Communicative approach to the teaching of english as a second language pratima dave shastri

CO.UNICATM APPROACH
TO THE TEACHING OF
ENGLISH
. AS ASECOND LANGUAGE

"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
TO THE TEACHING OF
ENGLISH
AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

BY
PRATIMA DAVE SHASTRI
)epartment of Language Teaching,
SNDT Women's University,
Mumbai.

Hal
Gflimalaya GpublishingGJiouse
MUMBAI • DELHI • NAGPUR • BANGALORE • HYDERABAD

C AUTHOR
No part of this publication should be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical or photocopying,
recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the author.

ISBN : 978-93-5024-543-9
EDIEION :2010

Published by Mrs. Meena Pandey
for HIMALAYA PUBLISHING HOUSE,
"Ramdoot", Dr. Bhalerao Marg, Girgaon,
Mumbai - 400 004.
Phones: 38601 70/3863863,
Fax: 022-387 71 78
Email: himpub@vsnl.com
Website: www.himpub.com
Branch Offices :
Delhi "Pooja Apartments", 4-B, Murari Lal Street,
Ansari Road, Darya Ganj,
New Delhi - 110 002.
Phone: 3270392, Fax: 01l-325 62 86
Nagpur Kundanlal Chandak. Industrial Estate,
Ghat Road, Nagpur - 440 018.
Phone: 72 12 16, Telefax: 0712-72 12 15
Bangalore No. 12, 6th Cross, Opp. Hotel Annapoorna,
Gandhinagar, Bangalore - 560009.
Phone: 228 1541, Fax: 080-2286611
Hyderabad No. 2-2-1 167/2H, 1st Floor,
Near Railway Bridge, Tilak Nagar,
Main Road, Hyderabad - 500044.
Phone: 650 1745, Fax: 040-7560041
Printed by Esquire Press Pvt. Ltd.,
2, Mohatta Bhavan, Dr. E. Moses Road,
Worli, Mumbai - 400 018.

CONTENTS

1. Analysis of Language 1-5

2. Status and Role of English in India 6-10

3. Theories of Language Learning 11-16

4. Language Acquisition and Language Learning 17-23

5. Error Analysis and Remedial Teaching 24-32

6. Methods and Approaches of Language Teaching 33-41

7. Syllabus and Curriculum 42-49

8. Use of Audio-Visual Aids in Language Teaching 50-56

9. Class Management 57-62

10. Teaching Listening Skills 63'-69

11. Teaching Speaking Skills 70-77

12. Teaching Reading Skills 78-84

13. Teaching Writing Skills 85-92

14. Study Skills 93-96

15. Teaching Vocabulary 97-103

16. Teaching Literature 104-108

17. Teaching Grammar 109-113

18. Lesson Planning 114-119

19. Language Testing and Evaluation 120-128

Appendices 129-190

III

ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE

Man being a social animal needs to communicate with the
fellow members of the society. Communication is both verbal and
non-verbal. Animals do not have language but they also express
their emotions. A dog's bark for his master and a stranger sounds
differently. Even gestures and actions help in communicating with
others. A smile or a frown speaks more than words. But our concern
here is linguistic communication. Language acts as a tool for this
purpose of communication. Besides this communicative function
language also performs cultural function by manifestation of
literature. Society in general is concerned with language as a mode
of communication. It is expected from its members to be the efficient
users ofthe language. To develop efficiency, we have to understand
different aspects of the language. Linguistics helps us to analyse
the language.
Linguistics as a science studies language objectively. The
observations help us to improve the methods of language teaching.
Linguists believe that language is human specific. Only human
beings possess language. A child has an innate. capacity to acquire
his mother tongue. Even the dullest child learns at least one
language.
Another principle of linguistics is that language is a system
ofsystems. Sounds form word, words form phrases and from phrases
sentences are formed. It shows relationship between form and
meaning. Every word stands for an object or an idea.
Language is arbitrary and conventional. In English there
is a word 'table' to denote a piece of furniture one uses to write on.
Other languages have other words for it. Why do we call a table a
'table' and not a woman, there is no logic for it. We call it a 'table'
out of convention.

2 Communicative Approach to the Teaching ofEnglish as a Second Language

Language is an open-ended system. It is a changing
phenomenon. New words are added to the repertoire of the language.
Earlier the words like computer, cybercafe, website were not there.
Now, they form the integral part of any language.
The element of creativity results in novel expressions. With
finite numbers of the rules, infinite number of sentences can
be produced.
Saussure and Chomsky have emphasised the difference
between language as a stable system and the speech acts. Saussure
classifies these aspects as langue and parole. Langue is shared
by the entire speech community. Parole is individualistic in nature.
Chomsky defines them as competence and performance.
Competence is the knowledge of the abstract rules of the language,
while performance is the actual use of language based on this
abstract knowledge. Learning a language covers different areas of
language. An efficient user of the language has this competence.
We have to analyse those elements of the language that develop
efficiency and competence in a learner.
A language has both the spoken and the written medium
for communication. The medium of speech is more important
than the medium of writing. Speech is primary. Primitive people
did not have the script of writing, but they used language for oral
communication. The first exposure to a language is through listening
to the sounds of the language. Phonology explains this aspect.
PHONOLOGY: Human beings can produce a number of
sounds. Each language selects a few sounds. Each language
organises the selected sounds in a set pattern. Phonology deals
with the selection and organisation of these sounds in a language.
In every language a letter of the alphabet represents a particular
sound. In English there are 26 alphabets with 44 sounds.
Individually sounds are meaningless. It is the rearrangement of
these sounds form words. For example, Ik/sluib/ sounds appear
meaningless, but if arranged in the order of Ibuks/ we get the word
'books'. Every language has a large number of vowel and consonant
sounds forming the sound system of that language. These sounds
can be grouped into a limited number of distinctive sound units
called phoneme of that language. Phonemes are language specific.
There may be difference between two phonemes in different
languages in a number of ways. Sounds [ph] and /p/ belong to the
same phoneme in English. The pronunciation of the word pen as
[phen] or /pen/ does not bring about any change in the meaning.
But in Hindi, [ph] and [p] are two different phonemes and the

Analysis ofLanguage -3

substitution of one with the other changes the meaning. For example
'pal' [moment] and 'phal' [fruit] are different words. Minimal pair
test helps to find out if the sounds belong to the same phoneme or
not. The learners need to know the sound system of the target
language; otherwise this will create problems for them. Indian
speakers find it difficult to produce lSI as in 'thin' and 10/ as in
then'; sound 131 in 'measure', If! in 'fine' etc. Similarly, they find it
difficult to distinguish between Ivl and Iwl sounds and pronounce
'vine' and 'wine' in the same way. It is difficult because we do not
have these sounds in Indian languages. Hindi speakers find it very
hard to pronounce Marathi sounds Ichl in the word 'char or Idl in
the word 'Iadu'. In Hindi language these sounds are not available.
Minimal pair is a good technique to overcome this problem. Stress
and intonation are two other important aspects of the sound system
of English language.
STRESS: Stress is very important in English. A word is made
of one or more syllables. Syllables are made with the combination
of vowel and consonant sounds. A word is divided according to the
number of syllables it has. The stronger syllable gets the stress
and is accented. For example, in the word 'PHOtograph', the first
syllable is stressed, in the word 'phoTOgraphy' the second syllable
is stressed, in the word 'photoGRAfic', the third syllable is stressed.
In disyllabic words the stress shifts according to their roles as
noun or verb. In the same word as noun, the stress is on first
syllable but as verb the stress shifts to the second syllable. For
example the word SUBject as noun gets stress on first syllable, but
as verb gets stress on second syllable - subJECT. Stress is
important in sentences too. It can change the meaning of the
sentence. The sentence -'she is BEAUtiful' is a .plain statement,
but the same sentence with changed stress means different. If it is
said as - 'SHE is beautiful,' suggests doubt about her beauty.
INTONATION: Intonation pattern in connected speech is very
important. It helps to understand the attitude and the mood of the
speaker.
Shut the door [falling tone of command]
Shut the door [rising tone of request]
The low and the high pitch create the desired effect on the
listener. One has to learn these aspects of the spoken English
carefully.
LEXICON: Sounds put together form words. They are the
important features of the language. All the words of a language
can be put in a dictionary. To be the proficient user of the language,

4 Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language

the learner has to be rich in vocabulary. The lack of the knowledge
of vocabulary items creates a stumbling block in communication.
[For detail see the chapter on vocabulary].
SYNTAX: Words put together form sentences. The formation
of sentences depends on the rules of grammar. It is the order ofthe
words in a sentence that leads to meaning. 'I market the to go' is
a nonsensical sentence. We have to put the words in the right
order 'I go to the market' to get the meaning. Native speaker has
sub-conscious knowledge of the grammar of his language though;
he is not able to describe it. With a finite number of rules an
infinite number of sentences can be created. This reflects the
creativity of the language. This knowledge of the grammar rules is
competence and the realisation of the rules in sentences is
performance. The learners need to be given the sentences first and
then analyse them and arrive at a formula. Grammar should be
taught in an integral way. To make learning easier, words and
sentences should be taught in situation and context.
SITUATION: Language is not divorced from a situation. A
proficient user of the language uses it with great facility in different
situations. The situations can be 'at the railway station', 'in the
college/hospital/office' etc. Dell Hymes - a sociolinguist challenged
Chomsky's concept of competence and performance on the ground
that knowledge of grammar rules is not enough. One must know
how to use the language in different situations. This knowledge
results in communicative competence.
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: Refers to the
knowledge of 'how' to use the language and the capacity to produce
infinite number of sentences. A sense of appropriateness in inter-
personal relations develops this competence [Harmer: 1983]. In
communication, social norms are to be followed. One cannot address
one's teacher the way one addresses a friend. This leads to the
concept of correctness and appropriateness. A grammatically correct
sentence can be inappropriate in a particular context. For example
- 'hey, coming for the film!' is acceptable between friends but is
unacceptable if a subordinate uses it for his boss.
Communicative competence also refers to the capacity of using
language according to the purpose. The purpose can be of making
request, complaint, order, apology etc. This leads to the knowledge
of the functions of the language.
FUNCTIONS: Language performs different functions. Some
of the important functions are - introducing, inviting, accepting
and refusing, agreeing and disagreeing, suggesting and advising,

Analysis of Language 5

directing and instructing etc. There are different ways to perform
one function. For example, for introduction, sentences such as 'meet
my friend', 'I would like to introduce my friend', 'may I introduce
my friend,?, 'allow me to introduce my friend', 'how about meeting
my friend', 'hey guys, this is my friend' can be used according to
the formal, informal or semiformal situation.
SKILLS: A proficient user of the language has a number of
different abilities. Slhe may read a book, write a letter, converse
with people and listen to a lecture effectively. Language has different
aspects. The receptive aspect of language is listening and reading.
It refers to the recognition and comprehension of the message
conveyed through sounds and symbols arranged in a definite order.
The productive aspect of language covers the skills of speaking and
writing. They are used for the transmission of the experience. The
reproductive aspect of language refers to re-expression or
translation. A learner has to learn these skills to comprehend and
transfer the information.
A teacher should cover all these aspects while teaching English,
then only the job will be accomplished. Stern aptly defines language
teaching 'as an activity which brings about a change in learning'
[Stern:1983]. In the following chapters we will cover the following
aspects in detail to help our learners to be good teachers of English
as L2.

I QuESTIONS I
1. What are the important features of a language?
2. What do you understand by the terms 'linguistic competence and
communicative competence'? Explain with examples for each.

IREFERENCES I
• Harmer, Jeremy, 1983 The Practice of English Language
Teaching, Longman.
• Stem, H.H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts ofLanguage Teaching,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ClQQ

CHAPTER 2

STATUS AND ROLE OF
ENGLISH IN INDIA

INTRODUCTION: Language is an integral part of our
existence. We need language for a variety of purposes of
administration, commerce, education and communication. It is
natural and beneficial to use mother tongue or L1 for the purpose
of education and communication. But" in a multilingual,
multicultural country like India, the use of mother tongue is not
enough. Generally, L1 - the first language is mother tongue, but
in India most of the people are bilingual. They are equally
comfortable in using both the languages. So, the concept of L1 gets
a wider meaning. It may not be the mother tongue but a language-
in which a person thinks and feels comfortable using it. World is
getting smaller and the competition is getting tougher. People have
to learn other languages for existence. All the additional languages,
which people frequently use for communication can be called second
language. The learner of second language should be able to use it
as effectively as s/he uses his/her first language [Stern1983].
English enjoys the status of second or third language in India.
It is not a foreign language as German or French are. Not a single
area oflife remains untouched by its influence. It is aptly described
as a window on the world. To realise its importance and status, we
have to see the role it played in India before and after independence.
ENGLISH IN PRE·INDEPENDENCE INDIA: Under
British rule in 1813, English language was introduced as a medium
of instruction at all the levels of education. Indians favoured
Sanskrit or regional languages and opposed it. But the reformers
like Rajaram Mohan Roy realised the importance of English and
saw in it the promise of modernisation and liberation. He favoured
it. This opened the door for English in India.

Status and Role of English in India 7

Lord Macaulay [1835 minutes] recommended the use of English
in education. His aim was the revival and improvement of English
literature and the promotion of science. But again there was
opposition from Indians.
Lord Auckland [1839 minutes] favoured English but realised
the importance of vernacular instruction too. Now, English was the
language of administration at high courts but at lower courts
regional languages were used as official language.
Lord Harding [1844] made the knowledge of English
compulsory for jobs. This resulted in class division between the
elite and the less privileged ones. This resulted in the sudden boost
in the status of English.
Charles Wood in dispatch 1854 emphasised upon the use of
English as a medium of instruction at higher level but at the lower
level the regional language should be the medium of instruction.
This did not bring about any significant change in the status of
English but it widened the gulf between the English and the
vernacular medium learners. This distinction was obvious at the
educational and administrative areas of life.
Thus, in pre-independence India too, English teaching situation
started on a note of language controversy between English and
regional languages and the controversy still continues.
ENGLISH IN THE POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA: Even
after the independence the language problem remained more or
less the same. Government of India evolved a policy of universal .
education for all. This recommended the use of regional language
as a medium of instruction at primary and secondary level. At the
university level, English was the medium of instruction. After
independence, 'Universal Education' opened the door of education
for all the citizens, but this created many problems too.
Unmanageable overcrowded classrooms and the non-availability of
trained teachers affected the quality of education. Colleges had to
face the problem of the mixed ability groups in English. This resulted
in a wide gap of language efficiency level between English medium
and vernacular medium learners. Some states like MP, UP and
Bihar abolished English from their curriculum for some time because
it was a symbol of slavery to the British. The language problem is
still not resolved. In a multilingual multicultural milieu, a common
consensus for a common language could not be reached because of
the political reasons.
In 1950, the Constitution of India declared Hindi to be the
official language of India with English to be there as the official


l~guage for 15 years. This was opposed by the southern states.
So, parliament had to enact the official Language Act 1963 that
made English the official language for an indefinite period. The
step was taken in the interest of national integration. This gave
English the same status it enjoyed before independence. English
has enjoyed this status for almost 200 years.
For the purpose of education, the Government of India Central
Advisory Board of Education devised a 3-language formula in 1962.
The Education Commission revised this formula in 1964-66. It
suggested that the mother tongue or the regional language should
be the medium of instruction from class I to X. They made the
study of English compulsory either as a second or third language
from class V and VII respectively.
For lower secondary stage class VIII to X non-Hindi speaking
areas, the arrangement should be as follows:
1. Mother tongue or regional language
2. Hindi at higher or lower level
3. English at higher or lower level.
Hindi speaking areas:
1. Mother tongue or regional language
2. English or Hindi if English taken as Ll
3. A modern Indian language other than Hindi.
This formula tries to bring up a solution to please both the
Hindi and the non-Hindi speaking belt by providing for higher and
lower level courses. It gave English a status of L2 and L3.
PRESENT STATUS OF ENGLISH IN INDIA: Though Hindi
and the regional languages are given importance but English rules
the roost. It is considered essential in the areas of administration,
commerce, banking, education etc. Nobody can deny its importance.
The two prominent roles it plays are of:
.:. Link language [national and international level]
.:. Library language
LINK LANGUAGE: In a multilingual situation of India,
English acts as a link language and bridges the gulf between states:
It is the associate official language for inter-state communication
and communication between states and the Centre. Indian
Education Commission [1964-66] has recommended the continuation
of English for national integration and higher level academic
purposes.

Status and Role of English in India 9

At the international level, it enjoys the status of world
language. It acts as a link between the countries and brings them
to a common platform. It helps to develop commerce and diplomatic
relations with other countries. It plays a major role in world affairs.
Another very significant role it plays is that of a library language.
LIBRARY LANGUAGE: Today, the world is shritUdng faster
due to the technological advancement. There is an explosion of
information in all the fields of education. English is the only means
to this end of information. English is widely used for the educational
purposes in India. English is an institutional language [Pattanayak.
76]. Though, both the vernacular and the English medium education
is available at school level, but at higher level of technical and
professional education the medium of instruction is English. All
the updated material is available in English. It, being an
international language, opens the avenues for research in all the
professions. It is used for the development of reading comprehension.
This awareness of the importance of English resulted in the
mushroom growth of English medium schools in the smallest town
in our country. This created a disparity between the expensive
English medium schools and the government and free regional
medium schools. In India, schools follow a common 12-year
educational programme. But, there is much discrepancy in the
exposure to the English language. In English medium schools,
English is taught both as a subject and as a medium of instruction.
There it is taught from the nursery or pre-play educational level.
But in regional medium schools, it is introduced in class V, VI or
VII. Of late, Maharashtra Government has introduced English from
class 1 in Marathi medium schools on an experimental basis. This
difference in exposure to the language affects the proficiency level
of the learners in the language at the college level. Vernacular
students find it difficult to cope with the enormous pressure of
dealing with books and instructions given in English in the
classroom. They refer to the poor quality guidebooks and as a
result their grades suffer. This creates a vicious circle for them.
The overcrowded classrooms mixed ability groups and the dearth
of good English teachers worsen the matter.
We need to change the scenario. Our objective of teaching
English should be very clear. We need not teach English as a
literary language or teach it for examination purposes. We have to
concentrate on making our learners autonomous learners. For them,
the syllabus should be functional and skill based. We need to provide
them an opportunity to use the language. We should help them to
listen and speak., read and write independently. We have to adopt


a methodology, which is learner centered and not teacher centered.
NCERT and CIEFL have brought a welcome change in the
curriculum. They have produced controlled and graded syllabuses.
They have revised the textbooks and brought reform in the
examination system. Still, a lot has to be done to improve the
English learning/teaching situation in India. The teaching fraternity
has to work hard for it. We have to develop the proficiency level of
the learners, as no one can deny the importance of English.

I QUESTIONS I
1. Comment on the English teaching situation in your state. Give
suggestions for its improvement.
2. Describe the role and the status of English in pre and post
independence India.
3. 'English is a window on the world.' Express your views on it in the
Indian context.

I REFERENCES I
• Pattanayak, D.P. 1981, Multilingualism and Mother Tongue
Education, Oxford.
• Stem, H.H. 1983, Fundamental Concepts ofLanguage Teaching,
London: OUP.

QQQ

CHAPTER 3 _ 1 1 1 1 111'''1 11111 I

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE
LEARNING

The objective of teaching is to produce learning. Knowledge of
the process of learning makes teaching effective. Disciplines of
psychology and linguistics help us to understand this process.
Linguistics deals with the nature of language, while psychology
deals with the process of learning. Both are closely entwined. In
this process both come closer to each other. Psychology explains
the mental processes involved in learning and gives insight into
human behaviour. Since language is central to human behaviour,
psychology explains the process of acquisition of the language in a
child. It also explains the role of the variables of age, attitude,
aptitude, motivation etc. in learning a language. The two important
schools of psychology are - behaviourism and cognitivism. Both
have contributed to the process of teaching and learning a language.
BEHAVIOURISM: Behaviourists believe that learning is a
change in behaviour cau.sed by the learning environment. Its theory
is based on empirical evidence obtained from experiments conducted
on living organisms. Behaviourists believe that all organisms -
human or animal exhibit behaviour. Behaviouristic theory is not
only for language learning but also for learning in general. It is
interpreted in terms of stimulus -response, reinforcement, repetition
and habit formation. The change from one pattern of behaviour to
another is the result of conditioning - classical and operant.
The Russian psychologist Pavlov in an experiment conducted with
a dog explains the process of classical conditioning.
When a hungry dog is given a piece of meat [stimulus-I], it
salivates [response].
But when it hears a bell [stimulus-21, it does not salivate.


If the behaviour of the dog is to be conditioned to salivate to
the ringing of the bell, the bell is rung every time the dog is given
some meat.
Soon, the dog learns to associate the ringing of the bell with
the sight of the meat. After some time the dog begins to salivate
[response], whenever it hears the bell [stimulus], even if it is not
accompanied by the meat. The dog has learnt a new behaviour
through conditioning.
Repetition is crucial here. The bond between stimulus-l and
stimulus-2 is reinforced by repetition and weakened by the absence
of repetition. The dog will stop salivating if it hears the bell a
number of times without getting any meat. The organism plays a
passive role.
Another type of conditioning is called operant. It is based on
the theory of stimulus, action and reward. Skinner explains this
process with the example of a hungry pigeon trapped in a cage.
There is a mechanical lever. By chance, the lever is pressed by the
pigeon and a pellet of grain comes out. After some time the bird
starts associating the release of grain with the pressing of the
lever. Whenever the bird is hungry, it presses the lever and gets
food. The bird is conditioned to handle the lever in order to produce
the desired result. There is no pre-existent stimulus-response bond
here as it is in classical conditioning. The internal stimulus [hunger],
the action of pressing the lever and the reward are unconnected at
the beginning. The reward is satisfying, so the action is repeated.
There is a bond between action and reward. It is a conditioned
response. The bond is reinforced by reward and weakened by the
absence of it. Organism plays an active role here.
IMPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIOURISM ON LANGUAGE
TEACHING: Thorndike has formulated three laws of learning based
on these conditionings - classical and operant. They reflect on the
implications of behaviourism on learning a language. They are the
laws of effect, exercise and readiness.
Law of effect: Is based on the principle of operant
conditioning. It states that - if the connection between stimulus
and response results in satisfaction, it strengthens the connection.
If it does not satisfy, it weakens it. The reward is directly related
to the fulfillment of the needs. Reward is necessary to produce
desired behaviour and punishment is needed to eliminate that
behaviour.
Law of exercise: Is based on the principle of classical
conditioning. It suggests that repetition is crucial to make learning
confirmed.

Theories of Language Learning 13

Law of readiness: It. emphasises on the role of motivation.
Motivation depends on the needs of the learners. Both the internal
and the external motivation play an important role in learning.
This makes learners attentive and they learn fast.
Let us see the implications of these laws on learning a
language. The teacher can condition learning in the students by
exploiting the tenets of behaviourism.
Every utterance in a language is a response to some stimulus.
A question asked by the teacher is a stimulus that elicits an answer
as the response. If the answer is right, the teacher can reward it
with a smile, a pat or a nod of the head. This gives satisfaction to
the learner. Knowledge of progress in learning is also a reward in
itself. Reward or satisfaction reinforces learning.
Reinforcement by itself is not enough. To make learning
permanent, learner has to practise it repeatedly till it becomes a
habit.
There is no room for error. Teacher should prepare exercises
in such a way that only the correct responses are elicited.
Language should be presented in bits - item by item and the
gradation should be from simple to complex. Skills should be broken
in sub-skills and the syllabus should be graded.
Teacher can control the process of learning in all the learners
as all of them learn the language the same way.
Speech is primary. The receptive exposure to the language is
important for the production of language. Most of the methods of
language teaching over the past forty years have followed the
principles of behaviourism. But, later on it faced dissatisfaction
because of the following drawbacks in it.
Drawbacks of Behaviourism: It does not distinguish
between animals and human learners. Man has rational faculty
and language is human specific. Hence, the rules applicable to
animals cannot be applied to human beings.
Learning cannot be controlled entirely by the external agency.
Learner also contributes in the process of learning.
Behaviourism is based only on observed behaviour, which is
not true because the internal changes produced by learning cannot
be observed.
There is no room for error. But learning is a process of trial
and error.


Practice is important, but meaningless practice results in rote
learning.
Speech is primary, but in L2learning situation the process is
reversed. The learners start with reading and writing first and
speaking comes in the end.
All the learners do not learn the language the same way.
There are individual variations too.
Still, we cannot deny the contribution of behaviourism in
learning a language. Another school of learning is cognitivism.
COGNITMSM: Behaviourists followed the model of stimulus
response for learning. Cognitivists added cognitive function to this
model
S> cognitive functions> R
Cognitive function suggests that the learner can monitor and
evaluate a stimulus to develop a response. It establishes a theory
that the learner is not a passive recipient but an active controller
of the process of learning. According to cognitivists, learning is not
a mechanical process of stimulus-response, reinforcement and habit
formation. Learning is problem solving in nature and is based on
insight formation. This is explained with the help of an experiment
conducted on an ape.
The ape was put in a cage. A bunch of bananas was suspended
from the ceiling. Some pieces of wood were provided to reach to
that bunch. These pieces needed to be joined together to form a
long stick. Initially, the ape jumped to get the bananas. No success,
it sat back in a corner and after some time tried to join the pieces
of wood together. This suggests that the animal could interpret the
situation and found another strategy to deal with the problem.
This proves the importance of cognitivist theory of learning,
which is based on insight formation.
Noam Chomsky rejected the theory of behaviourism on the
ground that it does not explain the process of Ll acquisition. Child
has an in-built capacity to learn a language called LAD [language
acquisition device]. Language learning is not a mechanical process
of stimulus-response, reinforcement and habit formation. When a
child encounters new language item, he screens it through the old
learnt items' repertoire. He makes a hypothetical plan, tests the
plan. If it is right, accepts the plan, if not, rejects it, and tries
another hypothesis. The child learns the rules of grammar through
trial and error. Mistakes are the inevitable part of learning. They

Theories of Language Learning 15

suggest that the child is putting an effort to learn the language.
Learner plays an active role in the process of learning.
IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVISM ON LANGUAGE
TEACHING: The teacher should follow the system the way the
child acquires the language. Slhe should realise that the exposure
to the target language is essential. Learning is not a mechanical
process. It is a meaningful, problem solving process. The learner
has a system that helps him in learning. For example, if slhe has
learnt the regular verb - walk, walked, walked, and then comes
across irregular verb like teach or keep, slhe overgeneralises it as
teach, teached, teached. The error suggests that the learner is not
a robot but is actually involved in the process of learning. The use
of meaningful situation is important in learning a language.
Mechanical repetition should be avoided. [Stem: 289]. We have to
give a context to a language item and should not teach rules in
isolation. Language items should not be graded because the child
learns the language througll the exposure to the ocean of the
language without any gradation or Sequencing of the items. Learning
is an internal process and~annot be experimented fully. It is also
a creative process, so the learner should be encouraged to use the
language even if slhe makes errors.
CONTRIBUTION OF BEHAVIOURISM AND
COGNITIVISM TO LANGUAGE TEACHING: Both the schools
have advantages and disadvantages. Both agree on the need of the
exposure to the language. The teacher should give her learners the
maximum exposure of the target language.
Importance of practice cannot be denied. But it should not be
rote learning. Practice should be given in meaningful situation
through problem solving tasks.
The learners should be actively involved in the process of
learning. Teacher should provide them opportunities to use the
language in the classroom. While teaching the whole class, she
must remember the individual variations in learning.
Grading is essential but it should be done according to the
needs of the learners.
Errors are essential part of learning. Teacher has to be
sympathetic and patient with the learners. Too much correction
hampers fluency. But this does not mean that slhe should overlook
errors all the times, otherwise errors will be fossilised and it will
be extremely difficult to correct them.


Rule learning is important. Grammar should be taught in an
integrated way. It should be taught inductively. We have to
remember that fluency and accuracy both are important.
The teacher should exploit both the theories to make teaching
effective. Language learning is a complex phenomenon. S/he should
follow the eclectic approach according to the needs of the learners.

I QUESTIONS I
1. What are the important features of behaviourism useful for language
teaching?
2. Explain the difference between classical and operant conditioning.
3. Explain the cognitive theory of learning in relation to language
learning.
4. Which principles of behaviourism and cognitivism will you adopt for
language teaching?

REFERENCE

• Stem, H.H. 1983, Fundamental Concepts ofLanguage Teaching,
Oxford.

aaQ

~LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
AND LANGUAGE LEARNING

INTRODUCTION: Language can either be acquired or learnt.
Learning a language is different from acquiring it. Acquisition refers
to 'picking up' of the language in natural surroundings without any
formal instruction. There is no systematic or graded teaching about
the language. It is a gradual development of ability in language by
using it in natural communicative situations. Learning refers to a
conscious effort where the instructions are given in a formal set up.
The learner has to learn the phonology, vocabulary, and the rules
of grammar of the language. S/he has to learn the language
analytically. We can say that a child acquires his mother tongue
and learns a second language. Linguists believe that we can acquire
a second language too. For this we have to understand and make
use of the process of acquisition for teaching the second language.
ACQUISITION PROCESS: All children acquire their mother
tongue in a similar way irrespective of their socio-cultural
background. A child of a minister or a peon acquires it in a similar
way. A child has an innate capacity to learn a language. He learns
it naturally the way he learns to sit, stand, walk and run. It is a
part of the natural process of growth and development. A child
does not inherit his mother tongue. A child born of Tamil-speaking
parents, but adopted by Punjabi-speaking parents will learn Punjabi
and not Tamil. It is the exposure to the language that results in
learning it. But, passive exposure to the language is not enough,
the child has to use the language too.
The child should be physically and mentally fit to learn a
language. He should not be deaf or dumb. He should be able to
hear the language understand it and use it.


The intelligence level of the child is also a decisive factor. It
depends on the process of maturation of an infant's brain called the
'process of lateralisation.' This process begins around the age of
four to six months and is complete by the age of nine years. A child
learns a language because of this process. By the time the child is
3 to 4-year-old, he is a perfect user of the language. Nobody teaches
him the rules of the grammar. The use of language is crucial for
his existence. This helps in getting things done for him. This
motivates him to learn. The language filled environment helps him
in absorbing the language and uRing it.
A child does not start speaking the language all of a sudden.
There is a silent period before he speaks the language. The child
is surrounded by the elders, who baby talk to him. They use very
simple language with lots of repetition. This is called caretaker
speech. [Yule]. This helps him in associating sounds and words
with objects and understanding their meaning before he produces
them. Several stages in the acquisition process have been identified.
Pre-language stages: All children do not start speaking at
the same time. There are individual variations in speech production.
The period from about 3 months to 10 months is usually
characterised by three stages of sound production in the infant's
developing repertoire [Yule:139]. Generally, children around 3 to 4
month-old start producing soundf. Initially, a child produces Ik/
and Ig! sounds in ~at and girl r,~spectively with vowel sounds/I:/
and lu:/. This stage is called cGoing stage.
In the next stage called babbling stage, by 6 months, the
child uses syllables such as Ida! Idu/, Ima!, Ipa! etc. He draws the
attention of the elders around him and get his basic needs of food
and water fulfilled. In the later babbling stage, around 9 months,
the child uses intonation patterns.
Holophrastic or one word stage [around 12 to 18 months],
he joins the sounds and produces one word such as - mama, papa,
milk, dada etc. He learns the content words first.
In the two-word stage, [around 18-20 months], he uses words
and phrases such as 'mama sari'. The context decides the meaning.
The child might mean - 'it is my mother's sari' - a statement, or
this can be an order to remove the sari if someone else is wearing
it. He gets the feedback too.
In the next telegraphic stage [between 2-3 years], he uses
content words to convey the message exactly the way we send
messages through telegram. Instead of writing full sentences 'I am
reaching home tomorrow morning' we write 'reaching tomorrow.'

Language Acquisition and Language Learning 19

Similarly the child says 'papa go office'. By this time his vocabulary
level is expanded to 100 words with correct word order. He does
not say 'office go papa.' Prepositions are also added around this
time.
In the morphemiC stage [around 3 year], the child uses
inflectional morphemes in his speech. The 'ing' form is added to the
verb 'mother eating food.'
We must remember a very important factor. A child does
imitate the speech of the elders but not always. Sometimes, he
comes out with the constructions his elders do not use. This confirms
the hypotheses that while learning a language, the child makes his
own rules, tests them and if approved, adopts them if not leaves
them. In this process he makes mistakes of overgeneralisation. For
example, he learns to add's' to make regular plural boy-boys, dog-
dogs. He uses the same technique and says man-mans and even
mens, foot-foots or feets etc. Correction by elders does not help
much.
Irregular verbs like 'go-went' come earlier than the regular
verbs like 'talk-talked'. The reason behind this is that the irregular
form 'went' is more clearly audible than the regular form 'talked'.
When he acquires the regular form, he overgeneralises it and
produces 'go-goed' or even 'go-wented'.
Possessive markers - mama's sari is also acquired around
the same time with different forms of the helping verb 'be'. At the
end, he learns's' marker to the verb on third person singular and
uses constructions like 'he goes to college'.
'Wh' questions are acquired earlier than the negatives. Thus,
we see that language acquisition goes through different stages.
Although language acquisition goes through a familiar pattern, it
is the intelligence of the child that speeds up the progress. By the
age of 5 years, the child develops the vocabulary of more than 2000
words and becomes a sophisticated user of the language. The child
goes to school and is ready to learn a second language.
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: Learning a second
language i.e. English is definitely more difficult than acquiring the
mother tongue. There are many variables that affect the process
of learning a language. If we compare the factors of L1 acquisition
and learning L2 we realise the complexities of the process oflearning
L2. It is easy to learn a language, which belongs to the same family
because of the similarities in them. For example, for a Hindi speaker,
learning Gujarati or Marathi is easier than learning Malayalam.


Learning English becomes difficult for our learners because of the
dissimilarities between English and their mother tongue. There
are other factors or variables that affect learning a second language.
There is a relationship between chronological age and language
learning. The process of lateralisation is complete by the age of 9
years. This process facilitates the learning of a language. English
as L2 is introduced in vernacular medium schools in class V or VI.
At this point, the learner is around 11 or 12-year-old. The factor of
age affects his learning. The younger the child the faster he learns.
But there is no conclusive evidence for this as we have instances
where people have successfully learnt L2 very late in life. Still, it
is easier for a child to learn L2 because of his flexibility and lack
of inhibitions.
It is difficult for an adolescent to learn a language very fast.
Adolescence is a crucial period of life and the learner is very self
conscious and apprehensive. The fear of rejection and ridicule
inhibits him from using the language. The situation is worse in
heterogeneous class where the children from English medium and
the vernacular background are put together. His inadequate
language ability affects his self-esteem. In such circumstances, an
extrovert learns faster than an introvert.
For an adult leruner it is mo"e difficult to learn a language
as his thinking is rigid now. Wrorlg learning is fossilized and it is
very difficult to unlearn everything and start afresh. But adult
learners too learn a second langllage late in their life. It depends
on motivation. Higher the motivation, faster the learning.
The general intelligence level of the leamer helps him in
learning a language. This varies from person to person.
Equally important is the learning environment. The setting
in the classroom is disciplined and formal. The learner does not get
individual attention. The atmosphere is not child friendly like his
home.
The exposure to the language is for a limited period of time-
30 to 45 minutes or an hour a day in comparison to 24 hours of
language filled atmosphere at home. Sometimes the teacher is not
proficient in the language and the learner has a poor role model to
imitate.
The learner does not have any opportunity to use the language
outside the class. Even in the class there is a very little opportunity
to use the language. It is more of a passive reception of the language
in the classroom than the actual production of it.


