapping • Vision • Authentic self
• Forgiveness
authenticity • Humility and • Organizational • Transcendental •
Courage
• Valuing people selflessness stewardship spirituality •
Accountability
• Providing • Modeling • Wisdom • Covenantal • Stewardship
leadership integrity and relationship
• Building authenticity • Responsible
community • Inspiring and morality
influencing

others
SOURCE: Adapted from "Servant leadership: A review and
synthesis," by D. van Dierendonck, 2011, Journal of
Management, 37(4) , pp. 1228-1261.
Figure 10.1 Model of Servant Leadership
-- -- -
Antecedent Servant Leader OutcomesConditions Behaviors
Context and • Conceptualizing Follower Performance
Culture • Emotional Healing and Growth
• Putting Followers First
Leader
➔
• Helping Followers f---7 Organizational
Attributes Grow and Succeed Performance

• Behaving Ethically
Follower • Empowering
Receptivity • Creating Value for the Community
Societal Impact
SOURCE : Adapted from Liden, R. C., Panaccio, A., Hu, J., &
Meuser, J. D. (2014). Servant
leadership: Antecedents, consequences, and contextual
moderators. In D. V. Day (Ed.), The
Oxford handbook of leadership and organizations. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press;
and van Dierendonck, D. (2011). Servant leadership: A review
and syntheses. Journal of
Management, 37(4), 1228-1261 .
MODEL OF SERVANT LEADERSHIP------
This chapter presents a servant leadership model based on
Liden, Wayne,
Zhao, and Henderson (2008) and Liden, Panaccio, Hu, and
Meuser (2014)
that has three main components: antecedent conditions, servant

leader behav-
iors, and leadership outcomes (Figure 10.1). The model is
intended to clarify
the phenomenon of servant leadership and provide a framework
for under-
standing its complexities.
Antecedent Conditions
As shown on the left side of Figure 10.1, three antecedent, or
existing, con-
ditions have an impact on servant leadership: context and
culture, leader
attributes, and follower receptivity. These conditions are not
inclusive of all
the conditions that affect servant leadership, but do represent
some factors
likely to influence the leadership process.
Context and Culture. Servant leadership does not occur in a
vacuum but
occurs within a given organizational context and a particular
culture. The
nature of each of these affects the way servant leadership is
carried out. For

example, in health care and nonprofit settings, the norm of
caring is more
prevalent, while for Wall Street corporations it is more common
to have
competition as an operative norm. Because the norms differ, the
ways ser-
vant leadership is performed may vary.
Dimensions of culture (see Chapter 16, "Culture and
Leadership") will also
influence servant leadership. For example, in cultures where
power distance
is low (e.g., Nordic Europe) and power is shared equally among
people at all
levels of society, servant leadership may be more common. In
cultures with
low humane orientation (e.g., Germanic Europe), servant
leadership may
present more of a challenge. The point is that cultures influence
the way
servant leadership is able to be achieved.

Leader Attributes. As in any leadership situation, the qualities
and dispo-
sition of the leader influence the servant leadership process.
Individuals
bring their own traits and ideas about leading to leadership
situations. Some
may feel a deep desire to serve or are strongly motivated to
lead. Others may
be driven by a sense of higher calling (Sendjaya, Sarros, &
Santora, 2008).
These dispositions shape how individuals demonstrate servant
leadership.
In addition, people differ in areas such as moral development,
emotional
intelligence, and self-determinedness, and these traits interact
with their
ability to engage in servant leadership.
Recent research has attempted to determine if there are specific
leader traits
that are important to servant leadership. Emotional intelligence,
or the leader's
ability to monitor the feelings, beliefs, and internal states of the
self and fol-

lowers, has been identified as an important attribute for a leader
implement-
ing a servant-leader ideology (Barbuto, Gottfredson, & Searle,
2014; Beck,
2014; Chiniara & Bentein, 2016). An empirical study by Hunter
and col-
leagues (2013) concluded that "leaders scoring high in
agreeableness and low
in extraversion were more likely to be perceived as servant
leaders by their
followers" (p. 327). In addition, a study by Sousa and van
Dierendonck
(2017) determined that having humility can make a servant
leader more
impactful regardless of his or her hierarchical position in an
organization.
Follower Receptivity. The receptivity of followers is a factor
that appears to
influence the impact of servant leadership on outcomes such as
personal and
organizational job performance. Follower receptivity concerns
the question
"Do all followers show a desire for servant leadership?"
Research suggests the

answer may be no. Some followers do not want to work with
servant leaders.
They equate servant leadership with micromanagement, and
report that they
do not want their leader to get to know them or try to help,
develop, or guide
them (Liden et al., 2008). Similarly, empirical studies have
shown that when
servant leadership was matched with followers who desired it,
this type of
leadership had a positive impact on performance and
organizational citizen-
ship behavior (Meuser, Liden, Wayne, & Henderson, 2011;
Otero-Neira,
Varela-Neira, & Bande, 2016; Ozyilmaz & Cicek, 2015). The
opposite was
seen when there was no match between servant leadership and
the desire of
followers for it. It appears that, for some followers, servant
leadership has a
positive impact and, for others, servant leadership is not
effective.

