complete note of Casework

Methods of Social Work
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Chapter 1
Getting Started
1. Social Work Review
2. Methods of Social Work
 Primary methods
 Secondary methods

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Social work review
The first thing that anyone wants to know about a
subject is its definition, but definitions often have little
meaning until one has some comprehension of the larger
area within which a part is to be described. The definition
of social work has already been described in the previous
classes as “social work is an art, science and profession to
help the person with their problem to solve them and obtain
the better social living and relationship”. There are many
other definitions given by different writers which are
prevalent for the academic study. These definitions are
basic beginning of the social work which is not enough to
understand the complete phenomenon of the social work
practice. Since social work itself cannot be understood
without knowledge of its characteristic problems,
objectives, and methods, these will first be given
consideration towards their understanding through different
methods. To understand the social work in detail one need
to be familiar with the methods, techniques, practices and
other various integration of the social work.
Methods of social work
Social Work methods are purely professional
knowledge, not barrowed from any other disciplines. It is
also called social work practice. These methods and
application differentiate social work and many others social
sciences that base mere on theoretical knowledge. For
instance, sociology, psychology, anthropology and
philosophy all lack specific methods like social work
although having well advanced theory. A method is well
understood to be an orderly way of procedure and therefore
it is always carried out towards achievement of a specific
aim. Social work methods is such method that social
workers use to help people of all ages and from various
sections of society to enhance their social functioning and
to cope more effectively with their problems. Social

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workers don’t pick and choose what problems and issues
they would like to address. They see a problem even a very
difficult problem, and try to help people solve it. They must
prepare themselves to help people with individualized
personal problems on the one hand and very broad
problems that affect whole organizations and communities
on the other. Methods of social work are grouped as
primary method and secondary method.
1.Primary method
These are that systematic and planned way of
performing an activity, which is fundamental to Social
Work. These are just like roots of social work, which give
birth to other branches.
1.1 Social Case Work
1.2 Social Group Work
1.3 Social Community Organization
2.Secondary method
These are secondary because it facilitates the primary
methods. There are also the derivatives of primary
methods.
2.1 Social Research
2.2 Social Action
2.3 Social Welfare Administration
These methods are the important part of social work that
makes social work practice different than any other
theoretical knowledge. Among these methods primary
method will be the first method which will be elaborated
and theoretically understood their concepts, techniques,

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principles and processes. Each of the methods have
different types of principle, techniques and process while
intervention procedure for the elimination of the problems
of individual or group. The above mentioned methods will
be elaborated in next chapter.

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Chapter 2
Social Casework
1. Historical Evolution of Social Case Work
2. Concept of social case work
3. Definition of Case work
4. Principles of Case work
5. Component of Case work
6. Stages and phases of Case work
7. Tools in Case work
8. Techniques of Case work
9. Supportive and Psycho-social counseling
10.Concept of Family
11.Roles of Family
12.Family Dynamic
13.Recording

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Historical evolution of social casework
Social casework is a method of helping people
individually through a one-to-one relationship. It is used by
professionally-trained social workers in social work
agencies or organizations to help people with their
problems of social functioning. Problems of social
functioning refer to situations concerned with social roles
and their performance. Though social work as a profession
is a product of the twentieth century, social work as a
helping activity is as old as mankind.
Historically, charity and philanthropy have always been
concerned with religious, educational, and personality
building activities, as well as with the relief of destitution.
There have been always in every society, though in small
numbers, people who were interested in helping others.
There were individuals who were known to be receptive
and responsive to the needs and difficulties of their fellow
human beings. These helpers who existed in every period
of human history were the precursors of the modern social
worker, who uses casework to help people in trouble.
The practice of casework is humanistic attempt for helping
the people who have difficulty in coping with the problem
of daily living. It has been in practice since ancient time on
different basis of charity, philanthropy, individual help etc.
Beginning of social casework in west and east
Individuals in every society right from ancient times
were helped by others to solve their problems. All religions
encouraged the helping of the poor and helpless people.
However it took professional shape in the late 19th and
early 20th century. The social work of St. Vincent de Paul
in the 16th and 17th centuries and of Ozanam in the 19th
century was considered remarkable in the history of social
case work. They help the people through the art of friendly
visiting to individualize people at home. German systems
of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, directed perhaps

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more to the control of mendicancy than to the study of
individuals, nevertheless yielded data on social conditions
and on behavior. Edward Denison, Sir Charles Loch,
Octavia Hill, and few of the English leaders, developed to a
high point the theory and practice of personal service,
personal responsibility, and careful study of each case.
Later on, Mary Richmond set out the first rational and
systematic approach to the analysis of individual social
situations.
Early Beginnings
The Association for Improving the Condition of the
Poor (A.I.C.P.) formed in America in 1843 approached the
problem of poverty more individually than had been
previously it was. The aims of A.I.C.P. were to visit the
poor at homes, to give counsel, to assist them practically in
obtaining employment, to instill in them self-respect and
self-reliance, to inculcate the habits of economy and
whenever absolutely necessary to provide such relief as
should be suited to their wants. The first professional
School of Social Work was the New York School
established in 1898. The establishment of this institution
indicates that social work had sufficiently large body of
knowledge and skills by that time. Further the need was felt
for better trained professionals as complicated modern
problems could not be handled in traditional ways.
Charity Organization Society
In 1877 USA established American Charity
Organization Society. One of the aims of the society was to
find out the ways and means of helping the poor and needy
and thus to organize individualized service. The society
used volunteers called “FRIENDLY VISITORS”. They
were kindhearted volunteers who visited poor families to
assess their needs and to provide help, guidance and advice.
They made their visits in act of charity and not expecting

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any monetary rewards. They collected data about the needy
individuals and families and helped them after assessing
their needs.
Friendly Visitors replaced by Paid Agents
The term Friendly Visitor was replaced by “Paid
Agents”. The term Friendly Visitors was subsequently
supplemented by the term “Paid Agents”. These Paid
Agents developed systematic procedures in performing
their task. They collected data about the needy individuals
and families and helped them after assessing their needs.
Paid Agents also maintained records including personal
data and the type of help given to clients. The collective
experience of Friendly Visitors and Paid Agents facilitated
the understanding of human behavior. With the
development of Schools of Social Work, Friendly Visitors
received training and instructions about the method of
investigation, diagnosis and treatment from experienced
social worker.
The first training program for the casework
The first training program for the casework started
during 1914-1917. Casework at this time was based more
on medical model. For some time casework was only
confined to sick persons, i.e. a sick person to be treated was
the priority. The term “work with case” was used for the
first time in national conference in USA. The first
professional training program especially for the casework
was started in the form of summer training. The impact of
this training program resulted in the need for more
substantial training and schools of social work attached to
the agencies came into existence. When these schools
started regular training program they were recognized as
professionals in social casework
Mary Richmond and Francis McLean offered specialized
service to thousands of clients. Social casework journal of

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family service association grew out of efforts of this great
pioneer movement. The first book in case work “Social
Diagnosis” was published in 1917 by Miss Richmond.
They introduced the principle of individualization and
clients rights to self-determination. Richmond found that
diagnosis is a process consisting sequence of steps in order
to facilitate the worker to arrive finally at his/her definition
of social situation and personality of client.
During 1920s
At this time caseworker adopted the new
psychoanalytical approach to understand the client and
their problems. These caseworkers found the
psychoanalytical theory and the concepts in psychology
very useful in casework movement. This psychoanalytical
theory was given by Freud and known as Freudian
psychology made strong impact on casework. Thus it was
the era of psychiatric development of social work. Focus of
caseworker was on psychic forces within the individuals.
Professionals also began to move into other fields like
prisons, school, etc. Gradually several schools of thought
developed with many points in common and number of
differences. These schools were based on the theory of
Sigmund Freud and Otto Rank.
During 1930s
It was the era of sudden changes in life-style that lead
to economic depression. Casework had to consider the
economic factors, which were causing distress to the
clients. It was realized that economic distress could lead to
emotional disaster and breakdown. The social and
economic need of great differentiation refocused
sociological and reality consideration for social work and
compiled action on the part of federal government. At this
time many work programs such as federal emergency relief
act, the work progress administration, the public work

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administration and the civilian conservation corporation
emerged. Thus major outcome of the depression was
establishment of governmental public assistant program. It
relieved the voluntary agencies from the task of providing
economic help. Caseworker was able to devote more time
in dealing with clients inter personal problems.
During 1940s
Case workers were exposed for formulation of ego;
psychology based on observation of human characteristics.
During the war there was increase in personal problems on
the part of clients due to financial crises. Emotional
problems also increased. To meet these needs and to solve
these problems family agencies were started. Later on,
some casework theoretician began to examine sociological
concept like social roles, social systems, social class etc.
This shifts the focus from self to social setting.
Caseworkers are now more aware of their own contribution
to human welfare. As a profession it has now gained more
popularity. One of the current trends is increased stress on
the importance of research. Also there is growing
awareness that personality and environment are
interdependent.
American influence in India
American casework influences the use of casework in
India as the first professional social work. i.e. casework
started in India. This was done by American School of
Social Work. The content of casework was taught as the
course. In 1936 Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate school of Social
Work, now known as Tata Institute of Social Science
(TISS), was started to impart training to those who had a
University degree in the field of social service. Thus, the
training for the social work was changed into a full time
career oriented educational program. Casework as a

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theoretical course and as a method of practice in the
academic program started from the year 1946.
Development of casework in Nepal
The literature of every religion contains the names
and activities of teachers and sages who gave of themselves
and their resources to help others. The ancient Hindu
Shastras and the Buddhist philosophy of Nepal emphasize
the activity of dhana or giving. There are different stories
of Gautama Buddha who was born in Nepal tells of his
kindness and understanding of the individual which led to
the transformation of a prostitute and a murderer.
Buddhism help should be given to relatives and friends.
Thus, one can see that casework, in its limited meaning of a
helping activity existed from time immemorial. But
casework as a professionalized activity is an event or
happening of the 20th century, and in this development, the
focus of concern has been people in some kind of distress
and who cannot help themselves.
As a profession the development of casework was
influenced by India. The training for the social work was
changed into a full time career oriented educational
program. Casework as a theoretical course and as a method
of practice in the academic program started from the year
1996. Initially social casework was practiced in relatively
few agencies and institutions but nowadays social casework
is practiced in many agencies, institutions and organization
such as hospitals, clinics, courts, industry, military
organization, family welfare agency, child welfare agency,
institution for the aged, destitute, orphans etc.
Concept of Social Case work
Social case work is a primary method of social work
which is concerned with the adjustment towards the
satisfying human relationship, better family life, improved

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schooling, better medical facilities and better relationship
between religious groups. Social Case Work is one of the
basic methods of professional social work which is
concerned to help and assist individuals, in finding
solutions to their problems. This will help the people or
individual in his /her adjustment and development.
Sometime due to certain internal or external factor an
individual fails to use existing facilities. In such situation
social case worker helps him to gain his strength back and
overcome the malfunctioned situation of the sufferer. Thus,
social case work is one to one relationship with the person
which help individual for his/her adjustment and
development. It is the systematic way to handle person with
the problems. A person with problem comes to a place
where social worker who is called as social case worker in
this context helps him through well-defined process.
Case work, is indispensable as a foundation for social
planning and social action. It has the same philosophy but it
has not the same techniques. The social case work is
carried out through its five components which are person,
problem, place, process, professionalism. These
components can be shortened as p5 for the easy
understanding. Each components stand for their own
property and function in the case work method.
Person: An individual may be man, women, girl, boy, old
aged, children, handicapped, etc.
Problem: Worst situation related to social, economic,
psychology, drug abuse, politics etc.
Places: It can be office, hospital, clinic, welfare center,
rehabilitation, etc.