In the classroom the syllabus is fixed and graded against the
free flowing of mother tongue at home. There are limited and
artificial situations in the classroom. While in real life there is no
dearth of natural situations.
The natural order of the exposure to the language is through
listening and speech. This is reversed in a second language learning
situation. Children start with reading, writing and listening first
and speaking comes at the end.
Motivation to learn L2 is also not as strong as it is for mother
tongue. The learner can communicate in mother tongue with his
peers in school or outside the school. External motivation does help
in learning a second language like English. Importance of English
for higher studies or for future job prospects helps in learning it
faster.
Role of aptitude and attitude is insignificant in acquiring the
mother tongue because there is no choice. The child has to use the
language for his survivaL But, for learning L2 these factors are
very important. Some learners have higher aptitude towards
languages. They learn faster than those who do not have an aptitude
for languages. Attitude towards the culture and the speaker of the
language affects the learning of that language. The intolerance
and bias towards the target language and the culture inhibit the
learning process. The attitude towards the British rule has affected
English language learning situation in India.
The background of Ll for learning L2 has both advantages
and disadvantages. The factor of 'language universal' helps in
learning. All languages have tense system, number, gender, plural
etc. This helps the learner in identifying these areas in the target
language. But the interference of Ll in L2 leads to errors. The
teacher is intolerant to the learner's errors in the classroom. This
hinders his learning. In schools, the emphasis is on accuracy that
hampers fluency. In acquiring Ll, errors are considered as an
integral part of learning. They reflect creativity of the learner.
While learning L2, errors are not accepted as part of learning.
They reflect inadequacy of the learner. This hampers his learning
CLASSROOM STRATEGIES TO ACQUIRE SECOND
LANGUAGE: Considering the problems in learning L2, we should
try to follow the process of Ll acquisition in teaching L2. L2 can
also be acquired as Ll. In the multilingual cultural set up of India,
most of the people are bilingual and many ofthem are multilingual.
In a city like Bombay, most of the non-Marathi speakers are fluent
in Marathi and Gujarati though they have not learnt these


languages formally. They have rather picked up these languages
while interacting with people. The children of the mixed language
parents also acquire both the languages simultaneously. We should
try to create situations where second language can be acquired like
mother tongue [Krashen,1981]. We can make use of the factors of
Ll acquisition for them.
The teacher should motivate the learners to learn the language.
Slhe should make teaching interesting by introducing language
games and other activities. The emphasis should be on the
communicative competence. S/he should create situations where
learners can use the language L'1 the classroom.
The textbook and the syllabus completion should not be the
only objective/aim of the teacher. Slhe should expose the learners
to a variety of situations where they can use the language in
different styles. S/he should be resourceful and capable of producing
herlhis own materials. Slhe should try to develop a positive attitude
and mould the aptitude of learners by telling them about the
importance of English as a link language all over the world.
The teacher should follow the natural order of listening,
speaking, reading and writing. Slhe should follow the natural stages
of language acquisition process. Sounds of the language should be
introduced first followed by words and structures. The teacher
should follow the schedule of teaching 'ing', plurals, irregular and
regular verbs, morphemes, questions and negatives etc. Grammar
should not be taught deductively but should be integrated with the
skills.
Too much stress should not be put on accuracy as it hampers
fluency of the learner. Allow the learners to make mistakes as
making of errors reflects their creativity. But this does not mean
that the errors should be completely overlooked. The teacher has
to adopt different strategies to deal with them. [See 'error analysis'].
The language teacher should have a learner friendly attitude in
the language filled environment of the classroom to help the learners
to learn the second language and use it effectively.

IQUESTIONS]
1. Explain the process of acquisition of Ll in a child describing the
stages involved in it.
2. Do you think that L2 can be acquired like Ll? What strategies will
you evolve to fulfil your goal?
3. What is the role of the variables in learning a second language?


I REFERENCES I
• Krashen, Stephen. D. 1981, Second Language Acquisition and
Second Language Learning, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Yule, George. 1995. The Study ofLanguage, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

QQQ

•

ERROR ANALYSIS AND
REMEDIAL TEACHING

INTRODUCTION: Massive correction work has always
disturbed the language teachers because of the errors made by our
learners. It is difficult for the teacher to cope up with this problem.
First of all, we need to have a change in our attitude towards
errors. Errors are inevitable part of learning a language or any
other skill. Say, for example, learning to ride a cycle involves
different stages, where the learner falls many a times till he learns
to ride it successfully. This follows a method of trial and error. The
same is true of learning a language. While acquiring the first
language, a child makes many mistakes and we tend to overlook
them. We consider them as an essential part of developing his
linguistic competence. But, as teachers we become impatient and
intolerant to the mistakes of the second language learners. To
change our attitude towards errors and to deal with this problem
successfully, we need to have knowledge of the types of errors, the
process of error analysis, the sources of errors and remedial teaching.
The feedback on errors helps to plan strategies, design syllabus,
prepare material and improve methods not only for remedial
teaching but for general purposes too. Errors are traceable only in
the productive skills of speaking and writing because it is difficult
to analyse the comprehension aspect of the language of L2 learner.
Before dealing with error analysis in detail, we must know the
basic difference between a mistake and an error.
We all tend to make mistakes in our mother tongue too. This
can be due to the slip of the tongue or a lapse but we correct
ourselves immediately. We come across such utterances where the
speaker says, 'I'll gone tomorrow,' but immediately he corrects

Error Analysis and Remedial Teaching 25

himself - 'I'll go tomorrow.' Such mistakes of performance do not
reflect the deficiency of linguistic competence of the speaker. They
can be the result of a memory lapse, tiredness or mental stress. So,
mistakes are not considered important for error analysis.
Error on the other hand is a grammatical deviation from the
system of language. It reflects the interlanguage competence of the
learner. If the learner uses such constructions - 'Does he goes to
college?" or 'does he college goes to?' and is not able to correct
himself then he needs attention. This suggests his lack of linguistic
competence. Different schools of learning react differently to errors.
The Behaviouristic school of learning believes that learning
a language is a mechanical process of habit formation. Hence, there
is no room for errors. If the learners make mistakes the fault lies
with wrong teaching. The Cognitivistic school, on the other hand
believes that errors reflect the learning process of developing insight
and rule formation in a learner. The learner makes his own rules,
tests them, makes mistakes and corrects himself. Because learner
makes errors, they can be observed, analysed and classified. This
helps to understand the system operating within the learner and
the strategies applied by him while learning the language.
Disciplines of psychology and linguistics developed the cognitive
theory of language learning, which resulted in the concept of error
analysis. This gave a different perspective to language teaching.
Error analysis is different from contrastive analysis. Both
explain the sources of errors but in a different way. Contrastive
analysis stresses upon the negative transfer of the mother tongue
as the only source of errors. Error analysis on the other hand
accepts many sources of errors such as intralingual interference,
overgeneralisation, misteaching and the role of the variables of
age, attitude, aptitude, motivation etc.
CONTRASIVE ANALYSIS: With its roots in behaviorism, it
stresses upon the interference of mother tongue in learning a second
language. According to them, the second language learner tries to
learn the items different from his mother tongue. Human tendency
is to follow short cuts for learning anything. If two languages are
similar [to some extent] in structure [for example Hindi and
Marathi] the application of the rules of one to another helps in
learning them. This is called positive interference of mother tongue.
But if the two languages are different in structure, the application
of the rules of one to another results in errors. This is called the
negative transfer of Ll to L2. For example, in English verb is pre-
positioned in the following sentence:


I go to college.
But, in Hindi and Marathi, the verb is post positioned in the
same sentence.
1ft Cfii~'fi<"ll ~.
~~~tl
Hindi and Marathi speakers sometimes come out with such
constructions:
I college to go.
I to college go.
They forget that there is a basic difference in the structural
pattern of the two languages. Contrastive analysis helps us to decide
the extent of the interference of L1 in L2. This helps to predict the
problems the learners may have to undergo while learning a second
language.
In 60s, attitude towards errors changed. Learning a second
language was examined in the light of child's acquisition of mother
tongue. Learning was accepted as a process of trial and error,
where the learner makes hypothesis, tests it and finally succeeds
in forming closer approximation to the system of secon.d language.
This is called interlanguage.
INTER LANGUAGE: Selinkar introduced the term
'interlanguage' for the language, which lies between the learner's
first language and the second language. Psychologists believe that
each individual is unique, hence his language is unique too. He
makes his own rules, which are neither from his mother tongue
nor from the second language. Corder [1976] calls it learner's
idiosyncratic dialect. The learner, as a creative being, tries to
systematise the structure of the target language with the help of
the limited knowledge of the target language, knowledge of mother
tongue and the world around him. In this process he makes peculiar
mistakes which are not the result of the negative transfer of the
mother tongue. Interlanguage hypothesis changed the entire second
language teaching scene and evolved on its own away from the
tenets of contrastive analysis. Analysis of interlanguage depends
on the productive data as it can be easily observed. Comprehension
part is inferred through the verbal and non-verbal responses of the
learner. Error analysis is the technique through which this data is
analysed.
PROCEDURE OF ERROR ANALYSIS: It is really difficult
to understand the learning system of L1 and L2 learners, as it
cannot be observed directly. We make use of the productive data


through the skills of speaking and writing. The mental process
involved in the act of comprehension cannot be observed. Beside~
this, the learner's system is in the process of continuous change.
The learner is not consistent with his mistakes. At one moment
there are signs of correct use of the language and the next moment
a sudden backslide to the errors. This results in contradiction.
Still, with the available productive data, researchers try to analyse
errors. The process of error analysis deals with the identification,
description and explanation of the errors. Knowledge of the mother
tongue of the learner is advantageous.
IDENTIFICATION of the errors is the first step. The learner's
idiosyncratic utterances are transcribed. We have to decide for
overt and covert errors. Overt errors are grammatical errors ~'I
will shouted at you' is an example of overt error. Here, the use of
past form of verb 'shouted' is wrong. Covert errors are grammatically
correct but contextually inappropriate. If a student speaks the
sentence correctly - 'I will shout at you', and uses it for his teacher,
then it is an example of covert error. Similarly, we cannot say -'he
is beautiful' or 'she is handsome.' Both the sentences are
grammatically correct but contextually inappropriate.
RECONSTRUCTION: In the next step the utterances are
reconstructed in the target language to see the extent of the error.
The wrong sentence - 'I will shouted at you' and the correct one
-'I will shout at you' are written to compare the difference between
the two to assess the error i.e. 'use of past tense marker 'ed' in verb
'shout' with modal "will." If the mother tongue of the learner is
known then the sentence can be translated into the mother tongue
to see if the negative interference of the mother tongue is responsible
for the error or not.
DESCRIPTION: The next step is the description of the error.
It refers to the classification of the errors in the different areas of
language such as tense, number, mood, gender, case etc. Corder
[1981] has given a matrix for the classification of errors.
Types Graphological Grammatical Lexico- Semantic
Phonological
Omission
Addition
Selection
Ordering


Errors can be described as the error of omission where an
important element of language is omitted. e.g..
She is girl. [Omission of article 'a' before a count noun.]
She going to market. [Omission of helping verb 'be']
Error of addition refers to adding of an undesired element
of language. E.g.
Does can he sing? [Addition of modal can]
She wented to the hospital. [Addition of 'ed' in an already
past form of the verb]
She has been gone to college. [Addition of 'been']
Error of selection refers to substituting a wrong element of
language. E.g.
He lost his road. [For 'wail
He is driving a cycle. [For 'riding']
Error of ordering refers to the wrong sequencing of language
items. E.g.
I am a film watching.
He a mango eats.
These errors of omission, addition, selection and ordering can
be in the areas of graphology [spelling/writing], phonology [wrong
pronunciation]. They can be at the lexical or grammatical and at
the discourse level too.
STAGES OF MAKING ERR9RS
It is not that the learners make the same errors all the times.
As the learner progresses from one stage to another, the types of
errors too change accordingly. There are three stages of making
errors - pre-systematic, systematic and post-systematic.
In the 'pre-systematic stage', the learner is partially aware
of the system of the language. Sometimes, he uses correct structures
and at another time he makes error in the same structure. The
learner at this stage is neither in a position to explain nor correct
it. Such errors are called pre-systematic errors.
In the 'systematic stage', the learner is gradually progressing
in learning the system of the language. S/he is trying to internalise
the rules, which can be wrong. For example, the learner learns
that by adding's' to a noun word we get plural form - boy boys;
book books; etc. S/he tries to apply this rule to the words - child


childs; foot foots, which are exception words and have 'children'
and 'feet' as plurals respectively. Such errors are called systematic
errors. At this stage the learner learns the correct rules but goes
back to the earlier stage and makes error. It establishes the principle
that learning is a spiral process and the learner goes forward and
backward. Here, the learner realises that he has made a mistake
but cannot correct himself.
In the 'post-systematic stage' the learner has understood
the system of the language. If he makes a mistake he is able to
correct himself. Such errors are called post-systematic errors.
The identification and the description of the errors lead to the
sources of errors. Why do learners make errors? What are the
factors responsible for them? Do the variables playa role in making
errors or the strategies applied by the learners have their share in
this problem? These questions need attention to be focussed on the
sources of errors.
SOURCES OF ERRORS: There are many sources of errors.
INTERLINGUAL TRANSFER: This concept comes from
contrastive analysis of behaviouristic school of learning. It stresses
upon the negative interference of mother tongue as the only source
of errors. The construction - 'I like to read' is uttered as 'I read
to like' by many Hindi speakers. In Hindi, the verb is pre-positioned
while in English it is post positioned. This type of error is the
result of negative transfer of Ll rules to L2 system.
INTRALINGUAL TRANSFER: Not all the errors can be
attributed to the negative transfer of Ll to L2. Interlanguage
researches have proved that intralingual transfer [within the target
language] also results in errors. The learner learns the rules of the
language and tries to overgeneralise them, which result in peculiar
errors such as 'foot foots' or 'go goed'. They are the result of the
wrong learning within the second language itself.
Sometimes faulty role model in the form of a teacher can also
be the source of errors. If the teacher mispronounced sound/sf
fori I-sip for ship; I I for I :/-hall for hole or jero for zero, then the
learners also try to copy himlher. A misleading explanation from
the textbook can also result in errors.
Learners adopt certain strategies of simplification i.e. following
short cuts. This can also result in errors. Some people have habit
of adding 'ing' to the verbs which do not carry 'ing' and we come
across such constructions:


I am understanding.
I am hearing it.
You must be knowing him.
Sometimes learners memorise pre-fabricated stock patterns
without understanding their proper meaning. Sometimes they use
them in wrong context and make errors. Tourists learn such patterns
in the target language of the country of their visit and create funny
situations because of such errors.
Personality variables can also be the source of errors. An
extrovert person makes errors without any inhibition while learning
a second language. A highly motivated person is not ashamed of
making errors and learns the target language faster than an
introvert or a less motivated person, who will not open his mouth
because of the fear of ridicule.
Thus, we realise that there can be a number of sources of
errors. If errors are not corrected in time, they can be fossilized in
the system of the learner and cannot be corrected.
FOSSILIZATION OF ERRORS: Instances of fossilization
are common in the speech/writing of the second language learners.
In the process of learning a second language, the learner gains
proficiency but some of the errors remain part of the system. The
learner becomes immune to them. If others point these errors, he
corrects himself but soon he switches back to them. He will speak
the language fluently in spite of them. These errors can be of
pronunciation or grammar. They can be due to the internalisation
of the wrong elements of the language. They become part of the
personality and cannot be corrected. Remedial teaching is the only
way to deal with the errors.
REMEDIAL TEACHING: Before the errors become fossilized
in the language system of the learners, the teacher should take
some steps. The most difficult part is to unlearn a wrong learned
item. At this time the remedial teaching steps in. Remedial teaching
is useful and necessary when there is a mismatch between the
learner's knowledge of the language and the demand of the situation.
It helps those learners who have not benefited by regular teaching.
To determine the degree of mismatch, a diagnostic test is
conducted. The teacher should categorise the errors in a broader
frame of spelling, punctuation, verb form [teach, teached], tense
aspect [he has eaten mango tomorrow], prepositions, pronoun forms,
concord or agreement between verb and subject [they goes to
market], word order, vocabulary item, tag questions etc.


Here, the three important pedagogical issues come up i.e.
correction of errors in the classroom, grammatical explanation and
designing curricula and materials. All the teachers are worried
about - 'what to correct' and 'how to correct'. What to correct
depends on the gravity of the error in relation to communication.
We have to remember that communication is the basic function of
a language and the errors that do not hinder communication can
be left untouched. But, if the errors are grave such as 'they goes to
market', then a grammatical explanation should be given. However,
with the adult learners explanation of the rules followed by practice
is helpful in removing errors. Practice of substitution tables also
helps in understanding the system of the language and thus helps
in removing errors.
Remedial teaching helps those learners who are highly
motivated and are extrovert by nature. It helps in developing self-
confidence of the learner and aims at bringing the learner on a par
with other learners who are proficient in the language.
The teacher's role is very significant here. S/he has to be very
patient and sympathetic to the errors of L2 learners. Errors cannot
be corrected individually in the classroom, but they can be
categorised and the teacher should take up one element at a time.
Too much correction of errors especially with red ink detests learners
psychologically. The teacher should realise the importance of positive
reinforcement by praising their efforts and encouraging them. S/he
should aim at the clear and free communication in learners. It is
difficult to design the course material or syllabus following a desired
sequence of items. It is up to a teacher to decide which items
should be presented when and how according to the needs of the
learners.
Thus, we see that error analysis does both the theoretical and
the practical functions. Theoretically it helps to understand the
process of second language acquisition and learning and practically
it helps to plan and design a remedial action for the benefit of the
learners. Knowledge of the process of error analysis will help the
teacher to deal with the problem of errors.

IQUESTIONS I
1. What is inter-language? How does it differ from contrastive analysis?
2. Explain the process of error analysis.
3. Describe the role of remedial teaching in removing errors.
4. What are the main sources of errors? Give examples to endorse your
views.


Given below is a sample of writing by a student ofF.Y.B.A. Identify
the errors, classify them and suggest the remedy for them.
My evenning rottine
I am going to home a 6 ocloak. They after I eating a luch. and after
Reading news paper and 7cloakt.v.serial and 8 ocloaka chitrahar.
after the I am home work compalit and after the sometime cannbord
pay. I am 9 cloak is dinner eating and 10 cloak slipping.

I REFERENCES I
• Corder, S. Pit. 1981, Error Analysis and lnterlanguage, Oxford:
Oxford University Press .
• Richards, Jack[ed.J 1974, Error Analysis:Perspectives on Second
Language Acquisition. London: Longman.

aar:.

CHAPTER 6 _ _ III II [11.111

METHODS AND APPROACHES
OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

This lesson is based on &Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching' by Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rogers
1986, Cambridge University Press.
A BRIEF mSTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING: The
concept of learning a foreign language is not new. Trade, commerce,
higher education in different fields, diplomatic mission all lead to
learning a foreign language. Earlier, Latin was the lingua franca,
which was replaced by English. Ifwe look at the history oflanguage
teaching, the first instance of language teaching methodology is
seen in 14th and 15th century Europe to teach the classical
languages like Greek and Latin. Latin was taught through the
deductive use of grammar and rhetoric. Rules of grammar were
memorised following translation. In the beginning of 16th century,
the importance of Greek and Latin diminished because modem
European languages like English, French and Italian became
popular. But, the method ofteaching through 'grammar-translation'
remained the same. This insisted upon learning grammar rules,
vocabulary items and translation of the sentences from the target
to the source language and vice-versa. Reading and writing were
the major focus points. There was no room for oral practice. This
method was also used in India to teach Sanskrit.
By mid of 19th century, the hold of 'grammar translation'
method loosened. World was getting smaller. The need for oral
communication was realized. Francoise Gouin studied child's
language acquisition process as a model for language teaching. His
main contribution was to treat language learning as a connected
series of activities actually undertaken in real life. He used
imitation, association and memorisation as his principle techniques.


The Reform movement challenged grammar translation method
and evolved new methods to develop oral proficiency.
Towards the end of 19th century, Linguistics was established
as a science. This resulted in systematic teaching of language.
Phonetics was established. The emphasis was more on speech than
on writing. In 1886, the International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA] waf!
designed. This facilitated the transcription of the sounds of any
language. The new trends of naturalistic principles of learning
gave different direction to language teaching. Direct method was
developed. It put emphasis on the direct use of the target language
without translation in mother tongue. The inductive method was
used to teach grammar where examples are given first before
explaining the rules. Speech was considered primary.
Henery Sweet [1845-1912] realised the limitations of 'Direct
method' because it lacked a methodological basis. He believed in
the principles of psychology and the scientific analysis of language
to develop a teaching method. He introduced the factors of selection,
gradation and limitation with integration of skills. This formed the
basis for innovations made in language teaching during 20th century
and resulted in oral-structural approach.
The Oral-Structural Situational approach was popular
from 1930s to 1960s. Harold Palmer and AS. Hornby were its
main propagandists. Palmer built his principles of methodology
based on linguistics and psychological analysis of the process of
learning. He stressed upon the importance of the behaviouristic
principles of learning such as habit formation, accuracy, gradation,
motivation etc. Michael West developed 'Reading method' with a
general service list of 2000 words in 1953. In America, 'Audio-
Lingual method' evolved out of the structural approach. It became
very popular during Second World War. This method remained
popular till late sixties.
In 1965, Noam Chomsky with his Transformational
Generative Grammar Theory brought a revolutionary change in
the language teaching scene. The focus shifted from form to
meaning. Earlier, behaviouristic theory ruled the scene. Chomsky
challenged this mechanical theory and refused to accept human
beings as organisms. He believed in the cognitive theory of learning.
Human beings, according to him, have innate capacity to learn a
language. They have the faculty of creativity to generate new
structures and they do not learn new sentences by mechanical
imitation or repetition. Factors of competence and performance
became important. In early seventies Chomsky's cognitive code

Methods and Approaches ofLanguage Teaching 35

became popular. Importance of meaning was establislied. D.A.
Wilkins introduced the theory of functions and notions. Krashen
and Terrel emphasised upon the application of the principles of
first language acquisition on second language acquisition and
learning. The late seventies witnessed the shift towards
Communicative Language Teaching Approach. Dell Hymes,
Widdowson, Brumfit, Halliday, Austin and Searle' were its main
propagandists. Communicative competence became very important.
Teaching was skill based. Fluency was given more importance than
accuracy. Errors were considered as an integral part of learning a
language. English For Specific Purposes [ESP] an offshoot of
communicative approach is introduced to cater to the needs of the
learners from different professions. Thus, communicative approach
started in seventies is still popular in nineties and twenties.
Before dealing with different methods and approaches in detail,
let us deal with the concepts of approach, design, method and
technique in the process oflanguage teaching and learning. Edward
Anthony - an American linguist developed them in 1963.
APPROACH: Refers to the philosophy of the nature of
language teaching and learning. It covers linguistics and psychology.
This defines 'what' and 'how' of language teaching and learning.
Approach leads to method.
METHOD: Deals with an overall plan for the presentation of
language material based on an approach. It is procedural. In one
approach there can be many methods. In a method, a theory is put
into practice. Here, choices are made about a particular skill to be
taught. It deals with content and the order of presentation. It
selects grades and presents the material. Between an approach
and a method there is design.
DESIGN: Gives details of a method. Here, the objectives of
teaching and testing, syllabus and contents are decided. It also
defines the roles of the teacher and the learner.
TECHNIQUE: Is a tool to implement the method in a
classroom. drills, role-play, group work, pair work are the techniques
adopted for teaching.
We can say that "Audio-lingual Method' is based on Oral
Structural Approach. Its syllabus has the design of structural
patterns and it follows the techniques of dialogue and drills in the
classroom. Let us deal with different methods and approaches.
GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD: This method ruled
the language teaching scene from 1840s to 1940s and is still popular


in some form. It is called a method and not an approach because
it does not follow any theory - either of linguistics or of learning.
It is arbitrary in nature. Earlier, it aimed at the study of literature
of foreign languages and the development of analytical skill through
the study of grammar following translation. At that time grammar
aspect was minimal. With the growth of grammatical knowledge,
teaching of grammar ruled out translation". This method puts
emphasis on:
~ Translating from the source language to the target
language and vice versa.
~ Learning of vocabulary items based on reading text.

~ Sentence as a basic unit.
~ Grammar teaching in deductive way, rules to be
memorised first and then practised through
translation exercises.
~ Accuracy, mistakes are not allowed.

~ Reading and writing.

This method has certain advantages too. The classes can be
easily managed. Even a less efficient teacher can handle teaching.
It is time saving too. Even without a teacher, books can serve the
purpose. It develops reading habit. It is useful in situations where
understanding of literary text is important and spoken knowledge
of the language is not required.
The disadvantages of this method are many. It has
impersonal and remote material. There is no interpersonal
communication. It gives very little or no exposure to spontaneous
speech. The learners never use the language though they know the
rules. This method is responsible for the pathetic state of the Indian
learners who get good grades in exams but cannot speak English
at all. It has no bond between thought and expression. Due to
these shortcomings, Reform Movement challenged this method.
REFORM MOVEMENT: Rejected grammar translation
method, which had no room for spoken language. Oral proficiency
was the need of the changing times. Francois Gouin developed
teaching principles based on child's acquisition of mother tongue.
Linguistics and t~e theory of learning together developed natural
method. It followed the naturalistic principles of learning a
language. The main characteristics of the reform movement were:
~ Oral based methodology - study of spoken language.

~ Phonetics training for the correct pronunciation.

Methods and Approaches of Language Teaching 37

~ Use of dialogue in conversational text.
~ Inductive method of teaching grammar.

~ Use of target language.

Based on these naturalistic principles developed 'Direct
Method'.
DIRECT METHOD: It is a monolingual method with
emphasis on the direct use of the target language without
translation. Spoken language is important. Learners should be
exposed 'to good models of language by listening. Phonetics should
be practiced in the classroom. The teachers should be trained in it.
Words should be properly pronounced and presented in meaningful
context. Grammar should be taught inductively. Use of mime,
demonstration and pictures is proposed.
Direct method was very successful in private and elite schools.
It had the main advantage of developing fluency in speech. But,
language is not only speech it has other aspects too. The learner
has to learn a language in totality. It is not practical as it can only
be practised in small classes and not in the over-crowded classes
in our situation. It depends more on a teacher's skill than on the
text hence, it needs a very fluent and efficient teacher. It is difficult
to create a natu,ral or real life situations in the classroom, which
can be very expensive.
By 1920s, the importance of direct method declined as it lacked
a methodological base in Applied Linguistics. It did not follow the
principles of selection, limitation and gradation. During 1920s and
1930s applied linguists tried to systematise the principles of
language teaching advocated by reform movement. This led to Oral
Structural approach in Britain which subsequently resulted in
Audios lingual method in America.
THE ORAL/STRUCTURAL APPROACH AND
SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING: In 1920s and 1930s,
Harold Palmer and A.S.Hornby developed a scientific foundation
for an oral approach to teaching English following Henery Sweet's
principles of selection, limitation and gradation of language content.
They opted for vocabulary and grammar control. Reading was
considered to be a very important skill in learning a foreign
language. Based on it evolved 'Reading Method. ' In 1920s Michael
West examined the English teaching situation in Dhaka [now,
Bangladesh]. He realised the need for simple reading material
written with controlled vocabulary based on frequency. He prepared
a list of 2000 basic words list. It had scientific and rational basis

38 CommunicatilJe Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language

for teaching words for reading the text. This led to the syllabus
designing in teaching. Hornby's 'Advanced Learners' Dictionary'
was published around the same time.
Oral/structural approach believed in the systematic
presentation of grammatical constructions following the principle
of - simple to complex. Drilling and repetitions were the main
techniques. It followed the principles of 'Behaviourism'. Language
learning was the result of habit formation and reinforcement.
Language items were not contextualised. Learning of structures,
sounds and words was important. Use of mother tongue was not
allowed. Grammar rules were not explained but the learners
inferred the rules from the use ofthe structures. It used substitution
table to learn different patterns.
Oral/structural approach led to situational teaching:
Speech was considered primary. Emphasis was on oral use of the
language in the classroom. The teacher presented new language
items in situations. S/he says - 'open the window' - the learner
understands the message from the context and learns the imperative
structure in the target language. S/he repeats the structure without
translation. New structures are learnt situationally and practised
in the class.
Based on oral/structural approach, Audio-lingual method got
popularity in America during II world war.
AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD: During the world war II,
soldiers were required to have oral proficiency in foreign languages
within a short period of time. Use of technology in language teaching
started during this time. Tapes and audio cassettes were used.
Language laboratories were established. Army training programmes
involved intensive exposure to the target language with the help of
linguists and language specialists. It was rooted in the theory of
Behaviourism. Language was considered as a formal rule -
governed system and drills helped in learning it. Some of the
important characteristics of this method are:
~ Structure was the starting point.
~ Systematic attention was paid to pronunciation.
~ Intensive oral drilling of the sentence pattern was given.
Dialogues were used for repetition and memorisation.
Stress, rhythm and intonation were emphasised.
~ It followed Aural-oral approach, where listening and
speaking tasks were followed by reading and writing.


~ Use of contrastive analysis to judge the interference of
mother tongue.
~ Accuracy based. Errors were not allowed.
Audio-lingual method was popular for a long time. Its decline
began in 1960s because of its disadvantages. It is a mechanical
method. The learner is passive and has no control over learning. It
follows oral based methodology and no textbook. It is confined to
classroom drills and has no communicative use outside the
classroom.
THE NOTIONAL-FUNCTIONAL APPROACH: Language
teaching scene was changing fast. The Council of Europe tried to
develop unit based method of language teaching with its project in
1971. A group of experts developed language courses based on unit
credit system. Learning tasks were broken down into portions or
units, each of which corresponded to a component of a learner's
needs and is systematically related to all other portions. D.A.
Wilkins [1972] developed this approach to teach language. He
emphasised on the purpose for which language is used for a
particular relationship. Language style depends on the formal, semi-
formal or informal situation. We do not address our teacher the
way we address our friend. This approach places emphasis on the
communicative purposes of language. For communicative purposes
certain functions such as - introducing, greeting, inviting,
accepting, refusing, asking for information, instructing, apologising
etc. are covered.
These functions include the notions related to duration, location
frequency, quantity etc.
The functional notional approach gradually developed into
communicative approach.
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH: The situational
approach ruled the language teaching scene till Chomsky challenged
it. He rejected behaviouristic theory of habit formation. He said
that human beings have faculty of creativity to generate infinite
number of sentences. Besides this, he said that structures couldn't
do justice to the meaning. A sentence has both a surface and a
deep meaning. He emphasised this point by giving an example:
John is easy to please.
John is eager to please.
Ifwe look at the structure, both the sentences have the similar
structure. But meaning wise they are different. In the first sentence
'John' is not the subject agent, but the object of 'please.' In the


second sentence 'John' is subject agent to please others. Chomsky's
cognitive code got stronghold in language teaching scene.
Communication is not restricted to isolated sentences but to
participate in a discourse. Another dimension given to it was the
functional or communicative potential of language. Knowledge of
structure was not enough to develop communicative proficiency in
learners. M.K Halliday emphasised upon the meaning potential of
language. Dell Hymes stressed upon the sociolinguistic competence.
A speaker should be aware of the social norms of the speech
community to be an efficient user of that language. Some of the
important features of communicative language teaching approach
are:
~ It focuses both on form and the meaning and structure
and function.
~ It follows the cognitive theory of learning with emphasis
on learning by doing. The tasks and the activities are
problem solving in nature. Total participation of the
learners in these activities is ensured.
~ Contextualisation is a basic requirement for learning
language items.
~ The emphasis is on fluency than on accuracy. Errors are
considered to be integral part of learning.
~ Procedures for teaching of the skills of listening, speaking,
reading and writing are developed. Integration of skills is
emphasised.
~ Inductive way of teaching grammar is practised.
~ It is a learner-centered approach. Learner's needs are of
utmost importance.
~ Language learning is not getting 'mastery over isolated
sentences but to develop an ability to participate in
discourse or in writing.
~ Individual work, pair work or group work, role-play,
discussion are the classroom techniques to learn a
language.
~ Teacher's role is that of a guide and facilitator. The teacher
should be extra resourceful to develop her own material
according to the needs of the learners.
This approach is still very popular and the textbooks are
designed for this and different techniques are developed to make
it effective. The teacher can use an eclectic method to cater to the
needs of the learners.


I QUESTIONS I
1. State the difference between oral structural approach and the
communicative approach of language teaching.
2. What are the important features of Audio-lingual method?
3. Comment on the contribution of Reform Movement in language
teaching scene.
4. Write short notes on:
(a) Direct method
(b) Approach, method and technique.

IFURTHER READING I
• Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers 1986, Approaches and
Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
• Mary Finocchiaro and Christopher Brurnfit 1983. The Functional
Notional Approach, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• D.A. Wilkins. 1977 Notional Syllabuses, Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
• C.J. Brumfit and K Johnson 1979, The Communicative Approach
to Language Teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

000

CHAPTER 7 _IIUI. . .llIllllII!lli.llllaJIIIUI. . .

SYLLABUS AND CURRICULUM

INTRODUCTION: Approaches and methods automatically
lead to syllabus planning. The process of teaching and learning
cannot be complete without a syllabus. It controls and systematises
the process of learning. It gives a guideline to the teacher for
planning action in the classroom. It fulfils the aims and the
objectives of teaching within a specific period of time. It bridges
the gap between the entry and the exit level behaviour of the
learners. It is flexible and can be adjusted according to the needs
of the learners.
Syllabus covers who: the learner; why: purpose, aims and
objectives; what: content and material; when: hourly, weekly,
monthly, yearly; how: methods and techniques and the evaluation
procedure. A teacher needs all this information before she starts
actual teaching in the classroom.
PRINCIPLES OF NARROW AND BROAD SYLLABUS: A
syllabus has both a narrow and a broad definition. The broad
definition of syllabus is the narrow definition of curriculum. This
is why syllabus and curriculum are often used inter-changeably.
Syllabus in its narrow definition covers a list of topics and
evaluation pattern. This view is suitable for content subjects like
history or geography. But, for language this view is not suitable.
Language, being an open- ended entity, is ever changing. It grows
and enriches itself continuously hence, it needs a broader framework
of syllabus. It needs detailed information about selection,
classification, distribution, transmission and evaluation of
knowledge [Nunan:1988].
In the broad syllabus, description of the learner is of utmost
importance. Knowledge of age, entry and terminal behaviour level
of the learner helps in designing a course. Syllabus also decides the

Syllabus and Curriculum 43

length of the course i.e. one year, two years or three years time
duration.
Aims and objectives should be clear to the syllabus designer.
Aims are broader and general in nature, while objectives are very
specific. For example aim can be of 'English language teaching' and
the objective can be of 'teaching writing skill' or the aim can be of
teaching 'writing skill' and the objective can be of teaching 'how to
write an application for a job'.
Aims and objectives are realised through the content. Content
or material should be selected, graded and organised according to
the level of the learners. Themes should be interesting and" easily
identifiable by them. For the learners of English as L2, real life
situations should be included in the content. It should have scope
for language use and the development of vocabulary.
To teach the content, the methodology of teaching should be
decided in advance. Tools and techniques of teaching should be
stated clearly. Role of the learner and the teacher should be clearly
defined.
Evaluation pattern is an important aspect of syllabus design.
It helps us to see whether the objectives of the course are
materialised or not. It also gives the feedback whether the content,
method and the techniques are right or need some improvement.
This broader view of the syllabus is the narrow view of curriculum.
PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM: Curriculum has a larger
pedagogic canvas than syllabus. Curriculum decides the goals and
objectives of learning the language. It defines the roles of the learner·
and the teacher. It selects grades and sequences the content and
decides methods and techniques of teaching. It covers the
administrative aspects of the institution such as management and
funding.
Curriculum states government's policy towards the language.
It explains the status of the language i.e. whether it is the medium
of instruction and is taught as first language or as a second or
third language. It also decides whether the language should be
introduced in Std. V, VI or I.
Curriculum takes into consideration the attitude of society
and the individual towards the language. It also considers learner's
socio-economic status, his needs and the purpose of learning the
language. It decides the teacher's academic qualification and the
training aspect. It decides the teacher's workload. It explains the
evaluation pattern too.


Thus, syllabus refers to the actual teaching process in the
classroom. It is a document open for scrutiny, whereas curriculum
deals with the socio-economic and political aspects of the educational
programme and cannot be explained in a single document. In one
curriculum there can be many syllabuses.
SYLLABUS DESIGNING STAGES - PROTO AND
PEDAGOGIC: Syllabus design follows a procedure. It starts from
the stages of proto syllabus to pedagogic syllabus. Before designing
a syllabus, a survey is conducted to decide the needs of the learners.
This helps in focussing upon the aims of the course. An outline of
syllabus content is drawn. At this stage, it is called proto-syllabus.
In the next stage, the implementation of the syllabus in the
classroom is planned. Here, the tools, techniques, methodology of
teaching, roles of the learner and the teacher are defined. The
evaluation pattern is planned. At this stage, it is called pedagogic
syllabus.
PRODUCT AND PROCEDURE SYLLABUSES: Syllabuses
can be classified as product oriented or process oriented. They are
also called as pre-determined or emergent syllabuses respectively.
In product syllabus everything from goals, objectives, content,
method and evaluation pattern is pre-determined. Learners' needs
are ascertained. Content i.e. language structure, vocabulary, events,
functions and situations are selected, graded and sequenced. The
examination pattern is pr~-decided and is directly related to the
content. Under product syllabuses are - grammatical, structural,
situational, notional-functional and lexical syllabus.
In a process syllabus, everything is decided while teaching
in the class or after the class. It emerges out of the learners' needs.
The focus here is on the process of learning, which is reflected in
the content, method and techniques of the classroom teaching.
Communicative syllabuses are process-oriented syllabuses.
A product oriented syllabus focuses on what the learner
ought to know or should be able to do as a result of teaching.
Process syllabus focuses on the process through which learning
outcome is materialised [CIEFL 1996].
Let us deal with the product syllabuses first.
GRAMMATICAL SYLLABUS: The earliest methods of
language teaching used grammatical syllabus. The main focus here
is on teaching the elements of grammar item by item. The content
consists of articles, parts of speech, singular-plural, gender, tenses,
clauses etc. The items are selected and graded following the pattern

of simple to complex. It emphasises the complete mastery over one
item before moving to the next one. These items are taught in
isolation without any context.
It is a teacher-centered syllabus. S/he decides the content and
the method. The learner is the passive recipient of the language.
Memorisation or drilling is the technique.
The drawback of this syllabus is that it breaks language in
parts, where as language, being a complex phenomenon should be
taught holistically and not in a piecemeal manner. This is also
against the process of language acquisition where language is
acquired globally and not in a linear fashion. Noone can deny the
importance of grammar but it should be taught through the
inductive method and should be integrated with the skills.
STRUCTURAL SYLLABUS: While the grammatical syllabus
focuses on the elements of grammar, the structural syllabus starts
with the structural pattern of the language. It aims at mastery
over structure, phonology, morphology and syntax of the language.
It follows the behaviouristic approach to language teaching, where
the method of repetition and drilling is believed to reinforce learning.
The content is the list of structures with a list of vocabulary
items. Structures are selected following the criteria of frequency,
range, coverage teachability and complexity. Structures are selected,
graded and presented in a sequence following the pattern of simple
to complex. It is believed that the systematic presentation of
structures and vocabulary items will lead to linear progress in
learning. The patterns are listed:
Subject + verb + object. Ushan likes mangoes.]
Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object. [He gave me
a book.]
Subject + verb + complement. [Taj Mahal is beautiful.]
Subject + verb + to + infinitive. [She wants to sleep.]
Substitution tables are used for drilling. It is a teacher -
focussed syllabus. Here, content, method and examination pattern
is decided by the teacher. The learner is the passive recipient and
has no say in any matter.
This type of syllabus was very popular for a long time. The
learner develops linguistic competence but his communicative
competence is neglected. The context and the situations in the
classroom are artificial. The learner lea.rns usage but cannot use
the language in real life situations. It does not follow the natural


order of acquisition process of Llwhere the structures are neither
graded nor sequenced. A child is exposed to the entire gamut of
language. This syllabus covers forms but ignores the functional
meaning of that form. This becomes more difficult because there is
no one to one correspondence between the form and the function.
One form can have many functions and one function can be realised
through many forms. This can be understood by the following
examples:
EXAMPLE-l
Form/ structure: Function: Gloss:
The railway tracks Direction: The platform is across them.
are over there. Warning: Be careful of the coming train.
Suggestion: How about crossing them quickly.
EXAMPLE-2
Function [Request / Suggestion] Form / Structure:
....:
May I have a cup of tea please?
I have severe headache.
. This tea seems to be steaming hot.
I am dying for a cup of tea.
Is that Tata tea?
.. [adapted from Nunan:19881

SITUATIONAL SYLLABUS: The starting point of this
syllabus is situations. The syllabus designers try to identify the
situations where language can be used. This type of syllabus is
good for short-term courses where language is learnt for specific
purposes such as - while travelling to another country as a tourist
or for taking up a job there. Certain situations are selected for this
purpose such as 'at the hospital', 'at the airport', 'at the.market', 'at
the bank', 'at the railway station' etc. Language form suitable for
a particular situation is taught. For example, 'at the railway station'
- people go there to buy tickets, to get reservation in the train, to
make enquiry about the arrival or departure timings of the train
etc. They need to communicate with the concerned authorities in
a formal situation to get their work done.
This type of syllabus has limitations too, because we cannot
include all the real life situations in a syllabus. So, we cannot
teach all the language forms needed. in that context. For example,
in the situation - 'at the railway station', people go to see off their
friends/relatives too, and may have to communicate with the porter
or the restaurant employee for a cup of tea. The language style will


be changed here. The learners are to be taught of this aspect too.
Due to' the artificiality of the situation, the learners do develop
language like behaviour rather than the l~guage itself.
NOTIONAL FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUS: D.A.Wilkins
introduced the notional-functional approach to language teaching.
In this syllabus, a list of functions and the notions is given.
Functions are graded according to the needs of the learners and
their utility for them. The language, needed to perform these
functions, is provided. Some of the important functions are listed:
Introducing self and others.
Making enquiry and complaint.
Accepting and refusing proposal.
Thanking and apologising.
Agreeing and disagreeing.
Giving directions and instructions.
These functions are listed along with the notions of time,
duration, formal, informal and semi-formal situations. Here, the
emphasis is on meaning related functional use but grammar is also
integrated with these functions. Both the linguistic and the
communicative competence is aimed to develop. The learners find
this type of syllabus interesting and useful. The language learnt in
the classroom can immediately be tried out in the real life situation
outside the classroom. It helps the learner to use the language as
a means of communication. Though it does not follow the natural
process of language acquisition.
LEXICAL SYLLABUS: This type of syllabus focuses on
teaching vocabulary items. Selection of the items depends on the
criteria of frequency, semantic range, productivity and teachability
etc. Frequency is the most common criterion for deciding the content
of this syllabus. Samples of native speakers' speech are analysed
and the most frequently used words in common patterns are
selected. Thorndike and Michael West have contributed a lot to
this type of syllabus. West had prepared a list of 2500 words as
core vocabulary for the learners of English as a second language.
This covered both the content and the function words. In eighties,
COBUILD research developed a list of vocabulary items after
analysing the language on computer.
Thus, in product oriented syllabuses, we notice the shift from
knowledge about language [structural] to the language use [notional-
functional]. In process oriented syllabus, the emphasis is on the


process of language learning. Here, the activity of learning a
language is as important as the language itself and the focus is
upon means rather than pre-determined objectives. The designer
gives priority to the changing process of learning in the classroom
[Breen,1984]. Communicative syllabus is a process-oriented syllabus.
COMMUNICATIVE SYLLABUS: Communicative approach
emerged as a reaction against the structural approach of language
teaching. It aims at developing the communicative competence of
the learners where the linguistic competence is automatically taken
care. It is an interactional, task based and learner centered syllabus.
Learner's needs, his social background, the educational setting are
considered before designing a syllabus. Curriculum development
becomes a collaborative effi>rt between the teacher and the learners
since, they will be involved in making decision on content, situation,
methodology and evahiation. [Nunan, 1988]. Emphasis is not on
usage but on language use. Language is used in a context. It is an
activity-based syllabus. Activities are information gap and problem
solving in nature. Emphasis is on learning by doing. It does not
have prescribed text. The teacher has to be extra resourceful to
collect the desired material. The material used is different kinds of
texts and media with vocabulary and grammar integrated with the
skills. The techniques are pair or group work and role-play. It
covers both the functional and the situational aspects of language.
Role of the teacher is that of the facilitator and a guide. It is
flexible and can be modified according to the needs of the learners.
COMMUNICATIONAL AND PROCEDURAL SYLLABUS:
It is also a process syllabus. It develops following the decisions
made at the moment ofteaching/learning. N.S. Prabhu through his
Banglore project [Prabhu 1987] developed procedural syllabus. It
is designed after needs analysis. Then the goals and the objectives
are decided. They are materialised through classroom tasks. The
tasks have information transfer questions. There is a pre-task and
the actual task. The learner negotiates the language according to
his requirements. Grammatical competence is developed along with
through the meaning focussed activity in the classroom.
Thus, we see the shift of focus from product oriented syllabus
to process-oriented syllabus in language teaching.

I QUESTIONS I
1. State the difference between curriculum and syllabus.
2. Which syllabus according to you is best suited in your teaching
situation? Give reasons.


3. Examine the syllabus of class VI and VII of your institution. Would
you like to make changes in them or not? Justify your comments.
4. Compare the important features of the structural and communicative
syllabuses.

REFERENCES

• Breen, M.P. "Process Syllabus for the Language Classroom",
1984 ELT Documents 118:46-60 Oxford Pergamon.
• CIEFL, Methods of Teaching English, 1996. CIEFL: Hyderabad.
• Nunan, David. 1988, Syllabus Design, Oxford: OUP
• Prabhu, N.S. 1987, Second Language Pedagogy, Oxford: OUP
• Wilkins, D.A. 1976, Notional Syllabuses, Oxford: OUP.

Qelel

CHAPTER 8 _ : i l 11 • •I & ' l l r _

. . . USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
[REFER TO APPENDIX]

INTRODUCTION: Audio-visual aids are used to make
learning more effective both at the elementary and the higher
level. Their importance depends on their contribution to the learning
process. Their function is not to make the lesson colourful, or to
