COLARUSSO DISSERTATION 5.12.15

Copyright
by
Joseph C. Colarusso
2015

EUGENE “GENE” AMMONS: THE COALESCENCE OF SWING,
RHYTHM AND BLUES, AND BEBOP IN MODERN JAZZ
by
Joseph C. Colarusso
M.M. Performance Jazz Emphasis, University of Texas at Austin, 2003
B.M. Performance Jazz Emphasis, University of Texas at Austin, 1996
Nontreatise Lecture Recital Document
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of
The University of Texas at Austin
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Musical Arts in Performance (Jazz Emphasis)
The University of Texas at Austin
May 2015

Dedication
This paper is dedicated to my wife, Xochitl, and our girls, Xoey and Lila,
with all of my love.

v
Acknowledgements
First, I would like to thank my wife, Xochitl, for her abundant love and support
while I worked on this project. I would also like to thank our daughters, Xoey and Lila,
for the endless reserves of inspiration that they give me for this and all endeavors. Special
thanks to my parents, Joe and Barbara Colarusso, for being the best parents, teachers and
role models that anyone could ever ask for. I would like to express my deepest gratitude
and appreciation to my committee supervisor and studio teacher, John Mills, for patiently
teaching me over a number of years, and for being the highest caliber of music educator
both in the classroom and on the bandstand. Thanks to my co-supervisor, Jeff Hellmer,
for teaching me how to rehearse and play in a big band. My students will reap the
benefits of his exceptional and unparalleled jazz ensemble pedagogy. Additionally, I am
indebted to the rest of my committee members from the Butler School of Music; John
Fremgen, Michael Tusa, and Eric Drott. They are leading scholars in their respective
fields; moreover, they were an invaluable part of my music education. I would also like
to express my gratitude to Morris Stevens, Jr. for serving as my outside committee
member, and I look forward to continuing my education with him as we work together at
St. Edward’s University. Lastly, I would like to thank everyone else who has ever helped
me to maximize my potential as a musician, student, educator, and human being.

vi
Abstract
EUGENE “GENE” AMMONS: THE COALESCENCE OF SWING,
RHYTHM AND BLUES, AND BEBOP IN MODERN JAZZ
Joseph C. Colarusso, D.M.A.
The University of Texas at Austin, 2015
Supervisor: John Mills
This research project is an exploration of the life and music of Eugene “Gene”
Ammons. Though he has been largely overlooked and underrated by many jazz critics
and historians, Gene Ammons’ impact on the evolution of jazz and his pervading
influence on the jazz saxophonists that came after him is an undercurrent that reaches far
and wide. The son of famous boogie-woogie pianist Albert Ammons, Gene Ammons
evolved into a saxophone player whose style was steeped in the rhythm and blues
tradition. At the same time, a jazz revolution was taking place as musicians like Charlie
Parker and Dizzy Gillespie were pioneering the new bebop language. Ammons, having
cut his teeth as the solo tenor saxophonist in the Billy Eckstine Orchestra, soon became a
master of the new jazz language. He successfully married traditional swing with
emotional rhythm and blues and sophisticated bebop, a skill that set him apart from jazz
musicians confined to one niche or subgenre in jazz. Ultimately, Ammons’ developed

vii
style was a paragon of soul jazz, spreading throughout the Hard Bop Era. I will use
historical data along with analysis of Ammons’ solo transcriptions to present Gene
Ammons as one of the unsung heroes of the saxophone, with his musical contributions
meriting consideration within the narrative of modern jazz.

viii
Table of Contents
List of Tables .......................................................................................................... x!
List of Examples .................................................................................................... xi!
Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 1!
Chapter 2 Biographical Overview ......................................................................... 5
Chapter 3 The Sound and Vocality of Gene Ammons ........................................ 17
Sound ........................................................................................................... 17
Vocality........................................................................................................ 19
Chapter 4 Rhythmic Devices ............................................................................... 24
The Eighth-Note Feel and the Rhythmic Pocket ......................................... 24
Hemiola........................................................................................................ 27
Chapter 5 Gene Ammons' Vocabulary: The Coalescence of Swing, Rhythm
and Blues, and Bebop .................................................................................. 32
Elements of Swing: The Influence of Lester Young ................................... 32
6/9 Common Language: The Major Pentatonic Scale ........................ 34
Dominant7(!5): The Creation and Resolution of Tension.................. 38
Elements of Rhythm and Blues: The Milieu of Illinois Jacquet and
Red Prysock ................................................................................................. 43
Use of the Blues Scale ........................................................................ 46
Prolongation of One Repeated Note ................................................... 49
Motivic Repetition/Development........................................................ 56
Elements of Bebop: The Influence of Charlie Parker and Sonny Stitt ........ 59
Surround Tones................................................................................... 60
Scalar Versus Arpeggiated Diminished Chords ................................. 62
Double-time passages ......................................................................... 65
Harmonic Devices: Passing Chords.................................................... 67
Diminished Passing Chords....................................................... 68
Minor Passing Chords: iii7-!iii7 and the Use of Sequences...... 69

ix
Chapter 6 Conclusion........................................................................................... 74
Appendix A Complete Solo Transcriptions of Gene Ammons ........................... 78
Appendix B Solo Transcriptions of Lester Young, Illinois Jacquet and
Red Prysock Completed in a Comparative Study of Gene Ammons ........ 102!
Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 116
Selected Discography.......................................................................................... 120!
Curriculum Vitae for Joseph Colarusso.............................................................. 122!

x
List of Tables
Table 2.1:!Musicians Who Studied with Captain Walter Dyett.............................. 7!
Table 2.2:!Musicians Who Played in the Billy Eckstine Orchestra...................... 11
Table 5.1:!Chord Changes for 'Bird Blues' ........................................................... 68!
!

xi
List of Examples
Example 4.1: Gene Ammons, "Please Send Me Someone to Love,"
mm. 89-93.. ........................................................................................ 27
Example 4.2: Charlie Parker, "Moose the Mooch," mm. 29-32........................... 28
Example 4.3: Gene Ammons, "Blues Up and Down" (1961), mm. 176-180....... 29
Example 4.5: Gene Ammons, "Anna," mm. 53-55............................................... 30
Example 5.1: Lester Young, "Lester Leaps In," mm. 4-7..................................... 35
Example 5.2: Lester Young, "Lester Leaps In," mm. 129-132............................. 36
Example 5.3: Gene Ammons, "Blowing the Blues Away," mm. 37-39............... 36
Example 5.4: Gene Ammons, "St. Louis Blues," mm. 1-5................................... 37
Example 5.5: Gene Ammons, "Red Top," mm. 41-42 ......................................... 37
Example 5.6: Gene Ammons, "Blues Up and Down" (1950), mm. 1-4............... 38
Example 5.7: Lester Young, "Lester Leaps In," mm. 57-61................................. 39!
Example 5.8: Gene Ammons, "Blowing the Blues Away," mm. 39-41............... 40
Example 5.9: Gene Ammons, "St. Louis Blues," mm. 15-17............................... 41
Example 5.10: Gene Ammons, "Juggernaut," mm. 86-90.................................... 41
Example 5.11: Gene Ammons, "Blues Up and Down" (1961), mm. 213-215..... 42
Example 5.12: Illinois Jacquet, "Flying Home," mm. 26-29................................ 47
mm. 33-35 .......................................................................................... 48
mm. 67-69 .......................................................................................... 49
mm. 45-49 .......................................................................................... 49
Example 5.16: Illinois Jacquet, "Flying Home," mm. 33-49................................ 51
Example 5.17: Red Prysock, "Blow Your Horn," mm. 168-183.......................... 52

xii
Example 5.23: Red Prysock, "Blow Your Horn," mm. 60-63.............................. 57
Example 5.27: Charlie Parker, "Thriving From a Riff," mm. 41-43 .................... 61
Example 5.28: Gene Ammons, "Blowing the Blues Away," mm. 46-48............. 61
Example 5.30: Sonny Stitt, "Blues Up and Down" (1950), mm. 16-19 ............... 63
mm. 57-58 .......................................................................................... 64
mm. 89-90 .......................................................................................... 64
Example 5.33: Charlie Parker, "Blues for Alice," mm. 20-23.............................. 65
mm. 89-93 .......................................................................................... 67
Example 5.36: Gene Ammons, "Blues Up and Down" (1961), mm. 1-5............. 69
Example 5.37: Sonny Stitt, "Blues Up and Down" (1950), mm. 37-41 ............... 69
Example 5.38: Charlie Parker, "Moose the Mooch," mm. 57-61......................... 70
Example 5.39: Gene Ammons, "Red Top," mm. 37-40 ....................................... 71

xiii
Example 5.41: Gene Ammons, "Anna," mm. 53-55............................................. 72
!
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1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Eugene “Gene” Ammons (1925-1974) was a bebop saxophonist with roots that
were heavily steeped in the urban blues tradition that would ultimately become rhythm
and blues. From an early age up through musical maturity, his parents, teachers, mentors
and colleagues gave him the tools and opportunities that would position him for success
in the world of music. These pivotal experiences in Ammons’ education and career,
presented in Chapter 2, molded him into one of the unsung heroes of the Modern Jazz
Era1, and his contribution to the narrative of jazz merits more consideration than it has
been given to date.
The saxophone is an instrument that can be played in a highly individualistic
manner. Whereas many other instrumentalists distinguish themselves through their
unique vocabulary, exceptional saxophonists can often be identified solely by the quality
of their sound. John Coltrane, Stan Getz and Michael Brecker could easily be picked out
of an aural lineup, even if they were playing long tones. Gene Ammons is another great
tenor saxophonist who fits into this ‘exceptional tone’ category. In terms of style, he was
influenced by the Swing-Era tenor giants, Lester Young and Coleman Hawkins, and this
paper will address these significant qualities in his playing.2 In 2008, three-time Grammy
award-winning jazz vocalist Nancy Wilson hosted a one-hour documentary on Gene
Ammons for National Public Radio, putting his sound and style into historical
perspective. According to Wilson, Ammons played with Coleman Hawkins’ big, hot
1 Jazz from the Bebop Era (beginning in the early-mid 1940s) up to the present will hereafter be referred to
as ‘modern jazz.’
2 Ed Enright, “Gene Ammons: Ultimate Redemption,” Down Beat, August 1, 2012, accessed January 31,
2015, http://www.downbeat.com/default.asp?sect=stories&subsect=story_detail&sid=1125.

2
sound and Lester Young’s sense of lyricism.3 Chapter 3 of this document will discuss
Ammons’ sound (tonal concept) and his vocality (sense of lyricism). An examination of
prevalent rhythmic devices ingrained in his style is presented in Chapter 4.
In addition to having an enormous and distinctive sound, Ammons possessed the
ability to synthesize elements of swing, rhythm and blues, and bebop. This resulted in his
composite vocabulary, discussed in Chapter 5, that was both unique and accessible to
audiences over multiple demographics. His swing vernacular included frequent use of
melodic ideas that ‘blanket’4 the chord changes with the major pentatonic scale whose
root is tonic in the parent key. This approach is known in some circles as ‘6/9 common
language.’ That combined with his extensive use of dominant7(!5) chords pays homage
to Lester Young’s approach to improvisation. Ammons’ frequent use of blues
vocabulary, prolongation of a single repeated note, and motivic repetition prove that the
saxophonist was also greatly influenced by the rhythm and blues movement. Lastly,
Ammons’ penchant for the new bebop, or ‘bop,’ language is illustrated in his use of
surround tones, employment of double-time passages, and treatment of diminished and
minor passing chords.
At closer examination, it is easy to see the tremendous impact that Gene Ammons
had on the evolution of jazz music and its musicians. During his tenure with Billy
Eckstine’s band, he contributed greatly to the establishment of the dueling tenor
saxophone format known as the ‘tenor battle.’ The saxophonist’s widow, Mildred
Ammons, described the symbiotic relationship between her late husband and Sonny Stitt.
She recounted that the Gene Ammons/Sonny Stitt collaborations showcased Ammons’
3 Nancy Wilson, “Gene Ammons: ‘The Jug’,” NPR’s Jazz Profiles, February 20, 2008, accessed April 12,
2014, http://www.npr.org/2008/02/20/19172123/gene-ammons-the-jug.
4 Blanketing chord changes involves using one common scale or set of pitches to play over multiple chords.

3
big sound and Stitt’s flashy technique, and together their styles complemented each
other.5
Ultimately, Ammons used his developed amalgamation of swing, rhythm and
blues, and bebop sound and vocabulary to become a pivotal player of soul jazz in the
Hard Bop Era. The groove-oriented subgenre known as soul jazz began to thrive in the
early 1960s.6 However, the saxophonist was forced to assert his influence on this new
subgenre by proxy while spending the majority of the sixties in federal prison on drug
charges. He died in 1974 at the premature age of forty-nine.
Much has been written about Ammons’ contemporaries such as Dexter Gordon,
John Coltrane, and Stan Getz; however, Gene Ammons is mysteriously underrepresented
in jazz history texts. It is possible that his identification with the rhythm and blues style
worked to his detriment when being considered by jazz critics. Doug Miller, lecturer and
saxophonist with the Count Basie Orchestra, published an article in Popular Music in
1995 in which he states:
Saxophonists, particularly jazz tenorists who crossed over into R&B, were
criticised for playing ‘rock and roll.’ Sam ‘The Man’ Taylor, for example, was
called to account in a discussion sponsored by Down Beat magazine. Others were
labeled by jazz critics as ‘extrovert moderns’ or ‘ audience getters.’7
Nancy Wilson asserts that Ammons possessed musical gifts commensurate with those of
other jazz icons of the forties, fifties and sixties; however, he “rarely got a second look by
5 Wilson, “Gene Ammons: ‘The Jug’”.
6 Nick Morrison, “Soul Jazz: Where Jazz, Blues and Gospel Meet,” NPR’s Take Five: A Jazz Sampler,
January 4, 2010, accessed February 4, 2015, http://www.npr.org/2010/01/04/98279702/soul-jazz-where-
jazz-blues-and-gospel-meet.
7 Doug Miller, “The Moan Within the Tone: African Retentions in Rhythm and Blues Saxophone Style in
Afro-American Popular Music,” Popular Music 14, no. 2 (May, 1995): 169, accessed February 16, 2014,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/853397.