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Process: Case study, social study, problem identification,
intervention, evaluation, etc.
Professionalism: The faithful and honest relationship with
client and agent.
Thus, in the social case work a person with problem
comes to social case worker to get rid of the problem and
the social case worker uses various methods or process to
solve the problem of a client. The relationship between the
two people is always professional and faithful in nature.
The aim of the social case worker is to help people or
family to mobilize their capacity for the solution of
problem that brought them to the agency. The internal and
external forces of the client are motivated in such a manner
so, that the client may solve his problem. Social case
worker does not make a person entirely free from his
problem but helps to be free from these problems through
his assistance.
Definition of social case work
The process of social case work involves the study of
individual problems in its total setting. It is concerned with
the understanding of individual as the whole personalities
and the adjustment of the individual to socially healthy life.
As a method of social work, it involves a very careful
observation of a problem. Social case wok has been defined
in various ways by various writers.
"Social case work consists of those processes which
develop personality through adjustments consciously
effected, individual by individual, between men and their
social environment."
Mary Richmond (1922)

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"Social case work may be defined as the art of doing
different things for and with different people by
cooperating with them to achieve at one and the same time
their own and society's betterment."
Mary Richmond (1917)
“A process used by certain human welfare agencies to
help individuals to cope more effectively with their
problems in social functioning.”
Helen Harris Perlman (1957)
“An art in which knowledge of science of human relation
skills in relationship are used to mobilize capacities in the
individual and resources in the community. Appropriate for
better adjustment between client and all or any parts of his
total environment.”
Swithun Bowers
“Social case work is the method of affecting the
understanding of the needs, resources and reactions of the
individual.”
Robert Lee Barker
“Social case work is the art of helping an individual in
developing and making use of his/her personal capacities
to deal with problems which he/she faces in his/her social
environment”.
Dr. Jonathan Swift
“Social case work which is both a tool and area of work
consists of processes which develop personality through
adjustment consciously affect individual by individual
between man and his social environment”.
Gordon and Hamilton

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Thus, the social case work is both art and science of
resolving individual problems in social area, for individual
and society are interdependent and social forces influence
behavior and attitude of an individual. The above definition
explains the understanding of the social case work in
relation to the society and individual with respect to their
surrounding and the social forces.
Objectives of Social Casework
The social case work is fundamental beginning of the
social work which has different objectives, behind this
social case work. Every methods of social work have
certain objectives that seek to fulfill by implementing
different process of intervention to the individual. Some of
the objectives of the case work can be understood by the
following points given below.
1. To understand, identify and solve the internal and
external problems of an individual.
2. To strengthen the power of client.
3. Look the problem in problem solving process.
4. To help people to use his/her capacity to solve
problem.
5. To bring the adjustment between the individual and
his situation.
6. To develop individual personality.
Basic Assumptions of Social Casework
The main work of social casework is to enable an
individual in solving a problem through self-efforts. The
social worker’s job is to provide adequate help and
guidance. According to Hamilton the chief assumptions of
social casework are:

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1. Individual and society are interdependent and
complimentary to each other.
2. Various factors operative in the society influence
human behavior and attitude.
3. Some problems are psychological and some are
interpersonal in nature.
4. In the process of social casework conscious and
controlled relations are established for achieving its
aims.
5. Social casework enables an individual to solve his/
her problems by channelizing his/her energy and
capacity positively.
6. Social casework provides everyone equal right to
progress. It also provides help to every needy and
disabled person.
Philosophical Assumptions
The ultimate goal of social casework is to establish
harmonious relationship between individual and the society
to which he belongs. According to Grace Mathew there are
certain assumptions, which constitute the fundamental
structure of social casework. They are generated out of the
collective thinking and traditions in casework. These
philosophical assumptions are:
1. Every human being has to be considered as a person
with dignity and worth.
2. Human beings are interdependent and it governs
their interaction in social groups.
3. There are common human needs for growth and
development of individuals. The existence of
common needs does not negate the uniqueness of
individuals. Every individual is like all other human
beings in some aspects and like no other individuals
in certain aspects.

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4. Every individual has within him/her, the potential
for growth and achievement and he/she has a right
to the realization of this potential. From this it
follows that people has capacity to change.
5. Society has an obligation to help those who do not
have the means for the realization of their
potentials.
Characteristic of the social case work
The character shows the nature and the quality of the
work that has to be with in the process of solving the
problems. The different natures of the social case work are
mentioned below:
1. One to one relationship
The relationship between client and case worker is
one to one relationship.
2. Professional in nature
The relationship between client and case worker is
always professional in nature.
3. Goal oriented
Case worker is always oriented towards their goal.
It is always oriented towards solving the problems of
the clients. This will help client to develop personality
in the society.
4. Process
Case worker is always goal oriented and to attain
goal, social case worker has to follow the definite
process or methods for solving problems like
identification of problems, diagnosis of problems and
treatment.

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5. Client centered / focused
All the activities in case work is always focused
towards client. This client centered activities help the
client to solve or get rid from his/her problem.
6. It is an art or skill
Problem solving is also one of the art or skill of
case worker various problem solving technique are used
by the social case worker to strengthen the client’s
capacities.
7. Practice in specific setting
This case work is practiced in specific setting and
specific place like counseling center, juvenile home,
hospitals, rehabilitation center etc.
8. Client and case worker are interdependent
In social case work, case worker and client are
interdependent to each other. Case worker help client to
solve problems. But without client case worker doesn’t
have existence. Thus, their relationship is taken as two
sides of the same coin because without one the
existence of another is impossible.
9. Improvement of condition
Social case worker help the client to improve his
social, psychological and emotional condition.
10. Proper use of tools and techniques
In social case work different tools are used to get
required information about the client and his/her
problems. The frequently used tools are home visit,
interview, observation etc. Similarly, proper use of
technique like counseling, diagnosis, treatment etc. and
tools helps to solve problems of the client.

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Principles of the Case Work
The principles of social casework are applied in
establishing close relationship between social caseworker
and the client. Relationship is the medium through which
changes are brought in the behavior and personality of the
client. The term relationship in social casework was used
for the first time by Miss Virginia Robinson in her book,
“A Changing Psychology in Social Case Work” in 1939.
Thus the purpose of establishing relationship is to help the
client with his/her psycho-social needs and problems. The
relationship between caseworker and client may be more
strengthened by using certain principles.
1. Principle of individualization
No two persons are alike in all qualities and traits.
Their problems may be the same but the cause of the
problem, the perception towards the problem and ego
strength differs in every individual. Therefore, each
individual client should be treated as a separate entity and
complete information is required to establish close relations
in order to solve his/her problem from root.
2. Principle of meaningful relationship
The purpose of establishing relationship in social
casework is to change the behavior of the client or to
achieve adjustment in maladjusted situation. Meaningful
relationship is developed in social casework by
demonstrating the interests in client. He/she is convinced of
the caseworker’s warmth as an individual and conveys
respect and caring for him/her. In return, the caseworker
helps the client to trust in his/her objectivity and feel
secured as worthwhile individual.
3. Principle of acceptance
Social caseworker accepts the client as he is and with
all his/her limitations. He/she believes that acceptance is

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the crux of all help. It embraces two basic ideas --- one
negative and one positive. He/she does not condemn or feel
hostile towards a client because his/her behavior differs
from the approved one. Later on, he/she tries to modify
his/her behavior step by step.
4. Principle of communication
Communication is a two-way process. There must be
proper communication between caseworker and the client,
which helps, in proper understanding of each other. It is the
road to the identification of the client’s problem. The
function of social caseworker is primarily to create an
environment in which the client will feel comfortable in
giving expression to his/her feelings. It depends on a proper
communication.
5. Principle of expression of feelings
Purposeful expression of feelings is the recognition of
the client’s need to express his/her feelings freely,
especially his/her negative feelings. The caseworker listens
purposefully, neither discouraging nor condemning the
expression of those feelings. Sometimes he/she even
stimulates and encourages them when the expression is of
therapeutic nature.
6. Principle of controlled emotional involvement
The social caseworker tries to understand the client’s
feelings and emotions but he/she himself/herself does not
involve emotionally in his/her problems.
7. Principle of non-judgmental attitude
The non-judgmental attitude is a quality of the
casework relationship. The caseworker does not blame the
client for his/her problem nor does he assign any
responsibility for his/her miseries. He/she only evaluates
the attitudes, standards or action of the client.

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8. Principle of client self-determination
The client’s self-determination is the practical
recognition of the right and need of clients to freedom in
making his/her own choices and decisions. But this right is
limited by the client’s capacity for positive and constructive
decision making.
9. Principle of self-awareness
It means that caseworker should know his/her own
strengths and limitations in dealing with client’s problems.
If he/she feels that the problems of the client are beyond
his/her capacity, the client should be transferred to the
appropriate authority.
10. Principle of social functioning
Social functioning means the functioning of the
individual in his/her social roles and relationships, with
emphasis on his/her relation to the environment. The
caseworker tries to assess the roles of the client and his/her
capacity to perform these roles.
11. Principle of tuning behavior
Man has body, mind and intellect as three instruments
of experiences through which life constantly pulsates.
These three instruments have their own distinct
characteristics in each person. Hence each person has
unique personality. There is need of tuning three
instruments for right perception and thinking. The social
caseworker does it.
12. Principle of social learning
Social learning is a pre-requisite to the changes that
are inevitably involved in problem- solving. The social
learning processes involve:

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1. Arousing and focusing attention and concern.
2. Organizing and evaluating the problem and
planning future action.
3. Searching for and acquiring new information.
4. Providing opportunities to the client for new
experience.
13. Principle of confidentiality
Confidentiality is the preservation of the secret
information concerning the client, which is disclosed in the
professional relationship only. In the process of social case
work, the client discloses many of his secret facts to the
social case worker which help for the treatment. Similarly,
the case worker gets many information of client in his
home visit or in interview. All these facts must be kept
secret. In other words, the client must have total faith
regarding his secret disclosed by him will remain
confidential. Confidentiality in case work is taken as
professional code of ethics. There is little reason that leads
for the confidentiality.
Components of casework
The social case work is the integrity of different
elements and a material which forms the nucleus of the
social case work. The nucleus is the crucial part that
consists of different component while social case works
practice. The practitioner has to understand each and every
component of the nucleus of social case work to carry out
better intervention process. There are five components of
social case work known as 5 p’s.
1. The person 4.The process
2. The problem 5. Professionalism
3. The place

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1. The Person
The person is a man, woman or child or anyone who
finds himself/herself, or is found to be, in need of help in
some aspect of his social-emotional living, whether the
need be for tangible provisions or counsel. As he/ she begin
to receive help, he/she is called a “client”. A client is one
who seeks professional help, one who employs the help of
another or one who is served by a social agency or an
institution. The person live in environment and interact in
the environment is influenced by physical, social, cultural,
economic and political aspects. The main aim of social case
worker is to facilitate the individual to adopt, to restore, to
reshape or to reinforce his functioning as a social being.
The client is a person with both needs and a problem(s).
The problem may be related to a client. The person’s
behavior has purpose and meaning to gain satisfaction, to
avoid and dissolve frustration and to maintain his/her
balance- in- movement. To understand a person, it is
important to know his/her parts of personality that is the
person’s behavior. To understand human behavior and
individual difference, Grace Mathew has given the points
like:
1. An individual behavior is the result of his/her
experience. Behavior is his/her reaction, feeling,
thinking etc. with the surrounding.
2. For growth and development of human, it is
essential to meet certain basic needs (according to
Maslow).
3. Emotional needs are real and they can be met or
removed through intellectual reasoning.