demonstrate the teacher's versatility either in constructing or
handling them, but to make learniT.g effective [Bryne, 1981]. These
aids arouse the interest of the learners and motivate them to learn
faster. They create a lively atmosIJhere in th(· classroom. This results
in the total participation of the learners. The aids give a clear
context for teaching the language. This brings learners in a direct
contact with the object. This helps in understanding the meaning.
The use of these aids in teaching is available in many forms. The
action performed by a classmate in response to teacher's instruction
is a kind of visual aid. Objects, boxes, toys, magazines etc. can be
used for teaching. The sense of touch can be added to the sense of
sight and the words can be learnt in this way. The teacher must
exploit all the possibilities while using these aids. She must decide
whether the aid is appropriate and valid for the situation or not.
Teacher's role becomes very significant here. Pair and group work
techniques are the best for using these aids. There are different
types of teaching aids.
TYPES OF AIDS
TEXTBOOKS are the oldest teaching aids. They consolidate
the oral work done by the teacher. They present the desired
linguistic material in a systematic way. Through exercises they

Use ofAudio-Visual Aids in Language Teaching 51

provide the learners an opportunity to use the language. They can
be the starting points of the learning process. A teacher must
remember that the text is not an end in itself but is a means to
reach the end of learning the language. Most of the teachers are
text-oriented and their focus is on the completion of the text and
not on learning the language by the learners. The teacher has to
be extra resourceful to find the suitable material from the magazines
or newspaper articles and books. In this way slhe should go beyond
the textbook to meet the needs of the learners.
BLACKBOARD: No classroom can be imagined without a
blackboard. It is not an aid but teacher's main support. It is a very
useful and easily available teaching aid. It gives focal point of
attention for the whole class. It can be used to teach different
language items i.e. vocabulary, phrases and sentence patterns,
substitution tables, short questions to test comprehension, guidelines
for composition etc. The teacher's handwriting should be legible
and the drawings on the board should be visible to the learners
sitting on the last bench. Unwanted material should be rubbed off
immediately as it may distract the learners' attention. The teacher
can also use multi-coloured chalks to draw pictures and sketches.
SKETCHES: To draw the sketches the teacher should be
good at drawing. They can be used to give language practice in the
classroom. There are many occasions, when a teacher is required
to draw a picture of objects or scenes before the learners. Drawing
should be very simple and clear. They can be used to teach
vocabulary items as well as sentence structures. For example,
present continuous tense can easily be taught with the help of the
sketches. Action verbs can also be taught with the help of the
sketches.
The combination of the action pictures can be exploited for
dialogue writing too. Simple past tense can be taught here.
CHARTS: Some diagrams cannot be drawn on the blackboard
because of their size and they need to be made in advance. The
teacher with the help of the learners can also draw them. The
teacher should exploit the visible features of the chart, but it is
essential that the features should be very clear, the size appr0priate
and it must be able to provide the language practice. They can be
used for a variety of purposes such as vocabulary, grammar items,
idioms and poetry etc. Sentences illustrating some specific points
can be written on the chart with some beautiful diagrams. The
teacher should make it colourful. Words should be written in bold
letters to make it visible from the distance. [See Appendix]

52 Communicative Approach to the 'Teaching of English as a Second Language

MAPS are also very important aids to teach the functional
aspects of the language. They are ideal for giving directions of
place. This can be a very good pair/group work activity performed
through role-play. The teacher should give them interesting
situations for inviting each other to a party. The party can be for
birthday/silver jubilee marriage anniversary of parents/engagement
party of sister/house warming etc. Here, the learners have to give
the directions to reach to the venue of the party. One learner gives
the instructions and the other draws the map. This can be a very
good information transfer exercise.
PICTURES: Where words fail to describe, pictures succeed
because of their visual impact. Pictures of people, places, objects,
cultural difference, situations can be shown for maximum effect. At
the elementary level, the pictures can be used to teach the
vocabulary items and the concept of singular/plural can easily be
made clear through them.
Pictures can stimulate interpretation and discussion among
the learners. Detailed pictures depicting scenes can be used for
describing the scene or narrating an event. Description of people!
place or object is more useful at elementary level while
interpretation and speculation of meaning is more useful at higher
level. The teacher should select such pictures where there is more
scope for speculation of meaning with a scope for open ended
question answer. It develops cre:.tivity among learners, as they
tend to interpret the implied poss;bilities in I,he scene. This develops
their linguistic capacity. The te~:.cher should plan the activities
before entering the class. But, there should always be a scope for
a sudden change in the plaIl: to cater to the immediate need of the
learners. The class should be divided into groups. The pictures can
be used for a variety of purposes such as for description, narration
. of the event, writing a dialogue or a story etc. The interiors such
as room, hotel, office and hospital, and the exterior such as station-
bus/railway, street, beach, playground etc can be shown through
pictures. The teacher should follow a strategy while using the
pictures [and other visual aids] for discussion at higher level. The
first step in using the visual aid is to allow the learners to decide
the guideline for discussion. Write it on the blackboard. The teacher
should not affect the learners with her words and ideas. S/he should
discourage them to make hasty decision or making predictions
regarding the picture. The next step should be to let the learners
discuss the possibilities in the scene. There might be a point of
disagreement in the group, but the teacher should not interfere
unless asked for. S/he should move around the class to monitor the

Use ofAudio Visual Aids in Language Teaching 53

progress. S/he can supply words and sentence patterns. At the end,
one spokesperson from each group will give the presentation based
on the picture. The other groups can ask questions and raise
objections, which the spokesperson should answer with the help of
the group members. At the end, when all the groups have presented
their interpretation, let the learners decide which group's
presentation was the best. They should give reasons for the selection.
They can write a story or a skit based on it. Such activities are
very helpful in developing the skills of listening, speaking, reading
and writing.
There are different possibilities of the language use through
pictures The pictures can also be used to teach reported speech.
Another activity can be given, where the learners are asked to
interview a person from the picture and prepare five questions and
write a dialogue in the form of an interview. This type of relating
the topic to the personal level can be the final stage of exploiting
the picture. [See appendix]

FLANNEL BOARD/GRAPH: This visual aid is made with
the help of a board covered with flannel where cutouts are attached.
They depict situations, which are complete in them and provide
guided practice at all the levels of language learning. They can be
used to teach vocabulary and grammar items.
FLASH CARDS are strips of chart or thick paper and are
useful for teaching the skill of reading. They have pictures with or
without words or sentences. Flash cards as the name suggests, are
flashed only for a moment. The pictures must be very clear. The
learners can be asked to arrange them to form a sentence written
on the blackboard. They are useful for learning vocabulary and
sentence patterns. Cards linked together to form the pair are more
useful. They can be used to answer the question such as - Is it
easier to buy a cycle or a car? They should be asked to give reasons
for their choice.


OVER HEAD PROJECTOR [O.D.P.] is a very effective
device in language teaching. The teacher has to write or draw the
transparencies with pen to teach the desired language items. This
has one advantage that s/he can face the class and can have an eye
contact with the learners. The pictures or cutouts can also be drawn
on transparencies. All types of visual material can be projected on
O.H.P. This is good to develop speaking and writing skills.
FILMSTRIPS, SLIDES AND FILMS: These devices are
usually produced commercially with their own set of instructions.
An innovative teacher can use any material for the purpose of
language teaching. Slides are also good devices 'for providing the
opportunities for language use. The teacher can conduct the
activities of interpretation, discussion and dialogue etc.
Documentaries and films can also be shown to the learners by
fading out the sound and asking them to substitute the commentary
and dialogue. This is useful for group work activity.
VIDEO is an effective teaching aid as it stimulates the
learners. Watching video presen1;ation for language learning
purposes should be an active process for the learners. Effective
methods and techniques with wide variety of activities ensure active
viewing and participation from the learners. Video viewing has
two purposes - it helps the students to predict and perf-orm
segments and try to comprehend meaning. [Bryne, 1981]. Video
can be used to present new language items in contextualised
situations. It provides means for listening and speaking skills with
the integration of writing and reading skills. It helps to design
role-play and other group activities oflanguage games. The teacher
has to plan the activities in advance. Slhe should prepare worksheets
based on the. video material. An episode should be . followed by
comprehension questions. It presents a realistic picture of life both
visually and verbally. It mixes learning with enjoyment. This
motivates the learners to learn faster.
TAPE RECORDER: This audio aid can best be used for
listening comprehension. The recorded passage should be played
and the learners should be asked questions orally or a worksheet
be given to them to write answers on it. This is very useful for
improving pronunciation i.e. the accent, stress and intonation
pattern. The learners can be exposed to ~ood speeches and poetry
recitation made by the good speakers of the language. Much of the
recorded material is available in the market.
The teacher can also record dialogues from the lessons of the
textbook. This serves two purposes i.e. the experience of model

Use ofAudio-Visual Aids in Language Teaching 55

reading and a situation where language is used meaningfully. For
this, the dialogue should be recorded in the male and female voices
to give the desired impact.
LANGUAGE LABORATORY: in a language lab, each learner
has his own tape recorder. The taPe recorder is equipped with
headphones. They help the learner to listen to the material recorded
in the tape. The biggest advantage of this device is that the learner
learns the language at his own pace and time without disturbing
the class [Dakin: 1973]. Through a microphone, slhe can record his!
her voice and can play back the recording to check the mistakes by
comparing hislher voice with the model version recorded in the
tape. There is a connecting channel between the teacher and the
learners. From the teacher's console, slhe can listen to each learner's
voice and communicate with himlher without disturbing the others.
This device helps in developing listening and speaking skills. This
can be used for listening comprehension. Worksheets can be given
to test the comprehension. This helps in teaching different aspects
of spoken language such as accent, stress, pronunciation, intonation
etc. This also helps in teaching grammar items such as parts of
speech, reported speech, active, passive and structures.
RADIO AND TELEVISION: English lessons presented on
both the radio and TV are graded series of lessons in the language.
They help the learners to listen and watch and comprehend the
material. One can get the list of language programme on BBC
radio in advance from British Council. The teacher can develop
activities on these programmes. S/he can make them write the
dialogue following a group discussion or debate on the broadcast
material. They can also write a report on the information given in
the programme. TV programmes have the similar use as video. If
the TV is available in the institutiop, the programme on Discovery
and National Geographic channels can be shown to the children,
but the focus should be on learning the language and not just the
entertainment of the learners. If possible, good programmes can be
recorded on VCR and shown to the learners.
COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
[CALL]: It is the latest device used for language learning. This is
a very expensive device and is not accessible to all the educational
institutions. If the institution has access to it, the teacher can buy
the language software available in the market. Computer can be
used to teach vocabulary, structures and can integrate the skills of
LSRW. Many language games and activities can be designed
following any software programme. There can be group discussion,
debate, role-play, writing assignment based on them.


LANGUAGE GAMES: As language learning follows the
dictum of learning by doing, the teacher has to design activities for
this. The activities should be conducted in an enjoyable manner.
For this, the language games should be introduced as they provide
a welcome break in the learners' routine. The games help in
sustaining their interest in the process of learning. The basic
difference between -a game and an activity is that a game has a.
base of competition. It makes learning a challenging task, hence,
it ensures -total participation of the learners. Games provide a
relaxed atmosphere in the classroom that helps them to express
themselves freely and spontaneously, The rules of the games
enhance discipline in the classroom. There can be vocabulary games,
grammar games and games based on different as.pects of the
language.
Thus, we see that all these audio-visual materials are available,
but they need an innovative teacher to exploit all the possibilities.
Otherwise, they will be mechanical deVices. The teacher's attention
should be focussed on the teaching of language items. This s/he can
combine successfully with the element of enjoyment to facilitate
faster learning in the students.

I QUESTIONS I
1. What is the role of audio-visual aids in language teaching?
2. Which aid is the most suitable for your teaching situation? Give
reasons for your selection. -
3. How can you exploit pictures to teach language? Give two examples
for the same.

IREFERENCES I
• Byrne, Donn, 1981. Teaching Oral EngliBh, Longman.
• Dakin, Julian. 1973. The Language Laboratory and Language
Learning, Longman.

QQQ

, .

CHAPTER 9

CLASS MANAGEMENT

The theoretical knowledge of teaching and learning is
implemented in the classroom. It is a dynamic place - a formal set
up, where time bound [40-60 minutes] and organised teaching and
learning takes place. It brings a mental picture of a hall, benches,
desks, blackboard, fan etc. A well-lit, well-ventilated and well-
equipped classroom is still a dream for many of our English L2
learners. The classroom is mainly used to provide information to
the learners. But, a language teacher's role goes beyond this
function. Slhe has to develop the ability of the learners to use the
language for the communicative purposes both in and outside the
classroom. There are many restraints on the teacher such as the
unmanageable size of the class; limited time; completion of the
syllabus; the heterogeneous group of the learners etc. It is essential
for the teacher to have clear understanding and firm grasp of the
wide range of techniques and procedure through which the class
can be managed properly. This knowledge results in proper
classroom interaction, which provides learning opportunities to the
learners. Here, the role of the teacher and the learner becomes
equally important.
ROLE OF THE TEACHER: Role of the teacher depends on
the method she adopts in the class. In a traditional structural
approach, the teacher is the central figure who controls and decides
the pace oflearning, the drills and tasks to fit in a relevant situation
[Richards,1994]. It is a kind of one-way traffic where the teacher
speaks and the learner listens passively. But, the communicative
language situation aims at developing the language skills in -the
learner. The emphasis is on the language use in the classroom.
Here, the learner is at the centre. The teacher has to provide the
best opportunities for learning in the classroom. The teacher has
to be approachable, sympathetic and patient in the L2 and L3

58 CommunicatilJe Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language

learning situations. Slhe must establish a rapport with the learners
to win their confidence. The clal;lsroom atmosphere should be very
congenial, where the leaniers should feel relaxed. This is essential
because second language learning is a highly interactive process. It
demands total participation of the learners.
The teacher has to play multiple roles. Slhe has to analyse
the needs of the learners and prepare the material accordingly.
Slhe has to select learning activities, prepare activities and drills.
S/he has to assess learners' understanding, give them feedback of
their progress and do remedial teaching. The teacher should plan
the content and the material in advance. But, slhe must be flexible
too. Slhe must have alternative resources if slhe finds that one
particular programme does not work in a class. S/he should have
variety in teaching otherwise, the learners may be bored and may
create the problem of in-discipline in the classroom.
Harmer assigns different roles to the teacher such as the role
of controller, assessor, organizer, prompter, participant and resource
[Harmer, 1983.J. At the initial presentation stage the teacher
provides information. Slhe chooses new language items in
meaningful situations, sometimes with the help of audio-visual aids.
Slhe makes learners understand the meaning. S/he motivates them
and initiates the process of learning.
At the practice stage, the teacher is the facilitator or conductor.
The teacher should be a good organiser.Slhe should give very clear
instructions to the learners especially in the problem solving
activities. Slhe must be clear about the objectives; otherwise there
will be much confusion and dissatisfaction in the learners. S/he
should discuss the plan with them and assifPl: roles to them. Another
role of the teacher during this stage is that of a prompter. The
teacher has to be a friend of the learners. Slhe should encourage
them and boost their morale for better performance. The teacher
should also participate in the activities if the situation demands.
It is a good strategy to remove tension in the class. Besides this,
slhe can be a good role model for them.
At the production stage, when the learners are busy with the
activity, the teacher should act as a guide. Teacher's role as an
assessor is very crucial. Slhe has to go'for gentle correction and not
over-correction. Over-correction can ~esult in non-participation of
the learners in any activity. They will never open up again. The
teacher should not correct the errors mdividually but should do so -
collectively. This way they will realise th~ir mistakes without being
self-conscious. The teacher should give feedback to the learners

Class Management 59

about their progress in learning. It gives them a sense of
achievement that activates their learning. Thus, a teacher has to
play different roles at different stages of learning in the classroom.
ROLE OF THE LEARNER: The learner is the most
important person in the process of teaching/learning. The teacher
should treat the learner as an individual. His/her age, motivation,
aptitude, attitude and the socio-economic background playa major
role in learning a language. The learners' needs are of prime
importance. The syllabus, the material and the techniques should
be based on their needs. In teaching English as a second language,
the aim is to develop linguistic and communicative competence of
the learner. S/he has to learn different aspects of language i.e.
phonology, vocabulary, grammar as well as the functional aspects
of the language. The learner should exploit the opportunity to use
the language. S/he should expose himselflherself to the language
through reading and listening. At all the stages of learning the
language, the emphasis should be placed on the appropriate use of
language- as it is used in different situations, as an instrument
of communication, as a means of social control [Bryne, 1976]. The
learner should try out the language for himself .through activities
in the classroom. This needs the use of few techniques in the
classroom.
LOCK STEP: Harmer defines lockstep as the class grouping
where all students are locked into the same rhythm and pace. In
the traditional teaching method where the teacher is the controller,
this technique can be practised conveniently. The entire class acts
as a group and follows the instructions of the teacher. But, this
technique does not work in the communicative approach of language
teaching. It has no scope for language use by the learners. It can
be advantageous for giving feedback to the learners after completing
reading and listening activities. The entire class can check their
answers at the same time. Thus, it saves a lot of time.
GROUP WORK: It is a very good strategy for the dynamic
interaction in large classes. It leads to the total participation of the
learners and reduces domina~ion of the teacher. The teacher should
form mixed ability groups. At least one member in each group
must have linguistic competence. To save the time of the class, the
groups should be formed in advance and seated accordingly before
the class begins. The size of the group depends on the number of
students in the class. An ideal group consists of six to seven members
for proper participation. There should be a group leader in each
group, whose selection should be on rotation. S/he must ensure
that every member of the group participates in the activity. The


teacher should discuss and define the activity with clear objectives
and the learners should be allowed to work on their own. They can
sit facing each other in a close circle. Natural and spontaneous
discussion develops communicative skills faster. Group work has
potential for the use of all the four skills-LSRW. Here, the learners
learn the maxims of discourse such as taking turns, not interrupting
others and being tolerant to other's opinions etc. It also helps them
to develop good communicative strategies in social life. Group work
boosts the morale of the learners and helps them to shed inhibitions.
Though the learners work separately in groups, but at the final
stage the class is reformed as a whole and each group presents its
views on the given subject. The learners should be allowed to
evaluate the performance of the groups with proper justification.
This develops analytical skill. The culmination of group work always
takes place within the context of the class as a whole.
The role of the teacher in group work is not to impose his/her
views on the learners, but to encourage them to express their views
convincingly. Herlhis job as a mediator should be to keep the
channels of communication open. Slhe should move around the
class, listen to the groups and if needed, help them. Group work
activity is very useful and should be held once a week.
PAIR WORK: Sometimes group work is not very successful
because of the different pace at which different learners work. Pair
work is also convenient for practising skills. It leads to greater
learner autonomy. It does not disturb the arrangement in the class.
The learners either sit next to each other or facing each other.
Communication with the teacher is easier here. It should be a
mixed ability pair. One of the two should be more proficient in
language to help the other during activity. The teacher should
clarify the objectives and the procedure before the activity begins.
Slhe should guide the learners by moving around the class. The
learners can be involved in the activity based on the specially
prepared material. They can be asked to do role-play on a given
situation. This should be based on the real life situation to develop
communicative competence. Through interacting with other students
in pairs/groups they can be given the opportunity to draw on their
linguistic resources in non-threatening situation and use them to
complete different kinds of tasks [Richards, 1994] to develop both
the linguistic and the communicative competence. Another technique
is that of individual work.
INDIVIDUAL WORK: It is a common teaching pattern in
the classroom. It provides the learners an opportunity to progress
at their speed and their own way. It is a good way to practise and

Class Management 61

apply the skills already learnt. The teacher can assign different
activities i.e. completing the worksheet, reading a comprehension
passage and answering questions, doing exercise from the text,
writing letters and composition etc. A student can be very relaxed
here. The activities should be based on individual abilities and
needs. But, there is little interaction here. There is a very little
room for oral language use. It is difficult for the teacher to monitor
what the students are really doing in the class. The brighter students
finish their task fast and may disturb the class. In this situation,
a teacher has to devise the activity in different layers, so that the
students who finish one task should move over tOthe next. The
teacher may not be able to guide and correct each learner's work,
if the number of the learner is very big. It can be a very time
consuming activity and the learners will be deprived of language
use in the classroom. The teacher has to take up the problem areas
before the task begins and should go for correction collectively.
DISCIPLINE: The major emphasis in a communicative
language teaching situation is on language used by the learners.
The biggest advantage of group work and pair work is that many
a learner can speak at the same time. But, this can result in a
noisy classroom disturbing other classes and may create disciplinary
problems. Shifting of furniture and the commotion of the learners
can create chaos in the classroom. The teacher has to be very
vigilant to avoid this. Maintaining discipline does not mean
punishing the learners physically or emotionally. The teacher should
be aware of this aspect from the beginning and should take
preventive measures accordingly. S/he should keep changing the
members in pair and group work. The learners should be explained
the code of conduct at the beginning. It should be the same for both
. the teacher and the learners. Unacceptable behaviour should be
avoided. The teacher's attitude to her subject and the students
decides codes of conduct for him/her. The teacher has to be a role
model by being punctual, well prepared, ready with the material,
impartial and sympathetic. The learners should not be noisy,
unattentive and careless. They should be punctual, hardworking
and totally involved in the process of learning. They should have
positive attitude towards the language and should abide by the
rules the institution has made for them.
INSTITUTION: Institution's policy/attitude to discipline
solves many of the problems. The code of conduct should be
announced [preferably in mother tongue] th~ very first day of the
institution. The consequences of the bad behaviour should also be
told in advance. Institution's positive attitude towards the language

CHAPTER 10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

_ TEACHING LISTENING SKILLS

INTRODUCTION: For the effective use oflanguage, a person
should be well-versed in all the four skills of language - listening,
speaking, reading and writing. Listening - an aural skill is an
essential pre-requisite for learning a language. We know that the
first exposure of a child to language is through listening. He listens
and absorbs the sounds of his ·mother tongue, understands the
meaning of the words and phrases before communicating with
others. But, while learning a second language he has to develop
the skill of listening. .
Listening is a skill that needs to be cultivated. There is a
difference between listening and hearing; while the former needs
an effort, the latter is an effortless activity. While travelling in a
train we hear the conversation of co-travellers without any
particular attention, but we listen to the railway announcement
with rapt attention. For teachinglleaming English as a second
language, listening is a very important skill. English being a link,
language, most of the communication ..:.... official or otherwise is
oral. One has to listen and respond to others in office, face
interviews, attend meetings etc. To be an efficient listener, the
learner should know the process of listening.
PROCESS OF LISTENING: Communication is sending and
receiving of information. It is encoding and decoding process in
which the speaker and the listener should be tuned in for the same
meaning. It is a collaborative process in which signals are produced
by the speaker and understood by the listener. In other words, the
process can be explained in terms of
Input - processing - output
. Input refers to the words spoken by the speaker and output
refers to the response made by the listener. Before producing a


response, the listener processes the information received by him.
This follows the strategies of:
Bottom up processing
Top down processing
In bottom up processing the listener depends on the received
iDformation to understand the meaning. He ~alyses the informatio~
to understand the meaning. He analyses the iIiformation at the
levels of sounds that form words; words that form phrases; phrases
that form sentences. The knowledge of linguistic structure is
essential to understand the meaning.
In top down processing, the listener does not depend entirely
on the received message, but the outside knowledge also plays a
key role in understanding the message. The situation, the context .
and the tone ·of the speaker give the clues. This helps him in
guessing the meaning. An efficient listener makes use of both the
processes to understand the meaning.
A listener always listens with a purpose, which is the most
important element in the process of understanding the meaning.
Although we listen to - sounds, words, phrases and sentences,
. ultimately the meaning comes in totality. The context of the message
is equally important.
TYPES OF LISTENING: Purpose decides the types of
listening. Some o! the types of listening are:
Selective listening: Refers to deriving the specific
information from the text.
Global listening: Refers to understanding the overall
structure of the text to identify the main and the sub points.
Intensive listening: Refers to understanding the elements
of limguage - phonological, morphological, grammatical and
discourse features etc.
SKILLS-AND SUB-SKII,IS OF LISTENING; Rost [1990]
has classified these skills as enabling and enacting skills. The
learner has to understand the message and to respond to it. He has
to perceive, identify, infer and interpret and transcode the message.
Enabling skills consists of following skills and sub skills:
Perception of information: The listener should know the
linguistic framework of the language i.e. sounds, vocabularY,
structures stress and pitch etc. S/he should be able to understand
the difference between the long and short vowels Le. bit and ~t.
Slhe should be able to differenti~te between sun and shun.

Teaching Listening Skills 65

Interpretation of the information: The listener should be
able to guess the meaning of the difficult words . .Slhe should be
able to infer the implicit information given by the speaker. Slhe
should be able to link the parts of the information with the whole
of the text.
Recognition of indicators of discourse: The listener should
understand the main and the sub themes of the topic. S/he should
be able to interpret the intention of the speaker·by the changes in
the pitch, pause and tempo etc. Slhe should understand whether
the utterance is a satire, a statement or a question, is an order or
a request.
Enacting skills refers to the response on · the part of the
listener. It consists of the following skills and the sub skills:
Selection of the main points of information and
transcoding it in oral or written form: The learners should be
able to identify the ideas and classifying them. Slhe should be able
to integrate the information from the text and transcode it to other
form. S/he should be able to respond to the speaker.,
A teacher should give ample practice to the learners for
developing these skills and the sub skills of listening. Often teachers
find that the learners cannot understand the spoken message
clearly. This creates a problem in communication. Some of the
following factors create problems in listening comprehension.
A listener cannot understand the information because of:
~ A physical reason - he cannot listen properly.

~ Emotional stress - shock and fatigue also block listening
because his mind is preoccupied and cannot listen properly.
~ The American, British or regional accent of the speakers
makes understanding difficult.
~ The lack of socio-cultural context and background
knowledge.
~ Lack of linguistic knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, rules
and conventions of the language.
~ Not following the pitch and tone of the speaker. S/he cannot
distinguish between an order and a request; a statement
and a question etc.
~ Mishearing at juncture or word boundary. For example .,--
I scream and ice cream; the pause at the wrong place
changes the meaning.

66 Communicative ApproaCh to the Teaching ofEnglish as a Second Language

The teacher should help · the learners in overcoming these
problems. To develop the skill, the teacher should emphasize upon
classroom activities.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO TEACH LISTENING
SKU.IS; While planning the ~ctivities, the size of the class,
availability of language lab, tape recorder and VCR should be
considered. Most of our institutions do not have these facilities. In
such cases, the teacher should read the material loudly at a normal
speed. She can also get good speakers/teachers with a reasonable
command over the language to read the material. For the learners
of English as a second language British or American accent is not
very helpful in promoting comprehension. The material should be ·
carefully selected and edited according to the level and
understanding of the learners. The worksheets should be prepared
in advance and cyclostyled for distributing in the classroom. These
worksheets are very good for the tasks like match the tables; trace
the route on the maps, ticking and labeling the items etc. The
teacher must see that the material is motivating enough to grab
the attention of the' learners for their active participation in the
tasks. The teacher should decide the learning outcome of the task
The objectives of the activity should be made clear to the learners.
Use of visual stimultnl in the form of pictures, diagrams,
sketches on the blackboard or flannel graph etc. is a good source
of motivation. Interesting material in itself is motivating. A story,
a film, a play showed on VCR can be. very stimulating for the
learners. Thrillers are also-very good source of motivation because
of the in-built suspense in them.
The teacher should see that the material ·and the activities
arouse learner's curiosity and imaginative power. It should develop
information gaps into the learner's mind. The recorded material
can be used to expose them to a wide range of accents, mood,
registers and situations. This is very useful for higher level learners.
The tasks should be success-oriented. Success boosts the morale of
the learners and creates further interest in other activities.
Classroom activities should relate to the real life situations. .
They should be properly graded i.e. from slmple to complex. The
tasks should be arranged pedagogically. In the early stages of
learning 'bottom-up' listening strategy is good. Here, the emphasis
should be on individual elements and building blocks of the
language.
At the initial stage, learners should be given · practice for
discriminating sounds. Minimal pair is an ideal practice where the
distinction of only one sound is required;


light-right, set-jet, sun-shun
This can also be given for long and short vowel distinction:
sit-seat, full-fool, bed-bad,
They should be asked to identify different stress in isolated
words [in nouns and verbs]
present-pre 'sent produce-pro'duce object-ob 'ject
import-im 'port export-ex'port subject-sub 'ject
From words they should be given practice in connected speech.
They should be able to understand the intonation pattern and
distinguish between an order and a statement.
For the next stage of aural comprehension, short textS of
spoken English should be given. The worksheets should be provided.
The exercises can be in the form of 'true or false', questions, multiple
choice exercises, description of person, place or things. Here, the
learner has to identify the right one from the given visual clues of
the description.
Gap filling exercises, where the learner has to complete the
utterance is a good exercise.
The learner should be asked to classify the information in a
given table:
The learner can label ,the information or complete the
diagrams, charts, graphs, maps or illustrations while listening to
the passage.
In information transfer exercise, the learner has to produce a
verbal response or transcode the information in tables or tree
diagrams.
For a later stage, the learner should be asked to express his!
her opinions about the heard passage whether s/he agrees or
disagree with the statements given there. S/he has to answer the
questions posed by the teacher. S/he has to complete the diagram
following the instructions of the teacher.
The learner should be asked to comprehend short lectures on
a variety of subjects ranging from formal, semi-formal to informal
discourse. S/he should be asked to reproduce it orally or in writing.
The learner should be allowed to hear the text at least three to
four times. A recorded dialogue on any situation is a good exercise.
For example, a dialogue of making enquiry at the railway station,
post office, bank etc. can be played before them. This can be a good
comm~cative task for discourse analysis. The learner can be asked


to trace the number of speakers, their relationship, purpose etc. SI
he should be asked to find out the key words and phrases, mention
the number of questions asked etc. Slhe can ~ asked to reconstruct
the dialogue with the help of the keywords. It can be a very good
group activity. This covers 'bottom-up' and 'top down' techniques
which start with the fragments of information to the reconstruction
of the dialogue.
Another instructional activity for group work is where the .
learners are asked to trace the route on the maps. While following
the instruction, they have to ask questions to each other. This
develops questioning skill. Another dimension to the same activity
can be given by asking them to design brochure for the tourists on
behalf of the tourist dept.
A news item from a newspaper can also be read and the
learners can be asked to write the headlines from the given piece.
A speech of a politician can be played on the tape or can be
read out loudly. Learners should be- given worksheets with columns
drawn on it. The speech can cover the areas of secularism, welfare
of women and children and old people, discussion about policy
planning in the areas of education, finance, environment, health,
foreign affairs etc They have to tick the category and write the gist
of the speech. 'l'hey can compare their notes with other learners
and make a presentation in the claSsroom. This integrates all the
four skills - they lisiento the cassette, discuss with friends, write
the gist and read it aloud in the classroom.
An important area of listening relates to study skill covering
the skills of summarising, note taking etc.
. The use of VCR in the classroom provides stimulating
experience to the learners. An 'episode can be shown to them and
they should be asked to write .down the sequence of the events.
Similarly, a process of making something can.be shown. The class
can be divided into groups. One group should be shown the process,
the other group is made to listen to it and then tally the sequence
with each other.
Immediate feed back is essential. It is not possible to check
each worksheet individually for the teacher. Self-evaluation on
worksheet should be encouraged. Peer evaluation is a very good
strategy but they should be able to' justify it.
- These activities show that the teacher has ' twin goals: one
focusing Qn the development of the language skills, the other
focusing on the deveiopment of learning skills and strategies using
both the 'top down' and 'bottom up' strategies.


The learners have to remember the fact that it is not essential
to understand word by word meaning but to understand the chunks
of information and guess the meaning in totality.

I QUESTIONS I
1. What are the skills and the sub skills of listening?
2. What do you understand by the bottom up and top down approach
of listening skill?
3. What classroom activities will you adopt while teaching this skill to
the learners?

IREFERENCES I
• Galvin, K1985, Listening by Doing, Lincolnwood K: national text
book company.
• Rost Michael; Listening in Language Teaching, London;
Longman, 1990.

I SUGGESTED READINGS I
1. Anderson, Anne and Tony Lynch 1988. Listening, Oxford OUP.
2. Field, John 1983 Listening Comprehension, Macmillan.

aaa

CHAPTER 11

_ TEACHING SPEAKING SKILLS

INTRODUCTION: Most of the commwrication that takes
place in real life situation is oral i.e. either face to face or telephonic.
Learners need to develop this skill of speaking for their existence.
In the process of acquisition of the mother tongue, listening and
speaking come naturally. It is because the child is exposed to the
language all through the day. He absorbs the sounds, intemalises
the rules and speaks the language quite naturally. But, while
learning second language like English, the learner learns the skills
of reading and writing first. S/he has to put a lot of effort-in speaking
the language. In a multilingual Indian society, English acts as a
link language. Knowledge of spoken English is an asset. In a
classroom, especially for professional courses, the learner has to be
proficient in English to be able to: ask for the clarification of the
problems, participate in group discussion or debate,-present a paper
in a seminar, appear for a viva-voce etc. In a situation o~tside the
classroom, slhe has to appear for interviews for jobs, most of which
. are conducted in English. One has to speak English -for official
communication such as attending meetings, making official
speeches, welcoming guests etc. As a member of the society, slhe
has to interact with others. S/he needs oral proficiency -to perform
the functions such as seeking admission in a school or college,
making enquiries for different purposes, complaining and arguing
etc. S/he needs speech for survival.
Speaking skill is developed through exposure and practice.
There are stages of production, which begin from the cOnceptual
plannjng to the actual speaking [Garrett, 1982]. It follows a cognitive
process. We formulate ideas in our mind, decide for sentence
structures and words and express them.
'Speaking is an interactive skill, which involyes both listening
and speaking. When we speak we may initiate the speech or respond

Teaching Speaking Skills 71

to other's speech. Listener should always be on the mind of the
speaker to make speech comprehensible and intelligible. But mere
listening does not result in oral fluency. One has to learn grammar
and vocabulary too. Stress and intonation along with speaker's
gestures and facial expressions help to convey and understand the
meaning. Writing is a very conventional skill with no room for
incomplete and ungrammatical structures. But, natural speech is
often incomplete and sometimes ungrammatical too. It has
contractions - can't, don't, I'll, I'd etc. The learner has to learn
these elements of spoken language. Speech consists of encoding
and transmitting the message. A person recognises the 's ounds,
imitates them and finally succeeds in producing them.
"The objective of teaching the skill of speaking English is to
develop the ability to express oneself intelligibly, reasonably
accurately and fluently. The listener has to be taught the
grammatical patterns and lexical items to express meaning in
different situations. The aim should be to develop intelligibility
and acceptability [Paul Verghese, 1989]. The teacher should have
the knowledge of phonology especially of articulatory phonetics to
check the wrong pronunciation. The teacher need not teach them
phonology but make them aware of correct pronunciation and stress.
Our aim of teaching English as L2 is not to develop British or
American accent but to help them overcome regional accents and
wrong pronunciation. The pronunciation of go /geuJ as /go/ does not
affect intelligibility but the confusion of bit and beat or shun and
sun is not acceptable. English has regular stress timing. The
peculiarities of English sound system create problems for our
learners. For example the letter 'a' has different sound in the words:
cat, car, call as /ae/, /a:/ and~: respectively.
Our students find it very hard to speak English. There are
many factors responsible for this. Constraints of syllabus and time
restrict the development of this skill in the classrooms. Most of the
classes are overcrowded where the learners do not get the
opportunity to speak. Lack of good model "in the form of a teacher
is one of the important factors. Most of the teachers are not trained
in phonology to improve their pronunciation. Very few institutions
have the facility of tape recorders and hardly one or two institutions
can afford a language laboratory. Lack of exposure at home and
neighbourhood is another factor. The learners lack command over
" the language. They are short of vocabulary items and their
knowledge of the rules of grammar is not adequate. This linguistic
incompetence creates psychological barrier in them. They are
inhibited to speak the language because of the fear of making

72 Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Langooge

mistakes and being ridiculed at for the same. Most of the learners
never open their mouths in the classroom. This lack of confidence
inhibits the use of language later oli in life. The teacher should pay
attention to develop this most important skill right from the
beginning at school.
SKIIJ,g AND SUB·SKILLS OF SPEAKING: The teacher
should provide the opportunities to develop the functional aspects
oflanguage in classroom. They should be based on real life situations
so tha~ the learners can easily identify with them. They should be
taught to communicate effectively in formal, informal and
semiformal situations. The learners should be taugbt. t.n~
> Ask question and answer.
> Introduce themselves and others.
> Talk abOut themselves ' to others.
> Describe people, place, object and process.
> Agree and disagree on any subject.
> Make enquiries and complaints.
> Ask and give direction and instruction.
> Argue, persuade and convince others.
> Participate in-group discussion as initiator, contributor,
critic or reporter.
> Participate in debate.
> Announce and compere an -event.
THE SUBSKILLS OF .SPEAKING·REFER TO:
> Know what to say and how to say.
> Convey ideas effectively and convincingly.
> Organise and sequence the ide~ logically.
> Be able to generalise from example and prove their point
by showing -cause and effect.
> Takes turns in-group discussion and not interrupt others,
listen to other's opinion.
> Speak relevantly and clearly. [CIEFL Methods 19961.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO TEACH SPEAKING
SKIIJS: We have to remember the two approaches to develop oral
communication skill:
> Learning language as a skill in the class.
> Developing spoken skill through exposure and use.


It is the interaction with others rather than mere exposure to
language plays the most important role [Long,1985]. For teaching
speaking skill to the learners, the role of the teacher is very crucial.
The teacher should create such situations in the classroom, which
facilitate the use of language for the learners.
S/he has to be very patient, sympathetic and encouraging.
Slhe should motivate the learners with the help of verbal and
visual stimulus. Visual aids are very good for generating interest
among them. The act of speaking in itself can be a motivating -
factor. Being able to speak a few sentences boosts the morale of the
learners, Slhe should train them to cope with different situations.
The teacher should explain the principles of effective speech,
phonetic accuracy, correct sounds and sound pattern, grammatical
accuracy and contextual accuracy [Ghosh ed.1977l. Slhe should
