Chapter_15.pptx

Copyright © 2017 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Principles of Management, 6e
P C Tripathi & P N Reddy
Chapter 15
Direction and Supervision
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Learning Objectives
 Explain the meaning of direction and requirements of effective direction
 Describe the principles to be followed in giving orders
 Discuss the meaning, nature and process of motivation
 Analyze important content, process and reinforcement in motivation theories
 Examine the systems perspective of motivation
 Relate the research on motivation in India to the Japanese model of motivation
 Understand the meaning of job satisfaction and its relationship with productivity
 Identify organizational commitment
 Understand the meaning of morale and its relationship with productivity
 Relate some morale studies in India
 Describe the functions of a first level supervisor and the guidelines to make the
first-level supervision effective

Direction and Requirements of effective direction
3
 Direction means issuance of orders and leading and motivating
subordinates as they go about executing orders.
 Without the issuance of orders, without leading and motivating
subordinates, nothing, or at best very little, can be accomplished.
 The function of direction thus breaks down into two major activities:
 Giving orders to employees
 Leading and motivating them

Requirements of Effective Direction
4
 Direction is one of the most complex functions of management which
can be learned and perfected only through long experience.
 Harmony of Objectives
 Unity of Command
 Direct Supervision
 Efficient Communication
 Follow-through

Principles to be Followed in Giving Orders
5
 The order is a device employed by a line manager in directing his
immediate subordinates to start an activity, stop it and modify it.
 Mary Parker Follett lays down the following principles which should be followed
in giving orders:
 The attitude necessary for the carrying out of an order should be prepared in
advance. People will obey an order only if it appeals to their habit patterns.
Therefore, before giving orders, it should be considered how to form the
habits which will ensure their execution.
 Face-to-face suggestions are preferable to long-distance orders.
 An order should be depersonalized and made an integral part of a given
situation so that the question of someone giving and someone receiving does
not come up. Thus the task of the manager is to make the subordinates
perceive the need of the hour so that the situation communicates its own
message to them. Identification with the results to be accomplished fosters a
natural willingness to cooperate with a program of action. This is known as
the Law of the situation.
Continued…

Principles to be followed in giving orders
6
 Chester Barnard lays down four conditions which make an order
acceptable. These are:
 Order should be clear and complete
 Order should be compatible with the purpose of the organization
 Order should be compatible with the employee’s personal interest
 Order should be operationally feasible.
 Orders may be communicated verbally or in writing.
 Written orders are appropriate when:
 The subject is important
 Several individuals are affected
 Many details are involved
 Considerable time will pass before the work is completed
 There is geographical distance between the order-giver and the recipient.

Meaning, Nature and Process of Motivation
7
 The term motivation can be traced to the Latin word movere, which
means “to move”. This meaning is evident when we remember that a
manager gets work done through others.
 Motivation, therefore, concerns those dynamic processes which produce
a goal-directed behavior. The process always begins with the individual
feeling certain needs.
Needs
(Motives)
Incentives
(Positive, Negative)
Interpretation of
goals according to
one’s perception
Goal-directed
behavior
Accomplishment
of goals and
need-reduction

Nature of Motivation
8
Motivation is not an easily observed phenomenon. We observe an
individual’s actions and then interpret his observed behavior in terms of
underlying motivation.
 Individuals differ in their motives - The viewpoint (called “monistic
approach”) that there is only one “economic drive” which determines
behavior is untenable. there is no single motive that determines how all
workers will react to the same job and, therefore, there can be no single
strategy that will keep motivation and productivity high for everyone
everywhere.
 Sometimes the individual himself is unaware of his motive - The
presence of below-the-surface concept is unconscious motive explains
why man cannot always verbalize his motive to attain certain goals or
even tell what his goals are.

9
 Motives change - Hierarchy of motives of each individual called
“structure” is not fixed. It changes from time to time. An individual’s
primary motive today may not be primary tomorrow, even though he may
continue to behave in the same way.
 Motives are expressed differently - The ways in which motives are
eventually translated into actions also vary considerably between one
individual and another. One individual with a strong security motive may
play it safe and avoid accepting responsibility for fear of failing and being
fired. Another individual with the same security motive may seek out
responsibility for fear of being fired for low performance.
 Motives are complex - It is difficult to explain and predict the behavior of
workers. The introduction of an apparently favorable motivational device
may not necessarily achieve the desired ends if it brings opposing motives
into play.
Continued….

10
 Multiple motives make the choice of goals difficult for an individual -
Motives do not exist one at a time. This is hardly the case. The fact is that
multiple motives operate simultaneously to influence an individual’s
behavior.
 Furthermore, some of these motives are incompatible with one another.
This results in the following three types of motivational conflicts which
make the person’s choice of goal difficult:
i. Approach-approach conflict where the person has two motives which he
likes equally well, but it is possible to have only one.
ii. Avoidance-avoidance conflict where the person is forced to choose
between two motives, both of which are considered equally undesirable by
him.
iii. Approach-avoidance conflict where the person is attracted to the positive
characteristics of his motive, but wants to avoid its negative characteristics.

