chapter4appsych-100311145120-phpapp01 (1).ppt
- 2. Developmental Psychology Issue Details Nature/Nurture How do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience (the nurture we receive) influence our behavior? Continuity/Stages Is developmental a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages? Stability/Change Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age. 2
- 3. Prenatal Development and the Newborn 3 How, over time, did we come to be who we are? From zygote to birth, development progresses in an orderly, though fragile, sequence.
- 4. Conception 4 A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuses to form one fertilized cell. Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company
- 5. Prenatal Development 5 A zygote is a fertilized cell with 100 cells that become increasingly diverse. At about 14 days the zygote turns into an embryo (a and b). Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company Biophoto Associates/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
- 6. Prenatal Development 6 At 9 weeks, an embryo turns into a fetus (c and d). Teratogens are chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus. Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company
- 7. The Competent Newborn 7 Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival, including rooting reflex which helps them locate food.
- 8. The Competent Newborn 8 Offspring cries are important signals for parents to provide nourishment. In animals and humans such cries are quickly attended to and relieved. Carl and Ann Purcell/ Corbis Lightscapes, Inc. Corbis
- 9. Cognitive Development in the Newborn 9 Investigators study infants becoming habituated to objects over a period of time. Infants pay more attention to new objects than habituated ones, which shows they are learning.
- 10. Infancy and Childhood Stage Span Infancy Newborn to toddler Childhood Toddler to teenager 10 Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years, the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially.
- 11. Physical Development 11 Infants’ psychological development depends on their biological development. To understand the emergence of motor skills and memory, we must understand the developing brain.
- 12. Developing Brain 12 The developing brain overproduces neurons. Peaking around 28 billion at 7 months, these neurons are pruned to 23 billion at birth. The greatest neuronal spurt is in the frontal lobe enabling the individual to think rationally.
- 13. Maturation 13 The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence— standing before walking, babbling before talking—this is called maturation. Maturation sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it.
- 14. Motor Development 14 First, infants begin to roll over. Next, they sit unsupported, crawl, and finally walk. Experience has little effect on this sequence. Renee Altier for Worth Publishers Jim Craigmyle/ Corbis Phototake Inc./ Alamy Images Profimedia.CZ s.r.o./ Alamy Beginning to Walk 12 Months
- 15. Maturation and Infant Memory 15 The earliest age of conscious memory is around 3½ years (Bauer, 2002). A 5-year-old has a sense of self and an increased long-term memory, thus organization of memory is different from 3-4 years. Amy Pedersen Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier
- 16. Cognitive Development 16 Piaget believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development amidst experiences with the environment. Our cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make.
- 17. Schemas 17 Schemas are mental molds into which we pour our experiences.
- 18. Assimilation and Accommodation 18 The process of assimilation involves incorporating new experiences into our current understanding (schema). The process of adjusting a schema and modifying it is called accommodation. Jean Piaget with a subject Bill Anderson/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
- 19. Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking 19
- 20. Sensorimotor Stage 20 In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of sight are also out of mind. Doug Goodman
- 21. Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms 21 Piaget believed children in the sensorimotor stage could not think —they do not have any abstract concepts or ideas. However, recent research shows that children in the sensorimotor stage can think and count. 1. Children understand the basic laws of physics. They are amazed at how a ball can stop in midair or disappear.
- 22. Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms 22 2. Children can also count. Wynn (1992, 2000) showed that children stared longer at the wrong number of objects than the right ones.
- 23. Preoperational Stage 23 Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the preoperational stage—too young to perform mental operations. Ontario Science Center
- 24. Preoperational Stage: Criticism 24 DeLoache (1987) showed that children as young as 3 years of age are able to use mental operations. When shown a model of a dog’s hiding place behind the couch, a 2½-year-old could not locate the stuffed dog in an actual room, but the 3-year-old did.
- 25. Egocentrism 25 Piaget concluded that preschool children are egocentric. They cannot perceive things from another’s point of view. When asked to show her picture to mommy, 2- year-old Gabriella holds the picture facing her own eyes, believing that her mother can see it through her eyes.
- 26. Theory of Mind 26 Preschoolers, although still egocentric, develop the ability to understand another’s mental state when they begin forming a theory of mind. The problem on the right probes such ability in children.
- 27. Concrete Operational Stage 27 In concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities. Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a transformation, 12 – 4 = 8, is also easily doable.