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4. Behavior is purposeful and is in response to the
individual physical and emotional needs.
5. Other person’s behavior can be understood only in
terms of one’s own emotional and intellectual
aspect.
According to the Sigmund Freud, the process of human
personality is the combination of id, ego and super ego. To
understand a person it is necessary to understand the
personality of the individual that is substitute into 3 parts.
 Id: It is unconscious which is known as the life force
in the individual that is the combination of energy and
needs. This drives him to wants and to will. All our
motives are in the interest of our biological and
psychological aspects. As a person behavior achieves
his goal, he experiences satisfactions both consciously
and unconsciously.
 Ego: It is the person’s mental image a kind of self-
expectations hope to solve the conflict. It is to
mobilize and experience feeling in the way that are
satisfying to the self and to external world.
 Super ego: super ego is a dynamic system of the
prohibitions, expectations, standards, values and ideas
which a person has in relation to other individuals and
to his society. It guides the individual.
2. The Problem
Problem, according to the America Heritage
dictionary is a “question or situation that presents
uncertainty, perplexity or difficulty”. This definition is

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rather inadequate without elaboration for defining in this
chapter.
Human beings face difficulties in day-to-day living, many
of which are handled adequately with resources at hand.
These are difficulties of living that fall within our coping
abilities and strategies. When difficulties assume
dimensions that strain our coping capacity and go beyond
our competence in handling, they become problems. People
who seek casework service are those who encounter
problems. Problems of living may be caused by unmet
physical or psychosocial needs or by the inability to
perform one's social roles owing to any causes. Physical
needs pertain to the biological needs of food, shelter,
clothing, and the psychosocial needs pertain to love,
recognition, security, opportunities for not only intellectual
and emotional growth but also for fulfillment of one's
potential. A problem which defies an individual's coping
skills may be the end result or derivative of other problems
or difficulties that remain unsolved from an earlier point of
time. A human problem cannot be considered an isolated
happening or an entity in itself. It is usually the end point or
one point in a chain of cause-effect relationships. The
problems reported by clients to the agency, or in other
words, problems for which help was sought, may be
classified in different ways.
According to Grace Mathew the problems can be
categorized as follows:
1. Problems related to illness or disabilities
2. Problems due to lack of material resources
3. School related problems

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4. Problems related to institutionalization
5. Behavior problems
6. Problems of marital discord
7. Problem situations needing a follow-up service
8. Needs related to rehabilitation of people
handicapped by disabilities
9. Predicaments and difficulties of clients caught up
in problems that have been regarded as social
problems like gambling, prostitution, alcoholism,
drug addiction and unmarried motherhood.
3. The Place
The place is a social service agency or a social service
department of another kind of human welfare agency. The
place to which the individual with problem reach for help is
called social agency. The agency is an organization
designed to express the will of the society or some group of
people in society welfare. Its purpose is to help individuals
with the particular social handicaps which hampers good
personal or family living and with the problems created by
faulty person-to-person, person to-group or person-to-
situation relationships. This agency’s purpose and functions
come to life in the person and professional performance of
the case worker. Social case work agencies differ one from
the other in a number of ways, and they depend upon the
factors like money, knowledge and competence of staff in
agency, interest, resources available and community
support etc. but there are three major factors that determine
their classification:

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1. Their source of support-; public taxation (child
welfare, physical and mental health programs etc.) or
voluntary contribution.
2. Their source of professional authority-; primary
agencies carry full authority and responsibility for
their social functions and secondary agencies derive
their authority and responsibility from the host
agency.
3. Their special function and area of concern-; primary
agencies both public and private, may define certain
areas of social need as the particular fielding in which
they give services. Secondary, case work help is
related to the work of some other profession, such as
medicine, education or law and to its specific
knowledge and purpose.
Perlman has described some of the characteristic of the
organization.
1. An agency embodies a society’s decision to protect its
members against social breakdowns, to prevent their
maladjustments and/or to promote the development of
better or higher levels of humans functioning.
2. Each social agency develops a program by which to
meet the particular areas of need with which it sets
out to deal.
3. The structure of an agency identifies and assigns
separate and joint responsibilities, authorities and
tasks to each personnel and demarcates the
relationship among various functions in the total
agency body.

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4. The social agency is a living, adaptable organism
susceptible to being understood and changed, much as
other living organisms
5. Every staff member in an agency speaks and acts for
some part of the agency’s function, and the case
worker represents the agency in its individualized
problem-solving help.
6. The case worker, while representing his/her agency, is
first and foremost a representative of his/her
profession.
4. Process
The process in case work is a progressive transaction
between the professional helper (the case worker) and the
client. It consists of a series of problem solving operations
carried out within a meaningful relationship. The end of
this process is contained in its meaning: to influence the
client person that he/she develops effectiveness in coping
with his/her problem and /or to so influence the problem as
to resolve it or reduce its effects. Social work problem
solving is finding a way through feeling, thinking, and
acting. It progresses over time in a cyclical, irreversible
manner that is focused on removing blocks to need
fulfillment that individuals cannot remove with their own
resources. In order to understand what the case work
process must include in its problem-solving help, it is
necessary for the social case worker to take stock first of
the kinds of blockings which occur in people’s normal
problem-solving effort. These six factors are among the
most common:
1. A problem cannot be solved if the necessary tangible
means and resources are not available to the person.
2. Sometimes, people are unable to solve their problems
simply out of ignorance or misapprehension about the

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facts of the problems or the facts of existing ways of
meeting it.
3. If a person is drenched by emotional or physical
strength. He/she needs to mobilize himself/herself.
4. When problems sets off a conflagration of feeling, a
person’s thought processes, delicately attuned as they
are to his/her emotions become clouded and tumbled
about.
5. Some people find problems in solving a difficult
situation because they have never developed
systematic habits of orderly methods of thinking and
planning.
In the case work relationship, a constant medium is
provided that is accepting, nurturing and supporting at the
same time that the stimulus of problem-solving work is
injected to promote the client’s effort to feel, to be or to act
in the ways leading to his/her better social adjustment.
There are various methods and phases in problem solving
process like:
1. Preliminary statement of the problem.
2. Statement of preliminary assumptions about the nature
of the problem.
3. Selection and collection of information.
4. Analysis of information available.
5. Development of a plan.
6. Implementation of the plan.
7. Evaluation of the plan.
6. Professionalism
Relationship between any two people is the condition
of their being connected in a significant way. We
experience various kinds of relationships in our lives.
Parent-child, sibling-sibling, uncle-niece relationships are
examples. These are permanent and unalterable, lasting as

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long as one lives. On the other hand, relationships between
two friends, neighbors or classmates are temporary. The
doctor-patient, teacher-student, supervisor - supervisee,
lawyer-client are examples of professional relationships.
One can broadly classify relationships according to quality
also.
It follows from the above discussion that the social worker-
client relationship is a professional relationship, and that it
has to be positive in nature. Only a positive relationship can
serve as a means towards the desirable end of helpfulness,
the type of helpfulness that provides scope for the exercise
of casework principles. During a process of social case
work a relationship is built between client and social case
worker which is professional in nature for certain time until
the client recover its strength and become self-dependent.
Professional relationships have some common
characteristics. They are bound by time to specific
purposes. When the purpose is met, the relationship comes
to an end. This professionalism involves the process of
sharing responsibilities, recognition of others rights,
acceptance of difference to stimulate interaction to solve
problem of the client.
Stages and phases of Case work
Casework process is the ongoing movement of the
continuing development of the case involving several
activities , some carried out by the social worker alone,
some by the client alone and some by the worker and the
client together. Social casework entails different steps
during the practice of the social case work. To solve the
problem of the client the client has to visit the agency or the
social worker who vow to help the client and uses the best
ways to solve the problem of the client. During the process
of solving the problem different stages were followed
accordingly by the worker and also by the client. The
different steps were given below:

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1. Intake phase
2. Study phase
3. Assessment phase
4. Treatment phase
5. Evaluation and monitoring phase
6. Follow up and termination phase
1. Intake phase
This is the first stage of social case work process. The
client who is in need of help will meet the agency for the
professional help by the social case worker. During this
period the relationship between two person of unequal
position and power is developed. The social case worker
accepts the client as a person who is in a very stressful
situation. He respects the client personality and promise to
solve the problem of the client. In other word, the social
case workers picks up the client from stressful situation and
help him/her to regain personal and social balance which is
satisfying in the relationship. During rapport building
process the case worker tries to have following information
regarding the client.
1. The stage of the problem at which the client is in.
2. Through whom or for what reason the client comes to
this agency.
3. The nature of relation to the problem, cause of the
client’s problem and how client see the problem.
4. His/her adjustment to the social function in job,
family, society etc.
5. The state of his physical and mental health.
6. His appearance including dress, hairstyle etc. in his
first meeting.
7. Level of motivation, how quick the client has desire
or need to get rid of the problems.

