Communicative language testing

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TESTING

IDA B N MANTRA, Dipl. TEFL., SH., S.Pd., M,Pd
UNIVERSITY OF MAHASARASWATI
DENPASAR
20013

Teaching and testing
Teaching and testing have been understood as
two interrelated components. Many experts in
curriculum planning, teaching, and testing have
discussed the interrelationship between the two

Approaches to Language Testing
According to Brown (1996) there are three
movements of language testing approaches: the
psychometric-structural movement, the
integrative socio-linguistic movement, and the
communicative movement. Djiwandono (1996)
states five approaches of language testing: the
traditional, discrete, integrative, pragmatic, and
communicative approach

The traditional approach or essay-translation
is generally called the pre scientific stage of
language testing (Heaton, 1989). According to
Brown (1996) this approach is often related to
grammar translation teaching method. It is called
pre-scientific approach because there is no
requirement for the test designer to possess an
expertise, skills (language testing specialty such
as statistics, reliability, validity studies, etc.) the
theoretical bases, and knowledge when
constructing the test.

The discrete approach is influenced by
structural linguistics view in which language
consists of components (phonology, morphology,
vocabulary, etc), that make up a system
(language). Based on this view, the use of this
approach sees that knowledge of language
should cover the mastery of the language
components as a system (McNamara, 2000).
Oller (1979) states that the discrete movement
views that language can be learned through an
acquisition of one point of grammar at a time..

The integrative approach refers to a test that
seeks to integrate knowledge of systematic
components of language (pronunciation,
grammar, vocabulary) with an understanding of
context (McNamara. 2000). 1n an integrative test
language is not viewed in a discrete component
and isolated from its context. According to
Heaton (1989), the integrative approach does not
separate the skills like in discrete tests but
requires students to use more than one skill
simultaneously

The pragmatic approach refers to the approach
that concerns with the use of language in context.
Oller (1979) states that the approach involves
any tasks that asks students to “process
sequences of elements in a language that
conform to the normal contextual constraint of
that language”. According to this approach, the
meaning of language is best understood not only
through the use of language components such as
words, phrases, and sentences but also the
context where non-language factors emerges
such as noise, hesitations, gestures, etc..

The communicative approach, as defined by
Heaton (1989), is an approach that focuses on
how language is used in real communication. It
means using language as it is for multitude of
different purposes. To be able to use language
for different purposes in daily life, students
should know how to ‘use it appropriately.
This implies knowing “culturally specific
rules of use which related the language used to
features of the communicative context”
(McNamara, 2000).

Assessment, Measurement, Evaluation and
Test
The general public often uses the terms
assessment, test, measurement, and evaluation
interchangeably. The meanings of the terms, as
applied to situation in school, are explained in the
following paragraphs. At this juncture, there are
some important terms that recur throughout this
chapter. The following terms: assessment,
evaluation, measurement, test, reliability, validity,
formative assessment, and summative
assessment

Nitko (1983, p.4) defines assessment as a
process for obtaining information that is used for
making decisions about students, curricula and
programs, and educational policy. Measurement
is defined as a procedure for assigning numbers
(usually called scores) to specified attribute or
characteristic of a person in such a way that the
numbers describe the degree to which the
person possesses the attribute. Nitko (1983,
pg.8).

Evaluation is the application of judgment or
values, or both, concerning the result of
measurement or unquantified observation (Nikko,
2001).
Assessment is the ongoing process of
gathering and analyzing evidence of what a
student can do. Evaluation is the process of
interpreting the evidence and making judgment
and decision based on the evidence (Burke,
1999) (in Suyanto, 2003).
.

Tests also include production of various kinds of
products and performance of various skills.
Therefore, tests include all varieties of paperpencil assessments, the production of all kinds of
products, and the exhibition of all sorts of skills,
provided that the work is done under controlled
uniform condition.

Conception of Tests
Testing may be one of the “terrible”
terminologies in teaching learning process both
for teachers and students. Teachers usually do
not like to construct their own test and they tend
to use the available test which might not meet the
instructional purposes so that the result could be
disappointed. On the other hand, students see
the test as manifestation of their performance or
mastery of the materials taught and it will burden
them to prepare to the best of their knowledge.
To overcome these, both of them should realize
the importance of test.

a test can be defined as series of questions
which are administered to know the students’
performance or mastery of the material taught.
The value of the test itself is laid on the
completeness with which it tests the material
understudy or the material which has been taught
and the test administered is suitable with the
level of the testees. In this case, a good test
should be constructed as valid and reliable as
possible so that the result of the test can be used
as valuable or informative feedback both for
teacher and student..

Types of Tests
A.Djiwandono (1996:16) argues that
language tests can be differentiated to become
various categories based on ten criteria: (1) the
objective of conducting the test (2) when the test
is conducted, (3) how to do the test, (4) the ways
of constructing the test, (5) the number of
testees, (6) the answer form, (7) how to score, (8)
scoring interpretation, (9) language aspects, and
(10) language view or approach.