Motivation Theories
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There is no shortage of motivation theories. We can classify them under
three broad heads:
 Content theories
The content theories tell us what motivates an individual. They throw light
on the various needs and incentives which cause behavior. The process
theories, on the other hand, answer the question how behavior is caused.
Reinforcement theory explains the ways in which behavior is learned,
shaped or modified.
Some important theories under each head are as under:
 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 McClelland’s Achievement Theory
Continued….

Motivation Theories
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 Process Theories
 Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 Adam’s Equity Theory
 Reinforcement Theory
 Skinner’s Behavior Modification Theory
 Maslow’s Need-Hierarchy Theory
 All people have a variety of needs.
 At any given time, some of these needs are satisfied and others are
unsatisfied.
 An unsatisfied need is the starting point in the motivation process. It begins
the chain of events leading to behavior.
Continued…..

Motivation Theories
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Basic
Physiological
needs
Safety
security
Social
Esteem
Self-
fulfillment
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
Order of priority of human needs Continued….

Motivation Theories
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Lower-order needs
Being related to the physiology of an
individual, these needs are explicit and
not hidden. It is, therefore, easy to
understand these needs.
These needs are finite
These needs are universal but vary in
intensity from individual to individual.
These needs are conditioned by social
practice, e.g., if it is customary to eat
breakfast in the morning then the body
comes to respond accordingly.
These needs are primarily satisfied
through the economic
behavior, i.e., by earning more money.
Higher-order needs
Being related to the mind and spirit of an
individual, these needs are hidden and nebulous. It
is, therefore, very difficult for others, even for the
individual himself to understand them.
These needs are infinite.
These needs are not universal and may even
exist as opposites in two persons. One person may
find satisfaction in being aggressive, another in
being submissive.
These needs are strongly conditioned by
experience, and maturity.
These needs are primarily satisfied through
symbolic behavior of the psychic and social
content.
Characteristics of Human Needs
Continued…

Motivation Theories
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 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Alderfer modified Maslow’s theory of motivation and proposed a model
reducing the need categories to three:
i. Existence
ii. Relatedness
iii. Growth
 A major difference between these two theories is that Maslow’s theory
offers a static needs hierarchy whose pinnacle is fulfillment, whereas the
ERG theory presents a flexible, three-needs system which has been better
received.
Continued…

Motivation Theories
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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 According to Herzberg, the absence of certain job factors tends to make
workers dissatisfied. However, the presence of these same factors in
themselves does not produce high levels of motivation.
 They merely help avoid dissatisfaction and the problems it creates, such as
absenteeism, turnover and grievances.
 Herzberg called these factors maintenance or hygiene factors since they are
necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction to serve as a take-off
point for motivation.
 A good relationship with one’s subordinates
 A fair salary
 Job security
 Personal life
 Good working conditions
 Status, i.e., relative ranking that a person holds in a group
Continued…

Motivation Theories
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 To build high levels of motivation, a different set of factors is necessary.
Herzberg called these as ‘motivators’ or ‘satisfiers’.
 These are six in number:
i. Opportunity to accomplish something significant
ii. Recognition for significant accomplishments
iii. Chance for advancement
iv. Opportunity to grow and develop on the job
v. Chance for increased responsibility
vi. The job itself
Continued…

Motivation Theories
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 McClelland’s Need for Achievement Theory - According to McClelland,
the three basic needs that people develop and acquire from their culture
are: the need for affiliation (n Aff), the need for power (n Pow) and the
need for achievement (n Ach).
 A person who has a high need for achievement has three distinct
characteristics. These are:
 Preference for setting moderately difficult but potentially achievable goals.
 Doing most things himself rather than getting them done by others. He
wants to take personal responsibility for his success or failure and does not
want to hold others or chance responsible for it.
 Seeking situations where concrete feedback is possible.
 This theory does not recognize the lower-order needs. A job with the
above characteristics goes a long way to motivate an individual.
Continued…

Motivation Theories
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 Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory - According to Vroom, under
conditions of free choice, an individual is motivated towards that activity
which he is most capable of rendering and which he believes has the
highest probability of leading him to his most preferred goal. Following
are some basic concepts of this theory.
 Adam’s Equity Theory - This theory is based on the thesis that a major
factor in job motivation, performance, and satisfaction is distributive
justice6, i.e. the individual’s evaluation of the equity or fairness of the
reward he or she is receiving. In this theory, equity is defined as a ratio
between the individual’s job inputs (such as effort, skill, experience,
education and seniority) and the job rewards (such as pay or promotion)
compared to the rewards others are receiving for similar job inputs.
Continued…

Motivation Theories
20
 Skinner’s Behavior Modification Theory - The theory (also known as
Operant Conditioning Theory) has developed out of researches done by
B.F. Skinner. According to this theory, people behave the way they do
because; in past circumstances, they have learned that certain behaviors
are associated with pleasant outcomes and certain other behaviors are
associated with unpleasant outcomes. Because people generally prefer
pleasant outcomes, they are likely to repeat behavior that they have
learned will have pleasant consequences.