Chapter 10 I Servant Leadership 235
Servant Leader Behaviors
The middle component of Figure 10.1 identifies seven servant
leader
behaviors that are the core of the servant leadership process.
These behav-
iors emerged from Liden et al.'s (2008) vigorous efforts to
develop and
validate a measure of servant leadership. The findings from
their research
provide evidence for the soundness of viewing servant
leadership as a
multidimensional process. Collectively, these behaviors are the
central
focus of servant leadership. Individually, each behavior makes a
unique
contribution.
Conceptualizing. Conceptualizing refers to the servant leader's
thorough
understanding of the organization-its purposes, complexities,
and mission.
This capacity allows servant leaders to think through

multifaceted prob-
lems, to know if something is going wrong, and to address
problems cre-
atively in accordance with the overall goals of the organization.
For example, Kate Simpson, a senior nursing supervisor in an
emergency
room of a large hospital, uses conceptualizing to lead her
department. She
fully understands the mission of the hospital and, at the same
time, knows
how to effectively manage staff on a day-to-day basis. Her staff
members say
Kate has a sixth sense about what is best for people. She is
known for her
wisdom in dealing with difficult patients and helping staff
diagnose complex
medical problems. Her abilities, competency, and value as a
servant leader
earned her the hospital's Caregiver of the Year Award.
Emotional Healing. Emotional healing involves being sensitive
to the
personal concerns and well-being of others. It includes
recognizing others'

problems and being willing to take the time to address them.
Servant lead-
ers who exhibit emotional healing make themselves available to
others,
stand by them, and provide them with support.
Emotional healing is apparent in the work ofFather John, a
much sought-after
hospice priest on Chicago's South Side. Father John has a
unique approach to
hospice patients: He doesn't encourage, give advice, or read
Scripture. Instead
he simply listens to them. "When you face death, the only
important thing in
life is relationships," he says. "I practice the art of standing by.
I think it is more
important to come just to be there than to do anything else."
Putting Followers First. Putting others first is the sine qua non
of servant
leadership-the defining characteristic. It means using actions
and words
that clearly demonstrate to followers that their concerns are a
priority,
including placing followers' interests and success ahead of those

of the
leader. It may mean a leader breaks from his or her own tasks to
assist
followers with theirs .
Dr. Autumn Klein, a widely published health education
professor at a major
research university, is responsible for several ongoing large
interdisciplinary
public health studies. Although she is the principal investigator
on these
studies, when multiauthored articles are submitted for
publication, Dr. Klein
puts the names of other researchers before her own. She chooses
to let oth-
ers be recognized because she knows it will benefit them in
their annual
performance reviews. She puts the success of her colleagues
ahead of her
own interests.

Helping Followers Grow and Succeed. This behavior refers to
knowing
followers' professional or personal goals and helping them to
accomplish
those aspirations. Servant leaders make followers' career
development a
priority, including mentoring followers and providing them with
support.
At its core, helping followers grow and succeed is about aiding
these indi-
viduals to become self-actualized, reaching their fullest human
potential.
An example of how a leader helps others grow and succeed is
Mr. Yon Kim,
a high school orchestra teacher who consistently receives praise
from parents
for his outstanding work with students. Mr. Kim is a skilled
violinist with
high musical standards, but he does not let that get in the way
of helping
each student, from the most highly accomplished to the least
capable.
Students like Mr. Kim because he listens to them and treats
them as adults.

He gives feedback without being judgmental. Many of his
former students
have gone on to become music majors. They often visit Mr. Kim
to let him
know how important he was to them. Yon Kim is a servant
leader who helps
students grow through his teaching and guidance.
Behaving Ethically. Behaving ethically is doing the right thing
in the right
way. It is holding to strong ethical standards, including being
open, honest,
and fair with followers. Servant leaders do not compromise
their ethical
principles in order to achieve success.
An example of ethical behavior is how CEO Elizabeth Angliss
responded
when one of her employees brought her a copy of a leaked
document from
their company's chief competitor, outlining its plans to go after
some of
Angliss's largest customers. Although she knew the document
undoubtedly
had valuable information, she shredded it instead of reading it.

She then
called the rival CEO and told him she had received the
document and wanted
him to be aware that he might have a security issue within his
company. "I
didn't know if what I received was real or not," she explains.
"But it didn't
matter. If it was the real thing, someone on his end did
something wrong, and
my company wasn't going to capitalize on that."
Empowering. Empowering refers to allowing followers the
freedom to be
independent, make decisions on their own, and be self-
sufficient. It is a way
for leaders to share power with followers by allowing them to
have control.
Empowerment builds followers' confidence in their own
capacities to think
and act on their own because they are given the freedom to

handle difficult
situations in the way they feel is best.
For example, a college professor teaching a large lecture class
empowers two
teaching assistants assigned to him by letting them set their own
office
hours, independently grade student papers, and practice
teaching by giving
one of the weekly class lectures . They become confident in
their teaching
abilities and bring new ideas to the professor to try in the
classroom.
Creating Value for the Community. Servant leaders create value
for the
community by consciously and intentionally giving back to the
community.
They are involved in local activities and encourage followers to
also volun-
teer for community service. Creating value for the community is
one way
for leaders to link the purposes and goals of an organization
with the
broader purposes of the community.

An example of creating value for the community can be seen in
the leader-
ship ofMercedes Urbanez, principal of Alger High School.
Alger is an alter-
native high school in a midsize community with three other high
schools.
Mercedes's care and concern for students at Alger is
remarkable. Ten percent
of Alger's students have children, so the school provides on-site
day care.
Fifteen percent of the students are on probation, and Alger is
often their last
stop before dropping out entirely and resuming criminal
activities. While the
other schools in town foster competition and push Advanced
Placement
courses, Alger focuses on removing the barriers that keep its
students from
excelling and offers courses that provide what its students need,
including
multimedia skills, reading remediation, and parenting.
Under Mercedes, Alger High School is a model alternative
school appreci-

ated at every level in the community. Students, who have failed
in other
schools, find they have a safe place to go where they are
accepted and adults
try to help them solve their problems. Law enforcement
supports the school's
efforts to help these students get back into the mainstream of
society and
away from crime. The other high schools in the community
know that Alger
provides services they find difficult to provide. Mercedes serves
the have-
nots in the community, and the whole community reaps the
benefits.
Other researchers have used the servant leadership behaviors as
identified by
Liden et al.'s (2008) work as well as the work of Page and
Wong (2000),
Sendjaya and Sarros (2002), Dennis and Bocarnea (2005), and
Barbuto and
Wheeler (2006) as the foundation for efforts to understand the
essential
behaviors of servant leadership and how they are established in
an organiza-