4
many of the jazz writers and critics of his era.”8 Additionally, jazz critics of the 1950s
and 1960s showed an inclination to reserve their praise for artists that were clear
innovators, rather than acknowledging those performers that assimilate on a very high
level such as Ammons. Because Albert Ammons was generally accepted to be one of the
preeminent boogie-woogie pianists of the day, it is also possible that Gene Ammons
faced the burden of living in his father’s artistic shadow.
I believe, however, that Ammons’ inclination to play fearlessly across
styles/genres, without worrying about being a purist in any one particular style, set him
apart from many of his contemporaries who could easily be pigeonholed into one
category or another. For this reason, I have decided to explore Ammons in depth. Though
he recorded up until shortly before his death in 1974, this paper addresses his recordings
from 1944 to 1962. These were his developmental, evolutionary years. All of the
transcriptions presented in this paper, whether excerpted as examples or compiled in
complete form in the Appendices, are written for either B! tenor saxophone or E! alto
saxophone (rather than notating concert or sounding pitches) in an attempt to reflect
performance practice on these instruments. Through my extensive analysis of Ammons’
sound and approach to improvisation, I hope to provide an account of the saxophonist’s
significant contributions to the transition from swing to modern jazz.

5
CHAPTER 2
Biographical Overview
Gene Ammons was born on April 14, 1925 on the south side of Chicago in a
neighborhood known as Bronzeville. Black émigrés had been moving north from the
Gulf Coast in droves during the 1920s, settling, among other places, on the south side of
Chicago. A newspaper writer named James J. Gentry witnessed this transformation on the
south side of town and gave the neighborhood its moniker. The south side of Chicago
was the original Bronzeville; however, Bronzevilles were established in other northern
cities including Detroit, Indianapolis and Milwaukee. Across the segregated North, these
neighborhoods served as black towns within white cities.9
Ammons was from a musical family. Both of his parents were pianists; moreover,
his father was the famous boogie-woogie pianist, Albert Ammons. To date, much more
can be found in the histories on Albert Ammons than on his son, Gene. Pianists like
Albert Ammons, Pete Johnson, Meade “Lux” Lewis and Camille Howard were playing
left-hand ostinato patterns that would define the boogie-woogie style and, ultimately,
serve as the most essential rhythmic figure of rock and roll guitar.10 It was Albert
Ammons who first introduced the younger Ammons to boogie-woogie and the blues. The
pianist spent a lot of time on the road performing; however, when he was home, Meade
9 Preston Lauterbach, The Chitlin’ Circuit: And the Road to Rock ‘n’ Roll (New York: W.W. Norton and
Company, 2011), 15.
10 Robert Walser, “The Rock and Roll Era,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, ed. Dave
Nicholls (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 348.

6
“Lux” Lewis and Pete Johnson were frequent visitors at the Ammons house.11 Albert
Ammons’ boogie-woogie piano playing undoubtedly influenced his sons’ eventual
penchant for fusing the bebop elements that the young saxophonist acquired later with the
blues elements introduced at home.
Like many other saxophonists of his era, Gene Ammons began his music
education on clarinet, making the transition to the tenor saxophone shortly thereafter.12
He attended DuSable High School and studied music under the baton of the renowned
Captain Walter Henri Dyett.13 An alumnus of The University of California at Berkeley,
“Captain” Walter Dyett was given his nickname when he began conducting the Eighth
Regiment Army Band of the Illinois National Guard. Dyett, a violinist, began playing
with Erskine Tate a few years after moving to Chicago in 1921. During his tenure at
DuSable High School, he became famous for his high musical standards. He was a strict
disciplinarian, whose pedagogy included lots of yelling and swearing; however, he was
also remembered by his students for his ability to motivate. Tenor saxophonist and
DuSable alumnus Bill Adkins claimed that the band director could not say good morning
without cursing. Adkins also states that Dyett was a remarkable communicator who
would have been successful teaching any subject.14 The bandmaster schooled a
remarkable number of student musicians who would soon become famous, many of
whom are listed below in Table 2.1. Among others, this list includes jazz saxophone
12 Dan Morgenstern, Living with Jazz (New York: Pantheon Books, 2004), 229.
13 Richard Wang, “Captain Walter Dyett,” Chicago Jazz Magazine (May 27, 2008),
http://www.chicagojazz.com/thescene/captain-walter-dyett-86.html.
14 Timuel D. Black, Jr., Bridges of Memory: Chicago's Second Generation of Black Migration (Evanston,
Il: Northwestern University Press, 2007), 82-83.

7
legends Gene Ammons, Johnny Griffin, Eddie Harris, Von Freeman and Clifford Jordan;,
Count Basie trumpeter George T. “Sonny” Cohn and Duke Ellington trumpeter Ray
Nance; jazz vocal icons Johnny Hartman, Nathaniel Adams Coles (known professionally
as Nat King Cole) and Dinah Washington; famous jazz bassists Milt Hinton and Wilbur
Ware; and drummers Jerome Cooper, Wilbur Campbell and Walter “Baby Sweets”
Perkins. Saxophonists John Gilmore (Sun Ra), Joseph Jarmon (Art Ensemble of Chicago)
and experimental violinist Leroy Jenkins would eventually emerge as important avant-
garde voices. Other commercially successful graduates from DuSable High School
include rock and roll guitarist and vocalist Bo Diddley, as well as comedian and actor
Redd Foxx. Dr. Emil Hamberlin was a teacher a DuSable High School for over thirty
years. In a 1996 interview, he claimed that most all of the black students at DuSable High
School were “aggressively academic,” because they realized that education was their way
out of poverty.15
Table 2.1: Musicians who studied with Captain Walter Dyett
Gene Ammons Red Foxx Clifford Jordan
Ronnie Boykins Von Freeman King Kolax
Oscar Brashear John Gilmore Claude McLin
Homer Brown Bennie Green Jessie Miller
Wilbur Campbell Johnny Griffin Ray Nance
Sonny Cohn Eddie Harris Pat Patrick
Nat King Cole Johnny Hartman Walter Perkins
Jerome Cooper Milt Hinton Julian Priester
Richard Davis Fred Hopkins Wilbur Ware
Bo Diddley Joseph Jarman Dinah Washington
Dorothy Donegan Leroy Jenkins John Young
15 Black, Bridges of Memory: Second Generation, 212-213.

8
Historian and author Dempsey Travis claimed that “DuSable High School
produced more jazz musicians in the 1930s and 40s under the direction of Captain Walter
Dyett than any other institution in the country.”16 At DuSable High, Dyett directed the
beginner band, concert band, honors band, booster band, ROTC band and the orchestra.
In 1936, the band director began producing the school’s annual Hi-Jinks musicals, a
tradition that continued well into the 1960s after he retired. Because of Dyett, DuSable
High School became so widely known for its musical talent that famous jazz musicians
such as Duke Ellington would drop in to scout talent and meet with the students.17 In
2008, the Institute of Chicago organized a celebration of Captain Dyett and his career as a
public school music teacher. The commemoration included naming a plaza after Dyett
and unveiling a statue of him. Like so many other great musicians from the south side of
Chicago, Gene Ammons learned to hone his musical craft into art under the tutelage of
Captain Walter Dyett.
While still attending DuSable High School, Ammons joined trumpeter King
Kolax’s band and soon became the band’s featured soloist on the tenor saxophone. Kolax
was born William Little in Kansas City in 1912, but his family moved to Chicago where
he too studied music under the direction of Captain Walter Dyett.18 Kolax’s band was a
staging ground for many notable jazz icons including Charlie Parker, Nat “King” Cole,
16 Dempsey J. Travis, An Autobiography of Black Jazz, 1st
ed. (Chicago: Urban Research Institute, Inc.,
1983), 208.
17 Timuel D. Black, Jr., Bridges of Memory: The First Wave of Black Migration (Evanston, Il:
Northwestern University Press, 2003), 181-182.
18 Robert L. Campbell, Armin Büttner and Robert Pruter, “The King Kolax Discography,” Clemson
University, August 20, 2013, accessed February 15, 2015, http://myweb.clemson.edu/~campber/kolax.html.

9
John Coltrane, and Cannonball Adderley. Shortly after joining Kolax’s band, Ammons
left school on a national tour with him which included multiple engagements at the
famous Savoy Ballroom.19 In 1944, Billy Eckstine heard Ammons perform with Kolax
and hired the saxophonist on the spot.
Dubbed the “Sepia Sinatra” by Down Beat magazine, vocalist and trumpeter
William Clarence “Billy” Eckstine left the Earl Hines Orchestra in 1943 with the hopes
of putting his own band together.20 The following year he formed his own group and,
though it was only extant from 1944 to 1947, his ensemble was an all-star band
comprised of some of the top bebop musicians around at that time. Some historians such
as Kenny Mathieson claim that his band was a “crucial staging post on the way to
bebop.”21 Nancy Wilson described the group as fertile ground for the imminent bebop
revolution.22 Jazz historian and former editor for Metronome and Down Beat magazines,
Dan Morgenstern, makes this claim as well, calling the band the “chief incubator of
budding bebop talent.”23 Other historians such as Barry Kernfeld go one step further,
claiming that the Billy Eckstine Orchestra was indeed the first bebop band.24
An extraordinary number of jazz legends, listed below in Table 2.2, performed
with the Billy Eckstine Orchestra. This included bebop pioneers such as Charlie Parker
and Sonny Stitt on the alto saxophone; Gene Ammons, Charlie Rouse, Wardell Gray, Eli
19 Barry Kernfeld, “Ammons, Gene,” American Nation Biography Online, February, 2000, accessed
February 11, 2015, http://www.anb.org.ezproxy.lib.utexas.edu/articles/18/18-02717.html.
20 Cary Ginell, Mr. B: The Music and Life of Billy Eckstine (Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Books, 2013), 53.
21 Kenny Mathieson, Cookin’: Hard Bop and Soul Jazz, 1954-65 (Edinburgh, UK: Canongate Books,
2002), 71.
23 Morgenstern, Living with Jazz, 230.
24 Kernfeld, “Ammons, Gene”.

10
“Lucky” Thompson and Dexter Gordon on the tenor saxophone; as well as John Burkes
“Dizzy” Gillespie, Miles Davis and Fats Navarro on the trumpet. The influential jazz
vocalist Sarah Vaughan also worked with the Eckstine band. Some of the band members
went on to achieve success in other genres as well. Art Blakely became an iconic hard
bop drummer, founding and leading the Jazz Messengers for over thirty-five years.
Saxophonists Ammons and Lucky Thompson gained recognition as rhythm and blues
artists, and Dexter Gordon became a hard bop legend. Miles Davis was influential across
numerous genres beyond bebop, most notably cool jazz, hard bop, modal jazz and fusion.
According to Barry Kernfeld, Eckstine had originally hired Charlie Parker on alto
saxophone and Charlie Rouse on tenor saxophone; however, Rouse was apparently so
captivated by Parker’s playing that he couldn’t focus on his own parts. Consequently, he
was fired and replaced by Ammons, who served as the principal soloist with Eckstine’s
band from late 1944 until the band broke up in 1947. He shines on a number of the
orchestra’s hits including “Blowing the Blues Away,” “I Love the Rhythm in a Riff,”
“Second Balcony Jump,” “Cool Breeze” and “Oop Bop Sh’bam.” Additionally, Ammons
was featured along with Eckstine in the 1946 film Rhythm in a Riff.25 It was during his
tenure with the band that he earned the nickname “Jug.” The bandleader had ordered
straw hats for the guys and was surprised at the unusually large size of the saxophonist’s
head, at which time he declared that Ammons had a head like a jug.26
26 Bruce Walker, “Gene Ammons Biography,” Index of Musician Biographies, 2015, accessed February
22, 2015, http://www.musicianguide.com/biographies/1608003392/Gene-Ammons.html.

11
Table 2.2: Musicians who played in the Billy Eckstine Orchestra
Gene Ammons Wardell Gray Sonny Stitt
Art Blakey Budd Johnson Eli “Lucky” Thompson
Tadd Dameron Howard McGhee Jerry Valentine
Miles Davis Fats Navarro Sarah Vaughan
Dizzy Gillespie Charlie Parker
Dexter Gordon Charlie Rouse
In early 1947, Ammons was making his mark as a soloist in jam sessions at
Chicago’s Jumptown Club alongside contemporaries such as Miles Davis and Sonny
Stitt. He led his own small groups from the middle of 1947 until the spring of 1949.
Albert Ammons had been a recording artist for Mercury Records and, like his father,
Gene Ammons began to record for Mercury as well. In the summer of 1947, the record
label brought father and son together in the studio to record “Hiroshima” and “St. Louis
Blues.” There are very few recordings of Gene and Albert Ammons together, all of which
were recorded for Mercury Records over two recording dates. These include Mercury
8140 (“Why I’m Leaving You”), Mercury 8022 (“Swanee River Boogie” and “I Don’t
Want to See You”), Mercury 70158X45 (“Swanee River Boogie” and “I Don’t Want to
See You” from the same session); all recorded on July 2, 1946. Gene and Albert
Ammons’ last recorded collaboration took place on August 6, 1947, producing Mercury
8053 (“St. Louis Blues” and “Shufflin’ the Boogie”) and Mercury 8063 (“S.P. Blues” and
“Hiroshima”).27 Gene Ammons also had his first hit as leader in 1947. Entitled “Red
Top,” the tune was named after his wife, Mildred.28
27 Jazz Discography Project, “Gene Ammons Catalog,” Jazz Discography Project, last modified July 26,
2001, accessed March 19, 2015, http://www.jazzdisco.org/gene-ammons/catalog/.

12
In 1949, Stan Getz left Woody Herman’s illustrious Second Herd, also known as
the Four Brothers Band. That spring, Gene Ammons replaced Getz as Herman’s principal
saxophone soloist in the Second Herd; however, his tenure with the band was short-lived.
He left the band in early September of 1949 and was replaced by Billy Mitchell.29
Ammons’ brief experience with Woody Herman would be his last stint as a sideman.30
In 1950, Ammons began what was to become a long-standing partnership with
fellow Eckstine alumnus, Sonny Stitt. Although the Ammons/Stitt Septet was only
together formally for two years, the two saxophonists reunited several times during their
lives to perform and record. Stitt was very competitive, always flaunting his virtuosic
technique and inexhaustible vocabulary. Ammons had the enormous sound and an ability
to hush an audience with one note. Together, they complimented each other and they took
their show to cities in the North. From 1950 to 1951, the Ammons/Stitt Septet performed
frequently in Detroit, Philadelphia, New York City and Boston; however, the majority of
their gigs throughout this time were at Birdland in New York. It was during this period
that the two tenor saxophonists recorded their first version of “Blues Up and Down.”
After the Ammons/Stitt Septet formally dissolved in 1952, Ammons continued
enjoying success on the road and in the studio, recording frequently on the Prestige label.
Sadly, however, he had also begun using heroin. Dan Morgenstern maintains that the
saxophonist stayed clean throughout his time with the Billy Eckstine Orchestra and with

13
Woody Herman’s Second Herd.31 The accuracy of this statement, however, could be
challenged. Miles Davis claims in his autobiography that he himself began using heroin
while playing in Eckstine’s band (which was defunct by the end of 1947), and that
Ammons was the person who introduced him to the drug.32 Moreover, circumstances in
Herman’s band make it difficult to believe that Ammons wasn’t using heroin in the late
1940s. According to Stan Getz, heroin use was rampant in the Second Herd.33 Indeed,
Stan Getz and Serge Chaloff were both notorious for their addiction. By his own account,
however, Ammons started using heroin sometime in the early 1950s.34
In 1958, Ammons was sent to the Statesville Penitentiary near Joliet, Illinois on a
conviction for possession of narcotics. He was paroled two years later in June of 1960. It
was during this brief respite from jail time that Ammons made his seminal recording Boss
Tenor with Tommy Flanagan on piano, Doug Watkins on bass, Art Taylor on drums and
Ray Barretto on congas. This recording included one of Ammons’ biggest hits,
“Canadian Sunset.” Unfortunately, one of the terms of his parole involved his exclusion
from performing in clubs. After repeatedly asking in vain for consent to make a living
playing his saxophone, he ultimately began gigging without permission. His parole was
promptly revoked and he went back to prison to serve the remaining five months of his
original sentence. He was released for the second time in January of 1961.35
32 Miles Davis and Quincy Troupe, Miles: The Autobiography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), 96.
33John Twomey, “Stan Getz- 'The Sound': Pioneer of Cool, Bossa Nova and Modern Jazz,” 2004, accessed
February 23, 2015, http://www.stangetz.net/bio.html.

