![4.1 Pad Foundation
-to support high loads over a limited
area .Such foundations are common
where a structural form brings loads to
the ground by way of columns
-have rectilinear shape in plan & can be
of some depth where a lot of poor soil
overlays (eg.stable rock)
Reinforced Concrete Construction
- to spread the column loads to the
much larger area of the pad
-to save concrete ,method by
tapering the base up to the cross-
section of the column
Better to give away concrete as shaded
area [easier & quicker to do ]
[easier to support column kicker former
,especially if external formwork is needed]
1. Clear the site then pegging the site with correct position of foundation
2. Excavation commences from the reduce level ,down till the desired level
3. Lay a layer of lean concrete to prepare clean and firm base for footing
4. Construct the formwork to the side of pad footing & supported by other wood to
prevent formwork collapse when concrete is being pour inside . Spacer blocks are
placed before reinforcements been laid (provide sufficient concrete cover for
rebars
1 2 3
4
5
6
7
5. Rebars were bent and tied before the
whole thing been lowered & placed inside the
formwork.
6. Stump reinforcements are then erected
.Length of rebars should be extended beyond stump
level & act as starter bars for column above with
addition ties
7. Concrete will set & curing shall be
performed to avoid excessive lost of water during
Method of Construction of Pad Footing
13](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bconp1-161208071758/85/Experiencing-Construction-15-320.jpg)
![4.1 Ground Beam With additional stability , individual pile groups and their caps may be interconnected
by means of ‘ground beams’.
A ground beam is a reinforced concrete beam for supporting walls, joists, at or near
ground level, itself either resting directly upon the ground or supported at both ends
by piers.
Plan of pile caps and
ground beams
Section A-A
Ground beams linking pile caps for
improved stability and to carry suspended
ground slabs
Planning Considerations:
Reasons [both pile caps and ground beams arise it will be necessary to
consider the two items as an entity]
● Shape,length & depth of ground beam and excavation necessary
● Requirements for temporary works - method for formworks
● Striking of formwork and backfilling and compaction before
commencing floor slab works
● Reinforcement - blinding needs , fix in place or prefabricate
reinforcement
● Concrete supply and method of placing (eg method to reduce cost
by handling speed construction - pump the concrete to allow the
crane to concentrate on other items of workload )
● Requirements of services entries to pass through or under ground
beams? Position and size of holes or pipes ?
Pile cap
formwork
supported
Formwork
as
opposite
Formwork
details this
side not
shown for
clarity of
whole
Ground beam forms
carried on pile cap form
Bracing as pile caps or by
reversed beam clamps
BlindingGround beam form as
opposite Traditional method
16](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bconp1-161208071758/85/Experiencing-Construction-18-320.jpg)
Experiencing Construction
- 1. BLD 60303 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1 LIM SIEW NI 0326733 LU CHIAO ER 0326947 TEOH ZHE KHAI 0322905 LIAW YAU VERN 0326627 DIXON KEE TET LUN 0323944 CLARE TSISIKA AYISI 0325787 THERESA THIA AI MIN 0323170 NURUL SHAHIRA BINTI 0326500 MUHAMMAD ALI KUAN SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING & DESIGN MODERN ARCHITECTURE STUDIES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA (MASSA) RESEARCH UNIT BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) IN ARCHITECTURE ASSIGNMENT 1: EXPERIENCING CONSTRUCTION EXPERIENCING, DOCUMENTING AND ANALYSING THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
- 2. CONTENT 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE SITE 01 2.0 SITE AND SAFETY 03 ( Dixon Kee) 2.1 PLANTS & MACHINERY 06 3.0 PRELIMINARIES 07 ( Theresa Thia) 3.1 GROUNDWORK 08 3.2 EARTHWORK 08 3.3 SETTING OUT 08 3.4 EXTERNAL WORK 09 3.4.1 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 09 3.4.2 TEMPORARY FACILITIES 10 4.0 FOUNDATION 11 ( Yau Vern ) 4.1 PAD FOUNDATION 13 4.1 PILE FOUNDATION 14 4.1 PILE CAPS 15 4.1 GROUND BEAM 16 4.2 WOOD FOUNDATION 17 5.0 SUPERSTRUCTURE 18 5.1 BEAMS AND COLUMNS 19 ( Siew Ni ) 5.2 SLAB 26 ( Nururl Shahira ) 5.3 WALL 29 ( Nururl Shahira ) 5.4 STAIRCASE 32 ( Chiao Er ) 6.0 DOORS & WINDOWS 38 ( Zhe Khai ) 6.1 DOORS 39 6.2 WINDOWS 41 7.0 ROOF 44
- 4. 1.0 INTRODUCTION Exploring an enormous and large area in Shah Alam, as for the latest residential development.The second site is located at Setia Alam Seksyen U13, 40170 Shah Alam..Offering 68 unit of teres house with 3 storeys, 34 units of RT2A-F type house and another 34 units of RT2A-G.The construction was initiated on November,9th ,2015 is expecting completion in 2017 ,April 8th. 02 Desa Salak Maju, located at Salak Tinggi, Sepang, is one of the latest residential development.It offers 28 units of teres house with 2 storeys and a unit of bungalow with 2 storeys. Each unit consists at least five rooms and 3 bathrooms. The smallest version comes with minimum 2528 square feet. FIRST SITE SECOND SITE
- 5. DIXONKEE2.0SITEANDSAFETY 03 Construction is a high hazard industry that has a wide range of activities involving alteration, and/or repair. Construction workers engage in many activities that may expose them to serious hazards.