tion. For example, Winston and Fields (2015) developed and
validated a
scale that identifies 10 leader behaviors that are essential to
servant leader-
ship and establishing servant leadership in an organization.
Outcomes
Although servant leadership focuses primarily on leader
behaviors, it is also
important to examine the potential outcomes of servant
leadership. The out-
comes of servant leadership are follower performance and
g;rowth, organizational
performance, and societal impact (see Figure 10.1). As
Greenleaf highlighted in
his original work (1970), the central goal of servant leadership
is to create
healthy organizations that nurture individual growth, strengthen
organiza-

tional performance, and, in the end, produce a positive impact
on society.
Follower Performance and Growth. In the model of servant
leadership,
most of the servant leader behaviors focus directly on
recognizing followers'
contributions and helping them realize their human potential.
The expected
outcome for followers is greater self-actualization. That is,
followers will
realize their full capabilities when leaders nurture them, help
them with
their personal goals, and give them control.
Another outcome of servant leadership, suggested by Meuser et
al. (2011),
is that it will have a favorable impact on follower in-role
performance-the
way followers do their assigned work. When servant leaders
were matched
with followers who were open to this type of leadership, the
results were
positive. Followers became more effective at accomplishing
their jobs and

fulfilling their job descriptions. For example, studies of servant
leadership in
a sales setting in Spain found that sales managers' servant
leadership was
directly related to salespeople's performance within the
organization and
indirectly related to salespeople's identification with the
organization. In
addition, it enhanced the salespeople's adaptability and
proactivity by posi-
tively affecting their self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation
(Bande,
Fernandez-Ferrin, Varela-Neira, & Otero-Neira, 2016; Otero-
Neira et al.,
2016). Hunter et al. (2013) found that servant leadership fosters
a positive
service climate, induces followers to help coworkers and sell
products, and
reduces turnover and disengagement behaviors. In addition,
Chiniara and
Bentein (2016) found that when servant leaders attended to
followers' needs
for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, it had a positive
impact on
followers' task performance and organizational citizenship

behavior.
Finally, another expected result of servant leadership is that
followers them-
selves may become servant-leaders. Greenleaf's
conceptualization of servant
leadership hypothesizes that when followers receive caring and
empower-
ment from ethical leaders, they, in turn, will likely begin
treating others in
this way. Servant leadership would produce a ripple effect in
which servant
leaders create more servant leaders. For example, Hunter et al.
(2013) report
that employees who perceived their leaders as having servant
qualities were
more likely to help their coworkers with task and interpersonal
matters, as
well as less likely to disengage.

Organizational Performance. Initial research has shown that, in
addi-
tion to positively affecting followers and their performance,
servant lead-
ership has an influence on organizational performance. Several
studies
have found a positive relationship between servant leadership
and organi-
zational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), which are follower
behaviors that
go beyond the basic requirements of the follower's duties and
help the
overall functioning of the organization (Ehrhart, 2004; Liden et
al.,
2008; Neubert, Kacmar, Carlson, Chonko, & Roberts, 2008;
Walumbwa
et al., 2010).
Servant leadership also affects the way organizational teams
function. Hu
and Liden (2011) found that servant leadership enhanced team
effectiveness
by increasing the members' shared confidence that they could be
effective as
a work group. Furthermore, their results showed that servant

leadership con-
tributed positively to team potency by enhancing group process
and clarity.
However, when servant leadership was absent, team potency
decreased,
despite clearer goals. In essence, it frustrates people to know
exactly what the
goal is, but not get the support needed to accomplish the goal.
While research on the organizational outcomes of servant
leadership is in its
initial stages, more and more studies are being undertaken to
substantiate
the direct and indirect ways that servant leadership is related to
organiza-
tional performance.
Societal Impact. Another outcome expected of servant
leadership is that it
is likely to have a positive impact on society. Although societal
impact is not
commonly measured in studies of servant leadership, there are
examples of
servant leadership's impact that are highly visible. One example
we are all

familiar with is the work of Mother Teresa, whose years of
service for the
hungry, homeless, and unwanted resulted in the creation of a
new religious
order, the Missionaries of Charity. This order now has more
than 1 million
workers in over 40 countries that operate hospitals, schools, and
hospices
for the poor. Mother Teresa's servant leadership has had an
extraordinary
impact on society throughout the world.
In the business world, an example of the societal impact of
servant leadership
can be observed at Southwest Airlines (see Case 10.3). Leaders
at Southwest
instituted an "others first" organizational philosophy in the
management of
the company, which starts with how it treats its employees. This
philosophy
is adhered to by those employees who themselves become
servant leaders in

regards to the airline's customers. Because the company thrives,
it impacts
society by providing jobs in the communities it serves and, to a
lesser extent,
by providing the customers who rely on it with transportation.
In his conceptualization of servant leadership, Greenleaf did not
frame the
process as one that was intended to directly change society.
Rather, he visu-
alized leaders who become servants first and listen to others and
help them
grow. As a result, their organizations are healthier, ultimately
benefiting
society. In this way, the long-term outcomes of putting others
first include
positive social change and helping society flourish.
Summary of the Model of Servant leadership
In summary, the model of servant leadership consists of three
components:
antecedent conditions, servant leader behaviors, and outcomes.