14
After his second release from federal prison, Ammons began recording
extensively on the Verve and Prestige labels. The saxophonist was at the height of his
career, making hit records like Boss Tenors, recorded with Sonny Stitt in August of 1961
and Up Tight!, recorded in October of the same year. With the terms of his parole now
lifted, he appeared often at McKie’s Lounge in Chicago with fellow saxophonists Dexter
Gordon, Sonny Stitt and James Moody. The Hammond B-3 organ had begun replacing
the piano in smaller jazz combos. Organists like Jimmy Smith, Richard “Groove” Holmes
and “Brother” Jack McDuff were connecting jazz fans to rhythm and blues, and Gene
Ammons was enthusiastic about the evolution of the Soul Jazz movement. He cut several
records during this time with his organ combos including Live! In Chicago with organist
Eddie Buster in August 1961, Twisting the Jug with Jack McDuff in November 1961,
Brother Jack Meets the Boss with McDuff in January 1962 and Preachin’ with Clarence
“Sleepy” Anderson on organ in May 1962.
Jazz historian and record producer, Bob Porter, claims that Ammons was at the
height of his musical career from 1961 to 1962. Porter also states that the saxophonist
was strung out on heroin that entire time.36 In September of 1962, Ammons was arrested
again, this time on the much more consequential charge of selling narcotics. Porter insists
that Ammons was set up and that someone in Cook County, Illinois “had it in” for him.37
Dan Morgenstern states, “it was a clear case of entrapment, including extortion of a bribe
37 Ibid.

15
($5,000 according to Gene), but there was no mercy.”38 Illinois’ narcotics laws were
strict, and Ammons was sentenced to another ten to twelve years back at Statesville
Penitentiary. He ended up serving seven years of that sentence, from September 1962 to
October of 1969.
While in prison serving this extended sentence, Ammons managed to keep his
music career alive. At Statesville, he was permitted to practice his saxophone.
Additionally, he was in charge of the music library and he directed the prison band.
Outside of prison, Bob Weinstock, founder and executive producer at Prestige Records,
was working to keep the Ammons name alive. Weinstock, whether because of some
feeling of foreboding or otherwise, had recorded the saxophonist extensively between
1961 and 1962; however, he did not release these recordings immediately. Instead, he
released them gradually and systematically during Ammons’ seven-year stay at
Statesville. Some of these Prestige releases include Velvet Soul (1964), Late Hour Special
(1964), Sock! (1965), Angel Eyes (1965) and Boss Soul! (1966).39
Twelve days after his release in October of 1969, Ammons began resurrecting his
career at the Plugged Nickel in Chicago with Kolax on the trumpet. The following month,
the saxophonist did a two-day session for Prestige which produced The Boss Is Back! and
Brother Jug!. The New York State Liquor Board ruled against allowing him to perform
in New York City after his discharge from prison; however, he was received warmly
everywhere else. He continued to collaborate with other formidable saxophonists on
39 Discogs, “Gene Ammons Discography,” 2015, accessed February 24, 2015,
http://www.discogs.com/artist/45107-Gene-Ammons.

16
performance dates at venues such as the North Park Hotel in Chicago where he
performed with Dexter Gordon and Don Byas. In 1973, Ammons recorded one last time
with Sonny Stitt on Together Again for the Last Time. Poetically, the last song Ammons
ever recorded was the title track to his final record, Goodbye. Shortly thereafter, he was
diagnosed with bone cancer and, on August 6, 1974, he passed. To the jazz community,
he bequeathed a legacy of earthy and visceral saxophonists that would pride themselves
in emulating the Gene Ammons sound.

17
CHAPTER 3
The Sound and Vocality of Gene Ammons
Perhaps the most distinguishing characteristics of Gene Ammons’ music are his
sound and vocality; moreover, many saxophonists have since tried to emulate his timbral
and lyrical qualities. While these two traits are used together to produce a sonic identity
on the saxophone, this chapter will unpack the two elements separately. Sound, used here
interchangeably with tone quality or timbre, can be manipulated with physical
adjustments to the diaphragm and throat position to shape or color the timbre of notes.
Additionally, the selection of particular reeds, mouthpieces and horns can influence a
saxophonist’s sound. Vocality, as it applies to Ammons, is a lyrical quality that can be
traced back to its origins in African vocal music, Afro-American preaching styles and
gospel music.
Sound
Nancy Wilson described Ammons’ sound as being “titanic-like.” According to
Chicago radio host John Corbett, Ammons could be picked out of a crowd, even if he was
playing long tones, because of the way that he attended to his sound. Trumpeter Lonnie
Hillyer recalls an experience playing with Charles Mingus’ band. Ammons was also on
that gig; and, according to Hillyer, the saxophonist hushed the audience with one note.40
Likewise, pianist Junior Mance claimed that Ammons had the biggest tenor sound that he
40 Paul F. Berliner, Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1994), 256.

18
had ever heard in his life. He stated that the saxophonist would buy a mouthpiece and file
it wide open in an effort to realize his tonal concept, making the mouthpiece unplayable
for anyone else.41
Before Ammons, many saxophonists, Lester Young included, were gravitating
toward the lighter, cleaner sounds of Rudy Wiedoft, Frankie Trumbauer, Bud Freeman
and Jimmy Dorsey. According to Doug Miller, however, numerous aspiring black
saxophonists, especially those that were contributing to the establishment of the rhythm
and blues style, were interested in imitating the “fatter, earthier sound” already modeled
by Sidney Bechet and Coleman Hawkins. This ‘Afro-American’ saxophone sound was
strengthened by managing an increase of the air column to produce a more balanced
relationship between a note’s fundamental harmonic and the overtones above the
fundamental. As a result, the center of resonance was forced out of the neck of the
saxophone and further into the body of the horn. More than any other Swing-Era
saxophonist, Hawkins’ tone quality served as a model for the next generation of
saxophone players, including Arnett Cobb, Illinois Jacquet, Al Sears and Buddy Tate.42
Hawkins’ tonal influence was a point of departure that led to the evolution of a rhythm
and blues saxophone tradition.
Ammons’ timbral concept also stemmed from the Hawkins school of tone
production. Additionally, his instrumental setup helped the saxophonist produce his
massive sound on the horn. He played a Conn 10M saxophone, a popular choice among
42 Miller, “Moan Within the Tone,” 157-158.

19
saxophonists looking for a hot sound. He favored playing on Brilhart mouthpieces as
well. The white Brilhart Tonalin mouthpiece with which Ammons is so often pictured is
plastic instead of the usual hard rubber or metal, and the plastic composition of this
mouthpiece helped to enhance the edgy buzz in Ammons’ tone.
The technique of growling is a concept in which the saxophonist hums or yells
while playing, thereby producing a harsh or raspy tone. This manipulation of tone quality
became a salient feature of the Afro-American saxophone sound. Hawkins often
reinforced his hot sound by growling, and prime examples of his inclination to growl
include his 1939 recording of “Fine Dinner” from Body and Soul and “Stealin’ the Bean”
from his 1959 album Hawk Eyes!. This greatly influenced Gene Ammons, which is
evidenced in his recordings of “Scrapple From the Apple” or “Please Send Me Someone
to Love,” both released on his 1961 record Live! In Chicago. Ultimately, Hawkins’
growling technique became a hallmark of the rhythm and blues saxophone tradition, as
exemplified by Red Prysock’s 1954 recording of “Blow Your Horn.”
Vocality
The concept of the hot, Afro-American sound is steeped in the African vocal
tradition. Portia K. Maltsby, a Professor Emerita of Folklore and Ethnomusicology at
Indiana University, states:
In Africa and throughout the diaspora, black musicians produce an array of
unique sounds, many of which imitate those of nature, animals, spirits and
speech…[by]…the manipulation of timbre, texture and shading in ways
uncommon to Western practice. Hence, the human voice plays such a central role

20
in African music and is utilized in all manner of ways to achieve a wide range of
timbres and nuances.43
Neo-African vocalizations known as ‘field hollers’ or ‘arhoolies’ had been a crucial way
for slaves to preserve their dignity and identity during the harsh conditions of slavery in
the Deep South. African-Americans in the 1800s were forced to preserve African cultural
traditions because their participation in Euro-American life was discouraged by whites.44
They accomplished this by singing spiritual hymns called ‘ring shouts.’ Richard
Crawford is a former president of the American Musicological Society and Professor
Emeritus of Music at the University of Michigan. In his book, An Introduction to
America’s Music, he remarks:
Ring dancing was and is found in many parts of Africa. Indeed, during the time of
slavery, the ring shout was a way to bring transplanted Africans together. The ring
allowed a synthesis of all the elements of African-American music, including
calls and hollers; call and response; additive rhythms and polyrhythms;
heterophony, blue notes, bent notes and elisions; hums, moans and vocables; off-
beat melodic phrasings and parallel intervals and chords; constant repetition of
rhythmic figures and melodic phrases; game rivalry; hand clapping, foot patting;
and a rock-steady pulse.45
Additionally, black preaching styles dating back to the beginning of the
nineteenth century heavily influenced the lyricism inherent in rhythm and blues music.
Geoff Alexander is the director of the Academic Film Archive of North America. In his
1986 paper entitled “Black Preaching Styles,” he writes that black orators preached
“with” their congregation instead of “to” them, establishing a rhythm of interaction or
43 Miller, “Moan Within the Tone,” 161.
44 Richard Crawford, An Introduction to America’s Music (NewYork, NY: W.W. Norton and Company,
2001), 249.
45 Ibid., 257.

21
‘call and response’ with their audiences. Furthermore, preachers intoned their sermons in
a singing style, often using pitch repetition in their delivery of the gospel.46 These
characteristics are evidenced in the 1961 recording of “Blues Up and Down,” as Gene
Ammons and Sonny Stitt trade high C’s for two choruses of the blues. Ammons’ 1962
organ-combo recording, Preachin’, is comprised of eleven gospel hymns including
“Abide With Me,” “Blessed Assurance,” “You’ll Never Walk Alone,” and “Holy Holy.”
Synthesizing these vocal traditions on instruments seemed like the natural course
of events, and the saxophone was frequently used as a lyrical substitute for the human
voice. Much of Ammons’ lyricism occurs as a result of the way he attacks and releases
notes. Often, Ammons would start a note with one fingering and end the same note with a
different fingering. In doing so, he would change the timbre and tuning of the note
(sometimes by a quarter tone), giving that note a certain gruff vocal inflection that
mimicked the nuances (throaty groans, choked screams, etc.) of the Neo-African vocal
tradition. This is evidenced on his 1961 recording of “Blues Up and Down.” Also on the
same recording, he manipulates the decay of certain notes by falling off of them in a
‘wailing’ manner, even going so far as to punctuate certain phrase endings with his
speaking voice (grunts, yells, etc.).
Ammons was known for his ability to vocalize on his instrument, which was
especially evident on his recorded ballads. Charles Walton was a drummer and Associate
Professor of Music at Malcolm X College in Chicago. He extolled Ammons’ lyricism,
46 Geoff Alexander, “Black Preaching Styles,” Academic Film Archive of North America, December 10,
1986, accessed April 28, 2015, http://www.afana.org/preaching.htm.

22
stating that Ammons played ballads as if he had the lyrics in mind. Billie Holiday
claimed that Ammons’ version of “My Foolish Heart” was her favorite, and Ira Gitler
said that he heard Dinah Washington’s voice in Ammons’ playing. According to Nancy
Wilson, Ammons possessed a skill for emoting that was in line with, and influenced by,
the lyricism of Lester Young.47
Saxophonists frequently use ‘subtone’ when playing ballads. The art of subtone
goes beyond just playing softly, as it is a fuller sound with less edge or brightness and is
often most effective in the lowest register of the saxophone.48 Ammons possessed this
ability to play subtone with a hot sound, displaying the influence of the Swing-Era
saxophonist, Ben Webster; and, the attack of these subtone notes occurs while tonguing
very lightly or not at all. The air column is interrupted significantly enough for the notes
to sound articulated, but the tongue may not actually touch the reed. This “V” tongue
(sounding like “vuh-vuh”) can be heard on Ammons’ recording of “You Better Go Now”
from his 1962 album Blue Groove, and can be compared to Ben Webster’s articulation
two decades earlier on “You, You Darlin’.”
A number of rhythm and blues saxophonists were synthesizing Hawkins’ fast,
volatile vibrato along with his big sound. Ammons, however, diverges from this trend,
adopting an approach that is more in line with Lester Young’s concept of vibrato.
Young’s slower vibrato broke from the old, Swing-Era traditions of Louis Armstrong and
48 Pete Thomas, “Subtone,” Taming the Saxophone, accessed April 3, 2015,
http://tamingthesaxophone.com/saxophone-subtone.

23
Coleman Hawkins. In fact, his forward-looking concept of vibrato foreshadowed the
emergence of the new bebop style of Charlie Parker, Sonny Stitt, Gene Ammons and
their contemporaries.
Gene Ammons’ use of growling, along with his hot and visceral tone quality,
were the influence of Coleman Hawkins. This, along with his use of Lester Young’s
lyrical blues vocalizations, gave him credibility as a rhythm and blues artist. Conversely,
his use of Young’s slower vibrato positioned him for success as a bebop player.
Ammons’ ability to amalgamate or compound the different ingredients that are
fundamental to his concept of sound contributed to his validation as a saxophonist who
was proficient in the rhythm and blues genre as well as the bebop style.