- 28. Formal Operational Stage 28 Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason. Piaget called this formal operational thinking.
- 29. Formal Operational Stage 29 Rudiments of such thinking begin earlier (age 7) than what Piaget suggested, since 7-year-olds can solve the problem below (Suppes, 1982). If John is in school, Mary is in school. John is in school. What can you say about Mary?
- 30. Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory 30 Piaget’s stage theory has been influential globally, validating a number of ideas regarding growth and development in many cultures and societies. However, today’s researchers believe the following: 1. Development is a continuous process. 2. Children express their mental abilities and operations at an earlier age. 3. Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition.
- 31. Social Development 31 Stranger anxiety is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months. This is the age at which infants form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face. © Christina Kennedy/ PhotoEdit
- 32. Origins of Attachment 32 Harlow (1971) showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and not because of nourishment. Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin
- 33. Origins of Attachment 33 Like bodily contact, familiarity is another factor that causes attachment. In some animals (goslings), imprinting is the cause of attachment. Alastair Miller
- 34. Attachment Differences 34 Placed in a strange situation, 60% of children express secure attachment, i.e., they explore their environment happily in the presence of their mothers. When their mother leave, they show distress. The other 30% show insecure attachment. These children cling to their mothers or caregivers and are less likely to explore the environment.
- 35. Secure Attachment 35 Relaxed and attentive caregiving becomes the backbone of secure attachment. Berry Hewlett
- 36. Insecure Attachment 36 Harlow’s studies showed that monkeys experience great anxiety if their terry-cloth mother is removed. Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin
- 37. Attachment Differences: Why? Factor Explanation Mother Both rat pups and human infants develop secure attachments if the mother is relaxed and attentive. Father In many cultures where fathers share the responsibility of raising children, similar secure attachments develop. 37 Why do these attachment differences exist?
- 38. Separation Anxiety 38 Separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age, regardless of whether the children are home or sent to day care.
- 39. Deprivation of Attachment 39 What happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming attachments? In such circumstances children become: 1. Withdrawn 2. Frightened 3. Unable to develop speech
- 40. Prolonged Deprivation 40 If parental or caregiving support is deprived for an extended period of time, children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems, including alterations in brain serotonin levels.
- 41. Day Care and Attachment 41 Quality day care that consists of responsive adults interacting with children does not harm children’s thinking and language skills. However, some studies suggest that extensive time in day care can increase aggressiveness and defiance in children.
- 42. Self-Concept 42 Self-concept, a sense of one’s identity and personal worth, emerges gradually around 6 months. Around 15-18 months, children can recognize themselves in the mirror. By 8-10 years, their self-image is stable. Laura Dwight
- 43. Child-Rearing Practices Practice Description Authoritarian Parents impose rules and expect obedience. Permissive Parents submit to children’s demands. Authoritative Parents are demanding but responsive to their children. 43
- 44. Authoritative Parenting 44 Authoritative parenting correlates with social competence — other factors like common genes may lead to an easy-going temperament and may invoke an authoritative parenting style.
- 45. Adolescence 45 Many psychologists once believed that our traits were set during childhood. Today psychologists believe that development is a lifelong process. Adolescence is defined as a life between childhood and adulthood. AP Photo/ Jeff Chiu
- 46. Physical Development 46 Adolescence begins with puberty (sexual maturation). Puberty occurs earlier in females (11 years) than males (13 years). Thus height in females increases before males.
- 47. Primary Sexual Characteristics 47 During puberty primary sexual characteristics — the reproductive organs and external genitalia — develop rapidly. Ellen Senisi/ The Image Works
- 48. Secondary Sexual Characteristics 48 Also secondary sexual characteristics—the nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips in girls and facial hair and deepening of voice in boys develop. Pubic hair and armpit hair grow in both sexes.
- 49. Brain Development 49 Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, selective pruning of the neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient.
- 50. Frontal Cortex 50 During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness.
- 51. Cognitive Development 51 Adolescents’ ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. In particular, they may think about the following: 1. Their own thinking. 2. What others are thinking. 3. What others are thinking about them. 4. How ideals can be reached. They criticize society, parents, and even themselves.