avoid unnecessary correction. S/he should not interrupt a speaker
for his/her mistakes, but should make a mental note of general
mistakes and correct them collectively and not individually. The
teacher's patient attitude relaxes the learners, which is the principal
condition for learning a language. This does not mean .that s/he
should never correct the learners and allow them to be fluent
speakers at the cost of accuracy. Fluency and accuracy both are
important. The teacher has to see that the learners move from the
stage of fluency to accuracy. The learner has to internalise the
system of the language to speak fluently and correctly. If they are
not corrected at the right time, the faulty pronunciation, intonation
pattern and structures will be fossilised, which can never be
corrected. The teacher should design the tasks to improve both.
Slhe should expose them to good models by using audio cassettes
of play recitation, dialogues, speeches or story narration. The
learners can be asked to repeat them to improve their speech.
The teacher should develop the activities to make them speak
the language. Learners become self-conscious in speaking before
the whole class. To avoid this problem, the best technique is to
conduct pair or group work activities. Some students are very vocal
and some are very quiet. Teacher should make heterogeneous
groups. Peer pressure motivates them to participate in the activities.
Another advantage of group work is that they help each other in
avoiding mistakes.
The teacher should decide the activities beforehand. The
activities should be time bound and problem solvingin nature. The
tasks should be challenging but success oriented. Initially, the .
activities should be based on guided production and then move

74 Communicative Approach to the Teaching ofEnglish as a SecOnd Language

over to free discussion at a later stage. S/he can begin with simple
question answer, guessing games, role-play to discussion and debate.
Activities should be interesting, motivating and enjoyable to ensure
full participation of the learners.
Developing intelligibility in spoken language should be the
first step. The teacher should train the learners in proper
articulations. S/he can use tape recorder and visual aids such as
phonetic chart to help them identify the heard sound. Use of
dictionary to understand phonetic script should be encOuraged. They
should be able to differentiate between long and short vowel sounds.
Minimal Pair is the best exercise for this. First, the teacher should
say the words aloud and ask the learners to repeat them. S/he can
ask them to .group the words of similar sound together and ask
them to add few more on the list.
They can be asked to prono~ce verb and noun according to
the shifting -stress:
'PROject- pro'JECT
'IMport- im 'PORT
They should be asked to understand the intonation of rise and
fall and be able to differentiate between statement and question,
request and order.
They should be given practice to develop logical stress where
changing stress can change the emphasis:
Islum is going to Delhi tomorrow by morning train. [lahan,
not. anybody else]. .
Ishan is going to Delhi tomorrow by morning train. [going,
not coming]
lshanis going to Delhi tomorrow by morning train. [Delhi
and not anywhere else] F

lshan is going to Delhi tomorrow by morning train. [tomorrow
and not any other day] .
lshan is going to Delhi tomorrow by morning train. [morning,
not in the afternoon]
Ishan is going to Delhi tomorrow by morning train. [train,
not by bus].
These exercises are good for pair work. Another pair work
exercise is to question each other about their daily routine, likes
and dislikes hobbies, family members, future plan etc. They can be
asked to describe their favourite person! place! game etc.


These kinds of activities are good for developing fluency. They
can be asked to find in the class who:
has never travelled by air.
does not like Shahrukh Khan.
does not enjoy jokes.
does not like to play Holi. .
The person has to give reasons f9r that.
Role-play is also a very interesting and motivating activity
both in pair and group work. Role-play provides not only informal
learning through natural use in communicative situation; it also
helps in learning to listen, to work together and to correct others.
They should be given time to prepare before their final·presentation
in the class. Real life situation should be taken for this activity.
Give them one or two situations and let the learners come out with
different situations for the same function. Initially, these mini
dialogues should be guided with basic structures and lexical items.
[See Appendices - Functions of Language]
The learners should be asked to invite each other for birthday/
anniversary/ engagement party etc. The other partner is expected
to refuse the invitation giving genuine reasons for the same.
They can be asked to make enquiry for different reasons such
as admission in schooV college! hosteV hospital etc.; trainlbuslplane's
arrival and departure time; booking at hotel etc. The same situation
can be exploited for complaining the authorities for iqegularities,
misbehaviour of the staff etc.
For the functi01l of agreeing - disagreeing, persuading and
convincing different situations can be given. For example "your
father wants you to be an engineer, you are not interested in
becoming one. You want to be an airhostess. Argue with your father
stating the demerits of his choice and the merits of your choice.
Persuade and convince your father about your selection." This
situation can be exploited in the areas of marriage, change of job,
opting for hostel life, selection of a picnic spot etc.
Pictures, charts, objects can be used for interpretation, for
writing dialogue or for role-play and discussion. Cartoon strips can
be used for narration of sequence.
The learners can be given a story to complete in a group.
This can be an open-ended activity because of the many possibilities.
For example, 'It is 11.30 at night. You are all alone at home.
Outside it is raining heavily. Suddenly the lights go off. There is
a knock at the door and then ... .' Complete the story.


They can be asked to give running commentary of an event-
. game, school function, farewell party etc.
Group discussion is another fruitful activity, which is highly
motivating and ensures full participation of the learners. The
teacher can suggest a few topics or let the learners decide the
topic. The topic should be focussed and not vague. They should be
trained· in the skills of exemplifying, generalising, analysing and
systematising their viewpoints. They should be able to prove their
point by using the strategies of cause and effect, contrast and
analogy. They should be able to sum-up their viewpoints
convincingly. Newspaper articles can be used to generate discussion.
The topics should be interesting and challenging. They should
motivate the learners to speak. Hot and relevant topics should be
given for discussion and debate:
Kajol's decision to marry at the peak of her career is right.
Sonia Gandhi is the right choice ' for prime ministership.
Women's reservation in politics is right.
Nepotism is a compulsory evil in politics.
Each student must participate in such Qctivities. This helps to
develop confidence in facing an audience and a spirit of healthy
competition.
They can be asked to review a book! film! play. They can be
asked to present a report of a visitJ an incident or an event.
These are some of the classroom activities useful for developing
the speaking skill. The teacher can prepare many more according
to the needs of the learners. The teacher should try to integrate
this skill with other skills too. The learners should be asked tQ
take down notes while other group is making a presentation. Each
learner should be asked to give a written report of the speaking
activities conducted in the classroom. This can be a home assignment
for them, which they have to read loudly .in some other class.

IQUESTIONS I
1. What is the importance of speaking skill for the learners of English
as a second language?
2. What are the skills and the sub skills of speaking?
3. What should be the activities to teach this skill in a large classroom?


I REFERENCES I
• CIEFL. 1996. MethodtJ of Teaching English, CIEFL: Hyderabad.
• Garrett, M.F. 1982 .'Production of Speech: Observation (rom
Normal and Pathological Language Use~ in Ellis, AW. [ed.]
Normality and Pathology In Cognitive Functions, London:
Academic Press.
• Krashen, S.D.1982. Principles and Practice in Second Language
Acquisition, Oxford: Pergmon Press.
• Long, M.H.1985. 'Input and Second Language Acquisition Theory' in
Gass, S and Madden, C[eds.] Input in Second Language
Acquisition, Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.
• Ghosh, R.N., HNL Sastri, B.KDas[eds.] 1977 Introduction to
English Language Teaching, Vol: 3 Madras: OUP.
• Verghese Paul 1989 Teaching English as a Second Language,
New Delhi: Sterling Publications.

ClClCl

CHAnER12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

_ TEACHING READING SKILLS

Reading is the most important skill for the learners of English
as a second language. One has to learn this sltill even in one's
mother tongue, which is otherwise acquired naturally. It is a
receptive skill, but requires active participation from the learner.
This skill plays a pivotal role in developing-English as a library
language. It gives a very effective exposure to the language. It has
a great educative value hence, it forms the core of any syllabus.
The objective of teaching reading is to help the learner to get
information from the.printed page effectively, rapidly and with full
understanding. We need not ~ach them to appreciate or evaluate·
literature. Our aim should be to make our learners understand the
process and develop the skill of reading.
Reading is a process of sight, sound and sense. It needs the
. coordination of eyes and brain to understand the written message:
Knowledge of the linguistic and the extra linguistic factors is
essentiaL Linguistic features are letters, sounds, words ·a nd
structures. The extra-iinguistic features are the sociolinguistic
aspects of culture, registers, dialects, idioms, situations etc. Reading
is a prediction-based activity. The reader to, some extent, is aware
of the text material before he starts the actual reading. This
motivates him. A good teacher exploits this motivation of the learner,
which is governed by the purpose of reading. A reader must employ
the strategies of reading to understand the written message .
.,. Reading is not just the decoding of the .graphic symbols but is a
process of thinking too. The background knowledge of the context
helps to interpret the meaning. This process is dynamic and flexible.
We I}:lUst remember that no two readers are alike. The same reader
interprets the same material differently at different times. One
ought 19 be a good reader in one's mother tongue. A teacher must
aim at developing the skills of reading which include the

Teaching Reading Skills 79

improvement of speed, word recognition, comprehension of sentences
and paragraphs. To be a proficient reader one has to develop the
following mechanics of the skill.
~ The skill of sight recognition to be familiar with the script
of the language, the shapes of the words in print and the
graphic symbols of punctuation.
~ The phonetic skill to understand the relation between the
sounds and the ..letters. English is an erratic language. It ·
does not have one to one correspondence between letters
'and sounds, for example the letter 'u' in the word 'put' has
lui sound, while in 'cut' it has f'" Isound.
~ The skill to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar word
from the context.
~ The learner should know the morphology and the rules of
word formation [see vocabulary]. "
~ To understand the sentence structures i.e. compound,
complex and embedded sentences with the knowledge of
the rules of grammar.
~ To understand the explicit and implicit information from
the text, to learn to read between and beyond the lines.
~ To understand the logical order of the sentences and the
paragraphs.
~ To understand the relation between sentences and the
paragraphs with the help of the cohesive devices.
~ To understand main and the sub~themes of the text.

~ To develop the skill of summarising.

~ To develop the skill of referring to a dictionary.

~ To develop study skill of note making.

~ To develop the skill of transferring the information to
diagrams, tables and graphs.
The development of the above mentioned skills need certain
strategies on the part of the reader. They are skimming, scanning,
intensive and extensive reading.
SKIMMING: It is a pre-reading exercise. It helps to encourage
further detailed reading. We browse through a book at the" bookstall
before buying it to see whether the book caters to our interest or
not. We leaf through the contents of a book in the library to see
whether it is useful for us or not. Skimming is a good exercise to
get a global gist or summary to understand the thematic pattern.

80 Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second LaTI{fIJQge

We use this strategy for the last minute revision of the notes before
appearing for the examination or ail interview. The tasks helpful
in developing this are: asking for the title of the passage, topic
sentence of the paragraph, summarising etc.
SCANNING: This is useful for getting the specific information
from the text. It is a local activity. It is a quick exercise to look for
a specific word in the dictionary, or to see a specific telephone
number in the directory, or to see the timings of a particular train
in the railway timetable. The tasks designed to develop this are -
to get the ru;tSwer for a specific question from the text, or to match
the right word in the table, and yes or no and true and false
questions.
INTENSIVE READING is a detailed reading activity. It is
based on accuracy. It covers the areas of local, global and factual
information. It is a higher level activity. We use this technique for
m~g notes for examination, to read 6ffi~al . docu,m.ents, circulars,
notices and even the question paper in the .exams. It needs close
reading. It is an essential part of the study skill for research
purposes. It is needed to interpret legal and medical documents. It
is inferential in nature. It helps in getting the explicit and the
implitit information from the text. The tasks can be to answer the
inferential questions as well as critical questions from the passage.
EXTENSIVE READING is a global activity. It is meant for
pleasure reading of novels, stories etc. We do not .always read for
specific information. When we read for enjoyment, we skip over
words and 'sentences to get the gist of the matter.
Basically there are two types of reading -lmtd reading
and silent reading.
LOUD READING is audible to others. A learner must master
the phonics of correct pronunciation, accent, stress, pauses and
intonation pattern of the language. Learners have to read research
papers aloud in seminars and symposiums. The teacher should
read loudly which should be followed by the class. Practically, it is
not possible because we have dearth of proficient English teachers
who have good understanding of the phonetics of English. The
teacher can get cassettes recorded in the voice of good readers of
English and play them before the class. Use of language laboratory
is also extremely beneficial.
SILENT READING: This is a very important technique of
reading. The learner should develop the ability to read by sense
group than the individual words. This is very important for the


development of speed and the comprehension of the text. To develop
speed, reading should be timed. There are certain faults of
reading silently which an efficient teacher should try to avoid in
learners. They are:
~ Pointing at words with finger, pen or pencil.

~ Moving head from side to side.

~ Vocalisation - mouthing the words loudly.

~ Sub-vocalisation - pronouncing the words mentally.
~ Regression - going back to the words.
The learners should avoid these drawbacks. This will not only
improve their reading speed but result in better comprehension
too. Let us deal with different types of comprehension.
Comprehension needs both the linguistic and the extra linguistic
knowledge. Knowledge of context, situation, background and the
skill of presupposition are the integral part of the process of
comprehension. An efficient reader gets the information from the
text, interprets it with the help of his knowledge of the world. For
this, he applies the bottom up and top down approaches. In
bottom up approach he goes from the text to the meaning, while in
top down approach he uses the context to understand the meaning.
For better comprehension, one needs the skills of location,
identification, reorganisation, interpretation and evaluation of the
information from the text. The skills of comprehension are: .
GLOBAL COMPREHENSION: refers to the ability to
understand the overall organisation of the text. It helps to
understand the main theme and the sub-themes of the passage,
the paragraph structures, the logical relationship of the paragraphs.
The activities to teach this are to ask the learners to: 'give the title
of the given passage, the main and the sub points, the gist of the
passage, to select the answers from the multiple choice questions
from the text etc'.
LOCAL COMPREHENSION: It refers to the ability to
Understand the individual points of the explicitly stated information.
The tasks include: 'find the names of the characters; their
peculiarities, particular details of some specific events, factors of
cause and effect, compare and contrast of the specific information
from the passage'.
REFERENTIAL COMPl;tEHENSION: It refers to the ability
to get the factual information from the text referring to the different
parts of the text. It is to understand the cohesive devices of anaphora

82 Communicative Approach to the Teaching.ofEnglish as a Second Language

and cataphor-a that connect the sentences and the paragraphs.
Anaphora refers to the linker that connects the earlier stated
information, while cataphora refers to the connectots of succeeding
information. .
INFERENTIAL COMPREHENSION: It is to develop the
ability to infer from the facts, which are not stated explicitly. It is
a higher level cognitive skill. The reader has to understand the
implicit cause and effect relationship between the features of the
1;ext. It needs complex reasoning abilities. It is a problem solving
activity and the learners should be trained to develop this.
EVALUATIVE COMPREHENSION: It. refers to the ability
to judge accuracy, acceptability value of the statementS made by
the author. It helps to understand author's attitudes and bias that
are based on the textual evidence. It helps to read between and
beyond the lines. The tasks include -'whether you agree or disagree
with the statement of the author, or critically evaluate the
statements given by the author'.
A teacher must develop these skills of comprehension in the
learners. There can be miscomprehension of the text too. It can be
the result of wrong information given in the passage, reading more
than the ,explicit information, misinterp.reting the tone and
sometimes due to the figurative larguage and ·ambiguity in style.
Efficient reading is the combination of linguistic and extra-linguistic
knowledge. The problem arises nflt only due to the language deficit
but also due to the knowledge :leficit too. Comprehension depends
on the information given in the text and the reader's interpretation
of the text, based-on his prior knowledge. Equally important is the
kind of matter ofthe text and the purpose of reading. The teacher
has to be very resourceful. S/he should try to go beyond the
prescribed syllabus. S/he must expose learners to different types of
writing styles - narrative, descriptive, expository, persuasive,
argumentative and creative writing. S/he should adopt different
classroom techniques to develop the skills of reading.
CLASSROOM METHODS TO DEVELOP READING
SKU.IS: Reading is a neglected skill. In most of our educational
institutions, the learners do not want to read anything beyond the
prescribed textbook. The teacher should motivate them to read not
only for information but for pleasure too. Slhe can sta.rt a classroom
library with a small contribution from all the learners. The learners
should be encouraged to develop reading habit of unsimplified texts
in Modern English independently. They should be encouraged to
use monolingUal dictionary. The teacher should see that all the


basic skills of reading are acquired with a moderate speed of reading
with right comprehension. There are three stages of classroom
teaching of reading skills: pre-reading stage, reading stage and
follow up or post-reading stage.
PRE-READING STAGE: The teacher should motivate the
learners. The purpose of reading should be made clear to them.
The selection of material is very important. It should be fit for the
age and the interest of the learners. It should be informative too.
It should be from the Indian context so that the learners can identify
with it. This aspect is very important at the initial level of learning
this skill. Later on the learner should be exposed to higher level
complex reading material from different cultural context. The
teacher should try to relate the subject with learner's own
experience, interest and needs. To motivate the learners the teacher
should ask the introductory questions related to the theme of the
text. This should be followed by discussions ·relating to the topic.
This arouses the curiosity of the learners. Now, they are ready for
actual reading.
READING STAGE: The teacher should begin with short
passages of the text. S/he can even select a short story. S/he should
anticipate the problems of the learners. S/he should give a glossary
of the difficult words, explain new and difficult structures with
examples. S/he should explain the terms, which are from different
culture. The idiomatic expressions and the use of the figurative
language should be explained. The learners should be asked to
read silently at a fairly good speed. They should read by sense
group and not the individual words. Speed-reading should be 'timed'.
They should be encouraged to look into the dtctionary for difficult
words. For difficult passive vocabulary, the learners should be
encouraged to guess the meaning from the context. The teacher
should try to remove the faults of reading among the learners. The
role of the teacher is that of the facilitator, who supervises the
learners' activity of reading. When they have finished with reading,
the next stage is post-reading or follow-up activity.
FOLLOW-UP STAGE: In the follow-up or the post-reading
stage, the teacher should put challenging questions to the learners.
The questions should cover all the comprehension skills. The
learners can be asked to select the topic sentence from the
paragraphs of the text. They should be able to understand relation
between parts of the text through reference and cohesive devices.
They should be asked to reorganise the jumbled sentences and the
paragraphs. They should answer multiple choice questions, true Of

84 Communicative Approach to the Teaching ofEnglish as a Second Lan.guage

false questions. They should be able to fill in the blanks. They
must kn~w how to transfer the information to the table, diagram
or graph. They can be asked to write an outline or a summary of
the text.
The teacher can give homework to the learners. They Shduld
be asked to write their personal experience related to the theme of
text. The classroom reading activity should be extended further.
There should be a library period to cultivate library culture in
students. They should be encouraged to read stories, newspapers,
magazine, novelettes and the abridged editions of famous books.
This will give them a better exposure to develop reading skills.

I QUESTIONS I
1. What are the skills and sub skills of reading?
2. Explain with examples the important strategies for reading a text.
3. What are the different stages of reading? Do you think they are
useful in the classroom?
4. What classroom methods of teaching reading skill are useful in your
teaching situations? Give reasons for your choice.

I REFEREN~
• Harmer, Jeremy. 1983. The Practice of English Language
Teachin.g, London: Longman.
• Grellet, Francoise.1981. Developin.g Readin.g Skills, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• Williams Eddie. 1984. Reading in Language Classroom,
Hongkong: Modern English Publications.

ClClCl

CHAPTER 13

_ TEACHING WRITING SKILLS

INTRODUCTION: Listening,and speaking come naturally to
a person but one has to learn the rudiments of writing in one's
mother tOngue. Writing is a difficult skill, as it needs coordination
of motor skill and brain. It is more conventional and conservative
than spoken language. It needs systematic training. The teacher
has to teach the learners to record their experience in writing.
They should be taught to explore the theme and the sub themes of
a given text and to express their ideas on paper. Writing has three
aspects - mechanical, linguistic and communicative. They have to
be properly developed in learners.
The skill of writing involves teaching of spelling, vocabulary,
sentence structures and grammar, punctuation, proper layout,
coherence, cohesion and the organization of -eontent clearly and
effectively.
The sub-skills of writing cover organisation and sequencing of
ideas, connecting 9f sentences and the ability to communicate
convincingly and to perform different functions of writing effectively.
This also involves the skill of saying - why, what and how logically
and clearly iIi the desired style and tone.
A writer should have a sense of purpose, a sense of the reader
and a sense of direction.
PROCESS OF WRITING: A writer has to follow a sequential
process for writing. First of all, he should be motivated to write. He
should decide the topic first. He should have a plan ready in his
mind. He should make an outline. He needs to make notes and
write the ·first draft. This should be revised, redrafted and edited
till the final version is complete. This process is not linear but
cyclic of going back and forth. During this process, he has to
internalise the reader. This helps him in developing critical
awareness of his own writing.


TYPES OF WRITING: There are different types/styles of
writing. Students should be exposed to them to develop this skill.
Descriptive writing. is one of the basic forms of writing.
Usually the child's first exposure to writing comes through stories.
This refers to description of person, place or things. It also covers
events, procel;lses and arguments.
Narrative writing is commonly used in fiction. It is also
used for_ sequencing of events and .happenings. Students have to
use this form for report writing.
Expository writing refers to explaining a subject or stating
affect with definition, classification, illustration, exemplification
etc. This is a difficult form as it needs coordination between thought
and expression with emphasis on linguistic organisation through
cohesion and coherence.
Reflective writing demands looking back on issues, events,
activities and, people in the past with their views to the changed
situation in the present. One needs analysing skills to attempt this
kind of writing.
Persuasive. writing calls for a higher level linguistic
maturity. It demands refined and forceful language to influence
the reader and to change his views. Mass media people exploit this
form very effectively through their ad-campaigns.
Interpretative writing deals with the writer's perspective
of an issue. The textbook writers use this form to interpret other
writer's original ideas to facilitate understanding. It Performs the
functions of defining, elaborating and exemplifying.
For teaching these types of writing the dictum followed should
be from simple to complex. Descriptive and narrative writings do
not demand much of cognitive skiU hence, they should be taught
first before moving- over to the other complex forms of writing. For
_ each type of writing the learners should be exposed to the best
examples of the same form.
Besides these tms of writing there are other categories too.
They are: .
Personal writing refers to writing diaries, letters, invitation
cards, condolence letters, shopping list etc. '
Public and institutional writing refers to writing different
types ofletters of enquiry, complaint, application, agenda, minutes,
notice, memos, speeches, reports, resumes, reviews and business
letters.

Teaching Writing Skills 87

Study writing refers to making and taking notes, writing
summaries, synopsis, research papers, report etc.
Creative writing refers to writing song, poems, stories,
novels, travelogues, plays, autobiography etc.
FUNCTIONS OF WRITING: Usually the teachers
concentrate more on different forms of writing such as letter, report,
essay etc. and less on teaching of how the language is used in
them. This deprives the learners of the practice of the
communicative aspect of language used in real life situations.
Students should be given tasks based on the functions of the
language such as:
> Introducing
> Agreeing and disagreeing
> Asking for information
> Asking and giving direction
> Instructing
> Arguing, persuading, convincing
> Explaining, defining, illustrating, classifying, exemplifying
> Describing, narrating, reporting
> Summarizing etc.
Functional writing involves a pseudo reader. He should always
be on the mind of the writer. If an official letter of complaint is to
be written, the sense of the receiving authority makes things easier
and appropriate.
STAGES OF WRITING: There are different stages of writing
a learner has to go through till he becomes an .independent and
efficient writer. To make writing effective, the sense of who, why,
what and how is essential. 'Who' is the reader, 'why' is the purpose,
'what' is the content of writing, 'how' refers to the linguistic structure
and the style of writing. Knowledge of these things is essential at
all the stages of writing. These stages can be changed according to
the level and the needs of the learners.
Controlled writing: is the first stage of writing, where 'why',
'what' and 'how' of writing are decided by the teacher. S/he decides
the purpose and the content of writing. S/he provides the desired
vocabulary and structure, punctuation, word order etc, Substitution
tables are used for developing sentences. This helps the learner to
understand the basic structures. Jumbled sentences are given to
put in the correct order to develop the sense of organisation.

88 Communicative Approach to the Teaching ofEnglish asa Second Languoge

Guided writing: The learner has to follow the guidelines
given by the teacher. It covers the facts and ideas supplied by the
teacher. The teacher gives the topic and its sub-headings. The
learner has to use his own sentences observing the mechanics of
writing. Guided composition is an example of this stage.
Free writing: The teacher gives the title but the ideas, facts
and the expressions are developed by the learner. The learner is
now ready for independent and creative writing. The activities at
this stage can be completing a story, narrating an event,
summarising, report writing etc.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES OF TEACHINGIWRITING
SKU.T S; English as a second language is introduced in std. V VI,
or VII hence, the teacher need not start with the motor skill of
holding a pen to paper but has to concentrate on forming letters
correctly in legible hand ·writing. The major focus should be on
encouraging the learners to understand and practise the process of
writing. Later on, the emphasis should be on purposeful selection
and organisation of the ideas. The paragraph should be the basic
unit of writing. The emphasis should be on clarity devoid .of any
ambiguity. Clear thinking reflects in clear expression. It should be
correct in the areas of spelling, grammar, punctuation and layout.
They should be taught to use ~ range of sentence structures, linking
ideas and information across sentences to develop a topic clearly
and convincingly. Precision in expression must be cultivated. The
learners have to learn to be brief and to the point but not at the
cost of abrupt or incomplete expression. The body of the writing
should be properly developed with proper introduction, development
of the theme in the middle-and proper conclusion. Initially, flow
should be focussed at most points during the writing tasks. Accuracy
shpuld be emphasised while editing the written work. Use of
appropriate style and tone according to the content is necessary.
The writer's attitude towards the reader and the subject decides
the tone. Coherence and cohesion should be maintained throughout.
Writing task should be a group work activity. First of all the class
organisation should be planned. The class can be divided into pairs
or groups or in lockstep arrangement. Selection of the topic is very
important. It should not be hackneyed but specific. The topic sho:uId
be narrowed down. '
There should be brainstorming session in the class to decide
the subject, the goal and the imaginaiy reader. The group leader
should report to the teacher who acts as facilitator to provide the
linguistic machinery. Ideas should be selected and the viewpoints
established. The ideas to develop the topic should be discussed.


This can be done by making mind maps - a kind of an outline of
the subject on the blackboard.
After group discussion the rough draft should be prepared.
This draft should develop the theme with an introduction, middle
and end. This rough draft should be revised, improved and redrafted.
Following editing and proofreading, the final draft should be ready.
The activities for developing writing skill should be interesting
and stimulating. They should integrate the skills of speaking,
listening and reading with the skill of writing. They must provide
the opportunity to produce a variety of responses to writing. They
should help the learners to develop their own language resources
and should encourage collaborative writing. The activities should
be timed.
We can begin with asking them to write captions for the
pictures given to them for pair work.
The learners can be asked to write short message of a long
telephonic conversation.
They should be asked to write small personal and official
letters on the given subjects. Writing telegrams is also a good
exercise.
Different functions of writing should be exploited to teach this
skill. They can be asked to describe a person, place or the thing.
At the elementary level, the learners can describe the fan,
blackboard, a chair or duster available in the classroom. They should
try to describe someone from the class. They can be given a task
of describing the process of making a cup of tea/coffee.
They can write notices for the notice board of the school about
free-ship, awards etc announcing the time date and place where
the students will be interviewed by the authorities. Notices can be
written for arranging class picnic or a visit to some place.
The learners can be asked to write a report [using facts] of
the school annual function or an event or a visit to a zoo, a
planetarium.
They can narrate an incident 'an accident' or 'a memorable
day in my life'. Sequencing is very important here.
A jumbled paragraph or a story is a very good activity to
develop coherence. A task for linking sentences with connectives is
a good example of learning cohesive devices.
Retelling an event from a different point of view is another
example of developing writing skill. A story or a newspaper report
can be used and the learners can write it from different points of
view. A story can be rewritten from the viewpoint of a particular
character from it.


They can be asked to develop the details from a news item or
can be asked to write the headlines of a detailed news item.
Transfer of information in the form of graph, table or tree
diagram is a very good activity to develop this skill. They can Qe
asked to interpret the details from the graph, table or the diagram.
The teacher should develop in ' learners the habit of 'diary
writing'. This can be a good homework activity. They should write
it daily and the teacher can do weekly correction of the diary. This
develops reflective writing skill.
They should be encouraged to write a brief speech on a current
subject. For example, 'the use of plastic bags should be banned'.
After the exposure to different types of writing, the learners
can be asked to write paragraphs in descriptive, narrative,
expository or reflective style. Use of sensory perception is a very
good exercise for developing descriptive and narrative styles .
.Interesting topics like 'travelling in a crowded suburban train during
peak hours', or 'a morning in a park' or 'an evening at Juhu beach'
or 'cooking in the kitchen' can best exploit the us~ of sensory
perception. This type of exercise is very useful to develop originality
in expression.
To kindle the imagination of the .learners an exercise of
completing the story is interesting and challenging. For exainple,
the beginning of story can be given - "It is late on a chilly night.
You are all alone in the house. Suddenly,- the light goes off and
there is a knock at the door and then ... " Learners build up the
suspense and come out with brilliant ideas for climax.
For writing composition they should be taught to draw mind
maps on the blackboard. Topics should be chosen from real life
situations so that they can identify with the subject. For example,
writing a composition they can have this type of diagram after the
preliminary discussion in .the classroom:
Religious significance Season and time: end of Winter,

~
~ . spring, month of March, pleasant
. ~ weather Tesu blooms
Mythological origin HOLI
------- C~ebrations: playing with

~.<SO" ,~"~""
colour, partying with friends .

. .. /
Like, dislike


Learners will add some more points. Let them decide the
form: whether it should be a personal letter, a composition or a
report of the celebrated event. If it is a letter, it should begin on
a personal note, if an essay, the mythological aspect of the festival
can be a good beginning. If it is a narration then the description
of the events should be according to the chronological order. Mind
map helps them to develop organizing skill as it helps them to
relate different aspects of a topic to the title and to link the
paragraphs in a logical order. It helps them to categorize the sections
and the sub-sections.
The topics for essays should not be hackneyed or stereotyped
such as the - 'wonders of science', 'my favorite leader' etc. Original
topics such as - 'the person I love to hate' 'visitors-the unwanted
types' or -'the day when everything went wrong' can be given to
motivate them.
Correction and evaluation of the writing skills: Feedback
in developing the writing skills is very important. But it is difficult
for a teacher to correct each paper. S/he should go for collective
correction Teacher can rely on peer correction while revising the
first, second or third draft. Collaborative correction is very effective.
It boosts the morale of the learners. The teacher can concentrate
on spelling correction first and then go for correcting the tenses
next. Peer and group evaluation is very helpful where they have to
justify their grading and remarks. The criteria can be written on
the blackboard and should cover - spelling, grammar, punctuation,
layout, appropriate vocabulary, variety of structures, proper
organisation of the content, logical sequencing, style and tone etc.
They should discuss these points while evaluating other group's
written work. In this way we can make writing tasks an enjoyable
experience for our -learners.

I QUESTIONS I
1. Explain the process of writing. How does it help in developing writing
skill?
2. What are the skills and the sub skills of writing?
3. What strategies will you adopt to teach composition writing to your
learners?
4. Which classroom activities are the most useful in your teaching
situation to teach writing skill?


I REFERENCES I
• Byrne, Don.1979. Teaching Writing SkillB, London: Longman.
• White, Ron.1980. Teaching Written EngliBh, London: George Allen
and Unwin.

000

CHAPTER 14

STUDY SKILLS

Study skills is the area that integrates the skills of reading,
listening, speaking and writing. It is a higher level activity. The
learner at the higher level needs to be proficient in this skill. For
higher studies he has to do reference work in the library, present
papers in the seminar and symposiums, write report, synopsis and
dissertations etc. For all this, he has to develop reference skills. He
has to make his notes. He has to learn to condense the information
into brief notes so that he is able to recall it at the time of exams,
seminar and interview. He should be able to scan the text for
specific information. He should be able to transfer the information
into diagrams and other graphic modes of representation. Similarly,
he should be able to interpret the data given diagrammatically.
The learner should be taught about all this in a classroom. He has
to learn the skills of summarising, note making and note taking.
Let us deal with the summarising first.
SUMMARISING: To summarise a text, knowledge of
organisation is essential. The simplest type of organisation is
chronological. Here, the facts are stated in the same sequence as
they appear in the text. The learner has to understand the main
and the sub themes of the text. The length of the summary is
decided by the purpose of writing it. But, it has to be brief. Diagrams
and tables can be used to condense the information. We must know
the process of summarisation.
Process of summarisation: It follows the logical order or
the sequencing of the information. The title of the text helps us to
understand the nature of the text. Robinson [1970] developed the
concept of survey, question, read, recall and review. Which is
commonly known as -SQ3R.


Survey: Refers to a global activity. The reader has to quickly
skim through the given text. This helps him in understanding the
organisation of the text.
Question: Reading of the text raises some questions in his
mind. He wants to get answer to those questions.
Read: To get answers to those questions, the reader has to
read the text critically. He has to read the text second or the third
time to understand the relevant points. He has to note down those
points. This helps him in recalling the information given in the
text whenever he needs it. .
Recall: On many occasions we have to recall what we have
read from time to time. We have to develop the skill of connecting
the information with the preceding and the succeeding readings.
We have to interpret the text to draw inference. The learner has
to read between and beyond the lines to get to the implicitly given
inform;tion. We need thi$ skill·while sharing the information with
others.
Review: The reader has to critically examine the information
in the light of its validity and usefulness.
Following these steps we can summarise the . text for · the
maximum benefit not only for ourselves but for the other readers
too.
Let us deal with another study skill i.e. note making.
NOTE MAKING: is a skill the learner needs to be taught.
There are many occasions wh~n he needs this skill to brush up his
memory such as - before appearing for an exam or an interView,
delivering a lecture, or presenting a paper at the seminar etc. For
this the learner has to browse through rus notes to recall the
information. It is not possible to read the whole text, so the listing
of the details through note making is of immense help. It demands
the skill of scanning to get to the main points of the text.
The process of note making demands the learners to:
~ Read the passage twice or thrice.

~ Jot down the important points.

~ Make an outline.

~ Follow the sequencing in linear way.

~ Classify the points under major heading.

~ Find the relationship between main and the sub points.
~ Transfer the information in diagrams, tables, graphs etc.

Study Skills 95

Main characterstics of note making: The learner has to
learn to be precise. The learner should write only those facts that
are relevant for the purpose of note making. The points should be
very clear to avoid any confusion.
He should not write full sentences but, use words and phrases.
He should use abbreviations instead of full words i.e. VIP and not
'very important person'.
The learner should divide, sub-divide the main and the sub
themes of the text and present it by showing the relationship. This
can be done in the following order of listing and numbering:
Main points: 1. 2. 3. Or A. B. c.
Sub points: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3. a.l, a .2, a.3.
Sub-sub points: 1.1.1., 1.1.2. a.1.1., a.1.2.
NOTE TAKING is part of the listening skill. The learners
attend classroom lectures, seminar and symposium etc. They need
to take down notes very quickly because nobody repeats for them.
They also cannot remember everything said by the speaker. They
might need the information again for their study purposes. For
this they should learn the skill of note taking.
Process of note taking: The learner as the listener should
note down the day, name of the speaker and the subject of the
lecture. He should listen very carefully. He should pay attention to
the main theme of the lecture suggested by the topic of the lecture.
He should take down the important points of the lecture. He must
pay attention to the smaller details in the form of examples. They
help to understand the lecture. He must jot down the references
mentioned by the speaker. They help him to do the reference work
in the library. He should listen carefully to the signal words such
as firstly, secondly and finally, eventually as they help him in
understanding the organisation of the lecture. He should use
abbreviations to save time. He should learn the telegraphic style
of using symbols. For example, he should use = for equal to; < for
greater than; > for lesser than etc.
Thus, we see that study skills are very important especially
for the higher level learners. The teacher must teach the learners
these skills which will be of great use for them in future .


I QUESTIONS I
1. What is the importance of study skills in higher studies?
2. Explain the difference between note making and note taking? How
would you teach them to your learners?

I REFERENCES I
• Robinson, F.P. 1970, Effective Study, [4th edition] New York: Harper
and Row .
• Freemon Richard 1990, Mastering Study Skills, London:
Macmillan.

000

CHAPTER 15

TEACHING VOCABULARY

INTRODUCTION: Vocabulary forms the central core of
language learning. We need words to express our thoughts and
ideas. We also need words to point objects and describe things.
Lack of vocabulary is a major handicap for the learners of English
as a second language. They fumble for words when they have to
express an idea either in writing or in speech. An important objective
of teaching a language is to develop vocabulary of the learners and
help them to comprehend the meaning of words and sentences.
Vocabulary learning is a relational process, it could be described as
making friends with the words of the target language [Morgan,
1987.63] Vocabulary is classified into three types.
ADHOC·VOCABULARY: These words are important for a
particular text but are unlikely to have any utility outside the text.
For example, if a layman reads a medical or a legal document. He
does not understand the technical terminology, as he does not use
them in his life. But he has to understand them to interpret the
text. Such words are adhoc vocabulary for him. They need to be
explained. In English, a word may have more than one meaning.
It is the context that decides the right meaning. To get the
_appropriate meaning the word should be glossed.
PASSIVE VOCABULARY: These words are likely to be
encountered by the learner in the speech or writing of others. S/he
should be able to recognise and comprehend them. S/he may use
them rarely in his speech or writing. These words always exceed
the number of words s/he uses actively.
ACTIVE VOCABULARY: A learner has to use these words
in his speech or writing.
The words can further be divided into two types - structure!
function words and content words. - (

98 Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second LangUOlle

STRUCTURE WORDS: These words do not carry any
meaning in isolation but have a meaning ill a context. They are
used for grammatical purpose. They are limited in numbers and a
learner has to learn them. They include articles, prepositions,
conjunctions, pronouns, auxiliary, deictics etc.
CONTENT WORDS: These are open-ended words. Language
is an ever-changing phenomenon. New words are coined to fulfil
the demands of the changing times. Earlier, the words like computer;
televi!;Jion, cyber cafe etc. were not there. Now, they are the core
words. New words enrich the repertoire of the language. Content
words are nouns, verbs, adjective, adverbs etc.
Each language has thousands of words and a learner ~ot
learn all of them. So, the method of selection and control is adopted.
Thorndike was the first to apply this principle in 1921 and selected
5000 words on the basis of the frequency of their use in the language.
He tried this on American children. In 1926, Hornby produced
10,000 words based on the frequency count of personal and business
letters. In 1953, Michael West prepared a general service list of
850 words with 12,425 meanings. Michael West in Dhaka, Palmer
in Tokyo designed material with limited vocabulary of 2000 words.
There are four criteria for the selection of vocabulary. They are:
frequency, semantic range, productivity and teachability.
FREQUENCY: The most commonly used words should be
selected for teaching the language. For example, from the synonym
words - good looking, lovely, stunning and beautiful, the word
'beautiful' is the most commonly used word. Hence, it should be
taught.