24
CHAPTER 4
Rhythmic Devices
Whereas most of the characteristics ingrained in Ammons’ concept of sound
support his inclusion predominantly in the rhythm and blues genre, there are other aspects
of his playing that substantiate his identity as a bebop player. Many of these traits are
melodic or harmonic; they are discussed in Chapter 5. Additionally, he employs certain
rhythmic devices with bebop implications that merit consideration.
The Eighth-Note Feel and the Rhythmic Pocket
The unevenness of swing eighth notes was less pronounced in bebop music,
especially as tempos began to increase.49 In this vein, Ammons’ eighth-note feel was a
departure from the highly pronounced, lilting eighth notes of Swing-Era saxophonists. In
fact he almost seemed to endorse a universal, slightly swung eighth-note feel, whether he
was playing swing or Latin tunes. Evidence of this can be heard on bossa novas like
“Pagan Love Song” from Bad! Bossa Nova or “Calypso Blues” on Night Lights. In both
cases, Ammons is discreetly swinging his eighth notes over a Latin bossa feel,
reminiscent of Charlie Parker’s Latin bebop approach to “A Night in Tunisia,” “Perdido,”
or “Barbados.” While saxophonists such as Sonny Stitt and Johnny Griffin were swinging
more overtly, Ammons’ approach to swing eighth notes was more in line with the subtler
swing feel of Dexter Gordon.
49 Richard J. Lawn, Experiencing Jazz (NewYork, NY: Routledge, 2013), 198.

25
In a jazz context, the rhythmic pocket is the regular and consistent placement of
the beat established by the bass and drums, and the placement of eighth notes within the
rhythmic pocket is a highly personalized aspect of a jazz performer’s identity in music.
Ammons generally opted to play right down the center of this pocket, distinguishing him
from some of his colleagues mentioned above. Sonny Stitt and Johnny Griffin gravitated
toward the front side of the beat. Dexter Gordon often laid back further, and was known
for playing ‘on his heels.’ Ammons’ pocket can be seen as a balance between Stitt’s
approach and Gordon’s feel.
Additionally, Ammons possessed the ability to float independently over the top of
the tempo at times. Dave Liebman calls this rhythmic device ‘over the time,’ stating:
A more abstract concept very much demonstrated by Eric Dolphy, Ornette
Coleman and John Coltrane at various periods is what I term over the time. This
means that for small episodic passages the improviser creates a sense of being out
of time without an obvious reference point. Usually these are fast noted passages
and wild sounding in texture, but the effect is of the improviser freeing himself
from the ongoing pulse like a bird in flight, quickly returning with a vengeance to
earth, or in other words completely swinging in time. The ability to do this
gracefully is one of the highest forms of time playing in my opinion. To be free
but to know where you are at the same time is magical.50
A connection can be made here to the polymetric and polyrhythmic time relationships
found in African music. Pulitzer prize-winning composer, author and historian Gunther
Schuller claims that African polyrhythms are very complex, involving phrases that
seldom coincide vertically. Rather than conforming to strict double-time rhythms within
the beat, playing ‘over the time’ is a gestural occurrence that transcends the confines of
50 Dave Liebman, “Jazz Rhythm,” 2009, accessed March 15, 2015,
http://www.daveliebman.com/Feature_Articles/JazzRhythm.htm.

26
the beat. In the African polyrhythmic tradition, these gestures are rhythmically additive
instead of divisive.51
Liebman is describing this concept in an avant-garde or free jazz context;
however, the Parker-influenced flurries played by Ammons and other bebop musicians
also fit this description. Bebop was essentially eighth-note based, but Parker’s solos were
often riddled with episodic, blistering double-time as well as over-the-time figures that
eclipsed the strict underlying pulse. Moreover, it is likely that Dolphy, Coleman and
Coltrane were all juxtaposing the influence of Parker on the jazz music of their
generation. For these reasons, an argument can be made that playing ‘over the time’ was
a bebop characteristic before it was popularized by avant-garde players. Furthermore, this
technique shifts priority away from being able to dance to the beat, which contradicts the
mandate of both swing and rhythm and blues music.52
A good example of Ammons’ ability to play ‘over the time’ is illustrated in
Example 4.1. During his solo on “Please Send Me Someone to Love,” Ammons launches
a barrage of fast notes beginning with strict double time thirty-second notes occurring
from beat 3 of m. 89 to beat 3 of m. 90. On beat 4 of m. 90, however, he abandons the
beat and tempo, now playing in a fitful and episodic state that has been notated according
to the closest available rhythmic options. He returns to strict adherence of the time on the
last sixteenth note of beat 3 in m. 92.
51 Gunther Schuller, Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development (New York, NY: Oxford University
Press, 1968), 11.
52 Bob Blumenthal, “Chapter 6: Bebop and Modern Jazz,” in Discover Jazz, ed. John Edwards Hasse and
Tad Lathrop (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2012), 132.

27
Example 4.1: Gene Ammons, “Please Send Me Someone to Love,” mm. 89-93
Hemiola
A ‘hemiola,’ or ‘cross-rhythm,’ is a rhythmic event that features the implication
of one meter inside the framework of another. One particular type of hemiola that
occurred frequently in the improvisation of Gene Ammons is a rhythmic device in which
triple meter (3/4 or 3/8) is implied over music written in 4/4 time. This device, known as
‘three against four,’ is a common jazz cross-rhythm.53 Much like Liebman’s concept of
playing ‘over the time,’ bebop hemiolas serve to undermine the rhythmic regularity of the
music that might otherwise promote dancing. Though the use of rhythmic devices such as
three against four is not unique to bebop, the movement away from performing jazz as
dance music is certainly a bebop characteristic.54 In contrast to swing and Latin styles,
53 Richard J. Lawn and Jeffrey L. Hellmer, Jazz: Theory and Practice (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing Company, 1993), 70.
54 Lawn, Experiencing Jazz, 196.

28
hemiolas in a bebop context tend to occur sporadically and unpredictably, often starting
on weak beats.
Charlie Parker flirted with the use of hemiolas. Example 4.2 is an excerpt of the
melody to “Moose the Mooche,” adapted from the Charlie Parker Omnibook.55
Beginning on the second beat of m. 31, Parker plays two groupings of three beats. This
lends rhythmic uncertainty to the melody of the tune just before the solo begins at the
double bar in m. 33.
Example 4.2: Charlie Parker, “Moose the Mooche,” mm. 29-32
In Example 4.3 from the 1961 version of “Blues Up and Down,” Ammons repeats
the motive introduced on the downbeat of m. 177 three additional times. The four
iterations of this three-beat motive make Ammons sound like he has temporarily lapsed
into 3/4 time while improvising over this up-tempo, twelve-bar blues in quadruple meter.
However, this hemiola only lasts for a duration of three measures and the tempo is 250
beats per minute. The listener does not have enough time to get comfortable with this
briefly imposed feel.
55 Jamey Aebersold and Ken Slone, Charlie Parker Omnibook: For Eb Instruments, Transcribed Exactly
From His Solos (Lynbrook, NY: Atlantic Music Corp., 1978), 4-5.

29
Example 4.3: Gene Ammons, “Blues Up and Down” (1961), mm. 176-180
Later in the same recording of “Blues Up and Down,” Ammons uses a ‘3 + 3 + 2’
cross-rhythm in which the eight beats of two consecutive measures are arranged into two
groups of three with an additional group of two beats at the end. Ammons uses this
hemiola in combination with a chromatic descending sequence. Here in Example 4.4, the
three-beat motive ascends in step-wise motion from the root of Dmin7 on the downbeat
of m. 441 to the fifth of the chord on beat 3. The original motive is then sequenced down
by a half step on beat 4, anticipating the G7 chord by one beat with its tritone
substitution, D!7. A truncated version of the motive is sequenced down chromatically
one last time on beat 3 of m. 442, anticipating the C7 chord by two beats. The brief use of
the 3 + 3 + 2 hemiola, coupled with the chromatically sequenced motive that anticipates
the harmonies, gives Ammons’ solo a sense of sophisticated organization that is typical in
his playing and representative of the bebop language.

30
Example 4.5 illustrates Ammons’ use of ‘3 + 3 + 2’ on his 1962 recording of the
Latin bossa, “Anna.” Here the saxophonist uses diminution, manipulating the eighth-note
subdivisions of the measure into groups of 3 + 3 + 2. In doing so, he is appropriately
reacting to the Latin clave style of the rhythm section. The drummer, Oliver Jackson, is
playing a ‘bossa nova clave’ or ‘Brazilian clave’ rhythm on the rim of the snare drum
throughout the tune. This rhythmic pattern is produced by accenting beat 1, the upbeat of
beat 2 and beat 4 in the first measure of this two-bar pattern, as well as beat 2 and the
upbeat of beat 3 in the second measure.56 Hank Jones reinforces this rhythm on piano
while comping during Ammons’ solo. Example 4.5 is in fact a dance rhythm hook;
nonetheless, this example still belongs to the Bebop Era. The syncopated sixteenth-note
subdivisions imply a double-time feel, thereby capturing the bebop essence.
Example 4.5: Gene Ammons, “Anna,” mm. 53-55
Example 4.5 shown above is representative of what Jelly Roll Morton called the
‘Latin tinge,’ which was embraced in bebop music by Dizzy Gillespie in songs such as
“Manteca” and “A Night in Tunisia.”57 Similarly, Charlie Parker’s interest in Latin
rhythms is evidenced in his recordings of “Barbados” and “My Little Suede Shoes.”
56 Tim Richards and John Crawford, Exploring Latin Piano: South-American/Cuban/Spanish Rhythms for
the Intermediate Pianist (London: Schott Music Ltd., 2011), 135.
57 Thomas Owens, Bebop: The Music and Its Players (NewYork, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995), 20.

31
Whereas the timbral and stylistic traits discussed in Chapter 3 place Ammons in multiple
genres, the rhythmic characteristics discussed in this chapter support his inclusion in the
bebop community.

32
CHAPTER 5
Gene Ammons’ Vocabulary: The Coalescence of Swing, Rhythm and
Blues, and Bebop
Gene Ammons possessed an ability to fuse elements of swing, rhythm and blues,
and bebop into his own style. Additionally, he had the wherewithal to assess his audience
on any given night and unpack elements of the above genres to use them separately. Bob
Porter stated that Ammons’ vocabulary would be heavily weighted with bebop language
if he was playing on the north side of Chicago to predominantly white patrons.
Conversely, according to Porter, Ammons would emote in the rhythm and blues
vernacular if he was performing on the south side of Chicago to a black audience.58 He
learned from his predecessors, Coleman Hawkins and Lester Young, as well as his
contemporaries such as Charlie Parker, Illinois Jacquet, Sonny Stitt, and Red Prysock.
With respect to Ammons’ vocabulary, direct stylistic comparisons can be made to all of
the above-mentioned saxophonists excluding Coleman Hawkins. This chapter is an
analysis of some of the aspects of Ammons’ melodic and harmonic language that unify
him with these seminal swing, rhythm and blues, and bebop saxophonists.
Elements of Swing: The Influence of Lester Young
The year 1944 marked the beginning of Gene Ammons’ extensive recording
career. Though the Swing Era was winding down, its pervasive influence could still be

33
heard in the language of the next generation of jazz musicians. The young Ammons was a
forward-thinking improviser; however, his roots were steeped in swing. While discussing
the swing elements in Ammons’ playing, a point of reference should be drawn to Lester
Young. Gunther Schuller extolls Young as the most progressive improviser of his time:
…in terms of a revolutionizing and lasting effect on several further generations of
jazz players, it is an incontrovertible fact that Lester was the most influential artist
after Armstrong and before Charlie Parker. What eluded Coleman Hawkins
despite his life-long heroic strivings, namely, domination of the saxophone world,
virtually fell into Lester’s lap. And before his life was a little more than half over,
he had not only spawned a whole school of followers but created a completely
new aesthetic of jazz – for all instruments, not just the tenor saxophone. The
essence of his heritage is that he proposed a totally new alternative to the
language, grammar, and vocabulary of jazz, one that broke away from the
prevailing Armstrong tradition and did so incisively, unequivocally and
unapologetically.59
Lester Young did not start recording until 1936, but his new style, which was
decidedly different from the established swing paradigms, was already developed. This
was evidenced by his severance of employment with Fletcher Henderson before
becoming the lead tenor player with Count Basie from 1934 to 1939.60 Henderson’s
players were all listening to Louis Armstrong and Coleman Hawkins. Young, however,
was avoiding Hawkins’ style, favoring the influence of Jimmy Dorsey and Frankie
Trumbauer. This would explain Young’s cool, light sound.61 Whereas Hawkins’ melodic
style was vertical and more chord-based, Young’s was more linear, deriving from the
59 Gunther Schuller, The Swing Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 547.
60 David Simpson, “Lester Young: An American Original,” Jazz Institute of Chicago, 2013, accessed
March 1, 2015, http://www.jazzinchicago.org/educates/journal/articles/lester-young-american-original.
61 Schuller, The Swing Era, 548.

34
blues. Indeed, at the age of twenty-five, Young was cutting his teeth playing the blues in
Kansas City with Count Basie.
6/9 Common Language: The Major Pentatonic Scale
Among other melodic tendencies, Lester Young emphasized the sixth and ninth
scale degrees of the key. Additionally, according to Schuller, the concept of melodic
independence from the harmonic progression began with Young.62 These two qualities
combine together to form an approach to improvisation often described as ‘6/9 common
language.’ This vocabulary consists of the major pentatonic scale (scale degrees 1-2-3-5-
6) on the tonic note in the key (C major pentatonic in the key of C major). The
framework of this major pentatonic scale, peppered with chromatic tones, constitutes the
generality of the 6/9 common language. Whereas Gene Ammons did, in fact, try to
emulate the sound of Coleman Hawkins, he was clearly studying the melodic vocabulary
of Lester Young, synthesizing Young’s 6/9 common language into his own playing.
One of the most well-known ‘rhythm changes’63 tunes is Young’s own
composition “Lester Leaps In,” originally recorded in 1939 by Count Basie’s Kansas City
Seven. The first phrase of the actual melody in the A section of the head is illustrated
below in Example 5.1. It is a strict adherence to the major pentatonic scale built on the
tonic of the key. Except for the omission of the last note, the second phrase of the A
section is identical, completing the eight-bar A section of this ‘rhythm changes’ tune. As
63 A ‘rhythm changes’ tune contains a standardized harmonic progression identical to the progression in
George and Ira Gershwin’s “I Got Rhythm.” Hence, a rhythm changes tune could be thought of as a
contrafact, a new melody composed over the preexisting changes to “I Got Rhythm.”