The central
focus of the model is the seven behaviors ofleaders that foster
servant lead-
ership: conceptualizing, emotional healing, putting followers
first, helping
followers grow and succeed, behaving ethically, empowering,
and creating
value for the community. These behaviors are influenced by
context and
culture, the leader's attributes, and the followers' receptivity to
this kind of
leadership. When individuals engage in servant leadership, it is
likely to
improve outcomes at the individual, organizational, and societal
levels.
HOW DOES SERVANT LEADERSHIP WORK?----
The servant leadership approach works differently than many of
the prior
theories we have discussed in this book. For example, it is
unlike the trait
approach (Chapter 2), which emphasizes that leaders should
have certain spe-
cific traits. It is also unlike path-goal theory (Chapter 6), which

lays out prin-
ciples regarding what style ofleadership is needed in various
situations. Instead,
servant leadership focuses on the behaviors leaders should
exhibit to put follow-
ers first and to support followers' personal development. It is
concerned with
how leaders treat followers and the outcomes that are likely to
emerge.
So what is the mechanism that explains how servant leadership
works? It
begins when leaders commit themselves to putting their
followers first,
being honest with them, and treating them fairly. Servant
leaders make it a
priority to listen to their followers and develop strong long-term
relation-
ships with them. This allows leaders to understand the abilities,
needs, and
goals of followers, which, in turn, allows these followers to
achieve their full
potential. When many leaders in an organization adopt a servant
leadership
orientation, a culture of serving others within and outside the

organization
is created (Liden et al., 2008).
Chapter 10 1 Servant Leadership 241
Servant leadership works best when leaders are altruistic and
have a strong
motivation and deep-seated interest in helping others. In
addition, for suc-
cessful servant leadership to occur, it is important that
followers are open and
receptive to servant leaders who want to empower them and
help them grow.
It should be noted that in much of the writing on servant
leadership there
is an underlying philosophical position, originally set forth by
Greenleaf
(1970), that leaders should be altruistic and humanistic. Rather
than using
their power to dominate others, leaders should make every
attempt to share
their power and enable others to grow and become autonomous.

Leadership
framed from this perspective downplays competition in the
organization
and promotes egalitarianism.
Finally, in an ideal world, servant leadership results in
community and soci-
etal change. Individuals within an organization who care for
each other
become committed to developing an organization that cares for
the com-
munity. Organizations that adopt a servant leadership culture
are committed
to helping those in need who operate outside of the
organization. Servant
leadership extends to serving the "have-nots" in society
(Graham, 1991).
Case 10.2 in this chapter provides a striking example of how
one servant
leader's work led to positive outcomes for many throughout the
world.
STRENGTHS - - ------------
In its current stage of development, research on servant

leadership has made
several positive contributions to the field of leadership. First,
while there are
other leadership approaches such as transformational and
authentic leadership
that include an ethical dimension, servant leadership is unique
in the way it
makes altruism the central component of the leadership process.
Servant lead-
ership argues unabashedly that leaders should put followers
first, share control
with followers, and embrace their growth. It is the only
leadership approach
that frames the leadership process around the principle of caring
for others.
Second, servant leadership provides a counterintuitive and
provocative
approach to the use of influence, or power, in leadership. Nearly
all other
theories of leadership treat influence as a positive factor in the
leadership
process, but servant leadership does just the opposite. It argues
that leaders
should not dominate, direct, or control; rather, leaders should

share control
and influence. To give up control rather than seek control is the
goal of ser-
vant leadership. Servant leadership is an influence process that
does not
incorporate influence in a traditional way.
Third, rather than imply that servant leadership is a panacea,
research on
servant leadership has shown there are conditions under which
servant leadership
is not a preferred kind of leadership. Findings indicate that
servant leader-
ship may not be effective in contexts where followers are not
open to being
guided, supported, and empowered. Followers' readiness to
receive servant
leadership moderates the potential usefulness ofleading from
this approach
(Liden et al., 2008).

Fourth, recent research has resulted in a sound measure of
servant leadership.
Using a rigorous methodology, Liden et al. (2008) developed
and validated
the Servant Leadership Qyestionnaire (SLQ2, which appears at
the end of
the chapter. It comprises 28 items that identify seven distinct
dimensions of
servant leadership. Studies show that the SLQis unique and
measures
aspects ofleadership that are different from those measured by
the transfor-
mational and leader-member exchange theories (Liden et al.,
2008;
Schaubroeck, Lam, & Peng, 2011). The SLQhas proved to be a
suitable
instrument for use in research on servant leadership.
CRITICISMS - ---- --- ---- --
In addition to the positive features of servant leadership, this
approach has
several limitations. Frrst, the paradoxical nature of the title
"servant leadership"

creates semantic noise that diminishes the potential value of the
approach.
Because the name appears contradictory, servant leadership is
prone to be
perceived as fanciful or whimsical. In addition, being a servant
leader implies
following, and following is viewed as the opposite ofleading.
Although servant
leadership incorporates influence, the mechanism of how
influence functions
as a part of servant leadership is not fully explicated in the
approach.
Second, there is debate among servant leadership scholars
regarding the core
dimensions of the process. As illustrated in Table 10.1, servant
leadership is
hypothesized to include a multitude of abilities, traits, and
behaviors. To
date, researchers have been unable to reach consensus on a
common defini-
tion or theoretical framework for servant leadership (van
Dierendonck,
2011). Until a larger body of findings is published on servant
leadership, the

robustness of theoretical formulations about it will remain
limited.
Third, a large segment of the writing on servant leadership has a
prescriptive
overtone that implies that good leaders "put others first."While
advocating an
altruistic approach to leadership is commendable, it has a
utopian ring because
it conflicts with individual autonomy and other principles
ofleadership such
as directing, concern for production, goal setting, and creating a
vision ( Gergen,
2006). Furthermore, along with the "value-push" prescriptive
quality, there is
an almost moralistic nature that seems to surround servant
leadership. As a
result, many practitioners of servant leadership are not
necessarily researchers
who want to conduct studies to test the validity of servant
leadership theory.