- 6. 2.0 Site and safety Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) Construction safety acts as a important roles in the construction site, it is to prevent dangerous and harmful situation occurs. 1 4 3 2 5 Safety Helmet: Protect users from head injuries. Safety Glasses: Protects user’s eyes in order to prevent harmful objects from striking the eyes . High Visibility Vest: To increase workers’ visibility especially in low light and dark conditions Gloves: Worn to act as an extra grip while handling machinery and materials. Also to protect from sharp or rough edges Safety Boots: Give protection to toes 1 2 3 4 5 Signboards Probihition Sign Mandatory Sign Warning Sign Safe Condition Sign According to Safety Officer, safety briefing will be held every Friday to remind and clarify the safety regulations of the site. Safety Briefing First Aid Kit It is a collection of supplies and equipment for use in giving first aid, intended for treatment of minor injuries. 04
- 7. 2.0 Site and safety Storage How it shouldn’t be stored How it should be stored Construction materials should be stored correctly, make sure material are protected from the weather. Not on bare ground or uneven surface Elevated Work Safety Scaffolding Allows workers to reach higher work areas. The scaffolding should be stable and workers should not climb across the cross bracers Safety Net Safety net is to protect workers from falling by covering the edge of the building. Body Belt Harness System Safety net is to protect workers from falling by covering the edge of the building. Hoarding Hoarding are constructed around the perimeter of the construction site. This is to prevent outsiders and tresspassers for preventing unwanted causes, 05
- 8. 2.1 Plants and Machinery Mobile Crane Concrete Mixing Transport Truck Backhoe LoaderBulldozer Dump Truck Concrete/Mortar Mixer Bending Machine Concrete Vibrator Bulldozer is a powerful machine for pushing earth or rocks in construction, It consists of a heavy, broad steel blade or plate mounted on the front of a tractor. Backhoe Loader is a tractor like machine with a combination of a loader-style shovel on the front and a backhoe on the back. Mobile Crane is a cable- controlled crane with a telescoping boom mounted on truck-type carriers or as self- propelled models. 06 Concrete Mixing Transport Truck are made for transport mixing concrete up to the construction site. Dump Truck is a truck chassis with a dump body mounted to the frame. The bed is raised to dump out the things that are put inside the dump body. Concrete/Mortar Mixer is a machine to mixed cement, aggregates and water to create concrete. This machine is portable to move around construction site. Bending Machine is a machine that bend the steel bar to make a square shape Concrete Vibrator is a machine that vibrates the concrete to make it more compact and to remove air bubbles
- 9. 07 Preliminaries are carried out before construction commences to ensure that the site is properly prepared and suitable for construction.
- 10. 3.2 EARTHWORK3.1 GROUNDWORK 08 3.3 SETTING OUT Setting out is the process of transferring the foundation plan of building from drawing to ground. The centre line method has been used on site for this process. CALCULATING CENTRE LINE MARKING Earthwork is the process that alters the land of site to a suitable condition and level. It includes all works done on soil. Groundwork is the first phase that has to be completed before construction can commence. It is the preparation of site substructure. SITE INVESTIGATION SETTING BOUNDARY POINT SITE CLEARANCE SEDIMENT CONTROL COMPACTION EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL Excavation is done on areas where the soil is too soft or filled with organic matter. The soil that is unsuitable for construction is excavated. GRADING Rough grading is carried out with a bulldozer to give the site a roughly levelled topography. The finish grading is performed by using a grader that gived the site a rather smooth and flat surface, ready for compaction. The excavated areas are filled with backfill materials that are suitable for construction. In our site’s case, it is finely grained soil consisting of inorganic clay which can be easy compacted. A road roller rolls over the surface of the soil to displace air that exists between the pores of the soil grains and compress the distance between soil grains for a firm and stable ground suitable for construction. A sediment basin is built on site for loose soil to settle in during the rain to prevent leakage of muddy water to the river nearby. An intensive site investigation is carried out to gather information about the soil condition and topography of the site, as well as the existing structure and greeneries on site. The boundary point is set by a land surveyor to prevent problems that may arise if another owner’s land is disturbed during the constructed process. Removal of excess greenery is carried out to empty the site for construction. The site’s boundary point is marked clearly with fences. The site has a relatively flat topography. There is dense growth of trees on site but no existing structure. Condition of soil of some areas on site is not suitable for construction The centre line of building is calculated by adding up the perimeter walls and then subtracting half the thickness of the wall off each corner. 1. The centre line of the longest wall of outer building is marked on the ground by stretching a string between the pegs embedded on the ground. It serves as the reference line. 2. Two pegs are driven at the end of each line, equidistant to the central peg. The width of excavation corresponds to their distance. 3. The pegs should be driven at a distance of 2m from the edge of excavation to prevent from being disturbed. 4. Stretch the strings between the corresponding pegs. 5. Mark the edge of excavation with lime powder. 6. Excavation can commence. The centre lines of the room walls can be marked out using right anges because they are perpendicular to the reference line. Boundary line of site as determined by land surveyor Existing greenery Removal of greenery with bulldozer Cleared land now ready for earthwork Sediment basin on site Trapped sediments Cross section of sediment basin Flow of sediments Lumpy soil with large particles Remove unsuitable soil Backfill with suitable soil Achieved contour but still uneven surface Flat surface after finish grading Void Tightly packed particles Before compaction After compaction Reference line Width of excavation
- 11. 3.4.1 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 09 1. A trench is excavated at a depth lower than where the pipe is to be located. 2. Shoring is executed to allow the soil at the trench sidewall to become compact. Soil at the bottom of trench has to be uniform and free of lumps to reduce stress concentrations and irregular pipe deformation. 3. After shoring is removed, dewatering is conducted to ensure that the trench is completely dry. This is done installing several well points adjacent to trench bottom. Pipes connected to bottom of well vacuums water from soil to header pipe. 4. Bedding consists of granular rocks and gravel. 5. The haunch zone is filled with class I bedding material which includes well graded gravel and sand mixtures. The pipe is half buried here. 6. Primary backfill is filled with clean, coarse grained soil. 7. The final backfill has little effect on the pipe but it still has to be filled with suitable soil to avoid future settlement. 