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8. Nature of family, family status, norms and values,
relationship with family members.
2. Study phase
Social, study is a systematic study of the client and
his/her circumstances in relation to his/her problem. In this
phase the case worker makes initial assessment or diagnosis
of the client current relevant past and possible future modes
of adaptation to stressful situation to have normal living
situation. It requires an analysis of social, psychological
and biological determinants of client’s current stressful
situation. The case worker should get following
information regarding the client’s problem.
1. Nature of problems.
2. Significance of problems.
3. Cause of problems.
4. Effort made by client and his family members to cope
with problem.
5. Nature of solution.
The case worker can obtain data related to the client by
questionnaire methods interview and recording methods.
After getting data the case worker develops hypothesis for
understanding the client and his situation for the further
process.
3. Assessment / diagnosis phase
Assessment is aimed at finding answers to three major
questions: What is the problem? How has it arisen? What
can be done to solve it? The operation underlying social
assessment is that of making a conceptual picture of the
problem, leading to a plan of action. It means linking up the
contributory factors meaningfully with the help of

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theoretical knowledge. Further collecting of data and
deciding the best course of action to solve the problem is
carried by case worker. This helps to arrive at the exact
possible situation of the client and also help to understand
both psychological and personality factor which leads the
client to difficulties. Data related to assessment or
diagnosis can be collected by interview observation, lab
test etc. Diagnosis or assessment should contain following
information:
1. Nature of problem and client relationship.
2. Nature of person who bears problems.
3. Nature and purpose of agency and kind of help it can
afford or make available.
Types of assessment or diagnosis
1. Clinical diagnosis:
 In this diagnosis the person is described by the
nature of illness. Like typhoid, hypertension,
hepatitis etc.
 The clinical diagnosis is used in medical field.
 It is used in minimum case work practice.
 It is very important in medical and psychological
field.
2. Etiological:
 In this process the worker tries to find out the cause
and development of the present difficulty.
 The case worker also searches about the history of
the client.

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3. Dynamic diagnosis:
 Proper evaluation of the client’s current problem.
 Role of psychological, biological, social and
environmental factors for problem evaluation.
 No attempts to dig life history of client.
 Case worker and client are engaged in appropriate
action or treatment.
The steps used in diagnosis process
1. Case worker begin to focus on problematic
behavior.
2. Behavior and client’s environment are studied.
3. Complex behaviors are breakdown into clear
components.
4. Data are collected by various methods.
5. Information and data are summarized to find out
any major problems for treatment.
6. Selected data are used for treatment in the final step
of diagnosis.
4. Treatment plan / Intervention phase
According to Hamilton, “Treatment is the sum total of
all the activities and services directed towards helping the
individual with solution of their problems.” The treatment
is the main part of social case work with different steps and
techniques. The case worker should plan about the
treatment in different way thoroughly. The treatment plan
is different in different case works according to the change
of the client, problem, situation etc. But every social case
work is done through the same methods. The focus in

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treatment should be given to the immediate problems. Total
social casework process includes three stages or three
phases they are the beginning, middle and ending. While
treatment or intervention process different techniques are
used for the identification and eradication of their problem.
The techniques used in the treatment are as follows:
1. Support :
Social case worker should give total support to the
client to improve his weak personality. In this process
social case worker tries to make good and strong
relationship with client.
2. Clarification:
The social case worker should be clear on the client’s
personality, family background, personal history, family,
history, social aspect etc.
3. Insight:
The social case worker tries to find out the actual
cause of the client’s problem. He goes deep into to the
clients mind and find out the root causes of his problems.
This is possible only with the help of the client and family
members near and dear ones.
4. Identification:
Here the social case worker will identify the client’s
total personality, his problems, strength, weakness etc. This
will help the client to get rid of his problems.

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5. Resource utilization:
Social case worker should use all the resources
available to improve the progress of client like yoga,
meditation etc. Some case worker tries to find out good
jobs for the client if he is unemployed one or help client to
get loan to start his own business.
6. Evaluation:
After completing all the above techniques, the case
worker should record his work with the client, so that he
can evaluate his work easily. During evaluation if the case
worker finds his work not satisfactory, he can make further
correction. Thus, his evaluations also help for the better
follow up process.
7. Modification of environment:
Sometime after solving problems there may be a
chance that problem may arise again so the case worker
should make the client’s environment suitable for his
personality group. (e.g., In case of drug addiction and
alcoholism the family members will not accept and behave
with client properly.) Thus, the social case worker must
provide counseling service to the client’s family to change
or modify as environment for the client to overcome from
his personal problem.
Objectives of social case work treatment
1. To prevent social breakdown and bring back to social
functioning.
2. To conserve clients strength.
3. To restore social functioning of the client.
4. To provide happy experience to the client.

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5. To create opportunities for growth and development
of the client.
6. To preserve psychological damage to client.
7. To increase capacity for self-determination.
8. To increase client’s social contribution.
5. Evaluation and monitoring
Evaluation is one of the important steps in social case
work. Evaluation is the activity of ascertaining whether
casework service has achieved the desired result in a case.
It is the social worker's reviewing of all the other
components of the casework process to make an appraisal
of the result. Evaluation is also an ongoing activity,
although as a component of the casework process, it finds
full scope and expression only after a period of activity.
As the social worker continues to offer the service or
services, evaluative discernment occurs to him/her at
specific points of time regarding the strength, weakness or
gaps in his/her social assessment and regarding the success
or failure of his/her ways of helpfulness. Evaluation
provides feedback to the case worker regarding the client
like:
1. Whether the treatment plan is successful or not
according to the desire.
2. Whether the established goal has been achieved or
not.
3. Modifications in program are essential or not.
4. The client is being helped in real sense or not.
These all will help the social case worker to monitor the
activities of client. If goals are not achieved in case work,

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then it is called crisis in social case work process. Non
motivated client becomes challenge to social case worker.
Dealing with such client and situation requires special
knowledge and process. This special knowledge is used as
term as crisis intervention.
Importance of Evaluation
1. Evaluation helps to check the efforts of the case
worker in case working.
2. It helps to know what are outcome.
3. It helps to check the efforts are meaningful or not.
4. It helps for the further strengthening the relationship
between the case worker and client.
5. Provides motivation to the client to work towards his
goal.
6. It helps to check the effectiveness of the process or
services.
7. It also helps to tell the public that the process used by
the case worker is beneficial and effective.
8. Social case worker can enhance his own image and
also helps to increase public relation of the agency.
6. Follow up and termination
It is necessary to check the work done by the case
worker. For this the social case worker needs to do follow
up process after evaluation of the activities done during the
intervention. This will help the agent to get the information
regarding the client’s improvements. The follow up process
is to be done to help the client to maintain the
improvements and to get information about the client and
his problem. During follow up the client is helped to

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discuss the problem which he is still facing. If client require
he is referred to the proper source for help and service. If
he is improving in social functioning he is not prefer. The
follow up should be planned in descending order.
(e.g., the social worker will meet the client in descending
order like after two week, then in a month, then six month
and a year.) Following this follow up process will lead to
the termination process. The follow up process can also be
done by reviewing the record, by asking the questions
through telephone calls, home visit, observation etc.
Termination refers to the process of formally ending
the individual social worker-client relationship. It is a
feature of practice with a variety of client systems, from
individuals and families to task groups, coalitions, and
communities, and it occurs regardless of the duration of the
helping relationship. Terminations can occur when goals
are met, when clients make a transition to other services,
when time-limited services are concluded, and when social
workers or clients leave the helping relationship. Even if
clients are likely to “come and go” form service over a
period of time as their concerns and needs change, it is
important to draw closure to each unique episode of care.
The notion of ending is often introduced at the beginning of
service, when the social worker notes the likely duration of
care, the number of sessions allotted, or the goals that will
guide the helping process. In some time treatment models,
the fixed length of care is part of informed consent
discussions at the outset.
For e.g., the social worker might explain, “we believe that
brief treatment is effective and helps both you and me make
efficient use of our time together. So we’ll begin today by

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getting an idea of the goals you want to work on and the
best way to use our time over the next 6 to 8 weeks to
achieve those goals.”
Whether in short-or long-term therapy models, successful
termination involves preparing clients adequately for
separation from the social worker and/or group and
accomplishing other tasks that facilitate the transition from
being a client to being “on one’s own”:
1. Evaluating the service provided and the extent to
which goals were accomplished.
2. Determining when to implement termination.
3. Mutually resolving emotional reactions experienced
during the process of ending.
4. Planning to maintain gains achieved and to achieve
continued growth.
The significance of these tasks and the extent to which they
can be successfully accomplished are determined in large
measure by the context in which the helping relationship
takes place. The intensity of the termination process is
affected by factors such as the type of contact (voluntary or
involuntary), the size and characteristics of the client
system, and the nature of the intervention used. Emotional
reactions will vary depending on the nature and length of
the helping relationship. That is, involuntary clients and
those with more structured and time limited services will be
less likely to experience a sense of loss at termination than
those who have engaged in longer and more voluntary
relationships with the social worker. For example,
termination of a time-limited educational group may be less
intense and require less preparation of members than would

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the ending of an ongoing interpersonal support group or
discharge from a residential treatment setting. Terminations
from brief crisis intervention, case management, or
discharge planning relationships may differ in intensity
depending on the nature of the needs met and the length of
service. Termination from family sessions may be less
difficult than those from individual work, because most of
the client system will continue to work and be together,
albeit without the social worker’s involvement.
Tools in social casework
A tool is anything that serves as a means of operation
in the practice of a trade, occupation or a profession. The
tools of an occupation like carpentry, being concrete,
tangible and determinate lend themselves to sensory
perception. Casework tools, on the other hand, are abstract
concepts, and not concrete instruments or things that can be
handled by one's limbs. The tools used in casework are:
listening, observation, interview, relationship and home
visit. The word "tool", which immediately produces the
mental image of concrete things, cannot be easily explained
when it is used as an intangible, non-material entity.
Two common meanings of the word "tool" may be adapted
to explain the term "casework tools".
1. A means of contact with something or a means of
access to something. Casework tools are means of contact
with clients. They are also means of access to information
about the client, his family and his problem. This meaning
is applicable to all the five casework tools. Observation and
listening may be considered as tools within tools as they are
components of interview, relationship and home visit.

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2. A means for transmitting energy or force towards
something. Here the word "tool" refers to a channel,
medium or venue for the transmission of energy or force.
This meaning is applicable only to three of the casework
tools, interview, relationship and home visit, which serve as
channels for the transmission of information, knowledge
and help. They are the channels through which casework
techniques become operative. Casework techniques are
systematic procedures of helping.
The utility of casework tools is along three dimensions:
(1) Getting information directly about clients
(2) Getting information indirectly about clients
(3) Giving help to clients. Direct information is from
What the client says and getting direct information is a
characteristic of all the five tools. It will be seen that
indirect information is obtained through client's non-verbal
communication and sometimes from what the client omits
to say. Getting indirect information, as a dimension, applies
mostly to observation and in some contexts to listening.
The third dimension — giving help to clients — applies
only to interview, relationship and home visit. As implied
earlier, these three tools function as conveyors for the
transmission of help.
1. Listening
Listening is a basic casework tool. Active, attentive
listening is purposeful. The purpose is to understand the
speaker's words and feelings as accurately as possible, for
which mental concentration is necessary. The listener has
to pay attention to what is said, what is not said, and what
is suggested. Listening, therefore, becomes a consciously
performed activity for the social worker. It is also an aspect
for the practice of the principle of acceptance.