9
I Leading Change
After studying t h is c hapter. you will be able t o :
1. Identify forces for change and the role of culture in change.
2. Describe types of change; apply Lewin's change model and
explain the change
process.
3. Summarize the reasons for resistance to change and apply
possible solutions.
4. Present the practices necessary to lead change including the
following:
Creativity and innovation
Changing the organizational culture
The role of vision and exemplary leadership
Creating learning organizations

THE LEADERSHIP QUESTION
Change is hard and most people will resist it. Given this, should
leaders simply push
change through ( get it over with) or should they take time,
introduce things slowly and
give followers time to adjust?
"Permanent white water" and "turbulent" are some of the terms
used to describe
the environment that today's organizations face. Their
environment is changing
at a rapid pace, leading to the need for flexibility, innovation,
and ni~blen_e~s.
The effectiveness and very survival of our organizations depend
on their ab1hty
to successfully adapt to environmental changes while still
maintaining ~nternal
health. Leading change is therefore one of the leader's most
challe~gmg ~nd
vital responsibilities. Whether implementing new technology,
updatmg ex1_st-
ing products or services, launching new ones, or p~tting i~
place new admm-
istrative and management systems, leaders must gmde their

followers thr_ough
change, which is more often than not perceived as painf~l,
often. resisted,
and difficult to implement. Whereas managing change well 1s
essential to the
Chapter 9 • Leading Change 279
survival of the organization, various studies indicate that 60 to
70 percent of organizational
change efforts fail (Cheese, 2013; McKinsey, 2013).
Additionally, many organizational lead-
ers are not satisfied with how well their organizations can
innovate and adaptto change, and
they fully realize that implementing change is a long-term
process with many risks of failure
(McGregor, 2007).
This chapter looks at the change process and the role that
leaders play in leading and
implementing change in their organizations.
FORCES FOR CHANGE
Change is the transformation or adaptation to a new way of

doings things. Innovation is the use
of resources and skills to create an idea, product, process, or
service that is new to the organiza-
tion or its stakeholders.
Internal and External Forces
When do organizations change? What makes leaders decide to
implement change? Forces for
change are both external and internal (see Figure 9-1).
Environmental forces include factors
such as social trends, cultural and demographic changes,
political shifts, the economy, and
technological advances. For example, in the United States and
in many other parts of the world,
demographic diversity related to both ethnic groups and age
forces organizations to consider
new ways of addressing their constituents' needs. The case of
Avon (Leadership in Action in
Chapter 6) shows how the company had to change because, in
part, demographic and social
changes led many women to work outside of the home,
disrupting the home-based distribu-
tion of the company's products. As a result, Avon focused on
introducing new distribution and

marketing methods, changing how employees think about the
products, and had to work on
getting them to accept the changes. Similarly, the public
interest in sustainability and demand
for ecologically safe products have triggered the growth of
organizations such as Ecover, the
Belgian-based company, which is now the world's largest
producer of ecological household
cleaners and products. The success of Ecover, in tum, has
forced changes in other consumer-
good companies. Changes in the local and global political
environments compel organizations
to look for innovative ways of dealing with new problems.
JetBlue (Leadership in Action in
Chapter 1) was one of the first airlines to install reinforced
doors to their planes' cockpits in
External Forces Internal Force&
• Economic and political • Low performance
• Cultural and social • New leadership
• Demographic • Low satisfaction
• Industry • New mission
• Technology • Conflict
FIGURE 9-1 Forces for Change

278
280 Part III • Leading
response to the terrorist attacks of 2001. To take advantage of
the Internet to connect with young
voters, political candidates all over the world actively use socia l
networking tools to campaign,
pushing their political organizations to change.
The internal forces for change closely follow external forces.
For example, Apple's iPhone
has forced all other cell phone companies to change how they
design and produce their phones.
Amazon has redefined online customer service. A new service
from one hospital will push others
to consider changing their offerings and how they recruit and
train employee. Wide uses of new
technology such as the Web, or poor economic conditions, may
lead city and state governments
to expand their online services, requiring new hires, training,
and new management processes.

One of the most common forces for change inside organizations
is the pe,formance gap-the
difference between expected and actual performance. Another
potent internal force for change is
new leadership at any level. Therefore, not only do leaders
guide organizations through change,
but they are also frequently the cause of change (see the Best
Buy case in Leadership in Action
at the end of this chapter).
Consider the forces that pushed the U.S. Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) to undergo
extensive changes with varying degrees of success since the
9/11 attacks on the United States.
The external forces for change were global politics,
considerable political pressure in the United
States, public demand for security, and changing technology
among others. Internally, the
FBI faced a performance gap (a glaring failure by some
accounts), presence of old technol-
ogy, antiquated management and administrative systems, and
extensive employee dissatisfaction
(Brazil, 2007). In addition, the agency has shifted its focus from
reactive criminal investigations
to proactive intelligence and greater emphasis on terrorism

prevention, according to Thomas
Harrington, the FBI's associate deputy director (St. Martin,
2011). Former U.S. Attorney Dick
Thornburgh, who chaired a panel that reviewed the FBI, stated,
"It's almost a total transforma-
tion of what the bureau does and how it does it. It's staggering"
(Brazil, 2007) . FBI Director
Robert Mueller, a decorated ex-marine who took leadership a
week before the 9/11 attacks
and retired in 2013, was in charge of orchestrating the massive
transformation. Talking about
the challenges of transforming the organization, he stated: "I've
come to find that one of the
most difficult things one has to do is to bring an entity through
the development of a change of
business practices" (Ragavan, 2005). The case of the FBI
illustrates the many forces that push
organizations to change.
Culture and Change
As pressure for change increases from inside and outside
organizations, not all leaders react
and respond the same way. Some perceive the pressure as a
threat; others see it as an opportu-

nity. In addition to their personality, one factor that influences
how leaders and their followers
perceive pressures for change is culture, both at the national and
organizational levels (we con-
sider the importance of organizational culture later in this
chapter). From a broader perspective,
national cultural values of tolerance of ambiguity and
perception and use of time can shape how
leaders view change. in cultures such as Greece, Guatemala,
Portugal, or Japan, where people
do not easily tolerate uncertainty and ambiguity, change can be
seen as a threat and is either
ignored, resisted, or carefully planned and managed. A Japanese
business leader is likely to
manage change through extensive and detailed long-term
planning and forecasting supported
by governmental organizations such as the Ministry of
International Trade and Industry (MITI).
MITI targets certain industries for growth and supports them
through various economic and
political actions, thereby reducing the potential negative i mpact
of change triggered by global