8. Manhole covers are installed accordingly at regular intervals. Although it is known that these two systems carry water, they have a huge difference in the sense of what type of water they carry, which is why before construction begins, these two systems have to be installed properly and separately to make it more convenient to connect to the buildings when they are constructed. SEWER SYSTEM This system carries waste water from the building and sends them for treatment before releasing to rivers and oceans. STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM This system collects excess rain and groundwater from the surface as well as the roof of the buildings and carries them to a reservoir. INSTALLATION PROCESS MAIN COMPONENTS HIGH DENSITY POLYETHENE PIPE STEEL PLATE MANHOLE COVER GULLY TRAP CAST IRON SEWER Used for main stormwater pipe, it has a large strength to density ratio which helps it withstand high pressure while being lightweight. This pipe can withstand high internal pressure and external load, which is why it is used as the main sewer pipe. This manhole is used to cover the stormwater drainage on the road. Openings are minimal. It recieves wastewater from the building before being emptied into the sewer Section A-A’ of Trench This manhole is used to cover the lawn drainage. It has many openings to allow excess water from gardening activities to enter the system. STEEL BAR MANHOLE COVER Header pipes Seal of gulley prevents backflow of sewerage Sewerage flow LEGEND Floor Trap Downpipe Gully Steel Plate Manhole Steel Bar Manhole Stormwater Pipe Sanitary Pipe Drainage and sewerage system of site Drainage and sewerage system of corner lot
- 12. 3.4.2 TEMPORARY FACILITIES TEMPORARY STRUCTURES TEMPORARY UTILITIES Location of temporary structures Temporary facilities are important parts of construction because they each have a specific function that enables the construction process to run smoothly. These facilities will be removed or disabled once their function is no longer needed. WATER ELECTRICITY STORAGE OTHERS 10 These structures provide a safe space to carry out a specific activity. Some equipments are stored in an open area for easy handling and access due to frequent usage. They include scaffolding and bricks. OPEN STORAGE CLOSED STORAGE The more valuable and dangerous materials are kept inside large storage containers. They include steel, iron, pipes and diesel. TOILET OFFICE CANTEEN WORK SHED RESIDENCE WORK SHED For people on site to settle their calling of nature. This is where meetings and discussions take place. Resting area for the workers during lunch time. Carpentry works take place here. The workers sleep here for convenience. This is where iron bending takes place. TEMPORARY ACCESS LOADING PARKING These services are necessary for most activities to carry out during the construction process. Electricity is essential to run the equipments and machineries during construction. There are 3 main generators on site. These generators run on diesel and generate electricity for the main machineries. There are several small generators on site which are used for welding and providing light. One of the small generators that provide light Main generatorLocation of main generators Location of water tank Water tank The construction site needs temporary water supply for sanitary purposes as well as for mixing cement. CIRCULATION The site needs to be easily accessible by contractor vehicles and workers. Parking is located near the entrance of the site. It is large to provide ample space for the large vehicles used by constructors. A large space is provided for unloading and is located at a place where it does not obstruct the normal flow of circulation. The temporary vehicular circulation is similar to the intended post development circulation. LEGEND Open Storage Closed Storage Others LEGEND Water Tank LEGEND Generator
- 13. Ability to overlap superstructure dependent on plan area in the main and scope of basements LIAWYAUVERN4.0FOUNDATIONS 11
- 14. The foundation is the part of a building that supports the load of the superstructure .As generally understood ,the term includes all walls ,piers , columns ,pilasters ,and other supports below the first floor. Two Broad Categories of Foundation : 1. Shallow Foundation 2. Deep Foundation 4.1 Foundation Shallow foundations are also called spread footings,made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the footing, and then constructing the footing. During the early stages of work, the entire footing is visible in sight.each footing takes the concentrated load of the column and spreads it out over a large area, so that the actual weight on the soil does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil. Strip Footing Plain Concrete strip foundation ● Long continuous strips ,usually of concrete ,created in the ground at a suitable depth to provide adequate support for the loads brought upon them. ● The loading on this type on this foundation is linear pattern which it arise from load bearing construction involving brick ,block , masonry or other material in low rise housing or utility buildings . *DPC ( Damp Proof Course) Standard Method of Measurement requires a minimum width of trench of 0.75m to ensure sufficient working space for bricklayer. Deep foundations are required when soil and superficial ground content is not stable or thick enough to support heavy loads.It also achieved by forcing vertical structure components several feet below the ground’s surface. Conditions lead to the need of consideration in deeper founding depths which include : Potential volume change in shrinkable clays , Variability of the soil across the site & Surface soils with poor bearing capacity *Solution for depths to 4500mm Plain Concrete ‘ Trench Fill strip foundation‘ --++ Methods (bring the foundation structure up to ground formation level Due to the deep of founding level,concrete is filled up to a level that allows the safe and economic laying to the wall up to the DPC 1. Excavate over site to reduce level 2. Excavate trench to required depth 3. Concrete to trench 4. Remove excavated material off site 12
- 15. 4.1 Pad Foundation -to support high loads over a limited area .Such foundations are common where a structural form brings loads to the ground by way of columns -have rectilinear shape in plan & can be of some depth where a lot of poor soil overlays (eg.stable rock) Reinforced Concrete Construction - to spread the column loads to the much larger area of the pad -to save concrete ,method by tapering the base up to the cross- section of the column Better to give away concrete as shaded area [easier & quicker to do ] [easier to support column kicker former ,especially if external formwork is needed] 1. Clear the site then pegging the site with correct position of foundation 2. Excavation commences from the reduce level ,down till the desired level 3. Lay a layer of lean concrete to prepare clean and firm base for footing 4. Construct the formwork to the side of pad footing & supported by other wood to prevent formwork collapse when concrete is being pour inside . Spacer blocks are placed before reinforcements been laid (provide sufficient concrete cover for rebars 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. Rebars were bent and tied before the whole thing been lowered & placed inside the formwork. 6. Stump reinforcements are then erected .Length of rebars should be extended beyond stump level & act as starter bars for column above with addition ties 7. Concrete will set & curing shall be performed to avoid excessive lost of water during Method of Construction of Pad Footing 13