SEMANTIC RANGE: Some words have wider semantic range
than others. A word like 'table' is used to denote an object used for
writing on, it is also used for statistical data and for mathematics
too. Similarly, the word like 'spring' has multiple meanings. It
refers to a season of the year, the action of moving quickly, a small
body of water, and an object similar to a coil. Such words with
wider semantic range should be preferred over others.
PRODUCTIVITY: Some words have more productive capacity
over others. If the learner learns one such word s/he will be able
to form many words from it. For example, from the stem -'man'
manly, manhood, mankind, manpower, manual etc. words can be
formed.
TEACHABILITY: ·The socio-economic context of the word is
an important criterion of selecting vocabulary. Eskimos use 24

Teaching Vocabulary 99

words for 'snow' according to its density, shape and colour. It is
essential for an Eskimo child that he learns all the 24 words for his
survival, but for our L-2 learners one word snow is sufficient.
Similarly, in Rajasthan, there are 18 words for 'camel' in their
dialect/language, but for others knowledge of one word 'camel' is
enough. The teacher has to adopt suitable techniques to teach
vocabulary in a classroom.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO TEACH VOCABULARY:
Vocabulary teaching should be integrated with reading skill. A
word should not be taught in isolation, but in a context. The learners
should not be spoon-fed with the meaning [Bright, 1976.] The
teacher should encourage the learners to guess meaning from the
context. If a word is difficult to explain in the target language, it
should be explained in the mother tongue. For example, a word
'plait' can be explained in mother tongue as it saves time. The
teacher should use the mother tongue judiciously and not allow the
learners to use it.
The teacher should use sound, sense and shape of the words
i.e. pronunciation, meaning and spelling {Allen, 1983]. For the
elementary stage learners, classroom objects like fan, clock, window,
calendar, door etc. can be used to teach vocabulary. Use of magazine
pictures for illustrating words in dia~ogue and story is also a good
technique. Body gestures and actions can be used to teach adjectives
- ~short; and verbs - dance/walk.. Prepositions can be taught
by putting a book 'on', 'under', 'behind', 'in' the table easily available
in the classroom.
-.
The teacher should evolve word games to make learning
interesting. Th~y motivate the learners. The games should be
challenging and timed to develop a sense of competition. Cross _
word puzzle is a good activity for this. The learners can be asked
to speak/write the word beginning with the last letter of a given
word. For example the word 'good' is given. They have to start with
the letter cd' and can make words like do, donkey, debt, dash etc.
An extended form of this game can be to restrict the words to
nouns, verbs or adjectives.
The use of known vocabulary is also very useful. Synonyms
and antonyms can be taught in a very interesting manner. The
learners can be asked to give synonyms beginning with the letter
given:
summary ~
shine g_


Similar technique can be evolved for antonyms:
tall s_, healthy s_
Matching opposites in a sentence is another technique. For
example select the right word:
he is bound to win, he cannot - - .
[happy, lose, miss, enjoy]
Homophones have the same pronunciation with different
spelling: -
sea see, sun-son,
Homonyms have the same spelling but different meaning:
bank [river] bank [money]
Hyponym refers to the word clas~ or category:
Furniture: table, chair, almir-ah, desk, sofa set.
Use of prefixes and suffixes help to develop productivity in
learners. Use of the prefixes - un, dis, mis, ir, il etc form the
antonyms of the words such as able-unable; match-mismatch;
satisfy-dissatisfy; responSible-irresponsible; logical-illogical.
Suffixes help in cJlanging the grammatical form of the words.
For example:
Noun form verb: denial- deny, departure - depart.
entertainment - entertain.
Noun from adjective: ability - able; generosity - generous.
AdJective from noun: bookish - book; misty - mist.
Verb from adjective: ripen - ripe; freshen - fresh.
There can be another technique to teach vocabulary with
prefixes and suffixes. For example:
Complete the following sentences taking the clue from the
underlined prefix and suffix.
A §Yhway does not go above a city it - goes - - . [before,
below, behind]
Mumbai is a beautiM place, but we need to ~ it more.
[classify, beautify]
The teacher must take care to teach these vocab~ary items
for overall perSpective of integrating all the four skills. Slhe must
provide enough practice in the use of the target language. The
learners should be encouraged to guess the meaning from the context


and not memorise the meaning. They should be asked to use words
in meaningful context to make learning permanent. The denotative
and connotative power of the words should be explained to them
with the help of exercises.
Reference skill with the help of dictionary should be developed
in the learners. They should be encouraged to look up a word in
the dictionary. A small monolingual dictionary should be
recommended. At least a single copy of Advanced Learner's
Dictionary [Hornby] should be made accessible in the classroom.
The learners should be able to understand the alphabetical order.
They can be asked to write the names of all the students of the
class first according to their first names and then according to
their sir-names. This can be a very interesting pair/group work
activity. At the higher level, the learners can be asked to prepare
a list of the library books according to the title or the author's
name following the alphabetical order. This will help them in
preparing bibliography. They should be asked to collect other
information in the dictionary such as American or British spelling,
different meanings of the word, colloquial variety, grammatical
information about the word i.e. whether it is noun [countable/
uncountable], verb [transitive/intransitive], adjective or adverb etc.
They should also try to find the etymological information of the
source from where the word is borrowed. They should be encouraged
to refer to different dictionaries to get the desired information and
enrich their knowledge.
These are some of the techniques that help learners to learn
vocabulary. The teacher has to pay attention to improve learners'
retention of vocabulary items too. The words should be presented
in semantic groupings as it helps them to associate words with
their meanings. Basically, words are associated with thought, ideas,
actions and events. If the words are presented in this way, it will
help them to remember them easily. For example, the words such
as bank, money, transaction, deposit, cheque should be taught
together because of their close association.
The teacher should put emphasis on vocabulary expansion of
the learners. This can be achieved through wide reading, direct
instruction and incidental instruction [Methods. CIEFL.1996}.
Reading is the best method of increasing one's word power. Direct
instruction refers to the selection and teaching of appropriate words
using different techniques. Incidental instruction is the combination
of wide reading and direct instruction, which helps in learning
vocabulary meaningfully.


Vocabulary building is often associated with reading and
writing tasks. Direct vocabulary testing should not be done. It
should be integrated with other skills. The context should be
provided for this. They should be encouraged to guess the meaning.
Some exercises wi~ multiple choice questions is a good start, for
example select the right word:
She blushed, [turned red, went pale, looked sad.]
The selection of the colloquial possibilities is another important
area for testing it. For example: Fill in the blanks with the right
word given in the bracket.
He is far too ................ and well informed to be easily deceived.
(bashful, shrewd, diplomatic, stubborn) '
, The teacher can select semantically closer alternatives given
in the braCKet:
He was too shy to feel comfortable and sat through the evening
on the - of chair. (brim, fringe, edge, rim, margin)
Here, the student can be taught the concept ·of appropriateness,
which is decided by the context. Sometimes, there can be more
than one right answer. The learners should be encouraged to infer
meaning from the text to make meaningful and acceptable
sentences.
Cloze exercise with every fifth, seventh or ninth blank spaces
in a paragraph is a good exercise to test the vocabulary.
The learners can be asked to describe a person! place or object.
Brainstorming exercises are very good to teaoh vocabulary.
For example give them one word 'examination'. Ask them about
their reaction to this word. Let them make a list of the words and
ask them to write a paragraph with the help of these words.
Thus, we see that teaching vocabulary is a very important
task in teaching English.as a second language. By using successful
techniques to learn new vocabulary, the learners will find words
easier to remember and will become more motivated in the class.
The teacher should provide a vocabulary rich environment in the
classroom to promote the incidental learning of vocabulary.
Vocabulary teaching must be integrated with the skills of listening,
reading and writing to improve their language proficiency and
ability to function in the target language.


I QUESTIONS I
1. Which classroom techniques should a teacher adopt while teaching
vocabulary?
2. What are the different types of vocabulary. Which according to you
is the most suitable for your learners?
3. What are the criteria for the selection of vocabulary items? Give
examples for each criterion.

I REFERENCES I
• Allen, Virginia French. 1983. Techniques in Teaching Vocabulary,
OUP
• Bright, J .A. and G.P.Mcgreyor. 1976. Teaching EngliBh as a
Second Language, Longman.
• CIEFL. 1996 Metlwds of Teaching EngliBh, Hyderabad.CIEFL.
• Morgan John and Mario Rinvduri 1987. Vocabulary, OUP.

QQQ

CHAPTER 16

TEACHING LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION: 'Should literature be taught in a language
class?' is a question frequently asked. The answer is 'yes'. Basically,
literature teaching and language teaching are not two separate
activities. Both are interdependent. Literature is written in language
and study of language develops literary skills. Literature develops
the skill of scholarly analysis and critical and aesthetic sensibility
in readers. It gives information, imparts skills and changes attitude
of the learners to other's culture and language. Literature exposes
learner to a language rich in its use of metaphor, simile, symbols,
images, personification etc. This makes it different from non-literary
writings. Literary writers defy the conventions of the language and
, use unorthodox structures. Exposure to this variety of language
enriches the learners.
Our objective of teaching literature should be very clear. We
need not aim at introducing learners to the great masters of
literature or to acquaint them with the history of English literature.
Our aim should be to develop language consciousness and
communicative competence. Our major concern should be to develop
autonomous readers. This can be achieved by helping the learners
to develop the skill of interpreting meaning from this style of
language. They should be able to understand the special conventions -
of literary language. The language"of literature often deviates from
the norm. The deviation enhances deeper ineaning to the text. For
this, they should be taught to compare and contrast literary and
non-literary texts.
. Literature provides readymade source material to develop
language skills. Selection of the material becomes very crucial for
the second language learners. As our aim is to develop linguistic
and communicative competence of the learners, the selection of the

Teaching Literature 105

material should be based on linguistic rather than on aesthetic
grounds. The selected material should be interesting, motivating
and challenging for the learners. We have to remember another
important criterion of teachability too.
Initially, we have to choose the material, whiQh is stylistically
simple and culturally Indian. The learners will be able to identify
with it. Diction should not be very difficult for our learners of
English as L2. Text should be modem and not very lengthy. We
should select from a wide range of texts that are successful and
highly significant to those that are commonplace [Moody, 1983].
Selection of the material will decide the methodology in the
classroom. The biggest problem the teacher has to face with the
learners of English as L2 - is their poor linguistic competence.
This creates hurdle in reading literary texts. We cannot rely on the
traditional lecture mode of teaching. We have to opt for the
communicative and activity based approach. Traditionally, teaching
of English literature was exam- oriented where the basic purpose
was to give information about the content, the auth9r and his life
and times, critic's comments on it etc. etc. The teacher had to
explain difficult words, paraphrase every sentence, and give
summary of the text and the critical appreciation of the text. This
method had a drawback. It made learners the passive recipient of
the information. If the teacher explains everything, the learner's
understanding is affected by the teacher's views. Later on, the
stance shifted to the linguistic approach for literature teaching.
This encouraged subjective interpretation of the text based on the
linguistic clues. Here, the language is analysed to reach to the
inner core of the meaning. In learner centered methodology, the
learners are expected to understand the meaning following the
communicative approach based on problem solving activities. The
technique should be parr or group work. The teacher'should frame
questions and exercises to facilitate language use. S/he has to devise
different methods to teach prose and poetry. Some of the activities
for teaching literature are as follows.
TEACHING PROSE: To underl3tand the difference between
literary and non-literary text, 3 to 4 short texts of these varieties
should be given to the learners. They should be asked to compare
and contrast the two texts and explain the features that differentiate
the two. This can be a good pair/group work activity.
They should be given different types of the texts such as
expository, narrative, descriptive, argumentative etc. This wide
range of texts helps them to understand the special features of


each style. They can be asked to locate topic sentences, theme and
sub-themes of the text.
Sentences or the paragraphs should be jumbled and given to
the learners. They should be asked to rearrange them in the likely
order. They showd be asked to justify the arrangement. This activity
helps them to understand coherence with the help of cohesive
devices.
For short stories/novels and drama, the title can be given for
group discussion to anticipate the :theme. Even the first sentence
of the story can be given for the same purpose. This motivates the
learners in guessing the content. The inquisitiveness of the learners
should be heightened by suspense building. Let them anticipate
the forthcoming events and the actions and the reactions of the
characters. Even if they know the story in advance, they can be
asked about the peculiarities of the characte~, or why a particular
. character has behaved in a particular way. They should be asked
to take the verbal clues from the story. They can be asked to think
of the alternative climax of the story with proper justification.
They should be able to understand the role of the dialogues
·in developing the story. .
They should be asked to eXplain the role relationship between
the characters following the norms of discourse analysis. This will
help them to understand the social status of the characters. They
can be asked to explain the setting, the plot, and the communicative
purpose of the text. . .
It is difficult to complete a long story or a novel in one class
period. Teacher sho~ld divide the text in sense group [C.I.E.F.L.
Methods. 1996] , to retain the sense of the whole. Similar characters
or events can be grouPed together and discussed in the class. The
teacher should prepare questions and exercises in advance to
facilitate language use by the learners in the classroom. The teacher
has to devise different techniques and activities for teaching poetry.
TEACHING POETRY: For teaching poetry in the classroom,
there is no need to discuss the poet; his life or his works. If it is
necessary the learners can be asked to do the reference work in the
library to get the desired information. Actually, a poem stands on
its own.
Poetry reading s~ould be a delightful experience. Detailed
explanation by the teacher destroys the charm of the experience.
A poem has multiple meanings. Let the learners discover the
meaning with the help of the verbal clues.

Teaching Literature 107

The teacher should give a very small introduction. If required,
she should gloss the difficult words/patterns and unfamiliar cultural
context before the learners read the poem.
Whereas, the prose is best read silently a poem should always
be read loudly. Sounds, rhythm and intonation playa very important
role in English. Good reading can create magical effect on the
listeners. Right pitch, proper intonation ~elps to open up the
meaning of the poem. Loud reading of the poem is difficult for us
because Indian languages do not have the stress pattern of English
language. Very few teachers are good readers of poetry. If the
teacher can get a good reader of the poem, s/he should invite him
to read the poem in the class. Otherwise, the recordings of good
poems should be played for them to understand the significance of
stress, pitch and intonation.
Wnen the teacher is reading the poem the learners should
concentrate on listening it. This can be a very good auditory
experience that will give the feel of the entire poem.
The teacher should frame some global questions on the theme
of the poem. A question can be asked to decide the tone of the poem
whether it is a sad or a cheerful poem.
In the second, loud reading of the poem by the teacher, the
learners should also read the poem while listening it. At this stage,
the teacher can draw their attention to particular grammar _
structures, which are significant for the meaning of the poem. S/he
can ask them to identify the key words denoti~g the theme of the
poem.
The teacher should concentrate on the use of the tense, rhythm,
images, symbols, metaphors, simile etc. This helps in exploring the
meaning of the poem. S/he can also ask for the words and structures
that reflect auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory sensory perception.
The correct process of reading a poem is going backward and
forward. In a poem the meaning is not always explicitly stated.
The reader has to find the implicit meaning by reading between
and beyond the lines. Reader's personal experience of the worid
also adds up to the understanding of meaning. It is important that
the reader should be able to justify 'this' meaning and explain
'how' has he reached to this implicit meaning with explicit clues.
This discovery of the meaning makes poetry reading a memorable
experience.
Thus, we see that literature can best be exploited in a language
classroom. It can be taught as a content and be used for developing

108 Communicative Approach to tM Teaching ofEnglish as a Second Language

language skills. We have to make our learners the autonomous
readers to discover the meaning on their own. We have to agree
with Brumfit [1985] that literature provides a valuable basis for a
communicative advanced work in language. It provides problem
solving tasks, and opportuI)ities for discussion, hence, covers fluency
in speech. Literature, thus becomes both product and process in
second language teachinglleanrlng situation.

I QUESTIONS I
1. What are the objectives of teaching literature in a language
classroom?
2. -What are the important steps required for the teaching of a poem.?

I REFERENCES I
• Brumfit, C. 1985. Language and Literature Teaching; From
Principle to Practice, Oxford: Pergamon.
• Moody, H.L.B. 1983. Approache. To Tke Study of Literature: A
Practitioner. View, in E.L.T. Docs. Oxford: Pergamon.
• CIEFL 1996. Methods: Teaching Literature, Hyderabad: CIEFL

000

CHAPTER 17

TEACHING GRAMMAR

INTRODUCTION: Grammar is one of the most important
aspects of language teaching and learning. Learning of grammar is
crucial for the learners of English as a second language .
. Traditionally, grammar meant teaching of rules in deductive way.
Here, the rules were taught first and the examples were given
later on. The learners were expected to memorise those rules to
learn the language. This method was and is still practised in our
educational institutions to teach grammar. There are regular
grammar periods in the class timetable. Teachers and the students
work very hard for it. The learners learn definitions of different
parts of speech, different kinds of clauses, learn to change the form
of the sentences etc. Extensive exercises are given to them for
practice. Of course, the learners get very good grades in grammar
section, but unfortunately they are not able to speak or write a
single sentence correctly. We believe that language is a tool for
communication. But this communicative purpose is not served for
our students. With the advent of the communicative approach of
language teaching, the concept, objectives and methods of teaclililg
grammar are changed.
Grammar is defined as the total mechanism of a language
that helps to communicate correctly and appropriately. It also refers
to the formal analysis and description of the rules of the language.
Grammar is also defined as.a systematic study of language covering
the areas of phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and word
formation and sentence structUI'e [Rutherford 1987].
Linguists believe that language is a changing phenomenon.
The acceptability and iritelligibility in spee<;h and writing depends
on the currently followed notions and norms of grammaticality
[Verghese 1989]. The native speaker of the language decides this

"
110 Communicative Apprqach to the Teaching ofEnglish as a SeCQnd Langaage

factor of grammaticality. Each language has its own rules, which
the native speaker learns intuitively/unconsCiously. During the
process of language acquisition, a child is exposed to hjs mothet
tongue. He listens and absorbs it. He internalises the rules of the
language and by the age of 3 to 4 years becomes the perfect user
of the language. For this,· he is not taught the rules of grammar.
It is the exposure and the use of the language for his survival
results in learning the language. He has to speak to get his basic
needs fulfilled by others. Communicative approach advocates this
type of grammar learning. But, in Indian situation our L2 learners
have little exposure to English and a rare opportunity to use the
language. It is only thro-ggh the textbook and the teacher in the
classroom that they get the exposure to it. In the existing condition,
they have to learn grammar both deductively and inductively. The
teacher has to develop strategies following the objectives of teaching
grammar.
The main objective of teaching grammar is to make our
learners use the language correctly and appropriately. The emphasis
:', should' be on developing the receptive and the productive skills of
the language. They should learn to say the srune thing differently
.i n different situations. To attain this objective, the teacher has to
decide which grammar should be taught to them because it is
classified in three types:
FORMAL ' OR PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR: Here, the
language is believed to be static and rigid. It is split in different
parts of speech, tenses, clauses, active-passive, ~eported speech,
punctuation etc. Rules of grammar are taught deductively. The
learners have to memorise the prescribed rules to master the
language. Rules are taught in isolation. Grammar items are not
contextualised. This makes learning more difficult because in real
life situation we use language in a particular context. Form is
'considered more important than meaning. The teacher is more
concerned about accuracy. Nesfield and Wren and Martin grammar
belong to this category. This type of grammar is still popular in
schools and colleges. This is responsible for the pathetic state of
our learners. They cannot communicate in language in spite of
their knowledge of grammar. This is also ·called teacher's grammar.
This teaches about the language and not the language.
DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR: This is · called linguist's
grammar. It amUyses and describes the rules of the language. It
believes that language is not static but is dynamic and changes
from time to time. It distinguishes between ~cceptable and

Teaching Grammar 111

'unacceptable sentences. The criterion for these changes as the
language undergoes the change. The teacher should have the
knowledge of this grammar to explain the system of the language
to the learners.
FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR: Communicative approach to
language teaching advocates this type of grammar. It follows the
process of language acquisition~ The native speaker has an intuitive
knowledge of grammar rules though s/he is not able to describe or
analyse them. Grammar" here, is integrated with the skills of
listening, speaking, reading and writing. It follows the inductive'
method where the examples are given before the explanation of the
rules. Grammar items are contextualised. Meaning and form both
are important. It puts emphasis on fluency and accuracy. Exposure
and the use of the language are essential features for learning
grammar. The teacher should teach this type of grammar to the
learners. Slhe should develop strategies to teach this type of
grammar.
METHODOLOGY OF TEACHING GRAMMAR: The teacher
should systematically teach the functional grammar to the learners. --
Initially, s/he should not bother about the formal labelling of the
grammar items. Slhe should teach grammar implicitly following
the inductive method. The learners should be exposed to the
language through the four skills in an integrated way. Receptive
skills of listening and reading can give the desired exposure to the
language, while productive skills of speaking and writing provide
the opportunities for language use. Reading gives them a scope for
answering comprehension questions in a context. Listening helps
them to understand and analyse grammar in a context. Writing
and speaking help in self-monitoring of the errors,and consolidation
of learning. The teacher should select the problem areas by
analysing the errors. Slhe should explain the principles in simple
language with the help of illustrations. The use of labels - nouns,
verbs, adjectives etc is useful for the explanation of the items.
Extensive practice should be given to teach the grammar items
integrating them with the skills. The teacher should give them
practice in meaningful situations, oral drilling, pattern practice,
substitution tables etc. [CIEFL Methods 1996]. The text can be the
means to the end of grammar teaching. The teacher can exploit
poetry, passages from story, drama, composition etc. to teach the ,_
grammar items. These grammar items must be 'contextualised and
should relate to the learner's experience of the language:
Comprehension passages and vocabulary items can be used to teach
grammar. Such contextualised use of language helps the le;uners


to develop awareness of the functioning of the language. They should
be exposed to the different variety of meaning and structure
patterns. The teacher should be resourceful enough to go beyond
the text if s/he does not find a suitable passage from the text. If
needed, s/he should adapt and rewrite a passage according to the
needs 'of the subject. S/he can judiciously use the mother tongue to
explain a principle of grammar. Pedagogically, grammar teaching
can best be exploited by spiral teaching method.of illustration,
explanation and practice. It is the practice that reinforces learning.
Role-play in real life situation provides a very good opportunity
of language use. This automatically covers the teaching of gr~ar
specially the tenses. This is an interesting exercise because learners
can easily identify with the situation and use, the language
accordingly. This also develops a sense of correctness and
appropriateness in them.
Dramatisation and language games are equally useful to teach
gr_ar. Questioning skill also helps in learning grammar. The
learners learn yes/no, and 'wh' questions in present past and future
time reference. '
Tense is another problematic area. The teacher should not
teach the tense system in detail. S/he has to explain the relevant
facts to avoid confusion. S/he should expose the learners to the
passages of mixed tense, so that they understand the rules. For
example, 'every Sunday I watch TV, but last Sunday I went to
picnic: I ani not sure, what I will - next Sunday.' To teach simple
do
present tense the learners can 'be asked to describe their daily
routine and that of their mother/father/friend. This helps to
understand the rule:
..-"
I get up at 6 o'clock.
My mother gets up at 5 o'clock.
This helps them to understand the rule of concord [subject
and verb agreement] that with third person singular, s/ es is added
to the present form of the verb.
Similar techniques can be used to teach other tenses too. Mime,
actions, sketches, charts and pictures can be used to teach present
continuos tense. Dialogues can also be used to teach tenses. They
provide repetitive use of that tense for practice. They can be used
to teach reported speech.
De~cription , f process can be used to teach active passive.
o
Cross word puzzles can be used to teach different parts of
speech.

Teaching Grammar 113

Thus, we see that to teach grammar the teacher should use
the eclectic method. Initially, the learner should be allowed to absorb
the language to internalise the rules and then the descriptive
analysis of the language helps him to understand the-system of the
language. This knowledge of grammar rules helps him to correct
himself. This serves the purpose of teachingllearning grammar.

IQUESTIONS I
1. What are the different types of grammar? Which according to you is
best suited for our learners? Give reasons for that.
2. What is the difference between inductive and deductive method of
teaching grammar? lllustrateyour answer with the example of both.
3. Is knowledge of grammar essential for learning a language? Give
your views on it.
4, What strategies will you adopt to teach grammar in your classroom
situation?

I REFERENCES I
• CIEFL.1996. Methods of Teaching English, Hyderabad: CIEFL
• Ghosh, R.N., Shastri, R.N .L, Das. B.K 1977. Introduction to
English Language Teaching, Vol. 3, Madras: DUP.
• Rutherford, W.E. 1987. Second Language Grammar; Learning
and Teaching, London: Longman.
• Verghese, C. Paul. 1989. Teaching English as a Second
Language, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited:

aaa

CHAPTER 18 _ _ _ _ _• _ _ __

LESSON PLANNING

NEED FOR PLANNING: Learning experience should be
stimulating and interesting. The teacher is given the syllabus and
the prescribed textbook with activities given in it. Some textbooks
contain interesting material with clear instructions of using it, but
others are not so well equipped. The language teacher has to
remember that a textbook is a means to the desired end of language
learning. An innovative teacher goes beyond the textbook to make
teaching effective. To attain this s/he has to incorporate different
activities for the classroom. Planning makes it possible.
Planning helps us to make the optimal use of Classroom time.
The teacher has the constraints of complet.mg the syllabus in the
limited time. Planning gives an outline to the teacher about what
should be the plan of action in the classroom. Very experienced
teachers need not write a detail plan, as they have it etched in
their mind. But, less experienced teachers should make a detail
' plan. It tells us 'why - the objectives; 'what'-the content and the
..material; 'how' - method and technique; 'when' - the time duration
of the teaching. Harmer [1983] aptly says that good lesson planning
is the art of mixing techniques, activities and material in such a
way that an ideal balance is created in the classroom for learning
a language.
PROCESS OF PLANNING:Plannihg is a cycliC process.
The teacher plans the lesson with objectives. S/he tries it in the
classroom using the activities, method and the technique. S/he tries
to evaluate whether the objectives are realised or not. Evaluation
gives her/him the feedback, which helps in planning further lessons
with desired improvement in teaching.
PRINCIPLES OF LESSON PLANNING: Though planning
is essential for better teaching, but rigid adherence to a plan makes

Lesson Planning 115

teaching monotonous. This can de-motivate the learners. We should
remember that planning should be learner centered and not teacher
focussed. Planning should enhance creativity in learners. The two
overriding principles of planning are variety and flexibility.
VARIETY: To involve the learners fully and to sustain their
interest is a tough job. Children's attention span is very limited
and it wavers very quickly. To maintain this, the teacher has to
bring variety in her teaching. Variety refers to providing different
types of challenging activities to a single class or a series of classes.
The teacher should make use of different teaching aids. For example,
if slhe is teaching vocabulary items, s/he can use flash cards, pictures
or a -crossword puzzle to bring variety in the classroom. Prolonged
use of the same technique loses its charm over a period of time.
The learners should be involved in varied activities with the help
of different materials. Another important principle of lesson
planning is flexibility. .
I FLEXIBILITY: Sometimes the plan prepared by the teacher
does not work in a particular class. In this situation, the teacher
should be able to change the plan according to the immediate needs
of the learners. For example, s/he wants to teach them 'reading
comprehension' but the learners are in a mood of group discussion.
In this situation she should be able to adapt her plan accordingly.
For this, the teacher has to be extra resourceful. S/he should be
capable to work within the constraints of time and the situation sf
he works in. S/he should be able to take on the spot decision.
Planning helps us to achieve this goal.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROPER PLANNING
PROFESSION: For proper planning the teacher needs to
have considerable knowledge of three areas - profession, institution
and the learner. The teacher should be the efficient user of the
language. S/he should have knowledge of all the aspects of the
language i.e. phonology, lexis, grammar, skills, situation etc. The
teacher should be careful about the availability of the aids and the
resources such as blackboard, pictures, flash-cards, tape recorder,
OHP, language lab., textbook and other supplementary material.
The teacher has to be extra resourceful with plenty of activities at
her disposal in the classroom. S/he should be well-versed in different
methods and techniques of teaching. S/he should know about the
class management skill and should be able to play different roles
in the classroom very efficiently according to the needs of the
learners in a particular situation.

I

THE INSTITUTION: The teacher should be aware of the
constraints of the institution - the time duration, syllabus and
cUrriculum, the examination pattern etc. Slhe should be aware of
the real physical condition of the institution such as the size of the
ciass, seating arrangement and proper ventilation and lighted
classrooms etc.
THE LEARNER is the most important person in the process
of teaching. The teacher should know about the needs of the learners
- their . age and social background; their attitude and aptitude
towards the lan'guage etc. The teacher should try to establish a
rapport with them. S/he ha$ to be sympathetic to the problems of
the L2 learners. The teacher should collect or prepare the material
and activities that should cater to the needs of the learners. A
detailed knowledge about the learners and their needs help the
teacher in planning teaching and designing activities th~t are useful .
and motivating for them.
STAGES OF PLANNING
When a teacher is through with this information, s/he is ready
to write a plan. Before writing a detailed plan, the teacher has to
make a rough plan to be executed in the classroom. This is called
a pre-plan.
PRE-PLAN: Here, the teachu has to decide her plan of action '
in the classroom. S/he should try to relate it with what the learners
have been doing recently in the class. S/he should try to learn
about the immediate needs of the learners especially in a mixed
ability class. S/he should decide the class management technique
of lockstep/pair/group work in advance according to the size"of the
class. S/he should decide for the skill and also plan whether s/he
would like to concentrate on one skill or integrate it with other
skills. S/he must think of the measures of providing variety in the
classroom. S/he should plan the use of audio-visual teaching aids
according to their availability 'in the classroom. S/he should time
her teaching keeping in mind the constraints of the timetable. At
this stage, the teacher gets a clear idea of her action plan in the
classroom and is ready to write a detail plan.
THE PLAN is a detailed frame-work of the activities to be
conducted in the classroom. The plan should state:
Description of the class: Number of the learners, their social
background, linguistic level, and their needs.
Teaching and learning aims: Objectives should be
mentioned clearly in general and specific terms. For example, the

Lesson Planning 117

general objective can be 'to establish a rapport with them', and
specific objective can be 'to teach speaking skill'.
Stages of learning: Teaching should have break-up in stages
and steps with clear objectives for each stage. Different stages
should be linked together.
Content: The textbook or other supplementary teaching
material be made available.
Language item: Grammar - pastJpresent tense or vocabulary
item etc.
Activities: Writing a letter/composition/group discussion/
roleplay.
Use of audio-video teaching aids: Flashcards/pictures/
cassetteslblackboard etc.
Class management: Lockstep/pair/group/individual
arrangement in the class.
Evaluation procedure: Thus, the teacher should make a
detailed lesson plan and execute it in the class. This is beneficial
for both the learner and the teacher. Lesson plan is very useful
specially if the lesson is being observed by the others. It shows why
the teacher is doing certain things in the class or where a particular
activity failed or was successful. What measures should have been
taken by the teacher to avoid certain flaws in teaching etc. What
are the areas that need improvement in teaching etc. The lesson
should be observed on following grounds:
~ Whether the lesson was interesting and motivating for
the learners.
~ Whether it catered to the needs ofthe mixed ability class.

~ Whether the aims and objectives were clear.

~ Whether the instructions were clear.

~ Whether the material and the activities were appropriate
and provided enough variety.
~ Whether the audio-visual aids were properly used.

~ Whether the skills were integrated.

~ Whether it provided ·an opportunity for total participation
of the learners in the classroom.
~ Whether the class organisation was right.

~ Whether the objectives were realised.


Thus, we see that lesson plan is essential for effective teaching.
It helps us to plan follow up action. But, we shopld remember -that
lesson plan is a guideline and not a rigid blue print. The learner
is the most important aspect of a lesson plan and the efficient
teacher should be able to adapt it according to the needs of the
learners.

IQUESTIONS I
1. What are the principles of lesson planning? How would you use
them· in your teaching situation?
2. What is the importance of lesson planning in teaching? Should we
always stick to the plan we have made or change it if required? Give
reasons for your choice.
3. What are the important aspects of a lesson plan? How would you
incorporate them in your teaching?

I REFERENCE I
• Harmer, Jeremy, 1983. The Practice of English Language
Teaching, London: Longman.
LESSON PLAN

Name of the teacher: Class-level and strength: X . 40.
Time: 1 hour;
Aim: to develop writing ,skill. Objective: writing a letter to a friend about
the hazards of the pollution and the steps to
prevent it.
Skills: Listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Class management: Group work.
Teachers activity Learners' activity Time Aids
Step 1
To draw the learners' Looking at t~e pictures 5 min. 3 pictures.
attention, the teacher try to an.swer questions.
puts questions by
showing them pictures. -
1. What do you under-
stand by the pictures?
2. What message do you
get from the pictures?
3. How do you feel about
them?
4. What should be done?

Lesson Planning 119

Step 2
Teacher asks them to write Learners sit in the 5 min. Blackboard
a letter to their friend groups and discuss teacher helps
about the problem and decide the format with voca-
of pollution in the city. [of the letter discussed) bulary items on
board.
Step 3
Teacher moves around Learners write in groups. 10 min.
in the classroom and
helps them with structures.
Teacher asks them to Group leader writes the 10 min. Use of board.
present the letters. main points [each group)

Teacher gives feedback Peer correction and 15 min. Use of board.
with mild corrections evaluation with proper
justification.

Home assignment:
• Prepare a crossword puzzle based on the theme of pollution.
• Collect more material from the school library on pollution.

aaa

CHAPTER 19 _ _ _ _ _ _. ._ .

LANGUAGE TESTING AND
EVALUATION

INTRODUCTION: Testing is an integral part of the process
of teaching. Both are interrelated and interdependent. Teaching
begins with clear specificatiop. of the -objectives. The objectives are
realised through the course material. Evaluation decides whether
the objectives of the course are reached or not. All this determines
the , validity of the course. This co-relation is best explained ' by
Furst {l,.990] in the following diagram:
objectives

evaluation material

In this diagram, he identifies the inter-dependence of three
main components in the process of organised instruction.
Educational objectives, learning experience realised through
material and evaluation procedures.
The objective of testing is to judge whether any learning is
materialised after teaching or not. The feedback through evaluation
helps us to reframe curriculu~ and update teaching materials and
change our strategies of teaching to develop better learning in the
classroom.
Evaluation is both formative and summative. When it decides
the actual level of the terminal behaviour of the learner, it is
summative. But, before evaluating the terminal behaviour, many

Language Testing and Evaluation 121

periodical tests i.e. weekly, fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, half-
yearly tests are conducted to judge the progress of the learner, it
is called formative evaluation. Basically, in both the situations an
examination measures the progress and the performance of the
learner.
The effect of the examination or test on teaching is called
'backwash'. This can be beneficial or harmful. If the test is a means
to judge the end of learning - it is beneficiaL When it becomes an
end in itself, it is harmful. In this case, teaching is subordinated
to testing. Whatever is tested is taught and whatever is not tested
is not taught.
Different methods and approaches of teaching reflect testing
differently. Heaton [1988] classified four approaches to language
testing. In essay-translation approach, testing is confined to the
translation from source language text to target language text and
vice-versa. Test consists of writing an essay with literary and
cultural slant. In structural approach, language is treated as
made of different constituents and each constituent is tested
separately. The emphasis is on form and structure. Its objective
nature of testing increases reliability. Dictation of isolated items,
multiple choice questions, formation of sentences with given verbs,
guided composition etc. are some of the examples of this type of
testing. It has its limitations because language cannot be broken
in constituents or skills. Most of the tasks are artificial and do not
measure skills. It is difficult to design multiple choice questions
because of the lack of proper distracters. .
In the integrative testing, language is considered as a
cognitive whole, where grammar and skills cannot be separated.
Context is important and meaning is more important than form. It
aims at testing language proficiency. Dictation, composition,
dialogues, cloze tests etc. are some of the techniques of this kind
of testing.
In communicative approach testing, the emphasis is on
testing the communicative competence through performance in real
life situations. Both, the use and the usage are important. Speech
is more iinportant than writing. Emphasis is more on fluency than
on accuracy. The skills can be tested individually, or two or more
skills can also be tested together. Listening and speaking or reading
and writing can be tested together. Transfer of information, role-
play, description of people, place, event are some of the techniques
of this type of testing.

122 Communicative Approach to the Teaching gf English as a Second Language

There are different types of tests such as achievement,
proficiency, entrance, aptitude, diagnostic, placement etc. to judge
the performance of the learner.
ACHIEVEMENT [I'ESTS: Are the most commonly used
variety of tests. They are directly related to the course. They cover
the portion given in the syllabus and measure the extent to which
the objectives of the course are realised. They can either be progress
achievement or final achievement tests. Most of the e~mination
pattern follows this type of test.
PROFICffiNCY TESTS: These tests measure the profj.ciency
level of the learners, which is not based on any syllabus. They test
certain -language skills- designed for performing some particular
tasks. They .test the actual ability of the learner. Admission or.
selection tests for banking, engineering, medical, etc. come under
this category. TOEFL and GRE tests are exampl~s of such tests.
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS: Aim at identifying the strengths and
weaknesses of a learner in a number of basic skill areas. They help
the teacher to understand the difference between student's actual
behavioUr and his expected behaviour. This helps in planning the
course to attain the desired ' goal. They are good for planning the
remedial teaching.
APTITUDE TESTS: These tests do not measure the learner's
abilities or his achievements. They try to find out the capacity of
the learner in an area in which he can excel if the necessary
education is imparted. Psychologists make use of this test to find
the aptitude of a person for a specific vocation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TEST: A test must have the
factors of validity and reliability to make it authentic one.
VALIDITY: Refers to the measuring of what it claims to
measure. It also de'Cides the relevance of the examination. Does it
serve the purpose for which it is constructed? For exam'ple, a test
for reading comprehension is valid if it measures the skills and
sub-skills of reading and not of listening and writing skills. The
degree of validity is derived from:
(a) A meticulous analysis of the content of each question and
the 'paper' as a whole.
(b) An adequate coverage of the cOurse of study.
RELIABILITY: This measures consistency. It refers to the
external factors of the tests that affect ~he test results. They are
the factors of time, place, test instructions etc. Circumstan~es also

Language Testing and Evaluation i23

affect the result. A r.eliable test is the test, which has the same
result when it is conducted in different circumstances at different
times.
Although, validity and reliability are based on different factors
about the nature of a test, there is a definite relationship between
a
the two. Reliability is pre-requisite for validity. A test has to be
reliable if it is to be valid. However, reliability does not guarantee
validity. It is necessary but not sufficient condition for validity. For
a test to be valid, it has to measure what it is "Supposed to measure.
While designing a test, we have to take care of the practical
aspects oftesting. The objectives should be realised. The test should
be carefully designed. Instructions should be clear and not vague
or ambiguous. The test should be neither too simple nor too difficult,
but should be challenging enough for the learners. In a
heterogeneous class, the test can be multi-layered according to the
proficiency level of the learners. The test should be timed in such
a way that the learners are able to complete within the given time
limit. The answers should be easily and fairly scored. This is the
reason why objective type questions and essay type questions have
a place in test papers.
Testing of the language skill covers the areas of phonology,
grammar, vocabulary and the skills of listening, speaking, reading
and writing. Some of the important testing techniques are true or
false, yes-no type questions, multiple choice, short answer, cloze
tests, composition-writing etc. We will discuss these techniques in
detail.
TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING VOCABULARY [refer to
appendices] Testing of vocabulary is covered in testing reading,