competition. Similarly, in countries such as Malaysia and
Thailand, with cultures that are risk
averse, governmental centralized planning helps support
business leaders reduce uncertainty and
ambiguity. On the other end of the spectrum, in Sweden, the
United States, and Canada, where
change is tolerated and perceived as an opportunity, leaders
deal with change by making quick
changes to their organizations and implementing short-term
strategies that address the immedi-
ate pressures relatively more quickly than in other cultures.
The perception of time further affects how leaders implement
change. Leaders from pres-
ent-oriented cultures, where time is linear, are likely to react
fairly quickly to change and focus
on short-term planning. The short-term orientation leads to a
state of constant change that many
U.S. organizations are experiencing. For example, when, in
2000, James McNerney became the
first outsider to lead the 100-year-old 3M company, he
immediately announced that he would
change the DNA of the company. He implemented substantial
changes that deeply affected 3M
and left four years later to lead Boeing (Hindo, 2007). Leaders

from past- and future-oriented
cultures are less likely to react quickly to change, taking time to
plan and to consider the long-
term impact of their actions.
TYPES AND PROCESS OF CHANGE
Change is stressful and usually met with some resistance, as you
will read later in this chapter.
Different types of changes, however, affect people differently
and require different types of lead-
ership. Change that is sudden and drastic is more likely to cause
stress and resistance, whereas
gradual and programmed change is easier to implement.
Types of Change
In some cases, leaders can carefully plan and execute change; in
others, leaders and followers
are caught by surprise and have to react without specific
preparation. Table 9-1 summarizes the
different types of changes organizations face.
Even though many organizations carefully analyze their
environment and internal condi-

tions, through methods such as marketing intelligence,
customer- and employee-satisfaction sur-
veys or complex performance measures, in order to foresee
changes and to plan their course of
Types of Change
Type of Change Description
Planned Change that occurs when leaders or followers make a
conscious effort to change in response to specific pressure
or problem. ·
Unplanned Change that occurs randomly and suddenly without
the
specific intention of addressing a problem.
Evolutionary Gradual or incremental change.
Revolutionary or frame breaking Change that is rapid and dram~
Sources: Partially based on M. S. Poole and A. H. Van de Ven
(eds.). 2004. Handbook of Organizational
Change and Innovation. Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press; and by M. L. Tushman, M. L.,

W. H. Newman, and E. Romanelli, 1986. "Convergence and
upheaval : Managing the unsteady pace of
organizational evolution," California Management Review, Fall
: 29-44.
action, they still face changes that they do not expect or are
unable to anticipate. In addition, both
planned and unplanned changes may happen, either gradually or
rapidly, leading to dramatic
impact on the organization. In the 3M example presented
earlier, James McNerney planned the
cultural and structural changes he wanted to implement to move
the organization to improved
efficiency through careful monitoring, measurement, and
implementation of a process called Six
Sigma, which relies on precision, consistency, and repetition
(Hindo, 2007). The existing 3M
culture, known worldwide for its ability to be creative and
innovative, was based on experimen-
tation and tolerance for trial and error, all factors that
eventually led to innovative products and

process (Winston, 2012). For example, all employees were
encouraged to use 15 percent of their
time to be creative (Goetz, 2011). McNerney moved to remove
any variability from organiza-
tional processes, focusing instead on analysis, control, and
efficiency. Although it was planned,
the change was revolutionary and involved a complete cultural
transformation (Hindo, 2007).
The different types of change may require different actions from
leaders. For example,
in the case of planned and evolutionary change, a leader's
ability to structure tasks may be
important. When facing unplanned and revolutionary change,
charismatic, transformational, or
positive leaders who make an emotional connection with
followers and help them weather the
change may become more central. In addition, based on the
change process considered in the
next section, the options that are available, and actions that are
required from a leader may be
different in each type of change.
Lewin's Model for Change

Understanding the process and course of change can help
leaders plan and implement change
more successfully. In the 1950s, social psychologist Kurt Lewin
proposed a theory of organiza-
tional change that continues to influence current thinking
(Lewin, 1951). Lewin's Force Field
theory proposes that organizations face forces that drive change
and forces that resist change see
(Figure 9-2). When the two forces are balanced, the
organization maintains its status quo. When
the forces for change are stronger than those that resist change,
leaders can overcome inertia
and implement changes. If forces against change are stronger,
the organization is not likely to
implement change successfully. So, when implementing change,
leaders must either increase
and bolster the forces for change or reduce and neutralize the
forces that resist change.
Lewin further suggests that change takes place in a three-stage
process (see Figure 9-3). In the
first, unfreezing state, the existing practices and behaviors are
questioned and motivation to change
develops. Unfreezing is likely to be easier when the forces for
change, whether internal or external

are strong and organizational members and leaders are aware of
them. One of the major tasks of
any leader is to help followers "unfreeze" and realize that there
is a need for change. Consultant
and executive coach Ray Williams argues that the key to
successful organizational change is con-
vincing thousands of employees to think differently about their
job; they have to believe in the need
for change. He says that employee: "to embrace change, must
also engage in a process that changes
how they think about themselves, not just their jobs (Williams,
2010). For example, when British
Airways undertook a successful structural change that involved
privatization and layoffs, the lead-
ership of the organization made particular efforts to repeatedly
communicate why the changes were
essential (Faucheux, 2013). In the 3M case, the company's
growth had slowed and the stock was
performing poorly, prompting McNerney to implement drastic
changes such as laying off 8,000
employees (11 percent of the workforce) and putting controls on
the creative inventors (Hindo,
2007). The pressure for change may have been real, but based
on all accounts , the employees never
quite fully grasped the need for change; there had been no