- 16. 4.1 Pile Foundation Provision of structural columns below ground level to transfer the structural loads down to a strata capable of accepting them. 3 main groups : Large displacement piles -includes all type of solid pile ,including timber & precast concrete and steel closed at the lower end by a shoe or plug , which may either be left in place or extruded to form an enlarged foot Small displacement piles -Rolled steel sections ,such as H-piles, open ended tubes and hollow sections if the ground enters freely during driving -it should be recognized that open-ended tubes and hollow sections frequently plug & become displacement piles particularly in cohesive soils. Replacement piles -formed by boring or other methods of excavation ; the borehole may be lined with a casing or tube that is either left in place or extracted as the hole is filled. Pile Installation Piles are driven using crawler-mounted rigs ,normally with conventional rope-operated drop hammers. Diesel or hydraulic drop hammers can also be used. Most Hardrive piling rigs operated by Westpile are capable of installing piles at a rake of up to 1:3 away from the machine and 1:3½ towards the machine. 1 2 3 4 Typical Hardrive installation sequence: 1. Delivery 2. Driving 3.Jointing 4.Complete *Hardrive is a registered trade mark of Westpile Ltd. Cutting Down to Level With the exception of continuous flight auger piles , all piles have to be finished to a level above that specified for cut-off (the final level above which the pile cap will be cast.) Reasons : ● To ensure that the point cut off will be in solid material . in displacement piles below any area damaged by driving or any concrete at the top of piles that has not been fully compacted ● To allow for the projecting reinforcement ,after cutting down, to have the desired bond length within the pile cap Piling specifications usually give the minimum finishing level of the pile as well as the cut off level . Finished conccrete level Driving damage Outline of pile cap Reinforcement exposed for integration into pile cap steel 14
- 17. 4.1 Pile Caps The building’s structural loads are transferred to a piled foundation by means of a pile cap . To provide stability , groups of piles providing the foundation for one structural column usually have a linking pile cap .The cap shape is determined by the number of piles to be linked. Pile Cap Blinding Steel from cut off piles Simple pile caps , linking two or more piles in a group Planning Considerations Generally the case that pile cap construction will be the responsibility of the main contractor ,whether by direct action or sub-letting the work . The main contractor will need to made adequate allowance for the construction of pile caps at the tender stage. To do so in a proper manner ,the construction planners will need to have built up adequate information to establish the cost for work outside the piling specialist’s brief. The main items will be: 1. Pile finishing level and amount of cut-off 2. Shape and depth of pile caps ,hence excavation required ,disposal of surplus 3. Assessment of temporary works , formwork requirements, reinforcement needs ,provision for hanging bolt templates 4. Reinforcement - prefabricate or fix in place 5. Access for handling reinforcement 6. Method of supply and placement of concrete Ply and timber side forms Brace Pile cap steel not shown Starter bars from cut off barsBlinding concrete Peg support Traditional method for forming pile caps and ground beams 15
- 18. 4.1 Ground Beam With additional stability , individual pile groups and their caps may be interconnected by means of ‘ground beams’. A ground beam is a reinforced concrete beam for supporting walls, joists, at or near ground level, itself either resting directly upon the ground or supported at both ends by piers. Plan of pile caps and ground beams Section A-A Ground beams linking pile caps for improved stability and to carry suspended ground slabs Planning Considerations: Reasons [both pile caps and ground beams arise it will be necessary to consider the two items as an entity] ● Shape,length & depth of ground beam and excavation necessary ● Requirements for temporary works - method for formworks ● Striking of formwork and backfilling and compaction before commencing floor slab works ● Reinforcement - blinding needs , fix in place or prefabricate reinforcement ● Concrete supply and method of placing (eg method to reduce cost by handling speed construction - pump the concrete to allow the crane to concentrate on other items of workload ) ● Requirements of services entries to pass through or under ground beams? Position and size of holes or pipes ? Pile cap formwork supported Formwork as opposite Formwork details this side not shown for clarity of whole Ground beam forms carried on pile cap form Bracing as pile caps or by reversed beam clamps BlindingGround beam form as opposite Traditional method 16
- 19. 4.2 Wood Foundation -composed of wood & plywood soaked with preservatives -primarily developed so that a foundation could be installed in cold weather ,when concrete cannot . -faster construction than masonry foundation -used where working with concrete is limited by short building seasons -wood foundations can be erected during freezing weather ,or where there is too short period of time to construct a different type of foundation. Pressure-treated Wood 17
- 20. 5.1 Beams and Columns 5.2 Walls 5.3 Slabs 5.4 Staircase LIM 5.0SUPERSTRUCTURE Superstructure is the part that above foundation or basement. It provides the necessary utility of the building with structural safety and ventilation 18
- 21. LIMSIEWNI5.1BEAMSANDCOLUMNS Beams and columns work together to form a comprehensive supporting system to provide strength to the building during early stage of construction. Both serve the same function in supporting the building structure. 19
- 22. 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN Beam - Steel reinforce bar are introduced into the concrete.It was subjected to bend moments and shear. - In the reinforced concrete, the rebar resist tensile forces and shear while concrete resists compression force -Reinforce concrete beam are used due to their high compressive strength in general, and also high resistance to fire and water. Reinforce Concrete Beam - Horizontal structure that carries the transverse load - Beam carries the roof slab or the floor slab - Characterised by the profile (shape of cross- section), the length and the materials. Types of Beam Fixed Beam Cantilever BeamContinuous Beam Overhanging BeamSimply Supported Beam Concrete beam can resist about 1/10 of its compression force in tension. Cross section of beam 20 228 375
- 23. 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN - Also known as reinforcing bar - It is a common steel bar which is commonly used in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structure - Steel bar is used since the coefficient of expansion of steel and concrete are almost the same - expand and contract at equal rate - Rebar’s surface often pattern to form a better bond with the concrete. -There are links called stirrups are formed from small section reinforcing bars that are cut and bent to contain the reinforcement in position. Mild Steel Reinforcement - Used for tensile stress of reinforced concrete beam in reinforced concrete work. - These steel bars are plain in surface and are round section -Can be cut and bent easily Deformed bars - Rods of steels provided with lugs, ribs or deformation on the surface of bar. - It minimized slippage in concrete and increases the surface area and the bond between the two materials. Types of RebarRebar Stirrup with open top for ease of fixing reinforcement Closure piece Stirrup for beams Top reinforcement Main reinforcement Rolled ribbed bar Twisted ribbed bar Twisted square bar Stirrups to form reinforcement cage of beams 21
- 24. 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN Concrete Beam (On Site) Concrete columns (On Site) . FormworkCross section of beam and column First floor slab First floor beam Main bar column Ground floor beam Ground slab Yokes Side plank Stringer Headtree 22