Systems View of Motivation
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Systems view of motivation tells a manager that motivation is the result
of interplay of the following four factors:
i. The Individual - To understand what motivates employees we must know
something about their needs, interests and beliefs.
ii. The Organization – Many organizations emphasize authority backed by the
threatened use of penalties tend to produce legal compliance with people’s
performance being at the minimum level; those which use system-wide or
individual rewards evoke instrumental motivation; those where the activities
carry their own rewards evoke internalized motivation that needs no additional
incentive, and so on.
iii. Job Characteristics - Job design from the perspective of job characteristics
rather than from Herzberg’s motivators is another important determinant of
motivation.
iv. Exogenous variables - A worker’s life is not divided into two watertight
compartments, one inside the organization and the other outside it. Both on-
the-job and off-the-job lives play a strong motivational role.

Japanese Model of Motivation–Theory Z
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 Among those looking to the Japanese model for answers to the motivation
and production problems has been William G. Ouchi, who says that the key to
increased productivity lies in the various characteristics of Japanese business
organizations. He names these characteristics as Theory Z.
 The 10 characteristics give a quick but comprehensive view of the subject are:
i. Collective Responsibility
ii. Non-specialized Career Paths
iii. Slow Promotions on the Basis of Seniority
iv. Down-up Decision Making Called Ringi System.
v. Employment of Quality Circles.
vi. Concern for Young Workers
vii. Equality
viii. No Industry-wide Unions
ix. Genuine Meritocracy
x. Performance-focused Lifetime (Continuous) Training

Motivation of Workers in a Host Country
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 An expatriate manager who wishes to motivate workers in a host country
must upgrade his knowledge of native needs and cultural idiosyncrasies.
 In some countries motivation may need to be interpreted in terms of
money, in some others in terms of safety and security, and so on.
 Motivators which would be appropriate in an advanced country may not
be workable in a less-developed country.
Job Satisfaction
 There are three major theories of job satisfaction:
1. Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory
2. Need-fulfillment theory
3. Social reference group theory.

Job Satisfaction
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 The three theories reveal that :
i. Job satisfaction is a function of, or is positively related to, the degree
to which the various motivators or satisfiers are present in the job
situation;
ii. Job satisfaction is a function of, or is positively related to, the degree
to which one’s persona needs are fulfilled in the job situation; and
iii. Job satisfaction is a function of, or is positively related to, the degree
to which the characteristics of the job meet with the approval and
the desires of the groups to which the individual looks for guidance
in evaluating the world and defining social reality.

Organizational Commitment
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 The term “organizational commitment” is an attitude reflecting the
employees’ loyalty to their organization.
 It is measured in terms of their desire to stay with the organization, their
willingness to exert high levels of effort on behalf of the organization and
their belief in the needs, priorities and goals of the organization.

Morale
26
 Morale refers to the attitudes of a group of employees towards job. It is a concept
that describes the attitudes of the employees collectively towards all aspects of
their work—the job, the company, working conditions, fellow workers, supervisors,
and so on.
Relationship between Morale and Productivity
 There is a definite relationship between morale and productivity. Low morale can
never result in high production for a long period.
 It will manifest itself in low production, sooner or later, depending upon the nature
of work.
 Person-oriented morale - This kind of morale represents a situation where
most of the employees are spending all their time and energies in satisfying
their personal objectives unrelated to the company’s goals. The result is happy
employees with good morale but unhappy managers with low production.
 Production-oriented morale -This kind of morale represents a situation where
there is complete identity between the individual and the organization goals
and, therefore, both the employers and the employees work together on
common production goals.

Building Company Morale
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 Morale-building is not a simple process, or a set of easy, clear-cut steps.
There are numerous complex and contradictory causes of variations in
people’s attitudes.
 The following factors are essential for maintaining a high morale in a work
group:
 The members of the group must have a common goal.
 The members must regard the goal as worthwhile.
 The members of the group must feel that the goal can be reached.
 Top management must be guided by good management principles.

First-level or Front-line Supervision
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 The first-level supervisor is in a unique position in being the only manager
who supervises the work of non-managers.
 There are five different views about his role. One widely held view is that
the first-level supervisor plays the role of a key person in the organization
because it is he who translates plans and strategies into action at the
working level.

Functions of a First-level or Front-line Supervision
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 To determine individual job assignments
 To give orders and instructions to workers relating to their assignments
 To ensure implementation of rules and procedures
 To ensure proper working conditions
 To attend to grievances and resolve conflicts
 To provide technical knowledge and guidance to workers
 To supply strategic information relating to production to management
 To interpret management’s policies to workers
 To appraise workers’ performance and recommend promotions, transfers
and training needs
 To create a congenial climate of goodwill and friendship

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