but it can also be tested separately in short tests. Synonyms,
antonyms, lexical phrases, collocations and idioms can be tested
under vocabulary testing. Words should be contextualised to get
better results. Different tests should be designed to test active and
passive vocabulary. For passive vocabulary, multiple choice tests
are good for guessing the meaning. For active vocabulary testing,
the learner should be able to supply the meaning of the given
word. Fill in the blanks is a good technique to test this. Some of
the techniques for testi~g vocabulary are:
Give words for the objects in the picture.
Give action verbs for the actions in the picture.
Select the word, which you think, is closest in meaning:
Examples: obese: slim, thin, healthy, fat, strong.


Select the correct definition or phrase:
Example, saga: a religious story.
a family story.
a mystery story.
_a romantic story.
Give synonyms of the word given: house - home, dwelling.
, Give antonyms of the word given: dark- bright.
Hyponym:
Find the odd one out:
car, train, aeroplane, table, bullock cart.
Add another word to the .list:
soap, talcum powder, scent, shampoo.
Give one word that covers:
table, sofa, bed, chair, stool.
Crossword puzzle.
Homophones:
Give words with the same sound but different meaning:
site-sight, sun-son.
Homonyms:
Give words with the same spelling but different meaning:
bank-bank, right [direction]-right [correct].
TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING GRAMMAR: To get the best
result, grammar should be integrated with the skills. But, grammar
can be tested separately too. Some of the techniques to test grammar
are:
~ Learners can be asked to identify the parts of speech in .
a given sentence.
~ Rewriting sentences in different forms can also be asked
such as - active to passive or to write in reported speech.
Coherent dialogues can be used for this purpose.
~ Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in a
paragraph is a good technique.
~ Learners can be asked to supply right prepositions in the
blanks.


~ Learners · can be asked to write sentences as directed
[change-number, gender and tense. Change the statement
to question/order/ request etc.]
~ Rewrite the sentences without changing the meaning of
it. For example:
• There are different styles of writing let~ers.
• We can write letters using a variety of styles.
• Letters can be written in different styles.
• Number of styles can be used to write letters.
Rearrange the jumbled words into a correct and meaningful
sentence. For example:
I visited - - - - - - - - - -
[of best, days, school, one, my, of, friends, the, school, of.]
[I visited one of my best friends of school days.]
TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING LISTENING SKILLS: In
the present set up of examination pattern, there is little room for
testing aural-oral skills oflistening and speaking. Although listening
and speaking are inter-related skills, but for academic purposes we
have to test them separately.
Listening and reading both are receptive skills and there are
many techniques of testing common to both.
Effective listening demands a fair degree of concentration to
respond to instructions and suggestions. The listener should be
able to summarise the message. S/he should be able to recognise ·
the intonation pattern of an order or a request. The test instructions
should be very clear. We can use dialogues, speeches,
announcements, instructions etc to test this skill. The speech should
be at the normal pace. The learners should be given worksheets,
they are supposed to tick the correct answer in .a multiple- choice
question. They are expected to discriminate between two similar
vowels or consonants sounds. .
Yield-shield, ship-chip, ten-tan, full-fool.
Listen to each pair of words and decide whether the vowels!
diphthong in both the words are same or different. Write's' for
same and 'd' for different:
Cot-court.
Sheep-beat
Bell-bail
Sun-son


Listen to the following words and circle them on your
worksheet:
Later-latter
Cot-coat
Test-taste
Taught-thought
Information transfer is another technique of testing listening.
Tables or graphs can be filled in following the instructions. Maps
can be used to indicate directions.
Dictation of short text with words left out selectively tests the
level of language ability. The ability of listening is combined with
the ability to infer with the help of contextualised guessing.
Note taking is another technique of testing listening. It is a
higher level skill.
TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING SPEAKING SKILLS: While
testing the productive skills of speaking following criteria such as
fluency, accuracy, pronunciation, accent, intonation, comprehension
and communicative ability should be taken into consideration. Some
of the following techniques are us.e ful for it.
To test the ability to produce correct vowels/consonants, the
learners should be given minimal pairs such as:
tell-tail, major-measure.
Words with changing stress such as:
'photograph, pho'tographer, photo'graphic can be given to check
the shift.
They should be asked to produce correct intonation of a
statement/order or a req1,lest.
They should be asked to describe pictures, people, place, events
or objects.
They can be asked to participate iIi a role-play to test the
ability for natural communication in real life situations.
They should be asked to participate in group discussions to
test their communicative abilities following the conventions ofturn-
taking, asking for ~ther's opinions, interrupting, agreeing-
disagreeing in a polite way. The teacher must check that they
speak intelligibly and confidently. They can also be asked to make
announcement, narrate anecdotes and jokes etc.
TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING READING SKILLS:
Reading skill refers to understanding the written message of varying


type. Unseen passages are the best to test comprehension. They
should be of appropriate length, with interesting subject matter.
They should have the desired linguistic complexity with varying
tone and style. Reading tests should be time-bound.
~ The learners should be able to read silently a~ varying
speed and anticipate and predict the content. They should
try to guess the meanings of difficult words from the
context and consult dictionary whenever required.
~ They should apply the strategies of skimming, scanning,
identifying the main and the sub-themes of the given
passage. They should be able to identify the stages of
argument.
~ The learners should be able to understand the relationship
between the parts of the text with the help of cohesive
devices.
~ Questions should be short and focussed. They should cover
different types of comprehension such as - local, global,
inferential, referential and critical. They should have scope
for testing vocabulary and grammar items.
~ Questions can be framed covering true or false items,
multiple choice questions for testing vocabulary,
information transfer, sentence completion, summarization,
note making etc to test reading skill.
TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING WRITING SKILLS: Writing
skill aims at developing the ability to express ideas using necessary
structure with appropriate style, tone and proper organisation of
ideas. It is important to grade writing tests according to the
linguistic ability of the learners. Instructions should be very clear
and precise.
Writing tests focus on spelling, vocabulary, grammar,
organisation of the content with logical sequencing, style and
appropriate language. Testing techniques should follow the criteria
of effectiveness and efficiency.
~ In composition tests, topics should be original and
interesting. There should be a scope for the use of different
styles. Letters and precis are also good techniques of testing
writing skill. Attention should be paid on both the content
and the form.
~ The learners can be asked to complete a dialogue, or to
give instructions to do something, for example - how to
make a cup of tea.


~ They can be asked to describe pictures/places/ thing/people
or event using narrative, descriptive and argumentative
styles.
~ To complete a story or write a story based on the picture
given.
Both the main and the sub-skills of writing should be tested.
The important features of appropriateness of style, effectiveness of
organisation, range of vocabulary and structures should be
considered for marking. Other important areas of correctness,
completeness, clarity, conciseness, originality of expression are
equally important. We should make sure that the scoring should be
objective.

QUESTIONS

1. Explain different types of tests and their relevance in language
teaching.
2. What are the important characteristics of a good- test?
3. Describe the techniques of testing listening and reading skills.
4. Describe the techniques of testing speaking and writing skills.

I REFERENCES I
• Davies, Alan. 1990. Principles ofLanguage Testing, Oxford: Basil
.Blackwell Limited.
• Furst, E.J. 1958. Constructing Evaluation Instruments, David
Mckay.
• Tharu, Jacob, 1990. Testing, Hyderabad: CIEFL.
• Heaton, J .B. 1988. Writing English Language Tests, U.K.:
Longman.
• Hughes, Arthur, 1989. Testing for Language Teachers,
Cambridge: CUP.

CHJQ

APPENDICES _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

All the tasks are learner centered and interactive in nature.
I have tried to bring in a lot of variety. The tasks are motivating
and challenging. They are contextualised. They are set in the real
life situations. The tasks are designed in the form of problem solving
and information gap activities. The tasks can be accomplished
through pair/gr.oup work and role-play. Language games are
competitive in nature. They are timed. They ensure total
participation of the learners. The tasks can be corrected collectively.
The most important aspect of these tasks is their coverage of the
functional aspect of the language. The tasks aim at the cognitive
. development of the learners, hence they are not mechanical in
nature.
All these tasks integrate all the four skills of LSRW. Each
activity should be discussed in the class to cover listening and
speaking skills. Then, they should be written and read, thus covering
reading and writing skills. Vocabulary games are included to
motivate them to learn vocabulary items in an interesting way. .
Grammar is practised through inductive method to make it an
enjoyable experience for them.


VOCABULARY TASKS: <Pair or Group work)
1. FIND THE COMPOUND WORDS VEltTICALLY,
HORIZONTALLY 'A ND DIAGONALLY:
X V EVE R Y BOD Y S M Q W X Y S M 0
AEFWJFBRJFI JESOMEDAY
EVWKVOLAI PWJVUTNTLJT
CSSCGUFCDTHWERMHUWBW
G U L X F T WEE 0 D U R' N P Y F D E G
G D A Z X L R T X K U X Y C R Q 0 0 C E
J D, 0 B H 0 S R Z X A G W D I L R WOE
.D FEU P 0 Z A H NQ SHY N TEN M Y
T N Y V T K V C K H F G E N V A V SEE
UJMXERDK80ACRJUWETWL
AEPRURUZ DXWNEPYTRAHA
XFEI NI YNXGVADI MAWI 08
G H T C G N T D 8 F G D N WN B R R WH
VCTERUI JAWPTEYRKM8EF
ZDOORWAYEYHZKFWI HYVA
Q X ' K G 0 N N N G N B I I G X A TL E C
I WHFVJ OUTSI DENDMYI RT"
RDDFYKHOUJOWWOWXZVNU
OUT RA G E U N B F R J T P G 8 B H G
P P N EVE R G R E E N A F C P X C Q Y
Everywhere, however, everybody, handwriting, evergreen,
everyday,afternoon,soIneday,anyway,becoIne,foreve~do~~,
outside, doughnut, racetrack, outrun, doorway, eyelash, outrage,
outlook. .
2. SELECT THE RIGHT COMPOUND WORDS TO FILL IN
THE BLANKS OF THE FOLLOWING DIALOGUE:
[anything, sOInething, SOIneone, nobody, everything, nothing,
soInebody, anybody, everybody]
, ,

lUya: I think .............. is at the door.

Appendices 131

Payal: Hello, I have come to meet you. Actually ................ is
disturbing me.
Riya: Is ................. wrong?
Payal: No, ............... serious that way
Riya: Is it a secret? j
Payal: No, ................ knows about it. My father had an
accident. Unfortunately ................ was with him at that time. Do
you know ............ who can look after him?
Riya: I'll have to find out. How is he now?
Payal: He is fine ................. is under control now.
3. MATCH THE TABLE
empty blooded
cold spoken
soft killing
kind thirsty
mercy handed
blood hearted

4. VOCABULARY: SCRABBLE - Time 5 minutes pair
work:
Let's see how many words you can make from the letters
given in this puzzle. While making words be sure that each letter
may be used only for once. Each word must contain the central
letter 'R'. plurals and words with proper nouns are not accepted.
Begin with three letter words.
E A E some words are done for you:
T [RJ C apt, piece, ripe, trap, crap etc.
RID
5. WORD ANTAKSHARI: group-work, time 15 seconds per
word.
Give the learners a word and ask them to make as many
words as they can with the last letter or sound of the word.
For example - 'paper'-red, run, ripe etc. They can be asked
to make as many words with the last sound of the word 'ripe'
because you don't listen the sound of 'e' but /pl.

132 CommunicatilJe Approach to the Teaching ofEnglish as a Second Language

At higher level we should restrict our choice to make words
belonging to different parts of speech and not making any word.
For example - 'paper' - Make verbs - run, ride,
reap.
Make adjectives - ripe, reddish.
Make nouns - rainbow, radish.
6. MAKE OPPOSITES [ANTONYMS]
Fill in the empty squares to form 3 letter words that mean
the opposite of the clues given. The first one is done for you.

Clues: old, beginning, lost, daughter, enemy, none, charge,
starve, walk, stand.
7. MAKE OPPOSITES:
Fill in the blanks with a word that is opposite in meaning to
the first word and rhymes with the second word. The first one is
done for you.
happy bad sad
up town
start hop
laugh try
fat bin
WORDS SHOULD NOT BE TAUGHT IN ISOLATION. THEY
CAN BEST BE TAUGHT IN A CONTEXT
8. GIVE OPPOSITES OF THE UNDERLINED WORDS:
1. I am usually healthy. but last week suddenly I fell .......... .
and even now I am feeling very weak.
2. Climbing .dmm...is !mfi, but climbing ......... is so .......... .
3. Everyone loves victory but one has to accept .......... too.
4. I thought Mahesh to be an intelligent person but he turned
out to be a .......... .
5. On weekdays Juhu beach looks deserted, but on weekends
it is ........... .

Appendices 133

9. HERE ARE SOME WORDS, YOU HAVE TO GIVE
OPPOSITES OF THE WORDS WHICH BEGIN WITH
THE LETTER 'C'. THE FIRST ONE IS DONE FOR YOU:
Open ~
Laugh C
Go C
Leave C
Careless C
10. SIMILAR ACTIVITY CAN BE USED FOR SYNONYMS.
SOME WORDS ARE GIVEN HERE AND YOU SHOULD
GIVE SYNONYMS FOR THE SAME. THE WORD MUST
BEGIN WITH THE LETTER 'C'. THE FIRST ONE IS
DONE FOR YOU:
Shut ~
Weep C_
Select C_
Ability C_
Stop C_
Crossword puzzle is a very interesting word game for the
learners. They all enjoy solving it. A sense of competition is a very
important motivating factor. This should be a pair work activity.
11. CROSSWORD PUZZLE:
1 X X X 2 X X X X X X X X X X
X X 5 X X X X X X
6 X 3 X X X X X X X
X X X 7 4 X X
X X X X X 8
X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X


Clues Down:
1. We have to visit a doctor to cure this. [7 letters]
2. A place we have to go when we are not well. [8 letters]
3. We go to him to buy the medicines. [7 letters]
4. When medicine does not help, it is suggested. [9 letters]
Clues Across:
5. One who treats us. [6 letters]
6. One who takes care of us in a hospital. [5 letters]
7. It is a laboratory where blood, stool and urine tests are
conducted. [9 letters]
8. One who is not well. [7 letters]
12. SEEMA IS GOING TO JOIN HOSTEL FROM NEXT
YEAR. MAKE A LIST OF 15 THINGS SHE WILL
REQUIRE THERE. TWO WORDS ARE GIVEN HERE,
ADD THE REST OF THE WORDS.
Hold-all, mirror,--
13. WORD BUILDING EXERCISES:
Develop your productive power of making words with the help
of the root words given. Try to make as many words as you can.
Man - manly, manhood, manual, manpower, mankind,
manmade, statesman etc.
Child.
Beauty.
14. LOOK AT THE PICTURE AND NAME 10 THINGS:

Appendices 135

15. [A] THE LEARNERS SHOULD BE ASKED TO MAKE 5
DIFFERENT WORDS WITH + AME
c
s
f + arne
g
bl
[B) FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH THE SUITABLE WORDS
THAT THEY HAVE MADE
Ravi loved the ............. of cricket. He wanted to be a player.
But, he ............ on the scene very late. Hence, he could not get the
.......... he deserved. But, he does not ............ anyone for it. He is the
........ jolly person.
16. USE OF PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES TO BUILD WORDS
Prefix: is always added at the beginning of a word and it
changes its meaning.
Some of the prefixes are as follows:
Un happy unhappy [not]
Mis handle mishandle [wrong]
Pre heat preheat [before]
Dis order disorder [opposite]
Mal adjust mal adjust [opposite]
Re define redefine [back again]
In appropriate inappropriate [not]
Ir responsible irresponsible [not]
II legal illegal [not]
Sub theme sub-theme [underlless]
Super power super-power [above/more]
17. TRY TO MAKE THREE WORDS WITH EACH PREFIX.
18. HERE IS A LIST OF WORDS. SOME HAVE PREFIXES
AND SOME DO NOT HAVE PREFIXES. ARRANGE
THEM ACCORDINGLY.


Illogical, malaria, institution, unity, insecure, submerge, ,
restrict, supreme, preprimary, illustration, district, untouched,
malpractice, substitute, mistress, prepare, mismanage, dissatisfy,
recreate, superstar, intelligent, unique, distance.
First one is done for you:
+ prefix _ prefix
illogical illustration
19. SUFFIXES AS THE NAME SUGGESTS ARE PUT AT THE
END OF A WORD. THEY CHANGE THE FORM OF THE
WORD.
Some of the suffixes are:
er - or [a person or thing that does something] actor -
[noun from the verb act], sweeper, maker etc.
fold [so many times] - many fold, two fold, etc
ward [in the direction] - homeward downward, etc.
less [without] - childless, homeless.
able - [can be or having this quality] enjoyable, loveable.
ful [full of or having] beautiful - having beauty.
ous [full of] porous - full of pores.
Select the base words and the suffixes from the given list:
tenfold, courageous, dutiful, runner, remarkable, upward,
susceptible, careless.
First one is done for you.
base word suffix
ten fold
20. MATCH THE COLUMN: [definition with the word]

Somebody who is grown up prisoner
Someone who is in the prison graduate
A man who has lost his wife widower
A building which has many floors adult
Someone who has finished university multy-storey

Appendices 137

21. DEVELOPING DICTIONARY SKILL:
Arrange each Group of Words in Alphabetical Order:
Abhishek teacher Monday
Aakash class Tuesday
Aparajita bell Wednesday
Aron blackboard Thursday
Akanksha toilet Friday
Animesh ventilators Saturday
Aditi queue Sunday
22. LOOK INTO THE DICTIONARY FOR THE DIFFERENT
MEANINGS OF THE WORD 'FAST' IN THE
FOLLOWING SENTENCES AND WRITE THE
CATEGORY, WHICH IT BELONGS TO IN EACH
SENTENCE.
He leads a fast life.
The colour of the dress is ~
The trains run very ~
He stands M- on his feet.
I fu§t..on Monday.
Fast 1 Ifa:st US frest I adj. 1 firmly fixed; not easily moved:
the post is - in the ground. Make the boat -. Make it secure.
Take[a]- hold of the rope. Hold it tightly. Hard and - rules, rigid
rules. 2 steady; steadfast; loyal; close: a - friend! friendship. 3 [of
colours] unfading. Adv. Firmly, securely, tightly: hold- to sth. The
ship was- around, could not be refloated. She was - asleep, in a
deep sleep. Stand -, [not move or retreat; refuse to give way. Stick
-, faJ= stand-. [b] be unable to make progress.
Fast 2 Ifa:st US: frest/ adj f-er,-est] 1 quick; rapid: a - train!
horse; a - draw, ofa gun from a holster. 2 [dated] [of a person, his
way of living] spending too much time and energy on pleasure and
excitement: dissipated: lead a - life; a - woman; - society. 3 [of
watch or clock] showing time later than the true time : my watch
is five minutes-, eg showing 2.05 at 2.00. 4 [of a surface] promoting
quick motion: a- cricket pitch! billiard table. 5 [of photographic
film] suitable for very brief exposures.
Fast 3 Ifa:st US: frest/'adv 1 quickly: don't speak so -. It was
raining-, heavily. Her tears fell-. 2 live - live in a dissipated way:
use much energy in a short time. 3 [old use] close:- byl behind the
church.


Fast 4 Ifa:st US fmst! vi [VP2A,B] go without food, or without
certain kinds of food, esp as a religious duty: days devoted to -ing
and penitence, eg in Lent. n 1 [period ot] going without food: a -
of three days: break one's -. 2 day [- day] or season of -ing.
Mention other information given against the word.
23. HOMOPHONES [SIMILAR SOUND] WORDS SOUND
ALIKE BUT DIFFER IN SPELLINGS AND HAVE
DIFFERENT MEANINGS. READ THE FOLLOWING
SENTENCES AND INSERT THE CORRECT WORDS:
~ I ............. with my .............. hand. [right, write, rite]

~ His eye ........... is very ....... ... [site, sight, week, weak]

~ Which is your favourite ............ on TV. [cereal, serial]
~ His window ........... is broken by me. [pain, pane]
~ My brother came ............. to meet me. [hear, here]
24. HYPONYM WORDS BELONG TO THE SAME
CATEGORY.
Find the odd one out:
table, chair, stool, almirah, monkey, desk,
train, rickshaw, cycle, refrigerator, ship, bullock-cart.
Apple, banana, brinjal, orange, papaya.
hand, head, neck, arm, sparrow, eye,
First one is done for you. Monkey is the odd one out,
as it does not belong to the category of furniture.
KEY TO THE QUESTIONS
2. somebody, something, anything, nothing, everybody,
nobody, someone, everything.
3. handed, blooded, spoken, hearted, killing, thirsty.
6. new, end, won, son, pal, all, pay, eat, run, sit.
7. down, stop, cry, thin.
8. ill, up -difficult, defeat, fool, crowded.
9. cry, come, collect, careful.
10. cry, choose, capacity, cease.
11. Crossword down: disease, hospital, chemist, operation
across: doctor, nurse, pathology, patient.
15. game, came, fame, blame, same.

Appendices 139

20. adult, prisoner, widower, multi-storey, graduate.
23. Write-right, sight-weak, serial, pane, here.
READING TASKS:
COMPREHENSION PASSAGE
Read the passage and answer the questions given at
the end: Monsoons have arrived and so have the mosquitoes. As
drains get water-logged and stagnant pool form in the by-lanes,
mosquitoes seem to breed in millions. Incidence of malaria increases
manifold and no part of the city remains devoid of the problem.
People use various means to protect themselves from these
little biting, blood sucking vampires. Whatever the season, some
like to sleep under the mosquito net. There are others, who feel
safe after switching on mosquito repelling machines or applying
mosquito repellant creams. Some go mad trying the various new
contraptions introduced in the market every year. The grumbling
sorts spend their nights clapping and trapping, hitting sundry
objects and pillows but the mosquitoes are the ones to have the last
laugh. Blessed are those to whom any number of mosquitoes playing
orchestra near their ears makes no difference.
However, we are as much to be blamed for the problem as is
the weather. Coolers are no longer used but the water is never
changed or coolers emptied making them an ideal breeding place.
Municipal staff claims that de-silting and cleaning of drains is
done regularly but the choked sewers and drains overflowing with
polythene bags tell another tale. People do not understand this one
plain fact that garbage is not something which will vanish in thin
air once it is thrown out of their house. It will very much remain
outside the colony, area or city. Mosquitoes do not demarcate
between colonies. Diseases don't choose people. When they strike
they strike everywhere equally. When we act, we don't reach at the
root of the problem. We only look for cures because it is already too
late for prevention.
1. Select the most suitable title for the passage:
(a) Monsoon hazards.
(b) Monsoon and malaria.
(c) Mosquito menace in monsoon.
(d) Malaria a threat to life.


2. Decide whether the following statements are true or false:
(a) Mosquitoes breed only during the monsoon.
(b) Mosquitoes bite older people more than the children.
(c) We create conditions for the breeding of mosquitoes.
(d) Prevention is not always better than cure.
(e) Malaria can be fatal.
3. Do you think the term 'blood-sucking vampires' for
mosquitoes is appropriate? If yes, how?
4. What do you understand by the statement - 'Mosquitoes
.,
do not demarcate between Colonies'?
5. Do you agree with the statement 'diseases do not choose
people.' Justify your point.
6. What do the underlined words - 'who' and 'which' refer
to in the passage?
7. Select two sentences from the passage that show cause
and effect relationship.
8. Explain the role of human beingS in spreading illness
during monsoon.
9. What preventive measures would you suggest to deal with
this problem?
10. There are three paragraphs in this passage. Select the
topic sentence for each paragraph and justify your
selection.
VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR:
fA] Find the opposites of the following words from the
passage:
(a) decrease (b) cursed
(c) few (d) filled
[B] Match the table of the words with their meanings
given:
de-silting helps to drive away the mosquitoes.
Stagnant removing mud and sand.
RepeUant strange looking devices.
Contraptions still water.

Appendices 141

[CJ Find the compound words (rom the passage and make
sentences with them.
[DJ Make nouns (rom the following verbs and use them
in the sentences.
Choose, demarcate, arrive, try.
[EJ Fill in the blanks with the right phrasal verb given
here.
Look after, look in to, look up to, look down on, look for
As citizens we .................. the Govt. to ................ our needs.
We should .............. the problems on our own. We should ........... the
places where mosquitoes breed. We should not ................. those
people who clean the place.
[FJ Change the following sentence into active voice:
Coolers are no longer used. The water is never changed or
emptied.
[GJ Change into passive voice:
Diseases don't choose people.
[HJ Complete the following if conditional sentences:
If the garbage is not removed .......................... .
If the incidence of malaria increases ... ~ .................. .
UJ Make sentences with following proverbs:
Vanish into thin air, have the last laugh.
~ Write a letter of complaint to the editor of 'The Times of
India' about the problem of clogged drainage in your area
to draw the attention of the concerned authority for a
quick action.
~ Speaking activity: conduct a discussion or debate on the
topic 'Is cleanliness the responsibility of the Govt. or people
are equally responsible for it.'
~ Make a poster to create public awareness on 'the hazards
of malaria'.
READING TASKS SHOULD BE USED TO TEACH
COHERENCE OR LOGICAL ORDER. THIS HELPS THE
LEARNERS TO UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT OF
ORGANISATION AND UNITY. IT HELPS TO IMPROVE
THEm OWN WRITING.
Stories can be used for teaching coherence because if the logical
order or the sequence of the events is disturbed, it becomes

142 Communicatiue Approach to the Teaching ofEnglish as a Second Language

meaningless. Here is a story from 'Panchtantra'. The order of the
paragraphs is jumbled. The learners have to read them and put
them in a correct order to understand and enjoy the story.
1. The sage meditated and invited the cloud for marrying
his daughter. The cloud had no objection in marrying her.
2. But, the girl refused to marry him because of his heat.
'He will burn me if 1 go near him,' she said. The sage felt
sad.
3. With his power, he converted the mouse to a girl. He took
the child to his wife and asked her to look after her. His
wife was delighted to get the girl-child as she did not have
any child. She devoted her time in bringing her up as her
own daughter.
4. But the girl refused to marry him, as he was a wanderer
without a house. 'Where will 1 live father?' she said. This
disturbed her father a lot.
5. The sage requested him to look for another groom for his
daughter. He suggested rat as the prospective groom for
his daughter. He said, 'only a rat can pierce my strong
body with his sharp teeth. Hence, the rat is stronger than
1 am.'
6. Once upon a time, there was a sage who lived in an ashram
in a forest. The sage had miraculous powers. One day,
when he was meditating, a mouse escaped from the
clutches of an eagle and fell on his lap.
7. The sage meditated for a while and requested sun to marry
his daughter because he was the strongest in this world.
The sun came on the earth to marry her.
8. With time the girl grew to be a lovely girl. Her mother
was anxious to marry her. She requested her husband to
look for a suitable groom for the girl. The sage wanted the
best and the strongest groom for his daughter.
9. The sage meditated and invited the mountain for marrying
his daughter. The mountain agreed happily to the proposal..
10. But the girl refused to marry him because of his darkness,
thunder and lightening. 'I will be frightened to go near
him,' she said. The sage was saddened, but could not force
her to marry him.
11. The sage meditated for a while and requested the wind to
marry his daughter. The wind agreed to marry her.

Appendices 143

12. The sage requested him to suggest a groom for his
daughter. He suggested cloud as a groom. He said, 'only
the cloud can hide my brilliance.'
13. The sage got a mouse. Seeing the mouse the girl was
extremely happy. She wanted to marry him. The sage
converted the girl to a mouse and married her to the
mouse. Finally, he was relieved of his responsibility. But,
he felt sad as he could change her physical form but not
her destiny.
14. The sage requested him to suggest a groom for his
daughter. He suggested the name of the mountain. '1 can't
move the mountain with all my might. So, mountain being
more powerful than me is the eligible groom for your
daughter.'
15. But the girl refused this proposal. She said, 'father, how
can you marry me to a stone-hearted person?' The sage
was desperate now but could not do anything.
16. The sage requested him to look for a suitable groom for
his daughter. He suggested wind's name. He said, 'only
wind can float me anywhere in the sky with his power. He
is naturally more powerful than me.'
WRITING TASKS: Writing is a difficult skill. The learners
have to be taught to follow the norms of writing. It should be
correct in margin, spelling, grammar punctuation, style etc. It
should be clear without any ambiguity. It should be concise and
complete. Coherence or sequencing should be properly managed.
Different tasks are designed here to cover different aspects of writing
following the pattern of simple to complex, from guided to free
writing. An important point to remember is that we have to
integrate all the skills together with grammar. For example,
a writing task can be discussed in the class before the actual writing
begins. This will cover listening and speaking skills. The learners
should be given reading material of similar theme to read before
they write. Let us deal with linguistically controlled short, guided
compositions in the forms of note, notices, messages, telegrams etc.
Language: Simple present tense.
Objective: Develop clarity, correctness and precision in
writing. Pair and group work activities.
Function: invitation


Points to remember:
> Name of the organisation extending the invitation.
> Name of the person/authority and occasion.
> Date and venue of the event.
> Time and duration.
> Name of the chief guest.
Layout: spacing, indentation depends on individual choice.
Case - capital/small, bold or .italics can be decided by the host. It
is good if it is bordered.

INVITATION
THE PRINCIPAL, STAFF AND THE STUDENTS OF
P. V.D. T. COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
S.N.D. T. UNIVERSITY
CHURCHGATE
MUMBAI
CORDIALLY INVITE YOU TO ATTEND
IT'S ANNUAL DAY FUNCTION
ON ~.rm APRIL 2001
AT
3 P.M. IN PATKAR HALL
MS. RUPA SHAH [VICE-CHANCELLOR]
HAS KINDLY CONSENTED TO BE
THE CHIEF GUEST
PLEASE BE SEATED BY 2.30 P.M.
VALID FOR TWO

The learners can prepare such invitation cards for official and
social functions. They can be used for different occasions such as
farewell function in the schooVcollege, painting! music/drama
competition etc, or a party organised to celebrate festivals, birthdaYs,
engagement, marriage etc.
NOTICES:
Language: simple present tense, imperatives.
The learners must learn to be very clear and precise while
writing notices.

Appendices 145

Points to remember:
~ Name of the institution
~ Reason for giving notice
~ Time limit
~ Venue

NOTICE
.
AVAILABLE: 10 SPORT SCHOLARSHIPS FOR CLASS IX
AND X STUDENTS. APPLICATION FORMS AVAILABLE
WITH THE SPORTS COACH - MR. SHARMA, BETWEEN
10 TO 11 A.M. FROM 10 TH NOVEMBER TO 18TH
NOVEMBER 2001.
LAST DATE FOR THE SUBMISSION OF THE FILLED IN
FORMS IS 25TH NOVEMBER 2000.
Selection is on the basis of merit only.

The learners can be asked to write notices for 'lost and found,
excursion trips, visit to zoo, examination, cultural- programmes,
meetings etc. This should be a pair/group work activity.
POSTERS are used to give information and to create
awareness in people.
Points to remember:
• Style should be appropriate to the poster.
• Purpose should be clear and should cater to the needs of
the target readers.
• It should be catchy, attractive and meaningful.
• Use of rhyming words make interesting slogans.

PLASTIC: AN ENEMY OF LIFE
HAZARDOUS FOR HUMAN, ANIMAL AND MARINE LIFE
CLOGS SEWAGE PIPE AND DRAINAGE. BREEDS ILLNESS.
JOIN HANDS TO ABOLISH IT.


TELEGRAPmC STYLE is useful for condensing the message.
In telegrams, we write only the content words [nouns, v.e rbs,
adjectives, adverbs etc.], and not the function words [pronouns,
prepositions, articles conjunctions etc].
Ashwin wrote the following lett~r to Shashwat. Then he
decided to send a telegram instead of the letter.
Indore, 15th October 2000
Dear Shashwat,
I am writing this letter after a long-time. Hope you are fine.
Things are not well at my end. My father is suffering from heart
disease and has been advised for 'open-heart surgery'. I have taken
the appointment from Dr. Goyel at Bombay Hospital on 28th of
this month. I will be reaching Bombay with my parents on 23rd.
Please come to Bombay Central to receive us and make an enquiry
at ·the hospital to confi~ the date of the operation.
Hoping to meet you at the station.
Yours,
Ashwin.

Indian post and telegraph
Address of the addresseE Name
Address
Telegraph office
Tel. No. [if any]
Message: Reaching Bombay 23rd with· parents.
Attend Avantika Express, Bombay Central. Confirm
date for father's heart surgery Bombay hospital.
Ashwin.
We can ask the learners to write telegraphic messages for
different situations such as informing hotel manager about
reservation of single/double rooms, making enquiry for admission
i~ a college or informing office staff for joining the institution etc .
..

Detailed telephonic conversation can also be condensed in a short
message.
Prerna has to inform Dipti about the Science final practical.
Dipti does not have a telephone, so Prerna rings up her neighbour
to inform about it.

Appendices 147

Prerna Is this 5865191?
Mrs. Sharma Yes.
Prerna I'm sorry to bother you. Could you call your
neighbour Dipti on the line please? I'm her
friend Prerna.
Mrs. Sharma But, they have gone out for the engagement of
her cousin.
Prerna Do you have any idea when will they be back?
Mrs. Sharma Yes, by 10-30 at night.
Prerna O.k could you do me a favour?
Mrs. Sharma Yes.
Prerna Aunty, please inform her that tomorrow she
has to appear for the final exam of Science
practical at 9.30 am.
Mrs. Sharma I will give this message to her.
Prerna Thanks a lot. I'm really sorry to bother you,
but this is very urgent.
Mrs. Sharma Oh, it's all right.
Message

Dipti,
Your friend Prema called up to infonn that tomorrow you
have to appear for the final exam of Science practical at
9.30. Shanna aunty.

The learners can be asked to condense information in short
messages or they can be asked to write the message in detail in the
form of a letter or a dialogue. Another extension of dialogue is that
they can be used to teach 'Reported Speech' as well. First few
sentences are done for you. Write the rest of the sentences
Prerna rang up Dipti's neighbour and enquired whether that
was 5865191.
Mrs. Sharma replied in affirmation.
Prerna apologised for bothering her and requested her to call
Dipti on the line.
Mrs. Sharma told her that they had gone out to attend her
cousin's engagement.


Prerna asked her whether she had any idea when they would
be back.
TEACHING PROCESS:
Function: description and instruction. Language use: simple
present tense, imperative structures and negative too. Extension
use: Process can be used to teach coherence, active and passive voice
and reported speech. Pair or group work activity.
Let us make tomato soup
> Take six medium sized ripe tomatoes.
> Wash them.
> Blanch them.
> Remove the skin.
> Grind the pulp in the mixer.
> Strain it in a vessel.
> Put the vessel on the burner to boil.
> Add salt Isugar and spice according to your taste.
> Season it with a pinch of asafoetida [optional] and cumin
seeds.
> Pour it in the soup bowk
> Drink it hot and enjoy.
The learners can be asked to describe the process of making
teal coffee or nimbu sharbet. They can even be asked to describe
the process of making kite/paper lantern etc.
To teach coherence the sequencing of the process can be jumbled
up. They can be asked to rearrange the order in a proper way.
For example we can write it in this way:
> Strain it in a vessel.
> Pour it in the soup bowls.
> Take six medium sized tomatoes.
> Drink it hot and enjoy.
The learners at the higher level can be taught present passive
voice with it. For example:
> Six medium sized ripe tomatoes are taken.
> They are washed.
> They are blanched.

Appendices 149

It can also be written in present perfect tense. For example:
~ Six medium sized ripe tomatoes have been taken.

~ They have been washed.

~ They have been blanched.

Use of modals should! must!can etc. can be taught with it.
For example:
~ Six medium sized tomatoes should be taken.

~ They should be washed.

~ They should be blanched.

We can ask the learners to imagine that they have dompleted
the procedure and now they have to report about it.· They have to
use simple past:
~ Took six medium sized tomatoes.

~ Washed them.
~ Blanched them.

Now, they can use past passive for it:
~ Six medium sized tomatoes were taken.

~ They were washed.

~ They were blanched.

They can use past perfect passive:
~ Six medium sized tomatoes had been- taken.
~ They had been washed.

~ They had been blanched.

Another interesting activity to teach past passive is to ask the
learners to go back to their childhood and remember what present
did they get on ·their birthdays [from fifth to eighth].
When I was five I was given a new dress on my birthday [by
my father].
When I was six I was given a tricycle on my birthday.
When I was seven I was given a wrist-watch on my birthday.
When I was eight I was given a camera.
The learners can add to the list. Use of negative can also be
taught here. For example:
When I was five I was not given a new dress, but a box of
chocolates.


The learners can be asked to write these sentences in active
voice.
When I was five I got a new dress for my birthday.
Or
My father gave me a new dress on my fifth birthday.
The process can be written in the form of a dialogue between
a mother and her daughter. With this dialogue the learners can be
taught 'reported speech'. For example:
Mother: Payal, come here. Let's make tomato soup.
Payal: Yes mummy, I always wanted to learn it.
Mother: Take six medium sized ripe tomatoes. Wash them
and blanch them.
Payal: Yes, I have blanched them. What should I do now?
Mother: Remove the skin and grind the pulp in the mixer.
Strain it in a vessel and put the vessel on the burner to boil the
pulp. Add spices, salt and sugar according to your taste.
Payal: Wowl It smells so good. Should I strain it now in the
bowls?
Mother: Yes, now enjoy it.
Let us change the dialogue in 'reported speech'. You have to
use different reporting verbs and have to change the respective tense
into past. You know that present is changed into past and past is
changed into past perfect. You know that 'now' becomes 'then' and
'here' becomes 'there'.
Mother suggested Payal that they should make tomato soup.
Payal agreed happily as she had always wanted to learn that.
Mother suggested her to take six medium sized ripe tomatoes.
She asked her to wash and blanch them.
Payal told her mother that she had blanched them. She further
inquired her mother as to what should she do then.
Mother advised her to peel the skin and grind the pulp in the
mixer. She asked her to strain that in a vessel and boil the pulp.
She further suggested that she should add spice, salt and sugar
according to her taste.
Payal exclaimed happily that that smelled good.
Mother agreed with her and asked her to enjoy that.

Appendices 151

INSTRUCTIONS: Tell us about dos and don'ts in a particular
situation. Imperatives are used. They should be very clear without
any ambiguity and should be up to the point. Negatives are also
taught through instructions.
Here are some misleading instructions for using school library.
Write them correctly using 'don't'.
~ Read loudly.

~ Bang the door of the liJ,>rary every time you enter it.

~ Sit with your feet up.
~ Sleep comfortably here.
~ Eat your lunch here.
~ Disturb others.
~ Tear the pages of the book.
The first one is done for you.
~ Don't read loudly.

You can also write misleading instructions for using the lift
in your building and the correct them by using 'don't'.
With instructions using 'don't' we can also teach cause and
effect relationship. Here are some instructions for visiting a jungle
safari using 'don't'. In the first instruction, the reason for not doing
so is also given. Try to give the reasons for the rest of the instructions
using 'will', 'may' or 'might'.
~ Don't carry plastic bags, soft drink cans and bottles. [This
will pollute the environment].
~ Don't carry tape recorders or transistors. [This may disturb
the animals].
~ Don't throw biscuits or snacks in the forest.

~ Don't provoke animals.

~ Don't burst crackers.

~ Don't come out of the van.

~ Don't set fire in the forest.

~ Don't shout or whistle in the jungle.

~ Don't harm flora and fauna in the jungle.

Similarly, the learners can write instructions - 'dos' and
'don'ts' for visiting any place for picnic, trekking etc. or travelling
in a bus or train.


We can also teach 'if conditional' with the help of instructions.
This is useful for teaching cause and effect relationship. For
example:
~ If you carry plastic bags, soft drink cans and bottles, you
will pollute the environment in the forest.
~ If you burst crackers, you may frighten animals.

~ If you provoke animals, they might attack you.

~ If you set fire in the forest, you will destroy it.

Which of the following statements apply to you. Add 5 more
sentences in your list. Take one sentence and write a paragraph on
it.
~ I am a very serious student.
~ I am rather a bookworm.
~ I am more of a sportsman.

~ I study on a daily basis.
~ I study only during the exam times.
~ I do my homework regularly.
~ I never do my homework.
~ I attend classes regularly.
~ I prefer to sit in the canteen.

~ I make my own notes.
~ I prefer bazaar notes.
~ I am a very disciplined student.
~ College life is (or enjoyment and not for studies.
~ I participate in extra curricular activities.

~ I think sports are such a waste of time.

PUT ARTICLES, CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION
MARKS IN THE GIVEN STORY.
rich merchant and poor scholar were crossing river in boat
they got into conversation can you read and write scholar asked
merchant no replied merchant it is as if you have wasted half of
your life said scholar have you learnt to make money said merchant .
to scholar no said scholar to merchant then you have wasted three
fourth of your life said merchant boatman was listening to argument
now a storm arose and boat began to sink have you learnt how to
swim asked boatman no said both merchant and scholar 0 god then
your lives have been wasted replied boatman as boat sank in river.

Appendices 153

WRITING DIALOGUES
Here is a picture of two friends Gaurav and Saurabh. They
were classmates in the school. After schooling they went separate
ways. Gaurav went to America with his father. Saurabh completed
his education in Pune. Suddenly, both of them met outside a
departmental store after 15 years. Can you think of what would
have happened during these years? You have to think of the changes
in them, their present position and plans. Write a dialogue. First
few sentences are written here. You are supposed to add more.

Gaurav: Excuse me, if I am not mistaken, are you Saurabh
Pandya from Bhopal?
Saurabh: Yes, but how do you know me? I am afraid I don't
recognise You.
Gaurav: Oh, come on I am Gaurav Sharma, your friend at
Modem School, Bhopal. Have I changed so much that
you are not able to recognise me?
Saurabh: .................. [ now, add more sentences.]
WRITING PARAGRAPHS
Paragraph is the basic unit of writing skills.
Points to remember:
~ Paragraph should deal with a single theme.

~ It should unfold gradually and logically.


~ The ideas should be interconnected.
~ The writer must have a sense of the reader.

~ He should have a clear sense of direction with precision in
expression.
The learners should be given interesting topics to write
paragraphs and not the hackneyed ones. The topic should be
interesting, challenging and easily identifiable by them. For
example, we can ask our students to write on:
Were you a quiet or a talkative child?
.Have you changed very much in the last few years?
Have your parents affected your major decisions in life?
The learners should be asked to give their daily routine. The
teacher can give them some guideline such as:
When 1.............. . I usually.. .... .... .First of all I ..... .... .Then I
....... After that I .......... .
This helps them to organise their writing. This is very good
exercise to teach 'simple present tense.' They should be asked to
write the daily routine of their mother. This helps them to
understand the concord distinction the subject and verb agreement.
They learn to say '/ get up at 6 o'clock, while my mother gets up at
5 o'clock'.
We should expose the learners to descriptive, narrative and
expository styles.
We should begin with descriptive paragraph. It has very little
action. It helps in painting a word picture. We can ask them to
describe a person, place or a thing.
The teacher should give the learners a list of the adjectives
for describing people.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
Descriptive style: The perfect round dot of red sindoor, placed
in the center of the forehead is the most common adornment in
India. It is worn by both the married and the unmarried Hindu
girls and women. Colourful bindies in different shapes, shades and
sizes are available to adorn their forehead. The red sindoor put in
the parting of the hair is symbolic of their married status. In most
parts of India, an important custom of the marriage ceremony
consists of the rubbing of generous amount of sindoor on the bride's
hair parting by her husband.

Appendices 155

Narrative style: Everything seemed to stop: mist, river, sun,
falling leaves and the little boy too. In the next instant, he pulled
at the flowers, sat up and saw the bear, dark and huge, rising out
of the bushes before him. He uttered nothing, not even a gasp. We
were trapped in a shallow channel between the shore and a sandbar.
There was nowhere to flee, nor any way to give ground graciously.
We sat still and waited. The bear waited, too, a solitary mosquito
hovering over his head. I glanced behind to check our position in
the river, and when I looked back, the bear had vanished without
a trace, no twigs snapping, no outcry from the birds. It was quiet
and tranquil again.
Expository style: A planet is a body that orbits the sun or
any other star. The nine planets in our solar system divide into two
groups. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars from the dense and rocky
inner planets. Jupiter, Saturn and Pluto belong to the gaseous or
icy outer ones. The sun's huge gravitational pull holds the solar
system together, forcing the planets to circle the sun. The orbit of
the four inner planets lies close to the sun. Mercury, the nearest
planet to the sun is 100 times closer than Pluto.
DESCRIPTION: Our purpose should be to paint a word
picture. For this, one has to be a keen observer. We should involve
our senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste for description.
This is very important because we don't rely only on visual stimulus.
Other senses too playa significant role to enlighten the description.
The learners need to sharpen their senses to receive impressions
from outside and convey these impressions in their writing. This
makes the description authentic, concrete, interesting and original.
Description is good when we compare it with something appropriate
such as - it is hot as a furnace, it is bright as sun, it is soft as silk.
We can also compare people like - she runs like a deer, she is cool
like a cucumber etc.
While describing a thing we should begin with the size, shape
and colour. We should go in detail for the prominent features first
and then cover the less prominent ones. For example, the description
of an orange -
An orange is like a ball. There is hollow at the top. Its flashy
splash of orange colour makes it a delightful sight. It smells tangy.
It has rough sandy skin. It feels cold against skin. It is sweet and
sour in taste. A

Similarly, the teacher can exploit the objects available in the
classroom for description. They can be asked to describe the table,
chair, fan, blackboard. etc.


USE OF PICTURES: {description of place with the help of
passive voice.]
Rama has gone to Madras to attend a training programme.
She invited her friend Swati to stay at her place in her absence.
Meanwhile, Rama's mother visited her daughter's house. The poor
state of the house disturbed her and she reported Rama about it
on telephone.
> The curtains were not hung properly.
> The pictures were not stJ·aightened.
> The teddy bear was not put in its place.