- 25. Installation of beam (For reference) Step 1: Installation of reinforcement bars -The reinforcement bar will be set on the determined spot as the initial stage for strengthening the beam. - This is also known as cast-in-situ Step 2: Installation of formwork -After rebar is set, the formwork is constructed on top of it and scaffolding is set up to help support the formwork and concrete Step 3 : Filling Concrete - Concrete is ready to be poured into the formwork and left to set. - After 14 days of setting, the formwork is removed to reveal the beam 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN 23 Steel Reinforcement Concrete Filling Wooden Formwork *** Upper Floor Beam For the upper floor beam, the slab and beam are usually cast-in-situ at the same time. As the column is completed, the formwork will be built up upon the column and then the concrete is poured into it. The same process is applied to the construction methods of the ground beam. Ground floor beam founded on site
- 26. 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN Column - Vertical structure and designed to support the loads of roofs, floors, and walls - Transmit the load from the beam and also its own weight to the foundation - Subjected to a pure compressive load - Columns are mainly constructed by concrete Reinforced Concrete Column - Most common column that can be seen on the construction today. - Structural member designed to carry the compressive loads, composed of concrete embedded with steel bar to provide reinforcement Column Construction Tolerance - Guideline for constructor to ensure the built structures are within the specific range. - A standard range of tolerance is set to prevent out of proportion buildings due to workmanship, materials and environment factors. - Standard tolerance for Malaysia’s construction industry is 14mm. Shaft Drawing Site 100mm 113mm COLUMN COLUMN Columns on the site are differs from the drawings by 13mm, therefore, it is ‘tolerated’ 24 Cross section of column
- 27. Installation of column (On Site) Step 1: Column layout work - Laying rope according to the grids shown in the drawings then mark the location of the columns -Providing column sections or column forms bounding spaces for the columns Step 2: Installation of reinforcement bars - Reinforcement bar is being placed as shown in the structural drawings Step 3 : Installation of formwork - Wooden planks are being placed around the reinforcement bars as formwork. Step 4 : Filling concrete into the formwork - Concrete is ready to be poured into the formwork and left to set. -When it is done, the formwork will be removed 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN 25 Completed column founded on site
- 28. NURULSHAHIRA5.2SLAB A flat piece of concrete, put on the walls or columns of a structure. It serves as a walking surface but may also serve as a load bearing member. 26
- 29. Concrete: different houses use different type of concrete. During the making of the slab, floor and any parts of the house that involves concrete, slump test has been applied. This test is to make sure that the mixture of concrete is at the right ratio. 27 concrete from the plant was brought to the site Concrete was filled in the mold (3X until full) Poked with a stick (24X) Mold was taken out and the slump test result was obsereved. (75mm +-25mm) SLUMPTEST Timber frame Concrete pouring BRC and spacer bar PROCESS IN GENERAL 1. Timber frame was used to maintain the shape of the slab. 2. The concrete that was brought to site from the plant or do on site with concrete mixture was poured into the frame 3. Compact machine was used 4. BRC was placed to prevent surface cracks when the concrete expand or retract 5. Spacer bar was put under the BRC to keep the space between the reinforcement. 6. Concrete was poured again and finally the finishing will be done after the construction of the whole building is done to prevent damages on the finishing 7. Compact machine is being used again. COMPACT MACHINE: to remove air bumper on the concrete floor/slab Compact machine is always used right after the concrete pouring process while the concrete is still wet and the particles are still can be easily moved. The usage speed of this machine cannot be too fast since it can cause the stones to sink to the bottom. The air bubbles must be eliminated because it will cause the concrete to be weaken once it hardened.this is because the concrete floor/ slab cannot withstand all the pressure if its hollow. 5.2 SLAB A horizontal concrete bar that is common structure in modern buildings construction.this thick concrete slab is construct directly on soil which is supported by foundation.
- 30. DUCTING : WHITE TUBES Floor trap WC 5.2 SLAB STARTER BAR: for staircase making WHAT CAN BE SEEN ON THE SLAB GROUND COLUMN BRC 28 The piping will always be installed before the slab and pass through the slab for water flow purpose. WC is for the toilet bowl and the floor trap is for draining out the excessive water on the bathroom floor. Ground column is the ground floor column that is built from the foundation The starter bar is the first step of making staircase. The bars will later being bent according to the measurement of the staircase based on design.
- 31. NURULSHAHIRA5.3WALL 29 Walls are continuous bricks or stone structure that encloses or divides an area of land. It also forms a space within a building and provide protection for a building.
- 32. BRICK WALL: CLAY BRICK bricks wall are used for non load bearing wall. commonly arranged in running bond depending on the requirement. These bricks are installed with flush joint. Dowel bars those are fixed to concrete wall/columns are used to connect bricks mechanically. The dowel bar must be in every 4 course brick walls. Besides dowel, exmet (expanded metal) are also being inserted on the dowel bar to reduce the stress during the size change of metals. Line as a guide or marking (brick line) Looks like a column but not. The bricks act as the outer layer of the piping system on the wall for the aesthetic purpose. brick concrete 5.3 WALL 30 Flush joint Marking for plastering (finishing). } PLASTERING Plasterwork is a finishing after construction is done. This work is a coating for the brick wall for an aesthetic purpose. It smoothens the surface of the wall and give the wall a nicer look. Plaster is similar to concrete but it doesnt hv aggregates in the mixture.
- 33. CAST-IN SITU SHEAR WALL smooth concrete wall with plaster finishing for load bearing wall 31 This cast-in situ shear wall is cast on site and installed after the concrete had dried. This system is for the usage Internal wall of this building.As usual, the process will start with timber frame work, and then steel bars and BRC and only concrete was poured inside the frame. This wall is being cast vertically. After the making process it will be left to dry. Polystyrene Concrete 1. Timber frame work is being set up in the site according to the size required. 2. Concrete that was brought from a batching plant by concrete mixer truck 3. The dried concrete shear wall is placed outdoor Concrete Empty surface Image from the site of the cast in situ wall that had been installed The polystyrene foam is put there during casting process. This foam will be removed after installation for windows framing or switches on the wall. The purpose of them putting the foam there is because a part of shear wall when it is already dried cannot be taken out easily and may cause damage on the wall. This image shows how the floor plan of a building using this system in their construction. As shown in the diagram, this floor system is actually helping in maximise the space of a building.