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There are two types of listening, one is active listening and
second is passive listening.
1. Active listening means the listening that took place
face to face between client and social worker.
2. Passive listening means the information that is
collected from the secondary source like recording,
data etc.
There are some common obstacles to active listening,
knowledge of which is necessary for one who wants to train
himself/herself as an effective listener.
Obstacles and solution to Listening
1. Distraction of various kinds takes a listener off the
path of active listening.
2. The listener's anxiety or fear concerning the speaker
can become a block to good listening.
3. Selective listening which refers to the mental
tendency of hearing only what one likes to hear
prevents effective listening.
There are a few guidelines which will help the social
worker to develop the habit of effective listening.
1. It is important to maintain eye contact with the client
during conversations.
2. The social worker must ensure, though it may not
always be possible, that the place where the
interviews with the clients take place, is quiet, with
minimum external distractions.
3. As a preparation for interviews with the client, the
worker should clear his/her mind of internal pre-
occupations and preconceived ideas or opinions of the
client.
4. The ears should be trained to listen to everything that
the client says.

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5. What the client says or what (s)he appears to be,
cannot but evoke thinking in the mind of the social
worker.
2. Observation
Observation is the practice of noticing features about
people, things or situations, and in the context of casework,
the purpose is to use the observed data for understanding
the client and his situation. Specially, in the cases like
robbery, prostitution, anti-social activities this method is
used. By this information related to the cases like
relationship, behavior between teacher and student, gender
discrimination in family and society, behavior or workers
in organization etc. can be obtained. Every parent can use
this method to bring change in behavior and attitude of
their children. Similarly, this method can help a lot to bring
the real data of the client. The caseworker has to take
cognizance of the following with reference to the client:
1. The general outward appearance.
2. Facial expression, posture, gestures, etc.
3. The characteristics, particularly the emotional
nuances of interactions that take place between clients
and others, including their family members.
The social worker should not have any difficulty in paying
attention to the client's personal appearance — his/her
clothes, level of cleanliness, and such like. The human face
occasionally reflects the feelings within and to the social
worker facial expression is a matter for observation.
Feelings like sadness, anger and hostility do not need
verbal expression to indicate their presence; there will be
tell-tale signs on the face that bespeak the unexpressed
feelings. Similarly, the individual's postures, gestures, tone
of voice and body movements are also meaningful. Many
of our clients do not feel comfortable on their first day of

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visit to a social work agency. They may be ignorant about
what a social worker does and what they can expect from
the agency. The pressure of their problems and their having
to talk to a stranger about it add to their discomfiture. The
confusion and tension that the client experiences within is
likely to make him fidgety and restless. The way (s)he sits,
and the manner in which (s)he participates in the
conversation with the social worker should be observed
carefully for indications of his/her emotional state of mind
whether (s)he is tense or relaxed, trusting or suspicious,
receptive or inattentive. Knowing what the client feels or
getting at least some clues to his/her feelings is helpful in
that the social worker can prime himself/herself to respond
appropriately.
For instance, a client who feels ill at ease can be helped to
feel more comfortable.
Types of observation
1. Participatory observation
This method is used usually by being the part of the
problem or situation. If the information or data is collected
by the researcher by becoming the part of the situation is
called participatory observation. The investigator actively
participates as a member of the group to observe the cause
of the problem or the situation. In this process the group
members may or may not identify the investigator.
2. Non-Participatory observation
In this the observer or the investigator does not
participate in the activities of the group to be studied but
simply remain or present in the group is called non-
participatory observation. The observer feels independent
in this method and observes every activity.

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3. Controlled / structured observation
If observation is done with pre-planned and
structured questionnaire than it is called controlled or
structured observation. Social case worker uses this method
with structured questions, check list of the items to be
observed and recording sheet. Data collected from this kind
of observation helps to compare progress of the client.
4. Uncontrolled observation
Researcher does not have any control over the
research according to the purpose. Researcher observes in
research area without any disturbance or interruption is
called uncontrolled observation. For example, the
researcher observing on the activities of the animals to
study them, they capture or record it without any control
over them.
5. Indirect observation
In indirect observation social case worker observes
clues of post behavior or events that cannot be observe
directly. In this type of observation social case worker has
to depend on audio or visual document. Police investigation
of criminal activities is a popular example of indirect
observation.
3. Interview
The casework interview refers to the meeting of the
social worker and the client in a face to-face conversation.
It is not a casual conversation but a professional activity on
the part of the social worker, because the conversation is
geared to specific or general purposes. The purposes may
be one or more of the following:
(1) To obtain information from or impart information to the
client
(2) For studying and assessing the client's problem and
related situation

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(3) To give help.
An interview is a piece of social interaction with one
person asking a number of questions and another person
gives the answer. In this method the case worker collects
data directly by his active participation. It is also known as
participatory method of data collection.
During the process of interview, the interviewer collects
different information. This is one of the most effective and
reliable method of fata collection. The questions asked in
interview may be open ended or close ended. And the type
of questions depends up on the type of interview. The client
is a perfect stranger to the agency on his/her first visits. The
social worker has to gather data regarding the problem,
how the client perceives it, what (s)he has done about it,
some data about the client himself/herself, his/her family
and his/her resources. When a client is not able to furnish
the required information, members of his/her family are
interviewed for the purpose.
Interviewing is a two-way process. Just as information is
received by the social worker, so also information is
imparted to the client regarding official procedures and
other matters about himself/herself, his/her role as a social
worker, and about the function of the agency. Information
about the self is all the more important for those clients
who come to the social worker not of their own volition but
through other people's coercion. The client is also informed
about other services.
Interviewing as a professional activity requires that the
social worker prepares himself/herself for the occasion.
After reviewing the previous interview or interviews with
the same client, the social worker should make note of the
gaps in information, the ambiguities that need clarification
and one's own lapses and shortcomings that need to be
replaced with skills of handling. Keeping these points of
review in mind, the next interview should be planned for

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eliciting fresh data, clearing doubts, testing assumptions,
assessing facts and for using techniques appropriately. The
interview should be good to collect the proper information
regarding client and his/her problem.
Qualities of good interview
1. Voice and language of interviewer must be clear and
commanding.
2. Interviewer must have good and attractive
personality.
3. (S)He must have knowledge and training regarding
subject matter.
4. Materials used in interview must be familiar.
5. (S)He must be free from political, religion and other
aspects.
6. (S)He must understand feelings and thoughts of
interview.
7. Must be able to dissolve in that society and situation.
8. Must be simple in habit, thought, language etc.
9. Must be free from phobia.
10. Must have enough time should be able to give time.
Types of interview
There are different types of interview on different basis.
1. Interview on the basis of informant
a) Personal interview
When interview are collected from only one
informant is called personal interview. Confidential
information is collected by this method.
b) Group interview
When information are collected from large number
of people than such type of interview is known as group
interview. Usually 20 to 25 people are used to gather
information. In this method the interviewer must be able to
handle the situation.

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2. Interview on the basis of methodology
a) Non-directive interview
In this method as interviewer conducts interview in
an uncontrolled way. In this method questions are not
prepared beforehand. Thus, this method is also known as
unstructured method. Especially, for research and life
history interview, this method is adopted.
b) Directive interview
This interview is conducted with district question.
Hence, it is also known as schedule-cum-interview or
controlled interview or structured interview.
c) Focused interview
The interviews which are highly focused regarding
the issue related to national level, special subjects, incident
to find out the cases and solution is called focused
interview. This type of interview is conducted by mass
media like radio, television, newspaper etc.
d) Depth interview
This interview is conducted for finding the depth of
the issue and problem up to its root. In this interview the
researcher or social worker keeps on interviewing with the
client to get to the depth of the root cause of the problem or
the issue.
e) Critical interview
The use of critical analysis on to the clients thought
and belief is known as critical interview. In this interview
the interviewer tries to find the thoughts and belief of the
client towards their problems and the cause of the issues.
f) Prolonged interview
This is the longest type of interview which is
intended towards the specific subject related to the client

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problem. This type of interview is conducted to find the
solution of the related specific issue of the client.
3. Interview on the basis of function
a) Diagnostic interview
When the objective of the interview is confined to
investigating an issue or problem; it is called diagnostic
interview.
b) Treatment interview
The process of interview that involves the
treatment of the problem of the client is called treatment
interview.
c) Research interview
Interview conducted for the purpose of data
collection or hypothesis building in a research is called
research interview.
4. Interview on the basis of formality
a) Formal interview
The interview which is formal in nature and that is
structured with different pre-prepared questionnaire. This
interview has some formality that has to be followed and
meet while interviewing with the client
b) Informal interview
The interview which is not formal in nature and not
structured with any steps or rules is called informal
interview. It does not have any rules to follow while
interviewing the client.
4. Relationship
The worker-client relationship is another casework tool
that needs to be delineated. Relationship between any two

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people is the condition of their being connected in a
significant way. We experience various kinds of
relationships in our lives. First of all, there are the
relationships derived from being members of one's family
and kinship groups. Parent-child, sibling-sibling, uncle-
niece relationships are examples. These are permanent and
unalterable, lasting as long as one lives. On the other hand,
relationships between two friends, neighbors’ or classmates
are temporary. The doctor-patient, teacher-student,
supervisor - supervisee, lawyer-client are examples of
professional relationships. One can broadly classify
relationships according to quality also. A relationship
between two people, characterized by hatred is a negative
relationship; nevertheless, it is a relationship. Likewise, a
relationship marked by affection is a positive one.
It follows from the above discussion that the social worker-
client relationship is a professional relationship, and that it
has to be positive in nature. Only a positive relationship can
serve as a means towards the desirable end of helpfulness,
the type of helpfulness that provides scope for the exercise
of casework principles.
Professional relationships have some common
characteristics. They are bound by time to specific
purposes. When the purpose is met, the relationship comes
to an end. Unlike family relationships which are diffuse and
permeate many areas of human life, professional
relationships pertain only to the areas surrounding specific
purposes. For e.g., take the teacher-student relationship.
The student's academic life is a matter of legitimate interest
and attention for the teacher, who thereby assumes
responsibility regarding how the student spends his/her
time in school. The teacher is not concerned what the
student does after school hours. The parent-child
relationship, on the other hand, is all inclusive. There is
hardly any aspect of the child's life that is not pertinent to
the parents' view. In family relationships, mutuality is also

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implicit in one form or other. Parents take care of children,
and when parents grow old the children, who are adults by
that time, are expected to take care of the ageing parents.
The dyadic pair in a professional relationship, however, is
not bound by any consideration of mutuality. There, the
mutuality concept is replaced by market economy, in the
sense that, the professional service gets paid through some
kind of monetary arrangement.
In a professional relationship, as between a doctor and
patient or a social worker and client, the professional
person uses two types of authority, one based on his/her
knowledge and the other sanctioned by society for the
practice of one's profession. Because of his/her knowledge
and skills (S)he is able to apply suitable procedures for
helping the patient or client. The possession of knowledge
and skills is instrumental in obtaining a certain amount of
conferred authority for the practice of his/her profession.
The social case work implies two types of relationship with
client. They are as below:
1. Professional relationship
2. Treatment relationship
Professional relationship
This is the relationship between social case worker
and client which is started at the beginning of the problem
solving process with the promise of solving the problem of
the client. The case worker focuses on need of the client
only to solve the problem. During agreement the places is
fixed for the interaction like office, institution agency or
any other organization. During problem solving the social
case worker gives ideas views or solutions to the client
which is professional in nature and the two person meet at
the fixed time period. The relationship is open between
client and social case worker and the priority is given to the
satisfaction of the client.