- 52. Developing Reasoning Power 52 According to Piaget, adolescents can handle abstract problems, i.e., they can perform formal operations. Adolescents can judge good from evil, truth and justice, and think about God in deeper terms. William Thomas Cain/ Getty Images AP/Wide World Photos
- 53. Developing Morality 53 Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral development. AP Photo/ Dave Martin
- 54. Moral Thinking 54 1. Preconventional Morality: Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward. 2. Conventional Morality: By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake. 3. Postconventional Morality: Affirms people’s agreed-upon rights or follows personally perceived ethical principles.
- 55. Moral Feeling 55 Moral feeling is more than moral thinking. When posed with simulated moral dilemmas, the brain’s emotional areas only light up when the nature of the dilemmas is emotion-driven.
- 56. Moral Action 56 Moral action involves doing the right thing. People who engage in doing the right thing develop empathy for others and the self- discipline to resist their own impulses.
- 58. Forming an Identity 58 In Western cultures, many adolescents try out different selves before settling into a consistent and comfortable identity. Having such an identity leads to forming close relationships. Leland Bobble/ Getty Images Matthias Clamer/ Getty Images
- 59. Parent and Peer Influence 59 Although teens become independent of their parents as they grow older, they nevertheless relate to their parents on a number of things, including religiosity and career choices. Peer approval and relationships are also very important.
- 60. Emerging Adulthood 60 Emerging adulthood spans ages 18-25. During this time, young adults may live with their parents and attend college or work. On average, emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties. Ariel Skelley/ Corbis
- 61. Adulthood 61 Although adulthood begins sometime after a person’s mid-twenties, defining adulthood into stages is more difficult than defining stages during childhood or adolescence. Rick Doyle/ Corbis
- 62. Physical Development 62 The peak of physical performance occurs around 20 years of age, after which it declines imperceptibly for most of us.
- 63. Middle Adulthood 63 Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac output begin to decline after the mid- twenties. Around age 50, women go through menopause, and men experience decreased levels of hormones and fertility. Willie Mays batting performance. Bettman/ Corbis
- 64. Old Age: Life Expectancy 64 Life expectancy at birth increased from 49% in 1950 to 67% in 2004 and to 80% in developed countries. Women outlive men and outnumber them at most ages. Gorges Gobet/ AP Photo
- 65. Old Age: Sensory Abilities 65 After age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina. After 80, neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks. Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit
- 66. Old Age: Motor Abilities 66 At age 70, our motor abilities also decline. A 70- year-old is no match for a 20-year-old individual. Fatal accidents also increase around this age.
- 67. Old Age: Dementia 67 With increasing age, the risk of dementia also increases. Dementia is not a normal part of growing old. Alan Oddie/ PhotoEdit
- 68. Old Age: Alzheimer’s Disease 68 The risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease also increases with age. Individuals who are in the early stages of this disease show more MRI activity in the brain than do normal individuals of the same age. At risk Alzheimer Normal Susan Bookheimer
- 69. Cognitive Development 69 Do cognitive abilities like memory, creativity, and intelligence decline with age the same way physical abilities do?
- 70. Aging and Memory 70 As we age, we remember some things well. These include recent past events and events that happened a decade or two back. However, recalling names becomes increasingly difficult.
- 71. Aging and Memory 71 Recognition memory does not decline with age, and material that is meaningful is recalled better than meaningless material. The same is true for prospective memory (remember to …). David Myers
- 72. Aging and Intelligence 72 Longitudinal studies suggest that intelligence remains relative as we age. It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with age, but crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills) does not.
- 73. Aging and Other Abilities 73 A number of cognitive abilities decline with age. However, vocabulary and general knowledge increase with age.
- 74. Social Development 74 Many differences between the young and old are not simply based on physical and cognitive abilities, but may instead be based on life events associated with family, relationships, and work.
- 75. Adulthood’s Ages and Stages 75 Psychologists doubt that adults pass through an orderly sequence of age- bound stages. Mid- life crises at 40 are less likely to occur than crises triggered by major events (divorce, new marriage). Neuroticism scores, 10,000 subjects (McCrae & Costa, 1996).
- 76. Adulthood’s Commitments 76 Love and work are defining themes in adult life. Evolutionary psychologists believe that commitment has survival value. Parents that stay together are likely to leave a viable future generation.
- 77. Adulthood’s Commitments 77 Happiness stems from working in a job that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment.
- 78. Well-Being Across the Life Span 78 Well-being and people’s feelings of satisfaction are stable across the life span.