- 34. LUCHIAOER5.4STAIRCASE Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different floors and roof of the building. It consists of a flight of steps and one or more intermediate landing slabs between the floor levels. Different types of staircases can be made by arranging stairs and landing slabs 32
- 35. STAIRCASE REQUIREMENT STAIRCASE SPECIFICATION Tread : The part of the step that stepped on Riser : The vertical portion of the step between steps Nosing : An edge part of the tread that extends from the riser beneath Stringer : The structural member that supports the treads. Typically 2 stringers, one on either side of the stairs Handrail : A rail that fixed parallel above the pitch line at the side of stair Baluster : Vertical members that support the handrail Run : Total horizontal distance between the first steps until the last steps Rise : Total vertical distance between the first steps until the last steps Newel : A vertical post provide support for handrail and the upper end of an outer string Newel Cap : The member placed at the top of the newel NUMBER OF RISE & TREAD CALCULATION Number of Riser Calculations: a. Total rise (Floor to floor) = a b. Assume a Unit Riser Height = b c. Approximate No. of Risers = a/b The number of Risers must be a whole number. Total Run Calculations Tread (Run) can range from 225mm to 300mm Assume 275mm per unit run. Total Run = (NO.Risers -1) x Unit Run = (14-1) x 275mm = (13) x 275 = 3375mm Hence the staircase well opening will be 3375 mm long 5.4 STAIRCASE 33
- 36. REINFORCED CONCRETE STAIRCASE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS STEP 1: STRUCTURAL WORK Starter bars, ground and first floor stems are marked and built 5.4 STAIRCASE 34 STEP 2: FORMWORK Steel bars are railed, formwork are constructed according measurement given STEP 3: CASTING Concrete are poured from the top and let it flow to the bottom STEP 4: REMOVE FORMWORK Wait for 14 days to dry process and remove the formwork STEP 5: INSTALLATION OF HANDRAIL Position of handrial are marked and installed STEP 6: INSTALLATION OF TILES Install the tiles on treads
- 37. CONSTRUCTION SITE : SETIA ALAM 2 QUARTER LANDING R.C STAIRCASE FLOOR PLAN SECTION R.C.CONCRETE NO. OF STEPS LANDING 2 quarter landing staircase is staircase that have 2 landings. The landing changes a direction of the flight by 180 degrees and serve a place for rest when moving. The landing divides the staircase into 2, thereby reducing quality of treads in one flight and making the movement of human more comfortable. Cement rendering is used for building staircase with material of concrete. The site’s staircase is reinforced concrete with timber strip. 900mm high of m.s. handrail. tread= 255mm riser= 166mm 5.4 STAIRCASE 35
- 39. STAIRCASE MATERIAL USED IN SITE CONCRETE ADVANTAGE: - High compressive strength - Adequate tensile strength - Fire and weather resistance - Durability - Economy to mold any shape - Low maintenance cost - Economy as a construction material - Less deflection - Less skilled labor have to be use DISADVANTAGE: - Tensile strength to compressive strength ratio - Uncertainty of final strength - Larger column section - Shrinkage causes crack Concrete is a materials that commonly used in this country for built a staircase. Concrete is a mixture of sand, water, and aggregates. Before built the staircase, the concrete must be tested the strength using slump test and the design of staircase must be qualified by the engineers. 5.4 STAIRCASE 37
- 40. CLARETSISIKAAYISIROOF TEOHZHEKHAI6.0DOORS&WINDOWS Doors and windows are openings on a structure that act as a transition between spaces, be it interior or exterior. These structures affect the circulation, natural lighting, ventilation and spatial quality of the building. 38
- 41. 6.1 DOORS A door is a moving structure used to allow access between spaces, an entrance to or within an enclosed space, such as a building. Doors are very important in determining the flow of circulation of the structure or space. TYPES OF DOORS (ON SITE) Swing doors D1- Solid core timber door (Living room) D2- Plywood flush door (Guest room, master bedroom & bedrooms) D3- Plywood flush door with 1 layer of non laminated PVC (Bathrooms) D4- Timber Louvres door ( Store rooms) D5- MS Grille door (Yard) Sliding doors SD1- Aluminium sliding glass door (Living room) SD2- Aluminium sliding glass door (Corner/ End lot) SD3- Aluminium sliding glass door (Master bedroom) SD3 D1 SD1 FRONT ELEVATION D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 SD1 SD2 SD3 39
- 42. 6.1 DOORS 1.Confirm the door location and verify the dimensions of the opening. 2.Align the door frame against the setting out lines and secure it temporarily. SWING DOOR INSTALLATION 3.After verifying the alignment of the frame, fasten the frame in position using metal straps. 4.Grout the gap between the wall and the door frame. 40 Double rabbet door frame used at the site. V-shaped metal strap.
- 43. 6.1 DOORS Completed door frame at the site.. 5.Install the door panel. Then, install the lock set and door handles or any other door hardware. 6.Install the architrave.Ensure the mitre-joints are flat and square. Apply bonding agent to the under-side of the architave. 7.Lastly, ensure a good and even stick by tapping indirectly on the surface with a hammer. Completed flush door at the site.