> The clothes were not picked up and kept in place.
> The cushions were not put properly.
> Drawers were not closed.
> The lamp was not put in the right position.
> The papers were scattered on the carpet.
> The stool had fallen on the carpet.
> Books were not arranged properly.

---
> The carpet was turned up from the comers.
-

After listening about it Rama gets angry and calls her friend
Swati from Madras and instructs her as to what should be done to
bring it back to its original condition. She makes use of modals
must/ought/should etc. First two sentences are done for you. Write
other sentences.
> The curtains should be hung properly.
> The pictures must be straightened up.

Appendices 157
The same picture can be used to teach 'preposition' and 'wh'
question framing.
Where is the lamp? It is 2n the table.
DESCRIPTION OF PEOPLE:
Special features [physical]
Face: roundlovalllong/square.
Height: shortitalVmedium.
Health: slimlwell-builtJfatJplump.
Colour: fair/da!"klwheatish.
Hair: curly/straightJlong/shortJbald.
Eyes: blacklbrovvnlbluelgreen.
Nose: long/shortiflatJparrot like.
Eyebrows: thinlarch shapedl~cklbushy.

Lips: thinlthick.
Age: young/childl teenager/middle-agedl old.
In his/her earlyllate teens/twenties/thirties/
forties etc.
Looks: beautifuVugly/attractiveipresentableirepulsive.
Personality traits:
QuietJtalkativeisoft spoken/rude.
Adventurous/home loving.
Shy/out going/submissivelargumentative.
Ambitious/easy going/lazy/hard working.
Friendly/reserve.
KindlcrueVindifferentJcaring and loving.
CheerfuVdepressedlmoodylboring/interesting.
IntelligentJdulVmaturelimmatureidiligentJconfidentJdiffident.
Modern/old fashionedlorthodox/progressive.
PracticaVdreamy.


Dress:
Colour of the dress.
Style: sareelsalwar kurta/jeanS/skirt.
Peculiarities: handicapped - physical [deaf, dumb, blind,
lame], mental.
Use the prompts given below to build up a description
of a girl. Use simple present tense.
My neighbour's name /Aasthaisheltal1/slimlBengalil in her early
twenties.
Big brown eyes/long black hair/ friendly/sweet natured.
Usually wears saree today dressed in jeanS/shirt.
Although a serious studenti jovia1/good sense of humour/very
imaginativel writes poems. She likes sports/music/acts in plays.
I hopelwel not lose touch/each other/when course finish.
Task: 1. Describe some one from the class.
2. Describe Amitabh Bachchan or Neena Gupta.
We should ask them to write about a missing person whose ad
they have to give in a newspaper. For example:

MISSING:
Name: Shantanu. Age: 12 years. Height: 4 feet.
Complexion: dark. Built: thin, broad shoulders.
A short boy with curly hair, long nose, broad forehead, full mouth,
wears glasses, is missing since 12-10-2000. Speaks Marathi,
Gujarati and Hindi. Last seen wearing green shirt and blue jeans
and white sports shoes.
If anyone has any information regarding him please contact
Missing Persons Bureau or contact on 5463267.

USE OF PICTURES FOR DESCRmING PEOPLE
For the elementary level we should ask the learners to
describe the people [physical features only] in the picture. For the
higher level we can ask them to think of a situation and write a
dialogue based on the picture. They can even write a story on it.
Here is a picture of an old man and the child. Describe them.

Appendices 159

Here is the description of the child. Now, you should describe
the old man.
Shashwat is a young child of 12 years. He is of average height.
He is a sweet looking boy with a round face. His complexion is
wheatish. His eyes are black. His hair is short and combed neatly.
He is a healthy boy. He is dressed up in shorts and shirt. He is
bare footed. He seems to be friendly, loving and caring towards the
old people.
They can even playa game where one student has someone on
his mind and the rest of the students ask questions about that
person. This will help them to learn yes and no question framing.
Is it a man or a woman?
It is a woman.
Is she in politics?
No.
Is she in S:hOW business?
Yes.
Is she an actress?
Yes.
Is she tall and fair?
Yes.
Has she got coloured eyes?
Yes.
Is she a good dancer?


Yes.
Is she a talented actress?
Yes.
Is she Karishma Kapoor?
No. she is an internationally renowned person.
Is she Aishwarya Rai?
Yes.
These are the pictures of four people in different moods. Describe
them and try to explain the reason behind their mood in a paragraph.
You can write a story on the situation they are in.

WE CAN ASK THEM TO DESCRIBE A PLACE USING
SENSORY PERCEPTION. FOR EXAMPLE:
AN EVENING AT JUHU BEACH
I always look forward to an evening at Juhu Beach. The splash
of the vibrant colours is enchantingly beautiful. The expanse of the
steely grey sea, the yellow sand, the changing colours of the sky
from orange to crimson and the golden sun simply raises my spirit.
It is evening and the beach is crowded and noisy. The children
are shrieking, shouting, laughing and running around. The
screeching sound of the merry-go-round catches my attention. The
tingling of the bells tied around the neck of horses is musical. But,
the blaring music from the stalls is disturbing the peace.
I walk ahead. The wafting smell of hot batatawada increases
my appetite. The smoky smell of bhutta is very tempting. I gobble
hot spicy wada with the slurp of tangy coke. It's heavenly.
Contented, I walk towards the sea. The soothing murmur of
the waves is a welcome change. It is very quiet at this end. The
cold breeze caress my body. The waves lap at my feet. The cold
water tingles my feet. The sun is about to set. I cherish this magical
and glorious moment. I breathe deeply. Another day is gone.

Appendices 161

USE OF PICTURES FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLACE
Here is a picture of a vegetable market. Describe the scene
from the point of view of the woman standing in the crowd. Use
sensory perception [touch, sight, sound, taste and smell] to make
it authentic.

HERE ARE TWO PICTURES ONE IS OF CITY AND THE
OTHER IS OF A VILLAGE. DESCRmE THEM BY BRINGING
OUT THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE TWO:

162 'Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language

Shashwat lives in Mumbai. During his summer vacation he
went to Barnagar - a small village in MP to visit his grand parents.
He noticed the contrast between the city and the village life. He
was delighted to be in the company of nature: the river, clean air,
bright stars at night, simple and friendly people. He wrote a letter
to his friend Siddharth about this experience by bringing out the
contrast. We bring out contrast by using the linkers of contrast such
as - although, however, but, eventhough, though, inspite of, whatever,
whereas, moreover, while, nevertheless etc.
Insert the suitable linkers in the blanks.
Dear Siddharth,
Hope you are fine. This summer vacation, I went to visit my
grand parents at Barnagar, a small village in MP. What an
experience it was! The village life is so very different from the city
life. I thought I must share my experience with you. The sky was
so clear that the stars literally twinkle at night. ................ in the
city the stars are almost invisible due to the pollution. The village
is full of lush green fields swaying in the cool breeze ................. in
the city it is concrete jungle and no greenery. The chirping of birds,
the gushing stream and the flowing river has amazed me ........... in
the city, the deafening noise pollution gives you headache. I was
wonder struck by the natural beauty of the place and the simplicity
of the people. They are such selfless people ............ in the city,
people are so self centered. The slow lazy movement of bullock-cart
act as a lullaby............... in the city the life is so fast. The life is
so tranquil and peaceful in village, ............. given a choice, I would
live in a city................ difficult the life may be in a city, it has its
own advantages. .. .............. I liked the peaceful atmosphere there,
............ I missed the mad rush of the city. There are many
opportunities for growth in the city............... everything is available
at a price .............. the cut throat competition, there is a place for
everyone here .............. life in a city has its own problems ............ ,
I would prefer to live here.
The learners can be given pictures of different things, places
and people to teach them degrees and adjectives.
DESCRIBING A BOOK, A PLAY OR A FILM:
The activity should begin with discussion. It can be a pair or
group work task. Ask your friend about a playlbook lfilm s/he has
enjoyed recently.
Why did you choose it?

Appendices 163

What type of book/play and film is this? [suspense, tragedy,
comedy, family -saga etc.)
Where and when the story is set?
What is the plot?
Who are the main characters? What happens to them?
What is your opinion about it?
Give strong and the weak points of it. [direction, acting, music,
. story.)
Would you recommend it to others?
After discussion write a description of it. You can use the plan
given above and add few more points on your own.
THE LEARNERS SHOULD BE ASKED TO WRITE ABOUT
AN EVENT IN A NARRATIVE STYLE. HE CAN USE A FIRST
PERSON OR A THIRD PERSON ACCOUNT. HERE IS A
PICTURE, NARRATE THE INCIDENCE FROM THE VIEW
POINT OF A VIEWER:

They can write about an incident, which has frightened them,
the most. They can write about a memorable picnic! marriage or
some party. They can also write about an accident that they have
witnessed.

.
GIVING DIRECTIONS: In real life, there are many situations
where we have to give directions when people ask us about the
exact location of a place. This can be a listening task where the
learners should be given a map where they should mark the route
explained by the speaker. This is also an interpretative task where
the learners look at the map and try to reach their destination.
They can write a paragraph giving direction to the reader. As a
speaking task, the learners can give instructions/directions to their
friends on telephone or in a face to face conversation. This is a good
pair work exercise. The learner can be given situations such as an
arrangement of a party at their house for the celebration of a
birthdayl engagementi marriage anniversaryl promotion or getting
first class in exams etc. Slhe has to invite a friend who does not
know the exact location of the house and s/he should give the
direction to reach there.
HERE IS A PICTURE OF THE MAP TO REACH Ms. SHAlLA
SHASTRI'S HOME. SHE INSTRUCTS HER FRmND PREETI
TO REACH THERE. THERE ARE FOUR WAYS TO REACH
HER HOME. THE FmST ONE IS DONE FOR YOU. YOU
SHOULD THINK OF OTHER WAYS.
For example:
Shaila Shastri has bought a flat in Hastiraj Complex at Vile
Parle West, Mumbai. She is giving 'house warming' party for the
same. She invites her friend Preeti to her new house. Preeti stays
at Malad and she has not seen the place, Shaila gives her the
direction for that.
Get down at Vile Parle station. Come to the west-side. There
are four ways to reach Hastiraj. When you come out of the station
you will see two roads - L.N. Road and Bank Street running
parallel to each other. If you take L.N. Road, you'll come to the 1st
Street. Take right turn to come to B.V. Road. Walk straight till you
reach IV Street and there is Hastiraj.
The second way to reach it is -

Appendices 165

[:l' ~ .] iiil"
t Mh street

~
@
Play Ground

NehN Road 11>. Circle

~

~~
IIIrd Street

M~~_ ~ ~~9i.
~
o " parieiUs o;pcj(
--~
o CI
- .. Bank of India o ~

II
o
-~ m ~
0
I:L ...D. HoIpita

lind street
o--.n..
.. u

1
I a::
J z;
..J
8 fl....e5A [~
.~ 3~
1st Street
•
~lrool
Mrs. Shaila ShaStri
0-50. Hastiraj
OppoSite L.I.C. Circle.
Vile
Parte Bapu Vashl Road.
Station Vile Parle (West).

HERE IS ANOTHER INTERESTING ACTIVITY. TIllS CAN
BE GROUP OR PAIR WORK TASK. THE LEARNERS HAVE
TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM AND JUSTIFY THEIR
SOLUTION.
Five people are waiting desperately for a taxi.. It is very late
at night. It is 2 am. There is no other conveyance available till the
next morning. The last taxi. halts. But, it is full. Only one person
can be accommodated. Different people have different reasons for
going. The reasons are given below. You have to decide who should
go in that taxi.. Give reasons for your selection.
• Ananya is a doctor. He has to attend a patient, who is
seriously injured.


• Mrs. Panchal, whose daughter has delivered a baby and
is alone at home.
• Abhishek has to attend an interview early in the morning.
He needs the job very desperately because of the severe
financial problems at home.
• Mr. Joshi has to conduct the board examination in the
village early in the morning.
• Arunabh is a player. He has to participate in the final
selection match to be a part of the national team. This is
his last chance.
TRANSFER OF THE INFORMATION: This is an important
study skill. Here, the learners are expected to interpret the
information given in 'flow chart', 'bar chart, pie chart, graph, tree
diagram etc. They can discuss it with their friends and write a
paragraph based on it or they should transfer the written
information in the above mentioned charts and diagrams. We will
begin with Flow Chart.
Here is some information about the writer Ruskin Bond in
flow chart. Transfer the information in a paragraph.
FLOW CHART OF THE LIFE SKETCH OF RUSKIN BOND

Born in Kasauli, Himachal Pradesh in 1934.

At 17, won the John Llewellyn Rhys prize for 1st novel 'The
Room ON The Roof.

Sahitya Academi Award in 1992.

Short story- 'Flight of Pigeon' made into Hindi film "Junoon".

Other important works - 'Time Stops at Shanili, Tales and
Legends from India, The Road to Bazaar, Our Trees still Grow
in Debra, Delhi is Not Far, The Best of Ruskin Bond and Scenes
from a Writer's Life.

Honoured in 1999 with 'Padmashree'.

Lives in Mussoorie.

Appendices 167

Ruskin Bond, the famous Indo-Anglican writer was born in
1934 in Kasauli, Himachal Pradesh. His first novel 'The Room on
the Roof won-him The John Llewellyn Rhys Prize at the age of 17.
He was presented 'The Sahitya Academi Award' in 1992. His short
story - 'Flight of the Pigeons' was made into a Hindi film -
"Junoon' by the renowned director Shyam Benegal. It was a widely
acclaimed film. Some of the other works of Bond are - 'Time Stops
at Shamli, Tales and Legends from India, The Road to Bazaar, Our
Trees still Grow in Dehra, Delhi is not far'. Besides them he has
also written The Best of Ruskin Bond and Scenes from a Writer's '
Life. He was honoured with Padmashree in 1999. He lives in
Mussoorie.
Here, is a life sketch of the Hindi film musician Kalyanji of
the duo Kalyanji Anandji fame. The information given in the flow
chart is not sequenced properly. Write a paragraph based on the
chart in proper order.

1952, started career as a musician for the film Nagin

In 1993, formed -
.
under the baton of Hemanta Kumar.

Little Wonders to encourage child
artists.

•
In 1956, brother Anandji joins him on the films -
'Madari' and 'Satta Bazaar.'
y
In 1954, gave music for the film 'Samrat Chandragupta'
as Kalyanji Veerji Shah.
.
In 1974, got Filmfare and Sur Singar Sansad award for
the Music of 'Kora Kagaz.'
•
Died on 24th August, 2000 at the age of 72 years.
-~
Illtroduced talented singers like Alka Yagnik, Sadhna

..
Sargam, Manhar and Kumar Sanu.

,
.
Gave music for more than 250 films .

Born 30th June 1928 in Kundradi, Kutch.


TREE DIAGRAM is also used for the transfer of the
information. The written information is presented in the form of a
tree with its branches. The information given in the tree diagram
can be interpreted and written in detail. For example:
Types of Transport

land
* water Air
I
I
road
I
railway
I
ships planes
I
passengers goods
I I
passengers goods
I
overseas nationaVinter-
cargo national flights.

I
car,
I
trucks,
I
international
bus lorry routes

Interpreting the information given in the tree diagram:
TRANSPORT: Throughout history people have always desired
to move as quickly and as freely as possible. Human beings have
invented countless means of transport ranging from the invention
of a wheel to an airplane.
Basically, there are three types of transport. They are land,
water and air. Under land, there are road and railway. Both carry
passengers and goods. Passengers travel by car, buses and trains,
whereas goods are carried by truck, lorry and goods train.
As technology increased, the ability to travel became more
widespread. Water transport developed in the form of ships and
oversea cargo. They travel on international routes.
Air-lines offer faster services to passengers. They cover
worldwide destination and carry millions of people every day on
national and international flights.
HERE IS THE INFORMATION ABOUT THE MAIN TYPES
OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS IN INDIA. TRANSFER THE
INFORMATION IN THE TREE DIAGRAM:
In India the musical instruments can be divided into three
categories. they are:
1. The string instruments such as - sarangi and sitar.
2. The wind instruments such as flute and shehnai.
3. The p~rcussion instruments such as tabla and pakhawaj.

Appendices 169

We have many varieties of string instruments. They are
available in different sizes and shapes. Some of them are played
with bows. Violin and sarangi are played with bows. Some string
instruments are played with plectrum. For example, sitar is played
with a wire plectrum called 'mizrab', whereas sarod is played with
a wood plectrum.
The wind instruments need the player to blow the air through
his mouth in the instrument and produce notes. Some of the popular
wind instruments are flute and shehnai.
The percussion instruments are available in different sizes
and shapes. Tabla is the most popular variety of these instruments.
Tabla is played to accompany other musicians and is played solo
as well. Dhol is often used in dancing usually in folk dances. There
are other small percussion instruments made of metal, wood or
porcelain. These include different kinds of bells, little cymbals and
the jaltarang. All these instruments are essential part of India's
rich cultural tradition. They are described in our scriptures and
are also represented in sculpture and paintings.
This information can be taken to teach 'note making' an
important study skill.
Types of musical instruments in India:
1. string:
(a) sarangi, (b) sitar.
2. wind:
(a) flute, (b) shehnai.
3. percussion:
(a) tabla, (b) pakhawaj.
Manner of playing the instruments:
1. string:
1.1 played with bows:
1.1.1 violin. 1.1.2 sarangi
1.2 played with plectrum:
1.2.1 sitar, 1.2.2 sarod.
2. wind:
2.1 played with blowing air through mouth:
2.1.1 flute, 2.1.2. shehnai.

170 Communicatil1e Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language

3. percussion:
3.1 played with hands for accompaniment:
3.1.1 tabla, 3.1.2 pakhawaj.
INTERPRETING GRAPmCS AND DIAGRAMS is an
important study skill. The learners have to use it while writing
essays, assigI)ments and research papers for academic writing.
Graphic representation of the facts gives weightage and authenticity
to their writing.
TABULAR DATA: Here is a tabular information of a survey
conducted in the year 1980 on 50 girl students of class X of CNMS
school, Vile Parle, Mumbai, regarding their choice of profession
after doing SSC. The same survey was conducted in the year 2000
on the 50 girl students of the same school.
Table 1
Data of the survey conducted in 1980

Professions Police Doctor Teacher Engineer MBA Total
2 15 10 15 8 50
Table 2
Data of the survey conducted in 2000

Professions Police Doctor Teacher Engineer MBA Total
3 15 2 10 20 50
When we look at two or more tables we try to study different
points of view or analyse the statistical data. We can express our
observations by comparing them. These comparisons reflect
similarities and differences between them. When we compare we
make use of percentage to mention the difference. This is also
expressed with the help of linkers such as: however, moreover,
nevertheless, etc.
When we compare the two tables we realise the change in
attitudes towards the choice of professions. In 1980, 4% of the
students wanted to join police force whereas in 2000, there was a
slight increase of 6%. However, the choice of medical profession is
the same 30% for both the years: 1980 and 2000. This suggests
that the importance of doctors cannot be denied. If we look at the
preference for teaching, earlier 20 % of the students wanted to
take it up as a profession while in the year 2000 this has declined
to 4%. Perhaps teaching is not a very lucrative profession for the
young generation. In 1980, 30% students opted for engineering as

Appendices 171

a profession, whereas in 2000, there is decline in the choice of
engineering as a profession. Only 20 % wish to go for it. There is
a meteoric rise in the choice of management as a profession. Earlier,
only 16% of the students were interested in it. But there is a steep
rise in the percentage of the student for the choice of management,
which has increased to 40%. The students are more focussed on
management than in any other profession.
The students can be asked to conduct survey on their hobbies,
change in their eating habits, choice of cold drinks, choice of games
etc. They can put the information in the tabular form and interpret
it. Similarly, a detailed survey report can be tabulated.
PROPORTION to express proportion certain words are useful.
They are - all, almost, majority, most, many, about half, some,
few, a small minority, about a quarter, much less than etc. are
used. The following pie chart shows the result of the survey
conducted ob the 50 students of class X about their hobbies or
leisure time activities.
Fill in the blanks: Use the words given below in the bracket
As we can see from the following pie chart, we realise that
............... indulge in watching TV as their hobby. Just .............. of
them opted for pop music as their hobby. ................. mentioned
sports as their hobby. Only .............. opted for reading as their
hobby. We can ........... that majority of our students are ............. to
TV. It has definitely .............. their other activities. Sports, which
is very .............. for their ............. has taken a backseat. The students
are more inclined towards ............. recreation in the form oflistening
to pop music. This attitude may make them lazy. Unfortunately,
reading does not find an important place in their hobby list as only
10% percent have ............. this over other popular hobbies.
[a little over a quarter, a large majority of the learners, a small
minority, much less than a quarter, essential, preferred, addicted,
indoor, affected, conclude, growth.]


HOBBIES OF THE LEARNERS

Hobbies of the Learners

~ Watching T.V.

II Music
DSpofts
~Readlng

DIAGRAM INTERPRETATION:
You have to give a short speech on the -export import situation
in India. You have to make use of the information given in the
following bar chart. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words
given at the end of the paragraph. Use the correct form of the verbs.
The quantum of import and import by value [the figures on
the left refer to thousand crore tones] in the post-independence
India between 1960-61 and 1990-91 is shown with a chart. It is
............. from the chart that there has been a tremendous ........... in
both the import and export during the last 30 years.
DIAGRAM OF INDIA'S IMPORT EXPORT SITUATION

India's Import and Export
50

m Import

flJexport

1~1 1970-71

Appendices 173

Similarly, the noticeable point is that the .............. is always
more than the ............ Perhaps the reason for this is that India is
a developing country hence she .......... to ......... .... many capital
goods for ............. development. After independence many new
developmental projects .... .... ............. ........ ... and implemented. We
did not have the required machinery hence we had to .............. it.
Besides, we have to ... .... ....... to the needs of the ever-growing
population. We can .......... various types of machinery, chemicals
and chemical products, textiles, handicrafts etc. We need foreign
exchange to .............. our economic programmes. We should all .......... .
very hard. To keep the economy of the country .............. it is very
necessary that there should not be any difference between total
value of balance of trade and the import and export of the country.
[import, introduce, rise, efficient, obvious, export, boost, work, need,
industrial, cater]
LETrER WRITING: There are different types of letters -
personal, official /business, social etc. In personal letters, there is
no need to follow the norms of letter writing but, in official
correspondence one has to be careful as it acts as a document.
There are different types of official letters. We will begin with a
letter of application for job.
Points to remember: Be careful with the layout - proper
margin and spacing is very important. The letter should either be
typed or handwritten. It should be correct in all respects of spelling,
grammar, punctuation, language style: formal/informal. An official
letter should always be precise but not incomplete. Everything
should be clear and not vague or ambiguous. One should be truthful
about the given information. Coherence should be maintained. The
information should be properly sequenced.
A covering letter should be written, where the applicant should
highlight hislher qualifications, experience required for the job. Sf
he should mention hislher skills to enhance hislher contribution to
the job.
Bio-data should be enclosed with the application letter along
with the desired testimonials such as the copies of marksheets,
certificates etc.
Example of an Application letter in response to the following
advertisement:
'Wanted teachers for Science f Maths and English to teach class
X Required qualifiation: MA f MSc with REd. Apply with complete


Bio-data to the Principal, CNMS School, Andheri (west) before 15
February 2001'.

Ms. Geeti Sinha,
D.50 Hanuman Road,
Vile Parle [E.], Mumbai
6 January, 2001
The Principal,
CNMS School,
Andheri [W.], Mumbai.

Subject: Application for the post of teacher in English
Dear Sir,
With reference to the advertisement published in the column
of 'The Times of India' dated 2nd January, 2001, regarding the
vacancy for the English teacher in your school, I hereby wish to
apply for the post. I have done MA in English securing 62%
marks from the SNDT University, Mumbai. I have also done
B.Ed. from PVDT College of Education, SNDT University. I scored
70% in B.Ed.
I have worked in St. Xavier's High School in Vile Parle
from 1999 to 2000.
I am enclosing herewith my Bio-data and the testimonials.
I
I Given a chance, I promise to be a very sincere and hard
I working teacher.
I Kindly do the needful
Yours faithfully,
G. Sinha.
Enclosures:
Certificate of SSC.
Marksheet of XII,
-do- BA,
-do- B.Ed.,
-do- MA.
Experience certificate.

Appendices 175

BIO·DATA
Name: Ms. GEETI SINHA
Father's name: Shri ASHOK SINHA
Address: D. 50, Nidhi Apartments, S.V. Road,
Vile Parle [west], Mumbai-400056
Telephone number: 6715650
Date of birth: ' 6-1-1976
Marital status: Unmarried
Languages known: English, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati.
Educational qualifications:
Year Degree Name of the Subjects Division %
Institution
Board I University
1991 SSC Bombay Board, Marathi, Hindi, 1st 70%
Maharashtra English, all
compulsory
1993 HSC -do- Arts 1st 61%
1996 BA Arts and Commerce English [major), 1st 60%
College, SNDT Hindi, FC,
University History
1998 MA SNDT University English 1st 62%
Literature
1999 B.Ed. PVDT College of Special methods: 1st 70%
Education, SNDT History, English.
University, Mumbai
Extra-curricular activities:
Sports: Presented school in the National Kho-Kho game.
Working experience:
Name of the institution Nature of the work Time period
St. Xavier's convent. Teaching ~nglish 1999-2000
Vile Parle [west).
Mumbai.
References
1. Dr. A Vyas, 2. Shri Madhav Awasthi,
Principal, Journalist, Hanuman Road,
St. Xavier's School, Andheri [east],
Vile Parle [west), Mumbai.
Mumbai.


PERSONAL LE'ITER:
Function: Advice. Language: Use of modals.
Radhika got admission in MBBS. She wrote a letter to her
grandmother, who was delighted to get this news. As she got
admission in Bhopal Medical College, she has to stay in the college
hostel. Her grandmother promptly wrote back a letter to her
advising her about what should she do during her stay in the
hostel. You have to select the correct modal given in the bracket.
Mumbai, 20/1112000
Dearest Radhika,
I am really delighted to know that you got admission in MBBS.
Congratulations. You always wanted to be a doctor and this is the
first step towards your dream. But, you did not get admission in
Jabalpur Medical College. Anyway, you [ought/shouldlhave] to
stay in the college hostel. Never mind, it could be an enriching
experience provided you follow certain norms. You [must/should]
be careful while making friends there. You [must/ought/should]
follow the rules of the hostel. You [need not/ should not/must
not] disobey your hostel warden. You [must/ should/ought to]
make the maximum use of this opportunity and study hard. Don't
get into bad company. There are many attractions, but you
[shouldn't/mustn't/needn't] fall prey to them. Remember it is
your life you [have to be/should be] responsible towards yourself.
Heaps of love to you and congratulations once again for your
success.
Yours,
Ever-loving dadi.
LE'ITER OF COMPLAINT: There are many instances when
we need to write a letter of complaint to draw the attention of the
concerned authority to the existing problem. For example, the poor
water/electric supply in your area, or the nuisance of hawkers in
your society, or misbehaviour by an employee in an office, or you
are given a defective piece by the shopkeeper etc. In such situations
you have to write a complaint letter to get some action done to
rectify the mistake. If it is a social problem then this type of letter
can be addressed to the editor of a newspaper. If it is about
misbehaviour of an employee, it should be sent to the officer in
charge to take disciplinary action.
Abhishek Shastri
A-4, Rajnigandh!:l Society,
Vile Parle [W], Mumbai.
12 January, 2001.

Appendices 177

The Editor,
The Times of India,
Mumbai.
Dear sir,
This is to draw your attention to the problem of garbage in
our area. Piles of garbage are mounting up. It is impossible to live
with the stink. The air is completely polluted. It is creating a
serious health hazard for the residents. We cannot send our children
down to play in the ground as it is littered. We have complained
to the authorities in the municipal corporation. But no action has
been taken so far. Through your paper, I would like to draw the
attention of the concerned authority to take some action and make
the area livable for human beings.
Yours sincerely,

A. Shastri.
The learners can be asked to write letters of complaint for
different problems such as the 'sewage problem', 'non-functioning
of street lights', 'poor conditions of roads,' 'problem of traffic jam in
their area' etc. They can even write letter of complaint to the
principal about the 'poor quality snacks in your school canteen'
'non-availability of books in the library', 'the problem of drinking
water in the school' etc. This can be a group work activity and the
learners should discuss with the group members before writing the
letter.
REPORT WRITING is a very important writing skill. Reports
are documents that give an account of events that have occurred.
They also help us to examine a given problem in order to convey
information and findings. Reports are of different types such as
newspaper report, company report, project report, reports written
by the students about any event in the school etc. Survey reports
are the information tabulated and the reader has to interpret the
data. Basically, reports are of two types.
1. It gives plain information, a mere narration of the events
in a sequential order. It does not include the writer's
opinions. SchooVcollege annual function reports belong to
this category.
2. It gives writer's suggestions and opinions on the subject.
They usually deal with some problems such as accident
reports etc. In progress report also the suggestions of the
writer are included.


The teacher should begin with school functions report. The
learners are able to relate with this kind of activity. It can be a
group work activity. They should be allowed to discuss before
writing. The teacher must expose them to some good reports and
highlight the good points. The learners should be told about the
important features of report such as the chronological sequencing of
the events, the narrative style and the use of the past tense. In
official reports, passive voice is generally used because of the
objective nature of the content.
The learners can be asked to write a report on the 'Ganpati
Visarjan programme' or a 'Cleanliness drive in the school' or a
report on the 'Painting exhibition in the school' etc:
REPORT ON THE ANNUAL ·DAY FUNCTION
OF THE COLLEGE
This is a brief report of our college's annual day function
celebrated on January 23, 2001. The venue of the function was
Patkar Hall. The celebration was graced by Mr. Deshmukh, Deputy
Minister of Education. Maharashtra. He arrived at 9 am. He was
given a warm welcome by our principal Dr. Bhalwankar, and the
secretary of the college union. He was given a bouquet of flowers.
He was taken to the dais to light the lamp. Soon after followed the
'Saraswati Vandana' sung by the ltudents. Our principal gave a
welcome speech for our guest anc highlighted the achievement of
our college. Our college has beep judged the Best B.Ed. College of
the state for the year 2000-2C 01.
The programme started with 'Antakshari' a very enjoyable
event. The students presented a skit on the 'Hazards of pollution'.
It was highly appreciated by all. Then followed a debate on 'Should
women join politics or not'. The speakers came out with intelligent
and sharp comments. The debate was very thought-provoking and
generated a lot of discussion too. It was followed by group dance in
the form of ,garba' and 'koli dance'. The students then presented a
fashion show, which was appreciated by everyone. At the end, fancy
dress programme was presented. Everybody enjoyed this a lot.
The celebration came to an end with the prize distribution by
the chief guest. The chief guest made a short' and interesting speech.
He praised the students and the staff fOT their efforts and advised
to work harder to reach the goals in life. He congratulated the
college for the award and wished to get many more. Vote of thanks
was given by Dr. Waghmare. We were given snacks and tea. Thus
came to an end the programme we worked very hard for a month.

Appendices 179

The same programme can be used for glvmg running
commentary of the event. This can be used to teach simple present,
present continuous tense and present perfect tense too.
TIlE RUNNING COMMENTARY IS GIVEN THERE, BUT IT
IS NOT COMPLETE. YOU CAN LOOK AT TIlE REPORT
AND COMPLETE IT ACCORDINGLY.
Dear friends, I welcome you all on behalf of my college for the
celebration of our annual day. The weather is pleasant. The air is
filled with the enthusiasm of the students. All of us are waiting for
the arrival of our chief guest. He is expected any moment. Oh,
there is a commotion at the gate. I can see the car of our chief
guest. Now, he is coming out of his car. Our principal is receiving
him. The secretary of our college has garlanded him. They have all
come to the stage. The chief guest seems to be pleased. I can see
the students getting ready to sing the welcome song ........ .... ....... .
There is another extension of the same programme. The learners
should be asked to make an announcement of this programme before
the selected gathering.
Here is the programme
• 9.00 Arrival of the chief guest.
• 9.05 Welcome song by the students.
• 9.10 Welcome address by the principal.
Saraswati Vandana by the students.
• 9.20
• 9.30 Antakashari.
• 10.00 Debate.
• 10.30 Garba and Koli dance.
• 11.00 Fashion Show.
• 11.30 Fancy Dress
• 12.15 Speech by the chief guest.
• 12.30 Vote of Thanks.
• 12.40 Tea and snacks.
The teacher can suggest the learners to make their
announcement interesting.
They can use such phrases and sentences to make it interesting.


Welcome is followed by ...
And then we bring you the best talents of the college
presenting...
The debate will be presented on the burning issue to charge
the audience ...
Coming after this we have a colourful extravaganza ...
The most awaited programme of the day ...
Here is something to cheer you up ...
NEWSPAPER REPORT:
Points to remember:
Use of appropriate format and style to write.
Details of the incident.
Causes of the incident: negligence etc:
Outcome
Any other relevant detail.
Times of India, dated 25th August 2000
94 DIE IN HEAVY RAINS IN AP.
IAF SWINGS INTO ACTION.
Hyderabad [PTI], Indian Air Force swings into action to
evacuate people from marooned an as as torrential rain hits in AP.
Heavy rains left a trail of neath and destruction claiming 94
lives.
13 districts and 300 villages badly affected, normal life
disrupted.
IAF rescued 150 people perched on the rooftops. Hundreds
still stranded in flood waters. Panics CM Naidu. Grim and pathetic
situation.
IAF summoned to evacuate people from marooned areas in
the twin city.
The above notes are provided to you by a reporter. Use the
information to write in detail the report he wrote for <The Times of
India'. Do not add any new information.
The learners can also be asked to prepare headlines from a
long report.

Appendices 181

USE OF PICTURE FOR REPORT WRITING. HERE IS A
PICTURE OF 'GANAPATI VISARJAN SCENE'. YOU WERE
THERE TO ATTEND IT. WRITE A REPORT OF THE EVENT.

GUIDED COMPOSITION: The teacher should discuss the
topic in the class. Students should discuss in the groups and come
out with the main points. The sequencing of the ideas should be
decided and then they should write the composition.
Child centered education:
1. Every child is unique - need for child centered education.
Importance of individual attention.
2. Education an on going process - home - the first school,
neighbourhood, school, society, mass media [sources of
education] and their role.
3. School education: purpose not merely to impart knowledge
and information. Skills to be included too. Right values
cultivated.
4. Primary education completely free. Run by interested and
well meaning individuals.
5. Decentralising the whole system, ensuring a more viable
environment.
6. Enormous pressure on the child to assimilate large amount
of information.
7. Conventional teaching methods fail to develop wholesome
attitude in the child towards life. To make child an
autonomous learner.


8. Priority to be given to develop child's creativity or capacity
to appreciate the world around him.
STORY WRITING can be a very interesting and enjoyable
task. This can be an individual, pair work or group work activity.
We have to develop creativity and originality in expression in our
learners. We can make use of pictures to develop a story around
them.
Points to Remember:
~ Clear idea of the plot in your mind.

~ Rough outline of the story in your mind.
~ Proper sequencing of the events.
~ Use dialogues to make it natural and interesting.
» Conclusion is very important. It should be logical even if
unconventional.
It can be a group work activity. The teacher can give fIrst line
to start the story and ask the learners to develop it.
The teacher can also give a picture to the learners and ask
them to write a story.
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: In communicative language
teaching situation, the teacher aims at developing the
communicative competence of the learners. Oral communication is
the need of the day. When we communicate we have a purpose
behind it. This purpose serves the function of language. Every
language performs these functions in different ways. In each
language certain expressions are changed according to the
situations. This is because of the distance in social relationships.
We have to use formal or polite language to talk to the people
senior in position or age. But with our friends we are very informal
and do not follow politeness principle. We do not talk to our teachers
the way we talk with our friends. We have to be careful about
these situations. Otherwise a grammatically correct sentence can
be inappropriate in a particular situation. For example, if you use
the following sentence with your teacher: 'Hey, coming for the film
with me?'
You can very well imagine herlhis response.
Blundell [1982] suggests four important factors to decide the
formality and the informality of the situation. The setting: whether
it is a party or an official meeting.

Appendices 183

The topic: Whether talking about a film, or weather or
discussing the points of the meeting.
Social relationship: Whether talking to your friend or to
your boss in the office.
Psychological attitude: Friendly and relaxed or serious.
There is also a situation between formal and informal. It is
called semi-formal/neutral situation. Fo~ example, if you meet your
boss! principal in a party, you need not be very formal because of
the setting. But you cannot be very informal because of the distance
in relationship. So, you select a language style that is neither very
formal nor very informal. Remember in our speech we use
contractions such as I'll, I can't, I'd etc.
We will discuss some important functions of the English
language. To· teach these functions the best techniques are pairl
group work and role-play. The teacher should prepare the chits
mentioning the situations. The students should be asked to pick up
one chit. They should be given some time to prepare for it and then
present the situation doing role-play. Let us deal with some
important functions.
GREETINGS
Formal Informal
Good morning/afternoon hellolhi
How do you do? Hey, how are you?
Good bye! good night bye-bye, see you.
INTRODUCING SELF:
Formal:
You have taken up a new job. You introduce yourself to the
office in-charge or other colleagues in the office. You may begin
your conversation with any of the following expressions:
Excuse me, my name is ......... .
May I introduce myself?
Let me introduce myself.
Allow me to introduce myself.
Informal:
You have to attend a party at your friend's place .You do not
know many people around. You introduce yourself to other guests.
Hello, I'm ...
Hi, I'm ...
Excuse me, I'm ......... .


INTRODUCING OTHERS:
Formal:
A new colleague has joined your office. You introduce himlher
to others in the office.
I'd like to introduce our new colleague Mr.lMs ....... to you.
This is our new colleague .... ...... .
May I introduce our new colleague ......... ,
Let me introduce our new colleague ............. .
Allow me to introduce our new colleague ............ ..
Informal:
Your childhood friend has come to visit you. You take him to
a friend's party and introduce him to them.
Hey, look here, this is my friend ............ .
This is my friend ............ .
Meet my friend ........... .
I am delighted to introduce my best friend ......... .
In reply to introduction you can say:
Formal:
Pleased to meet you.
Congratulations, welcome to the Dept.
I'm glad to meet you.
Nice meeting you.
How do you do?
Informal:
Glad to meet you.
Hellolhi, how are you?
MAKING ENQUIRIES: There are many occasions in a real
life where we have to make enquiry. For example, at railway and
bus station we have to find about the trainlbus arrival/departure
time, fare, reservation, cancellation of the journey etc. Similarly,
we have to make enquiry at .school/college/hospitals and other offices
for different purposes. Given below are some expressions you can
begin with for the purpose of enquiry.

Appendices 185

Formal:
Excuse me, could you help me to know ............ .
I'm sorry to trouble you but could you tell me ............. .
May I bother you to tell me about .... .... .... .
Do you have any idea about ...... .... .
Could you please give me information about ........... .
Informal:
Have you got any idea about ... .... ?
Have you heard about ........ ?
Tell me about .... ...... .
Help me in finding .......... .
RESPONSE TO THE ENQUmy, IF YOU DO NOT HAVE ANY
INFORMATION:
I'm sorry I don't know.
I'm afraid I've no idea.
I wish I knew.
ASKING FOR AND GIVING DmECTIONS: While giving
directions try to be clear and brief. Mention the important
landmarks such as a theatre, hospital, bank, school! college etc. to
locate the place.
WHEN YOU WANT TO KNOW ABOUT THE LOCATION OF
A PLACE YOU MAY BEGIN WITH:
Formal:
Excuse me, could you please help me?
Could you please tell me the way to the Bombay Hospital?
How do I go there?
How far is it?
Informal:
Where is this Bombay Hospital?
How do I get there?


WBILE GIVING DIRECTIONS YOU MAY USE ONE OF THE
FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS:
Forma1linformal:
Tum to your left/right.
Walk straight till you come to the signallSBIlUTIIpost office.
The hospital is next to Regal theatre.
ASKING FOR PERMISSION: There are many instances
when we have to seek the permission of others to do things. The
learner has to seek the permission of the teacher to come in and
go out of the class. If we want to use a thing belonging to others
we have to take their permission. In such situations you can use
one of the following expressions to get permission.
Formal:
Can I take your pen please?
Excuse me could I use your pen?
Do you mind if I ......... ?
May I use ......... ?
Informal:
Can I borrow your pen?
Let me use your pen?
Would you give me your pen?
Giving permission:
Yes, certainly.
I can't see any objection.
Yes, by all means.
Sure, why not.
Not giving permission:
I'm afraid it is not possible.
I'm sorry I can't let you use it.
I'm sorry that is not allowed.
OPINIONSIADVICFJSUGGESTIONS: There are times when
we are confused and do not know what to do. In such situations we
talk to our seniors, friends to get their opinion or advice. Sometimes
we also have to suggest and advise others to deal with their
problems. When you are in such a situation you can make use of
the following expressions to begin the conversation.

Appendices 187

. You want to change your job/school/college but are confused
about it. You ask others for advice.
ASKING FOR ADVICE:
Formal:
Do you think I should change my present job/school?
What would you advise?
I'd like your advice on it.
Could you give me some guidance?
Would you recommend something for me?
I would appreciate your advice.
Informal:
What do you think am I right?
What do yeu suggest?
How do you see my decision?
Should I stick to the decision or not?
Give me some advice.
GIVING ADVICE TO DO SOMETHING:
Formal:
I would recommend your decision.
I think you should go for it.
I think you ought to follow your plan.
My advice will be to do so.
Informal:
Go ahead. That's a fantastic idea.
You are right. Just do it.
ADVISING AGAINST IT:
Formal:
I don't think you should go for it.
Give yourself some time or wait for sometime.
I wouldn't recommend that.
If you follow my advice, don't go for it now.


Informal:
Don't do that.
No, forget about it. It doesn't sound right.
You'd better not do that.
MAKING SUGGESTIONS:
Formal:
May I suggest?
Might I make a suggestion?
I would like to suggest for ........... .
We should consider another alternative too.
Informal:
Shall we go for a film! a cup of tea.
Let's go to the film.
How about a cup of tea?
AGREEING AND DISAGREEING: In real life there are
many situations where you do not agree with the Euggestions or
opinions of others. This is very common during discussions: personal
and official. Sometimes you are not happy with the decisions taken
by your parents about your future plans such as marriagelhigher
study/choice of jobs etc. Sometimes you agree with them and
sometimes don't agree with them. In such situations you can use
the following sentences to make your point.
Formal:
ASKING OTHERS TO AGREE TO YOUR PROPOSAL:
Do you agree to this?
Do you have any objection to the plan?
I wonder if you'd agree.
What do you say about this?
Informal:
What do you think of it?
Am I right?
Is it okay with you?

Appendices 189

AGREEING WITH THE SPEAKER:
Formal:
I entirely agree with it.
I have no objection to it.
I am of the same opinion.
Informal:
Yes, that's right.
You can take my word for it.
That's fine with me.
DISAGREEING WITH THE SPEAKER:
Formal:
I disagree with you.
I'm afraid I don't agree to it.
As a matter of fact I don't think so.
I agree only to a point.
Informal:
No, I don't agree at all with you.
It's impossible.
It's nonsense.
OFFERING: ACCEPTING AND REFUSING: In our daily
life there are so many instances where we offer help/ things/
invitation etc. to others. Sometimes these things are offered to us
by others. Sometimes we accept and sometimes we do not accept
them. In such a situation you can make use of the following
sentences according to your situation.
OFFERING THINGS AND HELP:
Formal:
Would you like my help?
May I help you?
Would you like a cup of coffee?
Shall I carry the bag for you?
Would you come to the party tomorrow?


Informal:
Do you need my help?
Feel free to ask my help anytime.
What would you have coffee or tea?
Take this pass for the film show.
Let me carry this.
ACCEPTING SOMETHING:
Formal:
Thank you very much. I need a cup of tea.
Yes please.
Yes, that's very kind of you.
Yes, if it is not inconvenient for you.
Informal:
Yes, by all means.
I'm looking forward to that.
Great! I'd love it.
REFUSING IT:
Formal:
No, please don't bother.
No, thank you.
Thank you for the offer, but I feel I can manage it.
Thank you but some other time.
Informal:
No, I don't need it now.
Don't worry, I'll tell you when I want it.
Don't bother I'll manage.

IREFERENCE I
• Blundell, Jon., Jonathan Higgens, Nigel Middlemiss. 1982. Functions
in English, Oxford University Press.

QQQ

Communicative approach to the teaching of english as a second language pratima dave shastri

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Viewers also liked (20)

Similar to Communicative approach to the teaching of english as a second language pratima dave shastri (20)

Communicative approach to the teaching of english as a second language pratima dave shastri