35
is typical of a ‘rhythm changes’ tune, there is no written melody over the bridge. Every
note of the written melody of “Lester Leaps In” conforms to the pentatonic major scale
built on the tonic of the key. Scale degree 2 is not represented in the melody; otherwise,
there are no deviations outside of this pentatonic framework.
Example 5.1: Lester Young, “Lester Leaps In,” mm. 4-7
Example 5.2 is a paragon of Young’s penchant for expanding the blanket major
pentatonic scale with chromatic connections – specifically between scale degrees 2-3 and
5-6. In m. 129 of his solo on “Lester Leaps In,” Young uses chromatic passing tones,
labeled “PT,” first to move from scale degree 6 to scale degree 5 and then to descend
from scale degree 3 to scale degree 9 (or 2). On the upbeat of beat 4 in m. 130, he again
uses a passing tone to get from scale degree 5 back to scale degree 6, this time in an
ascending manner. In m. 131, the E on beat 2 (scale degree 3) is approached by a
chromatic lower neighbor, labeled “LN.” Two more chromatic passing tones in the
second half of m. 131 help Young navigate melodically through this pentatonic scale,
traveling from scale degree 6 on the upbeat of beat 2 to scale degree 9 on the downbeat of
the following measure. The passing tones and lower neighbor circled in mm. 129-132
illustrate the fact that the saxophonist is comfortable using the chromatic notes outside of
the pentatonic scale on both strong and weak parts of the beat.

36
Billy Eckstine’s 1944 recording “Blowing the Blues Away” features Gene
Ammons very early in the saxophonist’s career. At this time, the foundation of Ammons’
vocabulary is the 6/9 common language popularized by Lester Young. Example 5.3
shows Ammons using the D!’s repeatedly as chromatic lower neighbors, labeled “LN,”
to approach scale degree 3 of this C major pentatonic scale. In doing so, Ammons
vacillates between the major third and the minor third (written as a D! or !9), which
accentuates the blues aspect of this melody. Finally, a chromatic passing tone at the end
of m. 38 delivers the melody from scale degree 6 to scale degree 5, similar to Ammons’
approach in Example 5.2.
Example 5.3: Gene Ammons, “Blowing the Blues Away,” mm. 37-39
In Example 5.4 Ammons embellishes the blanket major pentatonic scale in the
key of D with a diatonic scale degree 4, rather than using chromatic pitches. The G in m.
2 acts as an upper neighbor, labeled “UN,” and can be thought of as a slow turn. The G in
m. 4 is a passing tone, getting Ammons from scale degree 3 to scale degree 5. The F! in

37
m. 3 does not fit the A7 chord, further reinforcing the fact that Ammons was using 6/9
common language to blanket the quick IV chord (A7) during his solo on “St. Louis
Blues.” This is reminiscent of Young’s inclination to play melodies that might not adhere
completely to the chord changes.
Example 5.4: Gene Ammons, “St. Louis Blues,” mm. 1-5
Example 5.5 is significant in that it illustrates the conclusive placement of
pentatonic vocabulary at the end of Ammons’ solo in the key of G on “Red Top.” It was
common for both Young and Ammons to frame sections of their solos with 6/9 common
language. The soloists might deviate from this pentatonic scaffolding while developing
their solos; however; they would frequently return to this language when wrapping up a
section of a solo, or when ending a solo altogether.
Example 5.5: Gene Ammons, “Red Top,” mm. 41-42
The beginning of Ammons’ solo on his 1950 recording of “Blues Up and Down”
is shown below in Example 5.6. More than on his earlier recordings, Ammons is
beginning to sound increasingly confident with some of the non-swing elements he was

38
incorporating into his vocabulary. However, this 6/9 common language is still a major
component of his improvisations. In the example below, Ammons demonstrates his
ability to slip in and out of C major pentatonic vocabulary through his use of
chromaticism at the beginning of m. 2, the addition of the !7 at the end of m. 3, and the
use of the !5 at the end of m. 4.
Dominant7(!5): The Creation and Resolution of Tension
Across a number of tonal styles and genres in western music64, phrases almost
always end with a cadence that shifts harmonically from a dominant chord (V) to the
tonic chord (I). This simple process can be seen on a fundamental level as the creation
and subsequent resolution of aural tension. Whether consciously or subconsciously,
listeners hear dominant triads and understand that those chords need to be resolved to
tonic chords when cadencing at the end of phrases. Adding a seventh to the dominant
chord (V7) increases the tension.65 Lester Young was fond of creating even more
dominant tension by raising the fifth of the chord (V7!5). Chromatic alteration of the
64 For the purpose of this paper, ‘western music’ will be defined as the music of Western Europe, in which
major and minor modes and their requisite intervallic relationships are used to construct tonal centers.
65 Ralph Turek, Theory for Today’s Musician (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007), 613-614.

39
dominant chord’s ninth and fifth occurred with increasing frequency during the evolution
of bebop; and, though Young fits squarely in the Swing Era, the use of augmented (V7!5)
chords by Young, his contemporaries, and even his predecessors could been interpreted
as a foreshadowing of the extended harmonic techniques that would soon be popularized
by bebop innovators like Charlie Parker.
Bob Porter remarked that Lester Young was known for adding “color” to
dominant chords, particularly at the end of the B section in AABA form.66 Porter’s claim
is illustrated below in Example 5.7. This excerpt shows the last four measures of the B
section in the rhythm changes tune, “Lester Leaps In,” followed by the first measure of
the last A section. In m. 59, Young plays a descending, two-octave G7(!5) chord, which
is V7(!5) in the home key of C major. In m. 60, the last measure of the bridge, Young
transitions from his augmented vocabulary back to a fixation on the pitches A and D
which represent scale degrees 6 and 9 respectively in the home key of C. He then plays
6/9 common language vocabulary for the entire last A section of this chorus.
Lester Young’s fresh approach to improvisation became the benchmark for the
new generation of jazz saxophonists, and his melodic ideas worked exceptionally well in
66 Bob Porter, Lester Young (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2005), 67.

40
swing and bebop settings alike. Gene Ammons was a quick study, and his use of the
V7(!5) chord manifests itself in his earliest recordings. In Example 5.8, Ammons uses
the dominant7(!5) chord to progress from the I chord to the IV7 chord in “Blowing the
Blues Away.” The C major chord in m. 39 represents the I chord in this standard blues
progression. The introduction of the B! in m. 40 signifies that the I chord has now
become a secondary dominant (V7/IV), setting the listener up for the resolution to F7 in
m. 41. Before Ammons arrives in m. 41, however, he raises the fifth of C7 on beat 3 of
m. 40. This adds heightened tension to the dominant tonality in m. 40 which, in turn,
makes the resolution to F7 in m. 41 even more satisfying.
Ammons, like Young, realized that the improviser could quickly and efficiently
change the color of the dominant chord simply by altering one note. He showed this
tendency often when transitioning to the IV chord in the fifth measure of standard blues
forms like “Blowing the Blues Away,” illustrated above in Example 5.8. Example 5.9
below reinforces this claim. Here, Ammons is on his second chorus, soloing over a
standard blues progression in D on “St. Louis Blues.” The fourth measure of the form is
m. 16, one measure before the arrival of the IV chord. Ammons begins the measure
playing an unaltered D7 chord (V7/IV) in a linear manner; however, after arriving on the

41
A (the fifth of D7), he toggles upward by a half step to A! on beat 3. He then briefly
arpeggiates the triad in the D7(!5) chord before vacillating back to A natural, which now
acts as the resolution to the ninth of the IV chord, G7.
Example 5.9: Gene Ammons, “St. Louis Blues,” mm. 15-17
Example 5.7 above addresses Lester Young’s use of the dominant7(!5) chord at
the end of the B section as a means of ushering the listener back to the final A section of
the form. The following example, Example 5.10, shows Ammons employing Young’s
technique. Similar to Young’s 1939 version of “Lester Leaps In,” Ammons’ 1955
recording of “Juggernaut” is also a rhythm changes tune whose formal structure is
AABA. The G7 chord in mm. 88-89 in the example below is the V chord at the end of the
B section. Here, Ammons emphasizes the !5 color extensively by arpeggiating G7(!5)
for two measures. The chromatic approach to the G on beat 3 of m. 89 by way of the A
and A! on beat 2 could be construed as a brief suggestion of 6/9 common language in the
key of C major, or as a bebop scale passing tone fragment.
Example 5.10: Gene Ammons, “Juggernaut,” mm. 86-90

42
Example 5.11 below is an excerpt from Gene Ammons’ later 1961 recording of
“Blues Up and Down” with Sonny Stitt. In m. 214, Ammons again utilizes the
dominant7(!5) chord before resolving to the tonic chord in m. 215; however, his strategy
here is more complex than his use of these chords on earlier recordings. The first half of
m. 214 appears to be an extension of the previous Dmin7 chord, especially when
considering the eighth notes on beat 4 of the previous measure. In m. 214, Ammons
clearly spells out the G augmented triad inherent in G7(!5) before the resolution to the I
chord in m. 215; however, the !5 (D!) appears on the weak part of beat 3 and is
approached on the down beat chromatically from the E, a half step above. While the use
of the dominant7(!5) chord pays homage to Lester Young, the E on beat 3 acts as an
appoggiatura tone, modernizing Ammons’ approach to the dominant7(!5) chord.
Gene Ammons drew from several sources of inspiration, but Lester Young was
undoubtedly one of his biggest influences. Because Young was so adept at playing the
blues and vocalizing on his saxophone in a blues style, he resonated with the next
generation of saxophonists steeped in the Neo-African vocal tradition of field hollers,
ring shouts and gospel preaching. Many of these saxophonists were combining Young’s
sense of lyricism with Coleman Hawkins’ hot sound, and this formula appealed to

43
Ammons as well. His style was also imbued with the qualities of Young and Hawkins;
furthermore, he was intrigued by the developing style of some of his contemporaries, a
style that would come to be known in the late 1940s as ‘rhythm and blues.’
Elements of Rhythm and Blues: The Milieu of Illinois Jacquet and Red Prysock
Doug Miller describes rhythm and blues as the fusion of urban blues with the
driving rhythms of jazz and the vocalizations of gospel music. The blues originally
emerged as a musical depiction of the hardships of African-American life; conversely,
rhythm and blues was dance music that articulated the joy in life.67 This new genre of
black dance music, previously labeled ‘race recordings,’ was eventually dubbed ‘rhythm
and blues’ by Billboard magazine in 1949.68 Most other styles of music at that time
possessed a rhythmic pulse in which the first and third beat of each four-beat measure
was accented, but the rhythm and blues style was defined by its unrelenting accentuation
of beats 2 and 4, otherwise known as a ‘backbeat.’
It is possible to trace the evolution of the backbeat through the blues and jazz
genres of the early Twentieth Century in an effort to gain perspective on its role in the
fully-developed rhythm and blues style emerging in 1949. A subtler use of this rhythmic
device was found in the blues, but it became more overt and significant in rhythm and
blues music.69 Likewise, the accentuation of the weak beats occurred in early jazz,
67 Katherine Charlton, Rock Music Styles: A History (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 20.
69 Charlton, Rock Music Styles, 20.

44
manifesting itself in banjo and piano accompaniment patterns.70 As early as the big band
Swing Era, the emphasis of beats 2 and 4 migrated to the drummer’s high-hat cymbals.71
The rhythm and blues school went a step further – its unyielding backbeat was played on
the snare, which was often accompanied by regular and repeated cymbal crashes. This
was exemplified in Red Prysock’s tunes such as “Hand Clappin’” from 1955 or “Zip”
from 1956. The establishment of the rhythm and blues backbeat seemed to contradict the
rhythmic evolution of jazz in the 1940s, however, as bebop drummers became
increasingly inclined to obscure the regular pulse.72
During the 1920s, Louis Armstrong, Sidney Bechet and other jazz
instrumentalists were backing blues singers like Bessie Smith on race records. Into the
1930s, numerous attempts were made to bring jazz together with blues singers, and the
locations of these events became the prominent centers for the emergence of the rhythm
and blues style.73 The intersection of jazz, blues and gospel afforded the saxophone the
opportunity to become an integral voice in the newly evolving, Afro-American music.
Christopher Costigan was a graduate student at the University of Georgia who wrote his
dissertation on the development of the rhythm and blues saxophone style. He claims that
an this established genre emerged as a result of localized technical and stylistic
innovations in Chicago, New Orleans, Memphis, New York, Cincinnati and the West
70 Ethan Hein, “The Backbeat: A Literature Review,” March 29, 2013, accessed April 3, 2015,
http://www.ethanhein.com/wp/2013/the-backbeat-a-literature-review/.
71 Lawn and Hellmer, Jazz Theory and Practice, 154.
72 Ibid., 161.

45
Coast area.74 Some of the characteristics of the established rhythm and blues saxophone
vernacular included extensive use of the blues scale; repetition or prolongation of one
note, and the prevalent use of motivic repetition. Repetitive riffs were often played in the
high and low registers of the saxophone. This rhythm and blues saxophone style alluded
to the Afro-American vocal tradition and was commonly referred to as ‘honking’ or
‘screaming.’75
While illustrating these qualities in the music of Gene Ammons, this paper will
draw comparisons to two established rhythm and blues benchmark saxophonists, Jean
Baptiste Illinois Jacquet and Wilburt “Red” Prysock. Raised in Houston, Texas, Jacquet
epitomized the ‘Texas tenor’ sound and is commonly credited as the first saxophonist to
play in the honking and screaming style.76 Arnold Shaw remarked that Jacquet’s “‘Flying
Home’ solo served to launch a school of booming, demonstrative, and erotic tenor sax
stylists.”77 Red Prysock’s recordings between 1954 and 1957 represent the apex of the
rhythm and blues movement. Record producer and engineer Bob Fisher describes
Prysock during this period as being “the template perhaps for every for every blasting sax
solo on any R&B or rock and roll record you ever heard.”78
Though Young’s light tone contradicts the hot sound of the honkers and
screamers, a strong argument could be made that some of the rhythm and blues elements
74 Christopher James Costigan, The Development of the Rhythm and Blues Saxophone Style: An Analytical
and Performance Based Study (DMA diss., University of Georgia, 2007), 2, accessed March 4, 2015,
https://getd.libs.uga.edu/pdfs/costigan_christopher_j_200712_dma.pdf.
76 Ibid.
77 Arnold Shaw, Honkers and Shouters (New York, NY: Collier Books, 1978), 173.
78 Bob Fischer, Liner notes from Red Prysock: Hand Clappin’ Foot Stompin’ Rock ‘N’ Roll, Jasmine
Records, JASCD 274, CD, 2013.