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Treatment relationship
This is the satisfaction and problem alleviation
oriented relationship which is oriented towards reducing
the problems of the client by different treatment methods
and process. It helps the client to gain maximum
satisfaction of understanding the situation and heading
towards resolution of the problem.
5. Home visit
Conducting the interviews in the office of the agency
has certain advantages. It provides for privacy and prevents
distractions. It invests a certain degree of formality and
professionalism in the conversation, to the extent that the
clients are encouraged to view the interviews seriously. But
to some clients, the formality of the office may be
threatening, provoking them to put on masks that hide their
real selves and feelings. For such people, having one or two
interviews at home will be a welcome relief. There are also
some other considerations which make home visits an
important and necessary casework tool.
First of all, there is the likelihood that the client perceives
the social worker's visit to his/her home as an indication of
the social worker's interest in his/her welfare. Recognition
by the client of the social worker's interest and concern is
desirable as far as the progress of the casework process is
concerned. Furthermore, there are clients whose fatalistic
attitude to life's problems and the resultant resignation to
problems prevents them from doing anything. Social
workers have to go to them rather than wait for them at the
agency. One or two home visits may not bear any fruit;
more visits will be necessary. Repeated home visits by
social workers are recorded in some of the Survey of
Casework Records (SOCR) cases, the social worker's
persistence paying off in the end.
Home visit is definitely advantageous in that it enables the
social worker to observe the home environment of the

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client. Importantly, the interactions which take place
among the family members lend themselves to the social
worker's observation from which the social worker is able
to make useful inferences about the attitudes and
relationships within the family.
There was the case of Lakshman (15 years) who was
referred to the social worker for poor academic
performance and aggressive behavior. Lakshman lived in a
one-room tenement with his parents who asserted that they
loved Lakshman very much, that they gave him everything
he wanted and that they expected him to do well in school.
Even the T.V. set was bought for him, they declared.
During every visit, the social worker found the whole
family in front of the T.V., including Lakshman, who had
his school books open in front of him but his eyes on the
program.
On one visit, the social worker was talking to Lakshman
about his school report, suddenly and unexpectedly, the
father began to beat Lakshman, scolding him loudly for his
failure in the examination. The contradictions in parental
handling could be easily seen by the social worker during
home visits.
6. Recording
Recording is one of the essential tools of the social case
work. The term ‘recording’ indicates the noting down of
the facts or sequences of activities or events. By
maintaining records social case worker can improve his
professional skills and techniques. The social worker
records many other things as the case progresses. His/her
work diary is meant for jottings on events as they happen.
The jottings cover names, addresses, dates, notes on
interviews, points of importance gleaned from
conversations with people other than clients collaterals and
resource persons, observations, inferences and elements of
the casework process.

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From the data which are in a jumble in the work diary, the
social worker organizes systematically the content of the
formal case record, which is a formal or official record
maintained at the agency. The casework record serves some
important purposes. It is humanly not possible to retain in
mind all the information related to a client. Writing
becomes necessary for formulating the social assessment
and plans of action in each and every case. Putting down
the events and related aspects in black and white helps the
social worker in evaluating his/her own work. So the
practice of recording regularly is the features of the case
along with the helping activities facilitate the casework
process.
Casework records are necessary from administrative
considerations as well. They provide the data necessary for
reviewing periodically the work of the agency, from
perspectives of quality and quantity of service. From the
content of the case records the administrator is able to find
out how, where, and in what, the social worker's
professional time is spent and this kind of reviewing is
necessary to assess the effectiveness of the work of the
agency.
Purposes of recording in casework
 Helps in diagnosis and treatment.
 Enables more effective interviewing and intervention.
 Useful for organizing and structuring of
information/aids orderly thinking.
 Refreshes the memory of the worker/increases
retrospective understanding.
 Enables better planning for subsequent interview.
 Useful as a guide to new worker in correcting past
mistakes.
 Useful as an index for correction of polices.
 Ensure continuity if any caseworker discontinues a
case.

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 Administration useful for future reference.
Techniques of social case work
Casework techniques are the procedures of helping
the client. They are the wherewithal through which the
client gets the experience of being helped. The client may
not perceive the procedures as specific units or
characteristics of his/her contact with the social worker, but
(s)he will generally experience the fact of being helped.
Supportive Techniques
The supportive techniques are indeed necessary, because
they obviate the use of defenses by the client. The
supportive techniques and the techniques that cater for the
material and non-material needs, thus remove some of the
obstacles for change. Most of the remaining obstacles can
be removed by means of counseling, unless they are too
deeply entrenched and also complicated by other factors.
1. Acceptance
Acceptance is one of the basic techniques of helping.
The abstract principle of acceptance is made a reality
through the technique of acceptance. It is a way of
approach, an ongoing disposition through which the client
feels that (s)he is welcome to the social work agency and
that the social worker wants to help him/her. Acceptance by
the social worker is conveyed through words, the tone of
the words and the overall behavior which is visible to the
client. Further, it is characterized by the worker's warmth
and courtesy to the client, his/her demonstration of interest
in the client, his/her geniality and cordiality. The way the
client is received, given a seat and listened to, is important
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2. Assurance
In certain contexts, the client needs assurance regarding
the authenticity of his/her feelings and that (s)he will not be
judged, or ostracized for his/her feelings. The client has to
be helped to understand the difference between feelings and
doing. One may feel murderously angry at another person
but does not have to feel guilty as long as one does not
commit the murder or do any other thing that causes harm
to the person against whom (s)he has the angry feelings.
Feelings of any kind are neither wrong nor blameworthy,
but certain acts carried out under the force of feelings can
be unlawful and wrong because of the harm it causes
others. For example; In the SOCR, there were a few female
clients who had told the social workers at one time or the
other that there were times when they wished that their
alcoholic husbands were dead. The common observation
was that, after making this angry statement they felt
embarrassed and guilty. The social workers were not
shocked at hearing such statements nor were they inclined
to reprimand the client for expressing such feelings. But
they were accepting and assuring in their responses that
conveyed the message: "I can understand your feelings of
anger. It is human and natural to have these feelings in such
circumstances''.
3. Facilitation of Expression of Feelings
It has been stated before that for the client, the
expression of feelings is necessary; it is now added that
facilitation of expression of feelings becomes a technique
for the social worker. The accepting attitude on the part of
the social worker does make it easy for the client to vent
his/her feelings. Strong feelings, when bottled up, can
create blocks in thinking and thus impair one's problem
solving abilities. Feelings like anger, guilt, sorrow, despair,
and such others consume considerable mental energy,
leaving very little for problem solving. Hence, it is

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necessary for the client who is carrying a load of emotional
material, to unburden himself/herself. The social worker by
careful listening, by asking appropriate questions and by
refraining from judgmental statements, facilitates
expression of feelings by the client. The social worker acts
as a prompter and prodder.
4. Accrediting and Building of Self-Confidence
It has to be remembered that the social worker cannot
take over the client's problem, however helpless the client
may be. All techniques should be directed towards making
the client an active participant in problem solving, and for
that, the client needs to develop self-confidence. Pointing
out the client's strengths and giving him/her due credit for
the tasks (s)he has been able to perform successfully, is
helpful in building up self-confidence.
5. Encouragement and Reassurance
Encouragement and reassurance need to be used to
clients' advantage in casework. It is a common experience
of social workers that clients are generally reluctant to do
unfamiliar things without strong encouragement, albeit
doing such things is necessary to improve the situation.
6. Emotional Support
All the techniques presented and discussed in this and
preceding pages constitute the supportive techniques in
casework. They provide emotional sustenance to the client
and are used with the goal of making the client fully
affirmed and sufficiently strengthened to take the next step.
Giving emotional support is a term commonly used in
social work parlance, with the speaker using the term to
mean as if it were a single technique. Realistically
speaking, the term refers to a cluster of techniques, that is, a
combination of all or some of the techniques discussed
above. Therefore, emotional support may be considered as

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a multiple technique. Emotional support, when effectively
used, makes the client hopeful, bolsters his morale and sets
the stage ready for his participation in problem solving.
Almost all clients need emotional support in order that they
may feel comfortable with the social worker, the agency
and themselves to be able to use help to handle their
difficulties.
7. Change of Physical Environment
The change of physical environment is another
technique which will be necessary for some clients for
better functioning. For example; some of the children who
were referred to the community centers for poor academic
performance were children who had no facilities at home
for quiet study. Their dwelling places were often
overcrowded with too many persons living in a small area
of space and there was no nook or corner where they could
sit and read. Arranging a place for them which they could
use for a few hours every day for study was helpful. Even
these small changes demanded persistent efforts on the part
of the social workers. Effecting more substantial changes
like finding a place of accommodation for clients who were
pavement dwellers was beyond the capacity of the social
worker, though in a few cases, plots for huts could be
procured in slums.
8. Enhancing Information and Knowledge
Imparting knowledge, like any other casework
technique is used according to the needs of the situation
and the client. In these situations the social worker's role is
almost like that of a teacher, teaching about human needs,
relationships and how parents could involve themselves in
growth producing relationships. But the teaching in
casework practice has to be carried out in an indirect
manner without making the client self-conscious or
uncomfortable about his lack of knowledge.