- 80. Death and Dying 80 There is no “normal” reaction or series of grief stages after the death of a loved one. Grief is more sudden if death occurs unexpectedly. People who reach a sense of integrity in life (in Erikson’s terms) see life as meaningful and worthwhile. Chris Steele-Perkins/ Magnum Photos
- 81. Developmental Issues 81 Researchers who view development as a slow, continuous process are generally those who emphasize experience and learning. Biologists, on the other hand, view maturation and development as a series of genetically predisposed steps or stages. These include psychologists like Piaget, Kohlberg and Erikson. Continuity and Stages
- 82. Developmental Issues 82 Lifelong development requires both stability and change. Personality gradually stabilizes as people age. However, this does not mean that our traits do not change over a lifetime. Some temperaments are more stable than others. Stability and Change
Editor's Notes
- #2: OBJECTIVE 1| State the three areas of change that developmental psychologists study, and identify the three major issues in developmental psychology.
- #4: OBJECTIVE 2| Describe the union of sperm and egg at conception.
- #5: OBJECTIVE 3| Define zygote, embryo and fetus, and explain how teratogens can affect development.
- #7: OBJECTIVE 4| Describe some of the abilities of the newborn, and explain how researchers use habituation to assess infant sensory and cognitive abilities.
- #12: OBJECTIVE 5| Describe some developmental changes in the child’s brain, and explain why maturation accounts for many of our similarities.
- #14: OBJECTIVE 6| Outline four events in the motor development sequence from birth to toddlerhood, and evaluate the effects of maturation and experience on that sequence.
- #15: OBJECTIVE 7| Explain why we have few memories of experiences during our first three years of life.
- #16: OBJECTIVE 8| State Piaget’s understanding of how the mind develops, and discuss the importance of assimilation and accommodation in this process.
- #19: OBJECTIVE 9| Outline Piaget’s four main stages of cognitive development, and comment on how children’s thinking changes during these four stages.
- #30: OBJECTIVE 10| Discuss psychologists’ current views on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
- #31: OBJECTIVE 11| Define stranger anxiety.
- #32: OBJECTIVE 12| Discuss the effects of nourishment, body contact, and familiarity on infant social attachment.
- #34: OBJECTIVE 13| Contrast secure and insecure attachment, and discuss the roles of parents and infants in the development of attachment and an infant’s feelings of basic trust.
- #39: OBJECTIVE 14| Assess the impact of parental neglect, family disruption, and day care on attachment patterns and development.
- #42: OBJECTIVE 15| Assess the impact of parental neglect, family disruption, and day care on attachment patterns and development.
- #43: OBJECTIVE 16| Describe three parenting styles, and offer three potential explanations for the link between authoritative parenting and social competence.
- #45: OBJECTIVE 17| Define adolescence.
- #46: OBJECTIVE 18| Identify the major physical changes during adolescence.
- #52: OBJECTIVE 19| Describe the changes in reasoning abilities that Piaget called formal operations.
- #53: OBJECTIVE 20| Discuss moral development from the perspectives of moral thinking, moral feeling, and moral action.
- #57: OBJECTIVE 21| Identify Erickson’s eight stages of psychosocial development and their accompanying issues.
- #58: OBJECTIVE 22| Explain how search for identity affects us during adolescence, and discuss how forming an identity prepares us for intimacy.
- #59: OBJECTIVE 23| Contrast parental and peer influences during adolescence.
- #60: OBJECTIVE 24| Discuss the characteristics of emerging adulthood.
- #63: OBJECTIVE 25| Identify major physical changes that occur in middle adulthood.
- #64: OBJECTIVE 26| Compare life expectancy in the mid-twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, and discuss changes in sensory abilities and health (including frequency of dementia) in older adults.
- #70: OBJECTIVE 27| Assess the impact of aging on recall and recognition in adulthood.
- #72: OBJECTIVE 28| Summarize the contribution of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies to our understanding of the normal effects of aging on adult intelligence.
- #75: OBJECTIVE 29| Explain why the path of adult development need not be tightly linked to one’s chronological age.
- #76: OBJECTIVE 30| Discuss the importance of love, marriage, and children in adulthood, and comment on the contribution of one’s feelings of self-satisfaction.
- #78: OBJECTIVE 31| Describe trends in people’s life satisfaction across the life span.
- #80: OBJECTIVE 32| Describe the range of reactions to the death of a loved one.
- #81: OBJECTIVE 33| Summarize current views on continuity versus stages and stability versus change in lifelong development.