- 44. 6.2 WINDOWS A window is an opening in a wall, door or roof that allows the passage of natural light and ventilation. There are various types of windows that serve different functions. CILL MULLION STAY BOTTOM RAIL AWNING MOULDING TOP RAIL HEAD FRICTION HINGE TRANSOM WINDOW ELEMENTS TYPES OF WINDOWS (ON SITE) CASEMENT WINDOWS -Consists of operating sashes that are side-hinged and usually swing outwards. -Ventilation : 100% AWNING -Consists of operating sashes that swing outward on hinges attached to the top of their frame. -Ventilation : 100% FIXED LOUVRES GLASS WINDOW -Consists of horizontal glass louvres that is slanted in a fixed angle in a common frame. -Ventilation : 100% SLIDING WINDOW -Consists of one or more operating sashes that slide along horizontal grooves or tracks. -Ventilation : 50% LOCKING HANDLE 41 JAMB
- 45. 6.2 WINDOWS 42CAST-IN WINDOW SYSTEM Setting out of window frame in precast wall panel casting mould. Window frame must be protected throughout the fabrication and construction process. 1.Clean and wet the wall surface around the opening. Then, Check the number, dimensions, and spacing of galvanized straps. 2.Timber V-shaped wedges are used to temporarily hold the window frame in position within the wall opening. 3.The window frame is then checked for plumb, levelness and alignment.After confirming the position of the frame, the galvanised straps are ram-setted to the wall. 4.Apply sealant along the bottom edge of the wall. Install the bottom frame and seal the gap between wall and bottom frame. Lastly, Fix the main frame to the wall . LUG SYSTEM INSTALLATION OF WINDOW FRAME WINDOW CONSTRUCTION Our site uses precast concrete lintel. They are placed above window openings as a support beam to withstand the weight of the bricks above by transferring it to the walls on either side. This will prevent the framework of the windows from bending.
- 46. SUB-FRAME WINDOW SYSTEM The sub-frame system comprises a sub-frame which is either cast in or anchored to the wall. The main frame is then installed onto the sub frame at a much later stage of the construction. This is the installation method used at our site. 6.2 WINDOWS 1. Position the sub-frame using ride up blocks or aluminium shin plates. Proper alignment and setting out of the sub-frame is crucial in ensuring the ease of operation of the window. 2. After confirming the setting out of the sub-frame, Fix the sub-frame to the wall. Sub-frame should be temporarily stiffened with timber packs near the point of anchoring. 3. Seal the anchor/bolt heads and joints between external wall and sub- frame. Prior to fixing the main frame, the subframe should be checked for any physical damages. 4. After completion of all the wet trades around the window opening, the main frame is then fixed onto the sub-frame. Millet should be used to knock the finishing trim in place. 43
- 47. CLARETSISIKAAYISI7.0ROOF Defined as a structure forming the upper covering of a building and in this position is fully exposed to rain, wind, sun and general atmosphere. The roof functions as the primary sheltering for the interior spaces of the building. Nowadays, people adapt their houses in accordance to the climate and weather conditions of the place. However, aside serving their primary purpose, the roofs used in urban areas have been transformed into an ornamental artwork that is appealing to the eye. Roofs are majorly classified into: Pitch roof and Reinforced Concrete roof. 44
- 48. TYPE OF ROOF (ON SITE) Gable Roof with steel trusses The roof on our site was a Gable roof, with two sides sloping upwards and meets at the ridge of the roof. The steel trusses are supported by concrete beams. It is then fitted on with steel tiles. Manufacturing of Steel roof Truss Step One Galvanized steels are made and cut into specific lengths and sizes. They are then stacked together ready to be assembled. Step Two Individual parts of the trusses are now ready to be assembled and it’s placed in the jig. Step Three Individual parts of the webs of trusses are screwed together. Step Four The roof trusses that are ready to be delivered are loaded on the truck directly from the assembly station and are now ready to be used to build the roof. Gable Roof Hipped Roof Flat Roof Gambrel Roof Mansard Roof Shed Roof BASIC ROOF TYPES 7.0 Roof 45
- 49. RIDGE CLEAT PURLIN PRINCIPAL RAFTER GUSSET PLATES Installation of Truss This is a first step of installation of any type of roofing. Type of truss used on site is steel roof truss. A steel roof truss is a plane frame consisting of a series of grid triangles composed of compression members (rafters and struts) and tension members (ties). They opted for steel truss so as to prevent weathering and termite assault, and besides that, it is lighter than wooden frames. The Roof beam is supported by concrete beams Roof Beam Roof Installation Installation of the Roof on site consists of five main stages: 1. Installation of Truss 2. Laying of Waterproofing 3. Installation of Counter lathing 4. Installation of steel tiles 5. Ceiling installation 7.0 Roof 46
- 50. Laying of waterproofing After the installation of truss system, they lay down the waterproofing, with overlaps. For the additional durability, it is glued with special tape. This is the stage where they initiate installation of the insulator (thermal and heat insulation foil) and Mineral wool. Functions of the Layers. Thermal and Heat Insulation Foil 1. Heat reflecting, sound insulation and anti- vibration 2. Suitable for tropical areas like Malaysia 3. Light, soft, dust free, retardant and easy to install 4. Moisture and thermal protection. Mineral Wool 1. Thermal Insulation 2. Acoustic Insulation 3. Fire protection 4. Water-resistant and vapor permeable 5. Ecologically safe Installation of the Layers Thermal and Heat Insulation Foil - Insulation is freely supported by itself and lies over the purlins. - The insulation sheets are laid with overlaps, and are taped with reinforcement tapes to join the sheets. Mineral Wool - The Mineral wool is then applied onto the Insulation sheets - A metal sheet is first laid, then the wool is applied onto it. The technique is to use the weight of the metal sheet to secure the wool. Reinforcement Foil Tape 7.0 Roof 47
- 51. Installation of counter lathing Counter lathing is necessary for the creation of ventilated space between insulation and waterproofing layers under the roofing. Aside that, it helps to secure the steel tiles onto the roof. Installation of steel tiles Installation of the roof tiles starts with the bottom row, and the tiles are installed looking up from the ground. The tiles are laid from the gable ends, then from the hips, into the valleys. The panels are lined up with the eaves, and not the gable. Additional fastening needs to be provided, as the roof pitch decreases. For example, you can use additional screws. A small distance is left between tiles on the eaves so as to ensure the necessary air access and ventilation under the roof. After the installation process is complete, excess material is trimmed off using sander. Then the roof is cleaned to remove all the debris and dust from it. Roof tiles shape Pan tiles The steel tiles have an S-shaped profile, allowing adjacent tiles to interlock. These result in a ridged pattern resembling a ploughed field. Characteristics of the Roof Tiles (from Site) - Interlocking tiles - Lightweight - Supplied with a good coloured finish - Corrosion resistant 7.0 Roof 48