"unfreezing."
I
I
IForces for
Change : I
1 I I
11 I
1 I I
I I I I I::
I I I I I I I
I I I I I 11
: I I I tr I
I f +Aj; .l I I :. A: j. t II I
I I II I I
l. I I I I I I
1' I I II I I
I I I II I I
I I I II I I

I I II I I
I I II I
I I II I
: : : : Forces against
: 1 1 1 Change
I I
I I
I
I
FIGURE 9-2 Force Field Model for Change
. . The s~cond stage, according to Lewin, is the change itself,
where new practices and
policies are implemented and new behaviors and skills are
learned. The change can involve tech-
nology, people, products, services, or management practices and
administration . The leader's
role co~tinues to be essential, supporting followers,
emphasizing the importance of the change,
correctm~ course a~ needed, and so forth. Most organizations
focus on this stage, making the
change without paymg enough attention to preparing the

organization either for the change or
to the last phase.freezing. In the last phase of change, the newly
learned behaviors and freshly
im~l~':1ented practices are encouraged and supported to become
part of the employees' routine
act1v1t1e_s. The leader's role in this stage is providing
resources, coaching, training, and using
appropnate reward systems to help solidify the changes that
have been implemented.
. All ch~nge takes time, but giving the organization time to
settle down after a change is
part1~ularly important. Organizational researcher Kim Cameron
believes that managing change
requires fixed points without which organizations cannot steer
(Cameron, 2011). He states,
FIGURE 9-3 Lewin's Stages of Change
0

" Unfortunately , when everything is changing, change becomes
impossible to manage. Without a
stable, unchanging reference point, direction and processes are
indeterminate" (Cameron, 2006:
317). Although change is essential to survival, constant change
that is not given time to take
hold is likely to be ineffective. It is important for employees to
know what is not changing
and to be allowed to practice the new behaviors long enough to
learn them before something
new is introduced. According to Harvard Business School
professor John Kotter, a well-known
authority on organizational change, leaders must also celebrate
early successes and short-term
progress to keep followers motivated (Brazil, 2007). In the case
of the FBI, the ongoing transfor-
mation that took place had a negative impact on morale, causing
heavy turnover (Brazil, 2007).
For 3M, although the implementation of the new efficiency-
oriented sy stems lasted for four
years and stock prices did rebound , the architect of the change,
McNemey, left, and most long-
time employees did not fully adopt the change. The CEO who
replaced McNemey was George
Buckley, a soft-spoken company insider, who corrected course

to refocus on the innovation
process that 3M is so famous for. He said: "Perhaps one of the
mistakes that we made as a com-
pany . .. is that when you value sameness more than you value
creativity , I think you potentially
undermine the heart and soul of a company like 3M" (Hindo,
2007). He also made leadership
training a priority, slowing the pace of moving top executives
around and allowing them to
savor their successes and learn from their mistakes before they
were moved (Jones, 2009b ). Inge
Thulin, CEO since 2012, is following a similar strategy. He
states: "I believe that what is driving
this company in terms of return for us is the investment in
research and development, and every
time we do it we know that we have a competitive advantage"
(Caruso-Cabrera, 2013).
Lewin ' s model of change has four implications for leaders:
1. Leaders must take time to prepare their followers for change
and persuade them of the
need for change.
2. No matter what the change, there will be resistance.

3. Leaders must invest resources to support the change and
allow time for it to take hold.
4. Pacing change rather than piling one after another is likely to
be more effective.
The typical model for implementing planned change and ways
of managing unplanned change
are presented next.
Process of Planned Change
Planned change follows a general process outlined in Figure 9-
4. The process has six steps, each
of which requires different types of resources and leadership
skills. Peter Cheese who worked for
over 30 years at the consulting firm Accenture identifies the
reasons why change typically fails,
all of which fall into the process for planned change. He says :
"The typical culprits tend to fall in
one of four categories: A lack of vision, middle management
permafrost, a lack of understanding
about change, and a lack of good methods to measure and
implement change" (Cheese, 2013).
The first step in the process mirrors the unfreezing phase of
Lewin' s model. Leaders and follow-

ers must become aware of the need for change and recognize its
importance to the organization's
effectiveness or survival. There may be a performance gap , or
employee dissatisfaction, or exter-
nal pressure from customers or competitors.
The second step involves developing alternatives and ideas for
change. This step can be
done by organizational leaders at different levels, through small
groups or teams, or even with
participation of outsiders. Any process that encourages
participation and input from those who
are affected most by the change is likely to facilitate the
implementation process. For example,
2. Develop1. RecognizeCURRENT
Ideas for the Need for STATE
ChangeChange
0
0 3 Adopt One Resources 4. Implement5 Allocate or More Idea
Ideas

0
6. Evaluate [)
FIGURE 9-4 The Process of Planned Change
most municipalities systematically gather input from the public
about projects such as parks,
freeways, or other developments. Similarly, school boards ask
for feedback from parents when
planning changes. The use of team and empowerment in
organizations can be one mechanism
for allowing input into the development of alternatives . In
addition, although there may not be a
choice on whether or not to change, there are always many
alternatives and paths to accomplish
the goals; step two of the change process is an ideal opportunity
to get involvement and buy-in.
The next two steps are adoption of ideas and implementation of
the change plan. These
two steps mirror Lewin's change phases. The fifth step is
allocation of resources to support the
change. Leaders have to either allocate new resources or shift
current resources to help imple-

ment change and "freeze" the change. For example, FBI
Director Mueller shifted resources from
fighting crime to counterintelligence to support the new
direction , and the FBI started training its
executives through additional weeklong courses on leading
strategic change (Brazil, 2007). The
allocation of resources is a powerful message from leadership
that the change matters and should
be taken seriously. Finally, the last step in the process is
evaluation of the change process and
its outcomes. The process of planned change is a continuous and
dynamic loop. After change is
implemented, the organization must review and evaluate its
effectiveness and assess whether the
objectives are met. Did the performance gap narrow or close?
Are various constituencies, includ-
ing employees, more satisfied? Did the new products and
services address stakeholders' needs?
Are processes more efficient? Does the new technology work?
If the goals are not achieved, the
change process starts over with the recognition once again that
change is needed.
The process of change either can take place in top-down manner
with leaders initiating and