46
listed above can be traced back to Lester Young. His linear melodic approach, as well as
the sporadic de-emphasis of chords resulting from his blanketed pentatonic melodies, is
consistent with the blues vocal tradition. Moreover, he was using false or alternate
fingerings before the inception of rhythm and blues, as evidenced in his 1939 recording
of “Lester Leaps In.” The bebop genre had matured roughly four years before the 1949
christening of the term ‘rhythm and blues,’ and many bebop saxophonists like Sonny Stitt
and Dexter Gordon were also synthesizing swing along with rhythm and blues elements
into their own playing. Gene Ammons, however, was a Lester Young disciple who had
been raised on the boogie-woogie piano stylings of his father. The influence of the great
Albert Ammons positioned the younger Ammons to be the champion of this cross-
pollination of saxophone styles, alongside rhythm and blues icons Illinois Jacquet and
Red Prysock.
Use of the Blues Scale
Rhythm and blues musicians commonly incorporated use of the blues scale into
their vocabulary. Just as Lester Young’s 6/9 common language was an expansion of the
major pentatonic scale, the blues scale could be seen as an adaptation of the minor
pentatonic scale whose construction normally includes scale degrees 1, !3, 4, 5 and !7.
The addition of a ‘blue note,’ the chromatic tone between scale degrees 4 and 5,
transforms the pure minor pentatonic scale into the blues scale.
Example 5.12 is an excerpt from Illinois Jacquet’s famous solo on “Flying
Home,” recorded in 1942 with Lionel Hampton. Here, Jacquet is using the blues scale to

47
blanket the chord changes in mm. 26-28. He begins his idea on B! and moves to D!, the
next note in the B! blues scale. Jacquet continues to ascend up the B! blues scale to the
next adjacent scale degree in a succession of syncopated upbeats; however, he returns to
the B! anchor note between each of the rising scale tones. This oblique motion creates a
widening interval between the upper ascending blues scale pitches and the static B! tonic
anchor until the arrival of the F on the upbeat of beat 4 in m. 27. Illinois Jacquet’s use of
the blues scale in Example 5.12 almost resembles something that Lester Young would
have played, but the deliberate substitution of D! (!3) for D (3) in mm. 26 and 28 is a
departure from Young’s 6/9 vernacular into the realm of the blues scale. Indeed, Illinois
Jacquet with Lionel Hampton in the early 1940s still sounds heavily swing-influenced,
even as the rhythm and blues elements in their music are beginning to emerge. Jacquet’s
solo on Hampton’s recording of “Flying Home” marked the inception of a transition from
swing to the rhythm and blues vernacular.
Example 5.12: Illinois Jacquet, “Flying Home,” mm. 26-29
Gene Ammons’ solo on his 1961 recording of “Please Send Me Someone to
Love” is highly representative of his blues scale vocabulary. The D7, F7 and D7/F!
chords in mm. 34-35 of Example 5.13 all have dominant function in the key of G major.
Ammons momentarily transcends the strict rhythm of this medium-slow shuffle,

48
blanketing these chords with a flurry of notes from the G blues scale. The D! as well as
the two F"’s played over the D7 chord in m. 34 allay any suspicion that Ammons might
be referencing the chord changes. Instead, he is punctuating the end of this 32-bar form
with an emotional blues statement. Just before the resolution to the tonic G chord in m.
36, however, Ammons plays a B", momentarily alluding once again to the 6/9 common
language. Through this entire example, Ammons’ use of a blanket scale that bypasses the
specifics of passing chords is reminiscent of Lester Young.
In Example 5.14, Ammons ends his solo on “Please Send Me Someone to Love”
with another hot-blooded blues statement in the same part of the form as the previous
example. This time, however, his blues scale vocabulary starts one measure later in the
form over the F7 chord and he maintains his blues language through the resolution at the
double bar in m. 69. Again, Ammons seems more concerned with the conveyance of
emotion than with acknowledgment of the chord changes. Using a mixture of fragmented
compound and simple (duple) rhythms, he creates heightened tension by floating
independently over the time up to the resolution at the double bar in m. 69.

49
Example 5.15 looks like a combination of the previous two examples. Ammons
makes use of blues scale vocabulary in mm. 45-49 as he blankets I, I7, IV, !IVo
7, and
back again to I with a G Blues Scale. As in Example 5.14, he makes extensive use of
sixteenth-note sextuplet figures while accenting the first, third and fifth note of each
sextuplet in mm. 47-48. He wraps up this blues scale statement with a deluge of rapidly
descending notes, similar to Example 5.13, finally resolving to a B" on beat 2 of m. 49.
Prolongation of One Repeated Note
In addition to the prevalent use of the blues scale, rhythm and blues saxophonists
often engaged in the act of prolonging one note, which could occur for extended
durations of time. In fact, it was not uncommon for one note to be played for an entire

50
chorus of the blues, or even longer. These gospel-influenced vocalizations were executed
with regularity in the extreme high or low registers of the horn. Saxophonists frequently
performed in this way while manipulating false fingerings or using alternative
articulation techniques in an effort to achieve subtle pitch or sound variances. The Afro-
American musicians were playing in the African vocal style, unconcerned about playing
their European instruments in their originally intended manner.79
Example 5.16 demonstrates Illinois Jacquet’s ability to create a great deal of
excitement by playing a high B! for almost two entire eight-measure A sections on his
seminal recording of “Flying Home” with Lionel Hampton. He stands relentlessly on the
tonic B!, consistently re-attacking on the upbeat of 4 and the upbeat of 2. Much in the
black preaching style, the delayed gratification inherent in the repeated B! builds
excitement and anticipation for the listener. If the F7 chords in Example 5.16 are
interpreted as F7sus chords, the repeated B! would be common to all of the chords in this
example. However, Jacquet was most likely just emoting from the gut, unconcerned with
the chord changes. He is ‘screaming’ on the tonic note (B!), and in doing so, he is
preaching to his audience.
79 Miller, Moan Within the Tone, 157.

51
Example 5.16: Illinois Jacquet, “Flying Home,” mm. 33-49
Red Prysock recorded “Blow Your Horn” in 1954, twelve years after Jacquet’s
groundbreaking recording of “Flying Home.” Shown in Example 5.17, Prysock reiterates
the tonic note for an entire chorus of the blues, breaking rank only once in m. 172 when
he plays the A on beat 4. Because the tonic note of C is so easy to manipulate with
alternate fingerings on the saxophone, many of these rhythm and blues songs were
written in the tenor saxophone key of C (concert B!). Here, Prysock is taking advantage
of the opportunity to use alternate fingerings on the repetitive high C. He achieves
changes in pitch and tone color by closing all of the right hand keys in the lower stack
including the low C key. The points at which Prysock executes this alternate fingering are
marked in Example 5.17 with the symbol “0.” Additionally, Prysock growls through his
saxophone for this entire passage as well as for the majority of what comes before and
after this example. This idea of doing so much with so little can be traced back to Sidney
Bechet, who was known for his simple solos containing the effective placement of a few

52
carefully chosen notes, many of which contained sultry bends or other blues inflections.80
By standing on the tonic note for fourteen and a half measures, Red Prysock eliminated
any sense of melodic contour in Example 5.17. An argument could be made that, in doing
so, he essentially converted the saxophone to a percussion instrument for the duration of
this blues chorus.
Example 5.17: Red Prysock, “Blow Your Horn,” mm. 168-183
Gene Ammons made extensive use of the one-note prolongation technique, and
proof of this manifested itself in his playing throughout his entire career. This is
demonstrated below in Example 5.18, an excerpt from Ammons’ 1961 version of “Blues
Up and Down” with Sonny Stitt. Ammons plays three phrases over this twelve-bar blues
progression, each of which begins with a repeated C. He chooses an alternate fingering
80 Mark C. Gridley, Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, 10th
ed., (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Education: 2009), 87.

53
for some of these notes, using the low C fingering with the octave key. This is notated in
Example 5.18 using he symbol “+.” The use of these alternate fingerings in mm. 96-97
produces a ‘do-wop’ effect commonly heard in the rhythm and blues style.81 This
vocalization device is utilized again to begin the next two phrases in mm. 100-101 and
mm. 104-105. Ammons concludes each of the three phrases with an upward leap.
Also from Ammons’ 1961 version of “Blues Up and Down,” Example 5.19
incorporates two sets of alternate fingerings for C. The first, notated as “0,” uses the
regular C fingering while adding the three right hand lower stack keys and the low C key.
The second alternate fingering, labeled “+,” is the complete low C fingering with the
added octave key. Ammons uses the normal fingering for C when playing the accented
C’s. He alternates these three fingerings in a sequence: the accented normal fingering, the
“0” fingering, and the “+” fingering respectively. This alternation happens over a steady
stream of eighth notes in common time, but the notes sound like they are organized in
81 Miller, “Moan Within the Tone,” 161-162.

54
groups of three due to the strategic placement of the accents. The resulting effect is the
‘three against four’ hemiola discussed in Chapter 4.
In mm. 205-208 of the same solo, shown in Example 5.20, Ammons repeats a
stream of high C eighth notes using an articulation that involves leaving a portion of the
tongue (usually one side of the tongue) on the reed while playing, effectively muting the
reed. The reed remains partially muted, while new notes are being articulated. This
articulation is often called ‘doodle’ tonguing. Other commonly used names for this
technique include half tonguing, sub tonguing, or ‘dooden’ tonguing. The onomatopoeia
inherent in the term ‘doodle’ tonguing is the best explanation of this technique, used by
saxophonists to achieve subtle variations on one note. The ‘doo-dle’ syllables are notated
in Example 5.20 with the letters “D” and “L” respectively.

55
Example 5.21 shows Gene Ammons and Sonny Stitt trading on a high C for one
chorus. This happens after they have both soloed extensively and traded fours. The
battling saxophonists are trading high C’s in a ‘call and response’ manner reminiscent of
the responsorial interactions between a black gospel preacher and his congregation.
Additionally, the falls off each note are executed by dropping the jaw as the note
progresses. These falls give their constituent notes a vocal wailing quality, helping to
building excitement at the end of their already sensational solos.
In Example 5.22, Ammons and Stitt bring this blowing session to a climax
together in the very last chorus. They ratchet up the excitement from the previous chorus
(Example 5.21) by speeding up the melodic rhythm of the exchanges, now trading high

56
C’s once per measure with Ammons on beat 1 and Stitt on the upbeat of beat 2. The C’s
played by each saxophonist are tinged with a shimmer of brief vibrato in substitution of
the falls from the previous chorus, noted above in Example 5.21. Ultimately the dialogue
ends, culminating with a melodic dismount played together in unison beginning on the
upbeat of beat 4 in m. 478.
Motivic Repetition/Development
Along with the use of the blues scale and the prolongation of one note over
extended passages of music, saxophonists in the rhythm and blues style also frequently
referenced the earlier vocal blues style by reiterating motives or phrases, often
developing or adjusting them to fit the harmonic progression. Red Prysock demonstrates
this in his 1954 recording of “Blow Your Horn.” In Example 5.23 Prysock repeats the
four-note motive that begins in m. 60 and ends on the downbeat of m. 61. With each
repetition, the last two notes are adjusted to accommodate the chord changes. The circled
target notes are then approached from a half step below.

57
Example 5.23: Red Prysock, “Blow Your Horn,” mm. 60-63
Gene Ammons follows Prysock’s lead and is using the same vocabulary seven
years later on “Blues Up and Down,” as shown below in Example 5.24. Again, the
ascending target notes are all approached from a half step below. These target notes serve
as guide tones that ascend chromatically to the G on the downbeat of m. 124. Ammons
includes one extra iteration of the motive, inserted on the upbeat of beat 3 in m. 122 and
resolving to the F! on the downbeat of m. 123. In doing so, he extends Prysock’s motivic
idea, shown above Example 5.23, by one measure.
Ammons continues improvising in the three-phrase, vocal blues tradition of
statement, repeated statement and response in Example 5.25. Phrase A begins on beat 2
of m. 168 and ends on beat four of m. 171. The next four measures are a direct repeat of
phrase A. The last four measures of this blues chorus, labeled below as phrase A’, serve
as a response to the first two phrases. Inside phrase A’, repetition exists on a micro level

58
with the recurring motive labeled motive X. The three-beat motive, motive X, has an
accented beginning and is repeated three times after its initial occurrence. The placement
of the accents, combined with the repetition of the three-beat motive, establishes a ‘three
against four’ hemiola. This gives phrase A’ a ‘consequent’ feel while concurrently setting
up expectations for another chorus of soloing.
Gene Ammons employs the three-phrase, blues vocal structure again in “Blues Up
and Down” just one chorus later in Example 5.26. The last note of Example 5.26, held for
three measures, is consistent with the style of the ‘honkers’ and ‘screamers.’ That, along
with the three-phrase vocal structure, make this example a template for improvisation in
the rhythm and blues style.

59
Elements of Bebop: The Influence of Charlie Parker and Sonny Stitt
Elements of swing combined with the rhythm and blues vernacular are pervasive
in Gene Ammons’ style. The final ingredient in his vocabulary is his penchant for the
bebop (or ‘bop’) language. Historian and author Scott Yanow asserts:
Gene Ammons was part of several different musical idioms. His huge sound was
a throwback to the Swing Era and his ability to soulfully state ideas (sometimes
with just a few notes) fit perfectly in R&B settings, where he was probably the
most influential. And yet Ammons could also play bebop with the best of them,
holding his own against his pal Sonny Stitt and anyone else in saxophone
battles.82
Assuredly, the bebop elements innate in Gene Ammons’ vocabulary can be
compared to the language of Charlie Parker or Sonny Stitt, two of the most formidable
bebop saxophone players of all time. Charlie Parker, along with trumpeter John Birks
82 Scott Yanow, Bebop (San Francisco, CA: Miller Freeman Books, 2000), 101.

60
“Dizzy” Gillespie, is considered to be a founder of the bebop genre.83 Sonny Stitt was a
virtuoso bebop alto saxophonist who collaborated extensively with Gene Ammons over
the years. Sometime between 1949 and 1950 Stitt picked up the baritone and tenor
saxophones as well, possibly in an effort to step out of the shadow of Charlie Parker.84
Both Parker and Stitt had a tremendous impact on Ammons, the former for pioneering the
bebop language and the latter for using it so effectively in close proximity to Ammons.
Surround Tones
‘Surround tones’ are also referred to as a ‘neighbor group’ or ‘changing tones.’
These notes can be described as a chord tone’s upper and lower neighbors, the
combination of which frame the chord tone. Surround tones may be diatonic or chromatic
and are very commonly used in bebop language.85 Example 5.27, excerpted from Jamey
Aebersold and Ken Slone’s transcription taken from the Charlie Parker Omnibook86,
illustrates two ways in which Parker used surround tones. In m. 41 of this excerpt from
Parker’s 1945 recording of “Thriving From a Riff,” the surround tones first appear as
individual neighbor tones (first upper, then lower), interspersed between repetitions of the
target chord tone, G. On beat 3 of m. 41, however, the two surround tones appear
together as a singular modifier for the G that appears on beat 4. The C!’s and the E in m.
42 act as surround tones for their resolution, the D in m. 43. This illustration of a diatonic
83 Lawn, Experiencing Jazz, 199.
84 Owens, Bebop, 47.
86 Aebersold and Slone, Charlie Parker Omnibook, 61.