- 52. Materials Metal Tiles (steel) Metal tiles are suitable for use in many climates, since the material adapts well to sudden changes in temperature. This particular type of roofing material is used to cover new buildings as well as renovate the finished structures. Externally metal tile resembles traditional natural tile. Galvanized steel sheets are used for its production; they are primed and passivized (coated with a special protective structure that averts zinc from oxidation) from different sides. A decorative layer of acrylic paint is applied onto one of the sides; the other one is covered with a protective layer. Metal tiles are produced with a goffered, wavy surface or in the form of small scale-shaped tiles. They are also light in weight and inexpensive. ADVANTAGES - Aesthetic. - Lighter than clay and concrete tiles. - Fire resistant. - Strong and durable. - Easy to install, as they are light in weight. - Moisture resistant - Minimal maintenance and costs. DISADVANTAGES - Noise. For instance, when it rains. - Dents 7.0 Roof 49
- 53. Ceiling Installation The final work on the roof is the installation of the ceiling to cover the visible structure of the roof. This leaves the roof, and the entire building with an aesthetic look. Steps of Ceiling installation (from site) HANGER HANGER PRIMARY CHANNEL - A hanger is placed on a point and secured by mechanical fastening. - The primary channel is attached to the hanger horizontally and secured by mechanical fastening. PRIMARY CHANNEL CEILING FURRINGWIRE CLIP PLASTER BOARD CEILING FURRING - Ceiling furring is attached with Primary channel using grid system. It is the attached with a wire clip. - Plasterboard is attached to the ceiling furring and secured by mechanical fastening. 1. 4.3. 2. METAL TILE MINERAL WOOL INSULATION SHEET ROOF BEAM PLASTER BOARD CEILING FURRING HANGERS 7.0 Roof 50
- 54. Roof Construction Details (On Site) Ridge The ridge of a roof is the horizontal area where two sloped roof sides meet. The ridge area should be capped to ensure a watertight roof system as well as aesthetic appeal. The ridge is also utilized for enhancing attic ventilation. In most occasions, the roof vent is usually installed on the ridge. Eaves An eave is the edge of a roof; usually projects beyond the side of a building serving both a decorative and practical function. Gutter The main purpose of a rain gutter is to protect the building’s foundation by channeling water away from the basement. RIDGE TILE ROOFING RAFTER RIDGE TREE MORTAR UNDERLAY BATTEN METAL GUTTER METAL FASCIA METAL TILES GUTTER STRAP METAL RETURN FASTENER METAL SHIELD 7.0 Roof 51
- 55. From this project, we have gain a lot of knowledge about the construction process of a building. We’re able to analyse many elements from the construction sites. We’ve deepened our knowledge of the construction methods, processes of involved for each element, detail, construction terminologies, application of materials, safety, hazards, and the machineries used on the site. Besides, we’re able to learn the things that can’t be learnt from being confined in the four walls of classroom. These are the things that we can only be learnt from experience. The construction process is more complicated than we thought because every single step and procedure are linked and important to each other. Therefore, it has to be carried out specificity and caution to ensure the final buildings are safe to the client and also the whole community. 8.0 Summary 8.0SUMMARY 52
- 56. Site Safety ( Dixon ) -Worker safety, Retrieve October 18, 2016 from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3252/3252.html -Backhoe Loader, Retrieve October 18, 2016 from http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/backhoe-loader1.htm -Machinery , Retrieve October 18, 2016 from http://www.hst.uk.com/news/different-types-plant-machinery/ Preliminaries work ( Theresa ) - General Information for Trench Design,Retrieved October 17, 2016 from http://www.iowasudas.org/manuals/design/Chapter09/9B-1.pdf - Installation and Construction, Retrieved October 17, 2016 from https://plasticpipe.org/pdf/chapter-6_installation_construction.pdf -Guide to Earthwork Construction, Retrieved October 17, 2016 from http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/sar/sar_8.pdf Foundation ( Yau Vern ) -Bryan, T. (2010). Construction technology: Analysis and choice. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: Blackwell. -Illingworth, J. R. (2000). Construction methods and planning (Second ed.). London: E & FN Spon. -@. (2013). TYPES OF PAD FOUNDATIONS. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/types-of-pad-foundations/7514/ Superstructure Beams & Columns ( Siew Ni ) -Building Construction Handbook, Fifth Edition | PDF Download. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://zeabooks.com/book/building- construction-handbook-fifth-edition/ -Love, T. W. (1973). Construction manual: Concrete & formwork. Los Angeles: Craftsman Book of America. -Powers, J. M. (n.d.). Patent US6920728 - Column and beam construction and method. Retrieved October 18, 2016, from https://www.google.com/patents/US6920728 -L. (1970). Beam and slab. Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://construction-greatopportunity.blogspot.my/2012/03/beam-and-slab.html Walls & Slabs ( Nurul Shahira ) @. (2010). RCC SLAB CASTING – WORK PROCEDURE. Retrieved October 10, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/concrete/rcc-slab-casting-work- procedure/1656/ Concrete slab - Reinforcement. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2016, from https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/toolbox/buildright/content/bcgbc4010a/10_floor_systems/03_concrete_slab_reinforcement/page_001.htm What is the meaning of the term B.R.C ? (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2016, from https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070324144002AAXHHnO B. (2015). Pouring concrete slab for a small building. Retrieved October 10, 2016, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P3-abjVk3A0 Staircase ( Qiao Er ) -Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2010). Building construction handbook (7th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. -Stair Construction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://schools.ednet.ns.ca/avrsb/133/ritchiek/notes/Text/grade10/stairconstruction.htm Doors & Windows ( Zhe khai ) -Window installation,Retrieved October 18, 2016,from https://www.bca.gov.sg/Professionals/IQUAS/..%5CIquas%5Cgpgs%5CAWindow%5CAWInstallation.pdf -Door Installation, Retrieved October 18,2016 , from https://www.bca.gov.sg/Professionals/IQUAS/others/doorinstallation.pdf Roof ( Clare ) -Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (1999). Construction technology (3rd ed.). Harlow: Longman. -Steel Tile Co. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://steeltile.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/install-manual.pdf -All types of roofing and roofing materials, USA - Hantekor. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://www.hantekor.com/ 9.0REFERENCES 53