driving the process or can be bottom-up with individuals and
teams throughout the organization
starting and implementing the process. A top-down change fits
well with traditional, hierarchi-
cal, command-and-control organizations and tends to force rapid
change. However, it also may
engender more resistance. The bottom-up approach creates more
involvement and participation,
thereby reducing resistance. Yet, the risk of such an approach is
not enlisting leadership support,
which is essential to the success of any change. The case of
Toyota taking over one of the lowest
---
performing and most hostile Chevrolet plants from General
Motors in Fremont, California, in the
1980s, is a case in point. No one expected much success. After
renaming the plant New United Motor
Manufacturing, Inc., or Numrni (sounds like new me) and
keeping the same workers and the same

technology, it took three months after the plant started to roll
out cars again with almost no defects
(the plant had previously averaged 40 defects per car;
Deutschman, 2007). Absenteeism and costs
dropped dramatically. The key to the successful change was that
the workers came up with ideas on
how to change things, improve quality, and cut costs
(Deutschman, 2007). This bottom-up approach
to change, fully supported by top management, was the magical
ingredient. Although Numrni pro-
duced some of the highest quality cars and had the lowest
defects of any Toyota plant, it was closed
in 2010, some suspect because of problems between the union
and the company (Gonzales, 2010).
Dealing with Unplanned Change
Whereas models of planned change help leaders chart the course
for change, change is frequently
sudden, unpredictable, and not planned. The economy changes,
competitors come up with a new
product, an environmental disaster happens, or unions go on
strike. Managing unplanned change
falls into the domain of crisis management. A crisis occurs
when leaders and their organization

substantially misread their environment or are caught off guard
by events they could not have
foreseen. Once crisis occurs, it is difficult to control. The cost
to the organization, its employees,
and its various stakeholders is likely to be high. Leaders can
manage unplanned change to some
extent by taking the following steps before a crisis develops
(Mintzberg, Quinn, and Voyer,
1995; Starbuck, Greve, and Hedberg, 1978). As you will see,
the steps have much in common
with learning organizations, a topic we review at the end of this
chapter.
• A void becoming too formal, hierarchical, rigid, and
inflexible.
• Regularly infuse moderate amounts of uncertainty,
unpredictability, and spontaneity into
decisions to help prevent complacency.
• Stay on the offensive and be proactive with introducing new
strategies, products, services,
or processes.
• Replace and rotate leaders to bring in fresh ideas, methods,
and visions.

• Experiment often with new methods, products, processes,
structures, and so forth to help
followers practice dealing with change.
Bill George, former CEO of Medtronics, further suggests that
crises often present oppor-
tunities for organizations to change course for the better and for
leaders to focus on their most
important values (George, 2009). Whether planned or unplanned
, and even with the most careful
implementation, people are likely to resist change. The next
section considers resistance to
change, its solutions, and the role of leaders in the process .
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE AND SOLUTIONS
Change is one of the main causes of stress in our lives. Even
positive changes such as receiving a pro-
motion or getting married can create anxiety, lead to stress, and
therefore engender resistance, which
stops or slows the mqvement forward. Making major changes in
one's life, for example changing
your lifestyle after having a heart attack, are extremely difficult
(Deutschman, 2007). Although peo-

ple adjust to minor changes after a brief period of time, large -
scale changes in life or work require
long adaptation periods and much encouragement and support.
Therefore, all changes, especially
large-scale ones, meet with some resistance, especially when
people do not feel ready for the change.
TABLE 9-2 Causes of Resistance to Change
Organizational Causes Group Causes Individual Causes
Inertia Group norms Fear of the unknown
Culture Group cohesion Fear of failure
Structure Leadership Job security
Lack of rewards Individual characteristics
(personality; culture)
Poor timing Previous experiences
Causes of Resistance

Three general causes explain resistance to change:
organizational factors, group factors, and
individual factors. (Table 9-2 presents the causes of resistance
to change.) While planning and
implementing change, leaders must consider all three causes.
The primary organizational cause
for resisting change is inertia, which is a tendency for an
organization as a whole to resist change
and want to maintain the status quo . Closely related to inertia
are the culture and structure of the
organization, which , if well established, are hard to change
In addition to inertia, culture, and structure, organizations can
provide barriers to change
by not rewarding people for change or implementing change at
inappropriate times , for example
when the previous change has not had time to "freeze. " Other
causes of resistance to change are
related to group norms and cohesion. Cohesive groups with
strong norms present many ben-
efits. Members stick together, work well together, and can
provide a supportive environment for
learning. The same cohesive group can also be a formidable
obstacle to change (Judson , 1991).

In addition , the presence of strong leaders while a factor for
change in some cases, can be a
strong obstacle if the leaders do not support the change (Levay,
2010).
The final causes of resistance involve individual factors, such
as fear of the unknown, of fail-
ure, and of job loss. Individual characteristics can also play a
key role. For example, proactive indi-
viduals, those who are open to new experience, or are high self-
monitors (see Chapter 4), are more
likely to be comfortable with change and able to adapt to it
more quickly. Similarly, entrepreneurs,
who tend to be characterized by flexibility and willingness to
try new ideas, are more comfortable
with change. In addition, a person's culture, particularly the
degree of tolerance of ambiguity, may
play a role. Finally, the person' s previous experience with
change may be the cause ofresistance.
If an individual has experienced job loss or has been through
other painful organizational changes
in the past, he is more likely to be wary of implementing change
in the future.
WHAT DO YOU DO?

You have the task of implementing a change in your team's
work process. You have a very short deadline
from your boss and you personally agree with the change. Half
of your team is on board and ready to go.
The other half is very skeptical about the change. What do you
do?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE Power Sources of Power Types of Po