61
upper neighbor and a chromatic lower neighbor in m. 42 is one of the most common
combinations of surround tones in the bebop language.
Example 5.27: Charlie Parker, “Thriving From a Riff,” mm. 41-43
Evidence can be found of Gene Ammons’ use of surround tones in his earliest
recordings. Example 5.28, from Billy Eckstine’s 1944 recording of “Blowing the Blues
Away,” documents Ammons surrounding the E’s in m. 47 with D! and F. The third of the
chord is surrounded by a half step on both sides. This is another example of a surround-
tone figure that includes a diatonic upper neighbor and chromatic lower neighbor.
Here in Example 5.29 from “Juggernaut,” recorded in 1950, Ammons takes a
chromatic approach to surrounding the root of G7. Neither the A! nor the F! that occur
on beat 2 in m. 73 are diatonic to the Dmin7 chord. Nor are they diatonic to the
proceeding G7. They can be interpreted as a chromatic, surround-tone anticipation of the
target chord tone, G, one beat later.

62
In some respects, surround tones can be seen as an avoidance of chord tones,
delaying a melodic resolution. At other times, surround tones can be used as melodic
fodder to extend a phrase over a chord with slower harmonic rhythm. In any case,
surround tones are prevalent in Ammons’ bebop vocabulary.
Scalar Versus Arpeggiated Diminished Chords
The diminished scale, also known as the octatonic scale, comprises a symmetrical
series of alternating whole steps and half steps. Because of the nature of the scale’s
construction with respect to its half-step and whole-step relationships, it offers a wide
array of sequential patterns.87 Moreover, this scale can be effectively utilized over
diminished and dominant chords alike. Improvisers predating the modern jazz era tended
to negotiate diminished chords in an arpeggiated manner; however, use of the diminished
scale became popular among bebop musicians in the 1950s.88 Example 5.30 is borrowed
from Charles McNeal’s transcription of Sonny Stitt from the earlier, 1950 version of
“Blues Up and Down,” released on Gene Ammons’ All Star Sessions.89 Here, Sonny Stitt
88 Owens, Bebop, 82.
89 Charles McNeal, “Blues Up and Down: Sonny Stitt’s Solo from Gene Ammons’ CD ‘All Star Session
with Sonny Stitt’,” Saxopedia, accessed March 8, 2015, http://www.charlesmcneal.com/uploads/-
BluesUpAndDown_stitt_.pdf.

63
employs the diminished scale in mm. 16-19 using both adjacent scale tone motion (the
interval of a minor second, major second or diminished third) as well as non-adjacent
motion (leaps that are a minor third or larger). He effectively blankets all of the chords
C7, F7, F!o
7 and C with half-whole version of a C diminished scale, that is to say, the
version that starts with the interval of a half step occurring above the root of the scale
(spelled C, C!, E!, E, F!, G, A, B!, C).
Example 5.30: Sonny Stitt, “Blues Up and Down” (1950), mm. 16-19
Interestingly, Stitt often used the whole-half version of the diminished scale (the other
version, with the interval of a whole step occurring above the root of the scale) on tonic
as a blanket over the A sections of rhythm changes. Evidence of his whole-half step
diminished scale use can be heard on Dizzy Gillespie’s 1957 recording of “Eternal
Triangle” which also featured Sonny Stitt and Sonny Rollins.
In m. 57 of “Please Send Me Someone to Love,” found below in Example 5.31,
Ammons uses diminished scale vocabulary much in the same manner as Stitt’s
application in the previous example. The key is G major, and Ammons uses adjacent
scalar motion beginning on the second sixteenth note of beat 3 with the F!. Ammons is
acknowledging the C!o
7 chord occurring on beats 3 and 4 of m. 57 precisely with the C!
whole-half diminished scale. Once Ammons reaches the B! on beat 4, however, he

64
outlines a C!o
7 chord. He overshoots the E (the third of C!o
7) by a whole step, arriving at
F! on the upbeat of beat 4. Now the line changes direction resolving downward to the E,
which then acts as a passing tone to the arrival of D on the G major chord occurring on
the downbeat of m. 58.
In the same spot of the form one chorus later on “Please Send Me Someone to
Love,” Ammons uses the diminished scale again. This time he initiates a sequence
starting on beat 3 of m. 89, shown in Example 5.32. From the starting note, this sequence
descends by a half step then changes direction, ascending first by a half step to the point
of origin and then twice by a whole step to the next scale tone. The saxophonist begins by
clearly referencing the C!o
7 as in the previous example; however, he then carries this
pattern over into the tonic major chord, becoming the whole-half diminished pattern so
often used by Stitt on tunes like his 1957 recording of “Eternal Triangle.”

65
Double-Time Passages
The use of double time was introduced in Chapter 4 as a rhythmic device;
however, the melodic construction of double-time passages also merits consideration.
With the transition to modern jazz, musicians were required to possess a level of
virtuosity on their instruments that went above and beyond the technical demands
associated with Swing Era.90 The use of double-time passages is a signature characteristic
of bebop, as exemplified in the solos of Charlie Parker.91 Example 5.33, adapted from the
Charlie Parker Omnibook, shows a typical double-time passage played by Parker on his
1956 recording of “Blues for Alice.”92 Close inspection of the double-time section in m.
22 reveals that Parker is subjecting some of the aforementioned surround-tone techniques
to rhythmic diminution. For example, the D, B and C natural found in beat two of m. 22
are a three-note neighbor group (surround tones) for the C!. The sixteenth notes on beat
one of m. 23 all surround the F! on beat two; likewise, the B! and the G on the upbeat of
beat two surround the A on beat 3.
Example 5.33: Charlie Parker, “Blues for Alice,” mm. 20-23
90 Paul Tanner, David McGill and Maurice Gerow, Jazz, 10th
ed. (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2005),
177-178.
91 Ibid., 188.

66
In the style of Parker, Gene Ammons also profits from the infusion of double-time
passages into his own vocabulary. Example 5.34 illustrates Ammons’ use of double-time
techniques over mm. 40-42 in “Juggernaut.” Beat 3 in m. 40 can be interpreted as a four-
note neighbor group surrounding the C! on beat 4. Beat 4 is then arpeggiated up to the !9
(also characteristic of bop language). Though the B and two D’s that occur inside beat 4
in m. 41 are diatonic to the G7 chord, they instead serve to surround the target note C,
anticipating the CMaj7 chord occurring on beat 1 of m. 42. Chromatic passing tones are
found intermingling around and between the surround tone episodes.
Example 5.35 below is an extension of Example 5.32 above. Here, a mixture of
surround tones (bracketed and labeled “ST”) and diminished scalar vocabulary
contributes to construct an extended passage of double-time and over-the-time figures at
the end of Ammons’ solo on “Please Send Me Someone to Love.” The circled notes
represent the melodic points of arrival that are set up by the surround tones.

67
Harmonic Devices: Passing Chords
Along with the shift from swing to bebop came a harmonic revolution. Players
gravitated toward negotiating chord extensions and chord substitutions in the Modern
Jazz Era.93 Charlie Parker pushed the harmonic boundaries of the new genre, producing a
fresh and innovative template for the preexisting twelve-bar blues form. His new
archetype of bebop chord substitutions over what was formerly a very simple chord
progression came to be known as ‘Bird Blues,’ and can be seen below in Table 5.1.94 The
most familiar Parker composition that uses these chord changes, “Blues for Alice,” is a
quintessential example of bebop chord substitutions.
93 Tanner, McGill and Gerow, Jazz, 177-178

68
Table 5.1: Chord Changes for ‘Bird Blues’
Fmaj7
m. 1
Emin7 A7(!9)
m. 2
Dmin7 G7(!9)
m. 3
Cmin7 F7
m. 4
B!maj7
m. 5
B!min7 E!7
m. 6
Amin7 D7
m. 7
A!min7 D!7
m. 8
Gmin7
m. 9
C7(!9)
m. 10
Fmaj7 D7
m. 11
Gmin7 C7
m. 12
Diminished Passing Chords
Parker’s harmonic sophistication left a lasting impact on Gene Ammons, who
incorporated passing chords frequently in his own playing. One harmonic substitution
that Ammons used with a degree of frequency was the diminished passing chord. This
chord tends to surface routinely in his solos on beats 3 and 4 in the second measure of a
twelve-bar blues. In Example 5.36 in the key of C major, Ammons begins his solo using
this passing chord straight away in m. 2. On the first two beats of m. 2, he outlines a
Dmin chord, giving the listener the impression that he is disregarding the quick IV chord
and substituting a ii-V in its place. Instead of going to the V chord on beat 3, however, he
shifts up chromatically from D to D!, outlining a D!o
triad (!iio
). The whole-half version
of the D! diminished scale used over the D!o
triad in m. 2 is D!, F, F!, G!/A!, A, B, C
and D. The scale tone A! on the upbeat of beat 4 in m. 2 facilitates a smooth transition
from the A occurring on the downbeat of beat 4 of the same measure to the G, the fifth of
C7, on beat 1 of m. 3.

69
Example 5.37 of Sonny Stitt soloing on “Blues Up and Down” eleven years
earlier is almost identical to Ammons’ version of the diminished passing chord in
Example 5.36.95 The implied Dmin chord is set up identically in m. 38 (the second
measure of the twelve-bar blues form); however, here Stitt leaps up a fourth on beat 4,
overshooting the A by a whole step as he ascends up the D!o
arpeggio. In doing so, he
reaffirms that diminished chord tones can be approached from a whole step above as well
as a half step below the target chord tone.
Example 5.37: Sonny Stitt, “Blues Up and Down” (1950), mm. 37-41
Minor Passing Chords: iii7-!iii7 and the Use of Sequences
One of the harmonic complexities of Parker’s ‘Bird Blues’ (occurring in mm. 7-8
of the form) that manifests itself in Ammons solos is the iii7-!iii7 substitution for I7 or
VI7. This can be prominently heard on the 1961 Ammons/Stitt recording of “Autumn
Leaves.” Sometimes, when the harmonic rhythm is subjected to diminution, the iii7-!iii7
95 McNeal, “Blues Up Sonny Stitt”.

70
substitution can happen in one measure with two beats to each chord. This would happen
in m. 8 of a twelve-bar blues form, leading into the ii7 normally occurring in bar nine;
however, these passing chords can be an effective approach to any predominant ii7 chord.
Charlie Parker uses this harmonic substitution in his 1946 recording of “Moose the
Mooche.” This is illustrated in Example 5.38, excerpted from the Charlie Parker
Omnibook.96 During the third measure of the last A section of this AABA form in G
major, Parker employs a sequenced descent from the seventh to the fifth of each chord to
serve as the connecting tissue that bridges the distance between m. 57 and m. 59. The
seventh of Bmin and B!min can be traced chromatically as guide tones, arriving on the
seventh of the Amin chord on beat 1 of m. 59.
Example 5.38: Charlie Parker, “Moose the Mooche,” mm. 57-61
Gene Ammons’ use of this harmonic device surfaces early in his career on “St.
Louis Blues” and “Red Top,” both from 1947. Because the progression of iii7-!iii7-ii7-
V7 in mm. 8-10 of a blues chorus begins with three descending chords of the same
quality (parallel minor chords), these three measures offer excellent opportunities for the
improviser to apply melodic sequencing. Ammons uses these passing chords frequently
as a substitution for VI7 in the ninth measure of a twelve-bar blues; moreover, he

71
habitually sequences melodic material when negotiating these passing chords. An early
and clear example of this can be seen in m. 38 of his solo on “Red Top,” displayed below
in Example 5.39. The tune is in G major and the Bmin-B!min (iii7-!iii7) in m. 38 is the
eighth measure of this twelve-bar blues. On beat 1 of m. 38, Ammons plays what is
essentially a metered glissando from the seventh of the chord, A, on the downbeat to the
chord’s fifth, F!, on the upbeat of 1. The iii7-!iii7 in m. 38 is harmonically similar to
Parker’s approach in the previous example; however, the harmonic rhythm is augmented
in mm. 39-40 of Example 5.39. The D and the A on beat 2 of m. 38 complete the motive,
which is then sequenced down a half step on beats 3 and 4 of the same measure to
express the B!min7.
Example 5.39: Gene Ammons, “Red Top,” mm. 37-40
Below in Example 5.40, Ammons arpeggiates the iii7 chord from the root, up to
the seventh, and back down to the fifth of the chord in m. 187. This is the seventh
measure of a blues in C major. As in the previous example, he sequences this arpeggiated
chord down a half step. Here, however, Ammons anticipates the Emin7 chord in m. 187
and starts the E!min7 arpeggio two beats early in m. 188, increasing the melodic velocity
of the phrase. Simultaneously, there is a sense of rhythmic augmentation/slower

72
harmonic rhythm, as the iii7 chord and the !iii7 chord are each allotted one full measure
instead of two beats.
Example 5.42 is taken from Ammons’ 1962 recording of a bossa, entitled “Anna”
in G major, and illustrates the saxophonist’s use of passing chords outside of a blues
context. The sequences in the previous two examples were ‘real’ sequences, maintaining
the intervallic integrity of the original motives being sequenced and containing the
requisite chromaticism necessary to accommodate the non-diatonic harmonies. The
sequence in m. 53 of Example 5.42, however is one in which both minor passing chords
(iii7 and !iii7) comprise a ‘modified’ sequence of the previous measure. The alteration of
the sequence on beat 4 in m. 54 to reflect B! min7, the !iii7 tonality, causes this to
become a modified sequence.97
Example 5.41: Gene Ammons, “Anna,” mm. 53-55
97 Kostka, Payne and Almén, Tonal Harmony: With an Introduction to Twentieth-Century Music, 7th
ed.
(New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2013), 96-97.

73
The examples shown above in this chapter are representative of saxophone
vocabulary in swing, rhythm and blues, and bebop styles. At times, some of the
distinctions between these three schools of playing were blurred. Saxophonists that
belonged squarely to one genre were still capable of borrowing from the others. That
being said, all of the above-mentioned saxophonists that have been compared to Ammons
can be easily labeled or compartmentalized based on, among other things, frequently
surfacing aspects of their vocabulary. Gene Ammons, however, was so adept at fusing
swing, rhythm and blues, and bebop that he is difficult to categorize stylistically. He was
a musical polyglot who refused to be pigeonholed or confined to a limited vocabulary,
and his ability to synthesize these styles made him accessible to a wider demographic.