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Counseling Techniques
In a broader sense, counseling techniques are
inclusive of the supportive techniques because in the
beginning phase of the social worker-client transactions,
use of supportive techniques is necessary for initiating a
positive relationship. They are presented as two categories
to highlight the fact that with regard to some client’s
casework service does not go beyond the application of
supportive techniques and the techniques for enhancing
resources. When they are considered as two sets of
techniques the meaning becomes clear with the statement
that, counseling techniques are always preceded by one or
more of the supportive techniques. But supportive
techniques are not always followed by counseling
techniques. Counseling techniques helps client in such a
way that the client find him/herself capable of dealing with
problems at present. Counseling may also solve the
problems of the client in the near future.
1. Reflective Discussion
Reflective discussion is discussion between the social
worker and the client based upon the client's deep thinking
on the different areas of his/her life that have a bearing
upon his/her problem. Most of the problems of living need
thinking through, for finding constructive solutions. At one
point or other, in the social worker-client relationship, the
client has to be enabled to view his/her problem objectively
by separating the actualities of the situation from the
feelings and impressions surrounding it. There is a need to
look at the various aspects of the problem, its antecedents
and the likely consequences. It may be necessary to trace
the development of the problem and be aware of the parts
played by self and others, knowingly or unknowingly.
Then, there is the question of what can be done now? By
means of appropriate questions, empathetic remarks, and
statements linking the various elements of the problem, the

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social worker should be able to draw out the client's
capacity for thinking and to help him/her to reflect upon the
different aspects of the situation. Reflective discussion as a
multiple technique may span a part or the whole of one or
more interviews.
2. Advice
Advice is a technique in counseling. In casework
literature, most of which has originated from the West,
advice is not ranked high in the list of techniques for
various reasons. But it is used considerably, and with
advantage in casework practice in India and some other
country. In the Indian socio-cultural tradition, advice is
something which is sought, given and accepted without
misgivings. Social work clients do ask for advice and even
at times when it is not asked, it may be given or provided, it
is given objectively, is based on sound knowledge and on
the client's genuine need for it. There is also the condition
that advice-giving is not followed by any attempt of
coercion or compulsion to make the client follow the
advice. Advice-giving can avoid the bad flavor that is often
associated with it, by the social worker's thoughtful act of
initiating reflective discussion on the matter advised. Take
the question of family planning. Many clients with large
families struggling with problems of poverty will need
advice on family planning. But it is not just a message
conveyed by the social worker to clients; it is a matter that
has to be discussed. The client will have queries needing
answers and anxieties that need to be allayed.
3. Motivation
Closely connected with advice is 'motivation', (a
multiple technique) a term which is commonly heard in the
field of family planning. One who advises guides and
finally persuades a man to undergo sterilization operation is
called a motivator. In casework, motivation refers to

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influencing the client to take a course of action that is
considered good for him and his family, or that is necessary
for solving the problem he faces. Expectedly, some clients
respond normally to the social worker's techniques of
advising, informing, and imparting knowledge by doing
according to the line of action indicated. Here, the
implication is that the emotional readiness to act in a new
way happens by way of a chain reaction. There are,
however, clients who listen and participate attentively in
the casework interview and even decide to take up a course
of action but fail in the last step that is, actually doing.
They cannot get themselves to the doing part. The
emotional readiness to act in a new way is not there. In
such cases, the social worker may have to provide
additional stimulation, inducement or spurring to activate
the client. Then the entire process of advising, discussing,
informing, teaching and spurring becomes motivation.
4. Clarification
In some contexts, clarification is called for before the
client can be motivated for a particular line of action.
Clarification means conceptually disentangling the various
factors of a situation, to render it more comprehensible to
the client. It would involve explicating one or more
elements of the situation that are not perceived correctly by
the client. For Example, There was the case of Shirin. She
was a prostitute and she was unwilling to go for a medical
test for sexually transmitted diseases. Clarification of the
factors linking prostitution to the disease was necessary
before she could agree to take the test.
5. Modeling
Clients do learn from what the social worker says and
also from what (s)he does. Since the social worker
converses purposefully and responsibly, some clients learn

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helpful and constructive ways of communication from their
experience of the social worker's pattern of communication.
When the social worker presents a prototype of behavior
with the idea that, the client may learn new forms of
speaking and doing, it is the modeling technique at work.
Supportive and Psycho-social counseling
Support plays a vital role in social case work. Social
case worker must provide full support to help the client to
get rid of his/her problems because it provide client with
courage and confident to tackle problems. Thus, counseling
provided to the client must be supportive in nature.
The term psycho-social is made of two word “psycho” and
“social” where psycho means relating to psychological or
mental and social means the factors relating to social
behavior or society. Thus, Psychosocial means the
combination and the interaction of the psychological and
social factor in relation to the thought and behavior of the
person.
The individual and his environment are inter-related with
each other. The change in one system creates change in
other system. In other words behavior and personality of an
individual is the product of psychological factors and
environmental factors. Thus, problem inclined is not only
due to psychological factor but also due to environmental
factors but also due to environmental factor where the
individual live. The psychology and personality of any
person is affected by social, cultural as well as religious
factors. If individual is not good then the society will also
be the same. In other word to make the better society we
should make a good individual.
Similarly the actual behavior and appearance of the person
is also a result of biological and social factors. The
differences between individuals are due to differences in
heredity characters and influences in environment. It is

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very important to know the pattern of person behavior
which is determined by biological factor and which is by
social factor. Thus, problems in individual are due to
different factors like environment, social, culture, religious
and heredity. For solving the problem the caseworker must
have knowledge about these problems and must use
different techniques of intervention like supportive and
counseling systems.
Factors related to psychosocial counseling
1. Social relation and environment of present and past
should be focused.
2. External influence has to be addressed in order to
promote better adjustment between his/her surround.
3. Specific approach should be used to collect data or
social evidence like social study, diagnosis and
treatment process.
4. Each person and each family is unique, thus must be
studied and listen separately.
5. Gathering information and understanding clients
dilemmas.
6. Observation and arrangement of data in order.
7. Conduct early interview for gathering information.
8. Observe clients non-verbal behaviors and psycho-
social study of children, parents, teachers and other
concerned people.
9. Many problems emerge due to the development phase
of individual and family life cycle therefore early life
history’s data is to be taken for psychosocial study.
10. After determining the most probable strategy
treatment need to be done.

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Supportive counseling based intervention/therapy related
with following:
1. Individual Therapy
Social worker helps people in various crisis and chronic
life situation like addiction, physical disability, domestic
abuse etc. The social work helps the client to identify
his/her problems provide needs and services to tackle
problem. Social worker provides services to special clients
such as students. Children, elder people, sick people both
mentally and physically ill person. Social work use
varieties of counseling and supportive techniques to solve
their problems by acting as guide, support and catalyst role.
2. Family Therapy
In family therapy or intervention social work helps the
family to solve their problems. For solving the family
problems, social worker gets information regarding family
history, family dynamics, tradition, beliefs, habits, norms
and values etc. Then the social worker helps the family
member to understand how this system affects the members
of family. Social worker suggests family the various ways
to strengthen, their family relationship to overcome their
difficulties. In some cases social workers also tries to
change their bad habits and life pattern.
3. Couples Therapy
Couple therapy is used by social worker to help the
people to enhance intimate relationship. Social worker
work on problem such as anger issues, physical violence,
unhealthy emotional attachment and harmful interaction
habit. Social worker meets with each person individually as

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well as both together to diagnosis problem, suggest changes
and recommend suggestion. Social worker deals mostly
with couples refer from domestic violence; couples who
have refer for parenting training or couples in stressful
situation due to loss of child.
4. Group Therapy
Group treatment or intervention is used by social
worker to give new awareness and support for those who
have similar problems such as homeless teenagers, young
mothers who have experienced domestic violence. Social
worker meets regularly with them for the group discussion
about their problems and guides them to solve their
problems. Social worker also helps to raise awareness to
the client. Social workers may have one or more groups to
meet with them for having treatment.
5. Community Therapy
Community therapy is used by social workers when
whole community is facing problems. Social worker tries to
get information regarding their traditional beliefs, habits,
dynamics, needs, wants etc. Social worker also tries to get
information regarding the effects of these problems on the
communities. Social worker then gives solution to
strengthen their capacities and relationship and also helps
to tackle their problems and change their bad habits.
6. Alcohol and drug addiction intervention
Alcohol and drug addiction intervention is used by
social worker to make client comfortable with group,
family members and close person. The client need to ask to

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meet with groups and (s)he is allowed to tells his/her
troubles and how his/her behavior is affecting him/herself
and his family members. The client is also allowed to share
his views why (s)he wants to change his habits. In this
method social worker acts as a guide or supporter for
changing and helping the client to stay away from these
habits.
Concept of family
Family is taken as organization and basic unit of
society. The social group consisting of father, mother, son,
daughter, grandparents etc., dining in one kitchen and
living on the one roof having a relation of blood, marriage
and adoption is called family. The person of different age
and sex live in an organized way keeping good relation
with one another in a family. The family members provide,
love, affection, kindness, care to one another at the time of
illness and misery. Available resources and means are used
collectively among the family members.
“The concept of family usually includes biological and
legal ties as well as emotional attachment.”
(Holtzman, 2005)
“Family comprises people who have a shared history and a
shared future. They encompass the entire emotional system
of at least three, and frequently now four or even five
generations held together by blood, legal, and /or historical
ties.”
(Carter and McGoldrick’s, 1999)

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Types of family
Family exist both for well-being of their members and
for the well-being of society. Ideally they offer
predictability, structure and safety as members mature and
participate in community life. They have different purposes
on the basis of their size, generation, etc. There are
different types of family which are classified below:
1. Classification of the family on the basis of size or
generation
a. Nuclear family
The family consists of only father, mother and their
unmarried children is called nuclear family. This
family is also known as small family.
b. Joint family
The joint family includes three generations living
together husband, wife with married children, their
spouse, unmarried children, grandparents, etc.
2. Classification of family on the basis of marriage ( no. of
spouses)
a. Polygamy family
Polygamy is the practice or custom of having more
than one wife or husband in relation at the same time.
b. Monogamy family
Monogamy is a form of relationship in which an
individual has only one partner during his or her
lifetime or at any one time

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3. Classification of family on the basis of nature of
relationship
a. Patriarchal family
Patriarchy is a social system in which males hold
primary power, predominate in roles of political
leadership, moral authority, social privilege and
control of property; in the domain of the family,
fathers or father-figures hold authority over women
and children such family is patriarchal family.
b. Matriarchal family
A matriarchy is a social organizational form in which
the mother or oldest female heads the family. Descent
and relationship are determined through the female
line. It is also government or rule by a woman or
women figure. Thus, the family being women head is
known as matriarchal family.
4. Classification of family on the basis of ancestry/descent
of family
a. Patrilineal family
Patrilineality known as the male line or agnatic
kinship is a common kinship system in which an
individual's family membership derives from and is
traced through his or her father's lineage. It generally
involves the inheritance of property, rights, names, or
titles by persons related through male kin.
b. Matrilineal family
Matrilineality is the tracing of descent through the
female line. It may also correlate with a societal
system in which each person is identified with their

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matrilineal their mother's lineage and which can
involve the inheritance of property and/or titles. A
matrilineal is a line of descent from a female ancestor
to a descendant (of either sex) in which the
individuals in all intervening generations are mothers,
in other words, a "mother line"
5. Adoptive family
Adoption involves a legal commitment to raise children
who have been born to others. Adoption has become
more complicated in recent years, with fewer children
available to be adopted. Prospective parents can now
adopt through an open process, informally,
internationally, and interracially. Families may be
formed by more than one way of adopting. Moreover,
single parents can now adopt and, in some states, gay
and lesbian parents are also free to adopt.
(Carter, 1999, p.260)
6. Single-Parent family
A single-parent family consist of one parent and one
more children. The parent can be either male or female
and can be single as a result of the death of a parent,
divorce, separation, desertion, or never having been
married.
Function of family
Over 40 years ago, Satir (1967), a well-known family
social worker, identified seven functions of families, which
we summarize below.
1. To provide heterosexual experience for mates.