Types based on the Objective of Conducting
the Test
Based on the objective of conducting the test:
A. Djiwandono (1996:16) states that language
tests can be differentiated to become: selection
test, placement test, achievement test, diagnostic
test, and try-out test

Selection test is a test carried out to
select participants that fulfils certain
language requirements for a certain
program the participants are going to join.
Placement test is a test designed to place
students at an appropriate level in a
program or course that the participants are
going to take. The placement is
categorized in four levels: beginner, basic,
intermediate, and advanced (Djiwandono,
1996:17; Richards, Platt, and Platt; 1999;
Hughes, 199 1:14).

Achievement test is a test which
measures how much of a language
someone has learned with reference
to a particular course of study or
program of instruction. Therefore, the
content of achievement test is based
on bat has been taught (Djiwandono,
1996:17; Richards, Platt, and Platt;
1999; Heaton, 1989:172; Hughes,
1991:10).

A diagnostic test is a test designed to show
what skills or knowledge a learner knows
and does not know. This test is used to
know the learners’ skills or knowledge
before begir1ning a course especially the
strengths and weaknesses to determine
the instruction that will be conducted
(Richards, Platt, and Platt; 1999; Hughes,
1989; Djiwandono, 1996:18; Heaton,
198°:173).

Tryout test is a test which is carried out to
know whether a set of test craft has its
good characteristics. Using this procedure
a lot of information about the validity,
reliability, facility index, discrimination
index, and other important aspects of the
test like the time allotment, clarity of
instruction, etc. can be understood. Tryout
test can be repeated several times as
needed to achieve the best test that has
the best characteristics (Djiwandono,
1996:18-19).

Valette (1967:4) classifies language tests into
four types such as achievement, progress,
proficiency and prognostic test. Each type of
these tests is designed to measure certain
testing objective. On the other hand, Heaton
(1989:171) groups the test such as
achievement/attainment test, proficiency,
diagnostic and aptitude test. Commonly, these
two classifications are quite similar

1) Achievement Test
This type of tests can be subdivided into
class progress tests and achievement test. The
progress test is constructed to measure the
extent to which the students have mastered the
material taught in the classroom. This type of test
is usually prepared by the teacher himself and
the result of the class progress test is commonly
used to know each student progress and the
progress of the class in general..

2) Proficiency Test
The proficiency test is simply concerned
with measuring students’ control of the language
according to what he or she will be expected to
do with it in the future performance of a particular
task. Thus, proficiency test is not intended to
measure how much the student knows or general
achievement but specific skill in accordance with
prerequisite of a future course of study or job.
One of the well known of the proficiency test is
placement test which is widely used at the
college level to place the incoming students in
the light of their proficiency.

3) Diagnostic Test
Diagnostic test is utilized to diagnose
the areas of difficulties so that appropriate
remedial action can be taken later. Although the
term diagnostic test is widely used, few tests are
constructed solely as diagnostic tests. Commonly
there are some tests which can be applied for
diagnostic purposes such as phoneme
discrimination test, grammar and usage tests and
certain controlled writing tests. Moreover,
diagnostic testing is frequently carried out for
groups of students rather than for individual if
only one or two students make a particular error,
the teacher will not pay to much attention.

6.2. Types based on when the Test is
conducted
The types of test which are classified
according to when the test is administered or
conducted are divided into five sub-tests:
entrance test, formative test, summative test,
pre-test, and post-test.

Entrance test is a test carried out before a
teaching program begins. It is to
select/determine whether a candidate can
be accepted as a program participant
because he/she has the required language
abilities. This test is constructed based on
the program which is going to be carried
out and joined by the test takers. The
criteria of being accepted should be on the
basis of the minimum ability required to be
able to join the program and the number of
students needed (Djiwandono, 1996:19).

Formative test is a test given during
a course of instruction and which
informs both the students and the
teacher how well the student is doing.
This test only includes the topics that
have been taught (Richards, Platt, and
Platt; 1999).
.

Summative test is a test given at the
end of a course of instruction which
includes all the topics that have been
taught during the program. The
purpose of this test is to know the
progress of teaching-learning program
as a whole (Djiwandono, 1996:20;
Richards, Platt, and Platt, 1999).

Pre-test is a test given before the
teaching program to see the students’
ability at the beginning of the teaching
program. The result of this test is used
to see the students’ progress at the
end of the program. The progress can
be understood from the difference
between the result of the post-test and
the pre-test.
.

The post-test is a test given at the
end of a program to see the progress
of the students of the language ability
compared to the result of the pre-test
(Djiwandono, 1996: 20-2 1; Richards,
Platt, and PlaIt, 1999.

3. Types based on How to Do the Test
The test types according to how to do the
test are classified in two categories, that is,
written and oral tests.