74
CHAPTER 6
Conclusion
Gene Ammons’ sound and style had a tremendous impact on his colleagues,
audiences and future generations of jazz saxophone players. When asked to give advice
to younger musicians, Ammons told a reporter, “I would tell them to get a sound. Practice
their sound. That’s the most important thing.”98 At a young age, Chicago tenor
saxophonist Harold Ousley attempted to imitate the Ammons sound. He obtained a Conn
tenor saxophone and a Brilhart Tonalin mouthpiece, knowing that this was the gear that
Ammons used.99
Renowned saxophonist Johnny Griffin, who also studied at DuSable High School
with Captain Walter Dyett, noted the moment of clarity he had in his youth upon hearing
Ammons for the first time. Griffin was still in high school when he saw Ammons play
with King Kolax. It was at that moment that Griffin knew he wanted to become a
saxophone player.100 Later in 1957, he would find himself performing alongside of both
Gene Ammons and Lester Young at the Stage Door and the Crown Propeller Lodge.101
In recent years a saxophonist named Ellery Eskelin paid homage to Ammons by
recording an entire album of Ammons’ tunes. Entitled The Sun Died, Eskelin’s recording
made the New York Times’ 1996 list of top ten recordings.102 His avant-garde approach
to the songs on this album are a melodic departure from the Ammons school; however,
Ammons’ influence can be readily identified in Eskelin’s organic and visceral sound.
Additionally, the very idea of compounding Gene Ammons’ sound with avant-garde
98 Leo T. Sullivan, “Biography,” Gene Ammons: Legendary Jazz Saxophonist, accessed March 17, 2015,
http://www.geneammons.net/biography/.
99 Berliner, Thinking in Jazz, 107.
100 Travis, Autobiography of Black Jazz, 352.
101 Ibid., 360.
102 Ibid.

75
vocabulary (or the lack thereof) is fundamental to Ammons’ concept of playing across
styles.
In addition to his distinctive composite sound, Ammons had an ability to bring
aspects of different performance styles together, blurring the lines of distinction between
genres. This ultimately was his formula for success, and his fusion of jazz styles with
rhythm and blues resulted in a concept that was in line with the soul jazz movement.103
This funky jazz featured accompaniments with basic, repetitive, and sometimes Latin
rhythms combined with melodies that were blues and gospel influenced.104 Likewise, the
piano was sometimes replaced by the organ and/or the guitar in soul jazz. Jazz historian
Ted Gioia describes Ammons as “a major player, popularizing the ‘soul jazz’ idiom.”105
This claim is evidenced on Ammons’ organ combo recordings of the early 1960s, such as
Live! In Chicago and Brother Jack Meets the Boss with organist Jack McDuff. Ammons
resumed recording in the soul jazz vein after his ultimate release from Statesville
Penitentiary, beginning with The Boss is Back! in 1969 and leading all the way up to his
death with Goodbye in 1974. Players like Red Holloway, Willis “Gator Tail” Jackson,
David “Fathead” Newman, Stanley Turrentine, Hank Crawford and even Joshua Redman
all possess the soul jazz influences gifted to them by Gene Ammons.
To the jazz community, Ammons also bequeathed a legacy of dueling tenor
saxophonists operating in the ‘tenor battle’ format. Billy Eckstine’s 1944 recording of
“Blowing the Blues Away” features Gene Ammons and Dexter Gordon engaging in what
103 David H. Rosenthal, Hard Bop: Jazz and Black Music 1955-1965 (New York: Oxford University Press,
1992), 65-66.
104 Gridley, Jazz Styles, 229.
105 Ted Gioia, The History of Jazz (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 243.

76
is the first famous recording of a tenor battle.106 Lester Young and Herschel Evans had
previously become famous for their on-stage tenor rivalries; however, they infrequently
soloed on the same piece and, when they did, their solos were deliberately spaced far
apart.107 For example, on Count Basie’s 1938 recording of “Georgianna,” the solos
played by Herschel Evans and Lester Young are separated by one minute and twenty
seconds of vocals and ensemble playing. In contrast, Ammons and Gordon are locked in
heated musical dispute while trading choruses and four-measure sections (‘trading fours’)
on “Blowing the Blues Away.”
Following in the tradition of “Blowing the Blues Away,” Ammons continued
formalizing the tradition of the tenor battle with his quintet, co-led by Sonny Stitt.108 A
paragon example of the Ammons/Stitt tenor battles is the 1961 recording of “Blues Up
and Down” from Boss Tenors. Kenny Mathieson goes so far as to say that Boss Tenors
could be seen as a template for the twin tenor format.109 In the spirit of Ammons and
Stitt, a large number of saxophonists have paired up in an attempt to exploit the dueling
tenor format. The most notable of these paired saxophonists include Johnny Griffin and
Eddie “Lockjaw” Davis, Dexter Gordon and Wardell Gray, David “Fathead” Newman
and Stanley Turrentine, and even Michael Brecker and Bob Mintzer.
The study of Gene Ammons is an expansion of knowledge in many other broad
areas, such as the rhythmic and lyrical qualities of African music; the evolution of the
109 Mathieson, Cookin’, 225-226.

77
backbeat in blues, jazz, and rhythm and blues; and an in-depth study of Coleman
Hawkins and Lester Young. While each of the individual timbral, rhythmic, melodic and
harmonic devices discussed in this paper can be traced back to earlier sources, the sum of
these characteristics produced a sound that was unique to Gene Ammons. He carefully
molded his style so as to remain versatile in a musical climate that was evolving in
multiple directions and at an ever-increasing rate; furthermore, his multipurpose
saxophone concept manifested itself in the form of high record sales, even during his nine
years in prison. Indeed, Bob Weinstock said that Ammons was the top-selling recording
artist for Prestige Records, outselling Miles Davis by far. Weinstock attributes the
saxophonist’s success to his ability to appeal to jazz listeners and rhythm and blues fans
alike.110
Bob Weinstock’s statements underscore the fact that, at times, an element of
disconnect exists between the critics and the listeners. Even though Gene Ammons has
been largely overlooked by jazz critics and historians, his influence is an undercurrent
that has been felt far and wide by saxophonists and music appreciators of then and now.
The lessons taught by Ammons go above and beyond the notes he played. He taught us
that stylistic diversification is an excellent business model for the working saxophonist.
He taught us that the notes are only as important as their delivery. He taught us to be true
to our convictions, regardless of what the critics think.

78
APPENDIX A
Complete Solo Transcriptions of Gene Ammons

102
APPENDIX B
Solo Transcriptions of
Lester Young, Illinois Jacquet and Red Prysock
Completed in a
Comparative Study of Gene Ammons

116
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SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY
Ammons, Gene. Jug Sessions. EmArcy, 1947.
Ammons, Gene. Red Top. Savoy, 1947.
Ammons, Gene. Early Visions. Chess, 1948.
Ammons, Gene. Young Jug. Chess, 1948.
Ammons, Gene. Soulful Saxophone of Gene Ammons. Chess, 1948.
Ammons, Gene. Gene Ammons All Star Sessions. Prestige, 1950.
Ammons, Gene. Blues Up and Down, Vol. 1. Prestige, 1950.
Ammons, Gene. Golden Saxophone. Savoy, 1952.
Ammons, Gene. Sock!. Prestige, 1955.
Ammons, Gene. Juganthology. Prestige, 1955.
Ammons, Gene. The Happy Blues. Prestige, 1956.
Ammons, Gene. Jammin’ with Gene. Prestige, 1956.
Ammons, Gene. Funky. Original Jazz, 1957.
Ammons, Gene. Jammin’ in Hi Fi with Gene Ammons. Prestige, 1957.
Ammons, Gene. Groove Blues. Prestige, 1958.
Ammons, Gene. Blue Gene. Original Jazz, 1958.
Ammons, Gene. The Gene Ammons Story: Organ Combos. Prestige, 1958.
Ammons, Gene. The Gene Ammons Story: Gentle Jug. Prestige, 1961.
Ammons, Gene. Boss Tenor. Prestige, 1960.
Ammons, Gene. Angel Eyes. Prestige, 1960.
Ammons, Gene. Late Hour Special. Original Jazz, 1961.

121
Ammons, Gene and Sonny Stitt. We’ll Be Together Again. Prestige, 1961.
Ammons, Gene and Sonny Stitt. Boss Tenors: Straight Ahead from Chicago, 1961.
Verve, 1961.
Ammons, Gene. Live! In Chicago. Prestige, 1961.
Ammons, Gene. Boss Soul. Prestige, 1961.
Ammons, Gene. Up Tight!. Prestige, 1961.
Ammons, Gene. Twistin’ the Jug. Prestige, 1961.
Ammons, Gene. Blue Groove. Prestige, 1962.
Ammons, Gene. Preachin’. Prestige, 1962.
Ammons, Gene. Jug and Dodo. Prestige, 1962
Ammons, Gene. Jungle Soul. Prestige, 1962.
Ammons, Gene. Bad! Bossa Nova. Original Jazz, 1962.
Ammons, Gene. Brother Jug. Prestige, 1969.
Ammons, Gene. The Boss is Back!. Prestige, 1969.
Ammons, Gene. Night Lights. Prestige, 1970.
Ammons, Gene. The Chase. Prestige, 1970.
Ammons, Gene. Black Cat. Prestige, 1970.
Ammons, Gene and Sonny Stitt. Together Again for the Last Time. Prestige, 1973.
Ammons, Gene. Goodbye. Prestige, 1974.
Ammons, Albert. Blues and Boogie-Woogie King. Jazz Archives No. 125, 1998.
Ammons, Gene. God Bless Jug and Sonny. Prestige 2001.
Eckstine, Billy. The Legendary Big Band. Savoy, 2002.

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Joseph Colarusso
2704 Dryden St.
Austin, TX 78748
josephcc@stedwards.edu
(512) 789-1387
Education
Doctor of Musical Arts: Performance with Jazz Emphasis, in progress, The
University of Texas at Austin
Master of Music: Jazz Studies, 2003, The University of Texas at Austin
Bachelor of Music: Applied Saxophone, 1996, The University of Texas at
Austin
Training
Principal Teachers
Saxophones Harvey Pittel
Bass clarinet Harvey Pittel
Clarinet Richard MacDowell
Flute/ Piccolo Beth Whitten
Trumpet Rick White
Jazz Theory/ Improvisation Richard Lawn/ John Mills
Professional Teaching Experience
St. Edward’s University, Austin, TX (2006-present)
• Coordinator of Instrumental Music
• Director of the St. Edward’s University Jazz Ensembles
• Director of the St. Edward’s University Mariachi Alas de Oro
• Applied Woodwinds Instructor
• Music Theory Lecturer
Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX (2004-2009)
• Adjunct Professor of Saxophone and Clarinet
• Lecturer for Music in Contemporary Life

123
Round Rock ISD, Round Rock, TX (1994-2006)
• Private Saxophone, Flute, and Clarinet Instructor at Grisham
Middle School, Chisholm Trail Middle School, Cedar Valley
Middle School, Stony Point High School and Round Rock High
School.
• Director of the Chisholm Trail Middle School Jazz Ensemble.
The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX (2001-2003)
• Teaching Assistant for Harvey Pittel- taught applied saxophone
lessons to undergraduate saxophonists.
• Teaching Assistant for the Jazz Studies Department- coached jazz
combos on theory, performance, and improvisation styles.
Pflugerville ISD, Pflugerville, TX (1995-2001)
• Private Saxophone and Bass Clarinet Instructor at Westview
Middle School, Pflugerville Middle School, Pflugerville High
School, and Connally High School.
Publications
Steady- Jazz From the Carriage House (2012)
The St. Edward’s University Jazz Ensemble’s second CD, available at
http://think.stedwards.edu/musicalperformances/discography.
Mariachi Alas de Oro- El Primer (2010)
The St. Edward’s University Mariachi Ensemble’s first CD, available at
Steady- Snapshot- In the Beginning (2006)
The St. Edward’s University Jazz Ensemble’s first CD, available at
McGraw Hill Higher Education (2006)
Developed a website for my Music in Contemporary Life lecture class at
Prairie View A&M University. It can be viewed at www.jocal.pageout.net.
Awards and Honors
State Bar of Texas-LRE, Austin, TX (2006, 2007, 2009)
Was commissioned by the Law-Related Education department of the
Texas State Bar Association to lecture on American music history at the
2006, 2007 and 2009 State Bar Conventions. I recommended texts that
have now been adopted by the State of Texas as a part of the middle and
high school American history curriculum.

124
Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, Prairie View, TX (2006)
Was inducted into the Omicron Zeta chapter of the national music
fraternity Phi Mu Alpha as an honorary member by the students at Prairie
View A&M University.
Region 18 Jazz Band, Austin, TX (2002)
Clinician and conductor for the All Region Jazz Band.
Professional Affiliations
Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia
Jazz Education Network
Performance Experience
Classical
Austin Symphony Orchestra
Austin Lyric Opera
University of Texas Wind Ensemble
University of Texas Symphony
University of Texas Saxophone Choir
Austin Saxophone Quartet
Nova Saxophone Quartet
Harvey Pittel
Donald Sinta
Jazz
Bob Brookmeyer
Joshua Redman
Mike Stern
Eddie Daniels
Maria Schneider
The Tony Campisi Big Band
Creative Opportunity Orchestra
Ed Shaughnessy
University of Texas Jazz Orchestra
St. Edward’s University Jazz Ensemble
John Mills Times Ten
Manhattan Transfer
The Stardust Orchestra
Dimensions in Blue (Lackland Air Force Base, San Antonio, TX)
Monster Big Band
Frank Sinatra, Jr.
Natalie Cole
Carmen Bradford

125
Commercial
The Temptations
Frankie Valli
Olivia Newton John
10,000 Maniacs
The Guy Lombardo Orchestra
Kenny Rogers
Asleep at the Wheel
Michael Feinstein
Tommy Tune
Marvin Hamlisch
Gino Vannelli
Linda Eder
Archie Bell and the Drells
Julie Budd
Aretha Franklin
Dale Watson
Rick Treviño
Charlie Sexton
Johnny Gimble
Bernadette Peters
W.C. Clark
Extreme Heat
Debby Boone
Musical Theater
Austin Musical Theater
Broadway Texas
University of Texas Department of Theater and Dance
Zilker Hillside Theater
Zachary Scott Theater
Mariachi
Mariachi Alas de Oro
Mariachi Cielo de Austin

COLARUSSO DISSERTATION 5.12.15

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