Written test is a test which requires the test
participants to answer in written form the
questions of which can be either written or oral.
The emphasis in this type of test is the answer of
the test not the questions. Although the questions
are written, when the answers required are oral,
this test is categorized oral test (Djiwandono,
1996:21-22).
.

4. Types based on the Ways of Constructing
the Test
Based on the ways of constructing the test, there
are two types of test, that is, teacher-made test
and standardized test.
Teacher-made test is a test developed by a
teacher or test constructor mainly to see the
students’ learning progress. This test is
constructed without using a complete procedure
to see its good characteristics such as validity
and reliability.
.

Standardized test is a test which has been
developed from tryouts and experimentation to
ensure that it is reliable and valid. The procedure
of constructing a standardized test is followed in
order to meet the required good test
characteristics (Djiwandoño, 1996: 22-24;
Richards, Platt, and Platt., 1999).

(5) Types based on the Number of Testees
According to the number of testees taking
the test, test types are divided into two, namely,
individual test and group test.
Individual test is a test given to each individual
testee by one or more examiners..
Group test is administered to a group of testees
at once just for the sake of practicality of time
and human resources. Speaking test can be
administered both individually or in group
depending on what aspects of language abilities
are going to be evaluated (Djiwandono, 1996:2425).

6. Types based on the answer form
From the point of view of the answer forms,
test types can be grouped into three: essay test,
short answer test, and multiple choice tests.
Essay test is a subjective test in which a person
is required to write an extended written piece of
text on a set topic. Short answer test is a test
which requires the testees to write the answer to
a question briefly either in phrases, single words,
letters, or number. Multiple choice tests is a test
which requires the testees just to choose the
answer to the question by circling, crossing,
putting a tick, or other similar sign to the correct
answer from several alternatives.

7. Types based on How to score
On the basis of how to score, there are two types
of test: subjective test and objective test.
Subjective test is a test of which the scoring of the
answers is influenced by the impression and the opinion
of the rater. The answers to the subjective test are usually
in free expressions of sentences, paragraphs, or essays.
Objective test is a test of which the scoring of the
answers can be done objectively using answer key, so
there is no subjective opinion, or impression given, by the
rater to score the answers, The objectivity of the test lies
in how to score the answers that can give the same result
even though it is done by different raters, or by the same
rater in several different time. This scoring can be done
by using answer key consistently

8. Types based on Scoring Interpratation
According to the scoring interpretation
Brown (1996:1) argues that there are two families
of tests: norm-referenced test (NRT) and
criterion-referenced test (CRT).
A norm-referenced test (NRT) is designed to
measure global language abilities, for example,
overall English language proficiency, academic
listening comprehension, reading
comprehension, etc. In NRT the students’ scores
are interpreted relative to the scores of all other
students who took the test

A criterion-referenced test (CRT), on the other
hand, is designed to measure well-defined and
fairly specific objectives. These objectives can be
specific to a particular course, program, school
district, or state. The students’ scores are
interpreted absolutely in the sense that each
student’s score is meaningful without reference
to the other student’s. A student’s score on a
particular objective shows the percentage of the
knowledge or skill in that objective that the
student has learned.

9. Types based on Language Aspects
Based on the language aspects criteria,
test types are classified into three: language
proficiency test, language competence test, and
language component test

Language proficiency test is a test of language to
see whether the testee has the ability and talent
to learn a language. Therefore, this test is.
Administered before the language program
begins. .

Language competence test is a language test
used to see the real language competence of the
testee at the time of the test without relating the
test with other things like the length of time
he/she has learned. The content of the test is not
related to a specific language program.
Language competence test can be in the forms
listening comprehension test, reading, speaking,
and writing.

Language components test is a
language test which views language
as consisting of separated
components, therefore, the test
consists of structure, vocabulary, and
pronunciation tests (Djiwandono,
1996:33).

10. Types based on Language view or
approach.
According to the view of language,
Djiwandono (1996:34.36) states that there are
four types of test: discrete language test,
integrative test, pragmatic test, and
communicative language test.

Discrete language test is a language test which
views language as separate components.
Discrete point tests are based on the theory that
language consists of different parts (e.g.
grammar, sounds, and vocabulary) and different
skills (e.g. listening, reading, speaking, and
writing).

Integrative test is a test that combines the use of
several language skills and components at the
same time.
Pragmatic test is a test used to seethe language
competence of the testees about the use of
language in context.
.

Communicative language test is a test of
learners’ language performance in
meaningful/real life situations. This test does not
only test the learners’ competence, that is, what
the learners know about the language and about
how to use it, but also to the performance, that is,
to what extent the learners are able to actually
demonstrate in a meaningful or real life
situations.

THANK YOU
SUKSMA
for your attention!

OM SHANTI
SHANTI
SHANTI OM

Communicative language testing

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