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2. To contribute to the continuity of the race by
producing and nurturing children.
3. To cooperate economically by dividing labors
between the adults according to sex, convenience, and
precedents.
4. To maintain a boundary (incest taboo) so that tasks
can be performed smoothly and stable relationships
maintained.
5. To transmit culture to the children through teaching
communication, expression of emotions, coping with
inanimate environment, and roles.
6. To recognize when one of its members reaches
adulthood.
7. To provide for the eventual care of parents by their
children.
Roles of family
Family members help to play different roles for the
proper growth and development of family members. Each
family member helps their own duties and responsibilities
to protect to the family members from different problems.
The roles played by the family members are due to the
result of family dynamics.
1. Role of parents
a. Provision of resources
Providing different resources like food, clothes,
shelter, education etc. for all the members is one of
the most important roles with in the family.

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b. Nurturance and support
All the family members must be provided with
balance diet food and other necessary things.
Similarly, family members must be provided with
comfort warm friendly environment. Parents must
provide support rearing and caring to their children
which helps for the personality development of the
children.
c. Life skill development
Education trainings, services need to be provided to
the children by the family for their physical emotional
and social development (e.g., the parents should help
the children in arranging good school and colleges
helping them to decide their career path etc.)
d. Maintenance and management of family system
The family must know different kind of work in the
family for smooth running of family system. This
includes many tasks like leadership, decision making,
family handling, management of family resources,
maintaining appropriate discipline, respecting one
another.
2. Role of children
a. Peace keeper
A young child may play the role of peace keeper and
mediator. The children can reduce tension between
conflicting parents. This behavior may be in response
to their unconscious anxiety about the family
breakdown.

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b. Problem as a role
Sometimes a young person’s problems like drug
abuse may play a role in family system by distracting
the family problems from other problem. This
situation makes the parents worried about their
children leaving their stress and conflict. Parents may
divert their behavior in order to allow their children to
keep in the family.
Family dynamics
The way in which the members of the family interact
with each other with in the family is called family
dynamics. Each family and its dynamics are unique
although there is some common pattern. Every family has
helpful and some unhelpful dynamics. A young person
(children) will have greater influence by dynamics of
family in earlier years. Family dynamics often have strong
influence on the way young people see themselves, others
and the world. Study of family dynamics helps to get
following knowledge about the family.
1. Behavior and relationship of family members.
2. Difficulties and their interaction.
3. Strength and weakness of family members.
4. Types of communication with each other during
conflicts.
Factors affecting family dynamics
1. Nature of parent’s relationship.
2. Having particularly soft and strict parents.
3. Personalities of family members.

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4. An absent parent.
5. Mix of members who are living in the same
household.
6. Number of children in the family.
7. Chronically sick or disabled children within the
family.
8. Events which have affected family members such as
affairs, divorce, trauma (emotional shock), death etc.
9. Issues such as family violence, drug abuse,
alcoholism etc.
10. Family beliefs, values, norms, ethnicity, culture,
gender roles.
11. Nature of attachment in family (secure/ insecure).
12. Dynamics of previous generation.
13. Aspects like social, political, economic etc.
Recording in casework
Recording literally means ‘a formal writing of any fact
or proceeding’ and when used as a verb means ‘to set down
in writing or other permanent form’. Taking cue from this
we can define case record as a written account of the
casework proceedings. However, from the above statement
one should not conclude that case recording is an easy,
routine and simple task, far from it. It’s a highly skilled and
complex task. Recording is an important and integral part
of casework procedure and is an output of the activity of
casework. The importance of recording lies both in the
processes well as the product. For an individual who is
planning to become a caseworker, the art of record writing
is worth striving to develop and perfect, not only because
case recording is an essential part of good casework and is

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becoming a more important factor with the increasing
complexity of social treatment, but also because the case
record is fortunately or unfortunately often used as one of
the important indexes of the caseworkers ability.
The importance of recording:
1. By maintaining records, a worker can improve his
professional skills and techniques, can learn by his own
errors and can thus make his help more effective and
systematic.
2. Records not only help a worker to evaluate his own
work, but he can also improve upon his own methods.
3. Records can create interest not only in the worker but
also in the client and help in building worker-client
relationship.
4. Records add to the body of knowledge of social work
and also make this knowledge communicable.
5. Records make supervision and teaching easier and
effective.
6. Records can be used for social research and planning.
7. Through records a worker can show his agency what
work he has done.
8. Records ensure continuity of work, if another replaces
one worker.
9. Records are useful for future references.
10. Records help in providing service on a systematic basis.
Types of Recording
Process Recording
Process recording is one method by which we can record
the content of an interview. It involves a written record of

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all communication both verbal and nonverbal (based on the
worker’s best recollections), and a record of the worker’s
feelings and reflection throughout the interview. Audio or
video recordings can also be used for caseworker to:
 Identify client’s feelings during the interview
 Assess client’s feelings
 Present summary comments
Problem Oriented Recording (POR)
Problem oriented recording is a method of client case
record keeping that focuses on specific problems
components such as:
 Database, which contains information required for each
client regardless of diagnosis or presenting problems.
i.e., all history, physical findings etc.
 Problem list, which contains the major problems
currently needing attention.
 Plan, which specifies what, is to be done with regard to
each problem.
 Progress notes, which document the observations,
assessments, future plans.
Summative Recording
Summative assessment is a summary of all the formative
assessment carried out over a long period and makes
statements about the client’s progress. Effective assessment
involves evaluation or decisions about the client’s progress
and they give us the information we need to plan for the
next steps. This is called assessment for learning, it is the
formative assessment, based on observations and other
forms of evidence, which informs or guides everyday
planning.

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Principles/Guidelines of recording in casework
1. Accuracy, objectivity, simplicity, clarity and brevity
should be observed in writing records.
2. Facts and their interpretation should be distinguished as
it leads to objectivity. Inferences should be drawn in an
impartial manner without attempting to influence the
judgment of the reader (e.g., frequent fights between
the husband and wife might lead the caseworker to
interpret that she dislikes or hates her husband.)
3. Record must be orderly in its arrangement and it is not
possible unless the writer has thought out in advance
what should be included and then has set out the
material in a logical sequence.
4. A long record is not necessarily a good record. Records
should neither be too long nor too short.
5. The casework records are not meant to be literary
master pieces, therefore they should be written in
simple language and simple style.
6. A telling verbatim quote can sometimes depict a
situation much better than a narrative description,
therefore, wherever possible reaction of the clients
should be recorded in their own words.
7. There should be certain degree of uniformity and
standardization as to the form of observation.
8. A record should have readability and visibility and
should contain a clear and concise presentation of the
materials. (e.g., content can be organized under topical
heading such as interviews, home visits, and contact
with collaterals.)

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9. To maintain clarity and accuracy avoid using words
which are vague, ambiguous and likely to be
misinterpreted by the readers.
10. It should always be made clear who are involved in the
situation, which is addressing whom and what are the
sources of information.
11. The details of every significant subject or situation
should be given.
12. One should not record the self-evident, the
insignificant, the familiar, and the repetitive.

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Chapter -2
GROUP WORK
1. Historical Evolution of Group Work
2. Concept of Group Work
3. Definition of Group Work
4. Principles of Group Work
5. Stages and phases of Group Work
6. Types of Group Work
7. Models of group work
8. Program in Group Work
9. Group Dynamic
10.Different Useful Theories

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Historical Evolution of Group work
The historical development of group work was very
distinct and unique process differing markedly from the
emerging work with groups in other professions, such as
psychology and psychiatry. An appreciation of the
evolution of work with this system, which later officially
became a part of social work, gives perspective in regard to
the potential breadth of client population and problems for
which the group can be utilized.
The industrial revolution began in the United States in the
mid-1800s and resulted in major social changes. In
addition, there were shifts of large populations from rural to
urban areas and immigration from Europe, Mexico and
Asia. This led to the new social problems for the individual
and for the broader society. During this industrial
revolution different association and organizations were
organized to address the problems resisted in the society.
The associations like Young Men’s Christian Association,
Boy’s Clubs of America, Settlement house, Hull house, etc.
were organized to alleviate the problems of society related
to economic, health, and offering the spiritual and social
support as well as education support. The development of
different association and organizations during the industrial
revolution played a vital role for the development of social
group work.
The methods prevalent become more ineffective along with
the complexity of social problems. Specialization also
developed in the field of their solution. Thus, specialized
agencies came into existence.

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In the beginning
Social group work was mainly carved out by religious
organization. The motive behind this religious organization
was to motivate people for attending the church and
religious function to teach them about the truth and the
values of the religious understanding. Out of this
innovatory forms of working emerged and were fertilized
by the developments in other fields like institutions,
hospitals, child guidance and parental support, schools etc.
Generally, these processes were developed into modern
times. The social group work begins with its own unique
theories and histories.
After 1st World War
The period following the First World War was one in
which social case work was used predominantly by charity
organizations and societies. In U.S.A, there emerged a large
number of voluntary organizations where group behaviors
were focused. Many thinkers like; Mark stare (1937)
emphasize the concept of group work such as “learning by
doing”.
Group work curriculum in West
The beginning of social group work in social work
curriculum was made by “Clara Kaiser” who offered the
first course as a part of social work. In 1920s group work
got a lot of input from different subjects like education,
psychology, sociology, social work etc. The first course of
group work was given in the “School of Applied Social
Science of Western Research University in 1930”. In 1936,

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American Association for study of group work was formed
to classify the concept of group work.
Second World War and Group work
After the Second World War there were lots of problems all
over the world. This brought group workers and case
worker together. Professionals started to experiment with
group work in therapeutic intervention. Different volunteer
groups were involved to help the people.
Grace Longwell Coyle (1892-1962)
The chairperson of new group work process established
section of social group work. The national conference of
social work begins to clarify that group work was a method
within social work. In 1940s with the effort of Grace
Longwell Coyle, Kaiser, Wilder, Newstetter, G. Wilson and
Helen U Phillips, a group work in west was fully begun to
be taught. In many schools of U.S.A by 1950, most school
started course of social work. In 1960s, Ruth E. Smalley’s
book “Theory for social work practice” played important
role in group work.
Development of Group work in India
Group work as a method of social work came to India in
1936 with the introduction of professional social work
education after the establishment of first school of social
work “The Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social
work” in Mumbai. This was followed by the establishment
of the 2nd school of social work in Delhi which had
teaching the group work as a part or curriculum. The third
school came up in Baroda with a strong trend of group
work practice. The development of group work in India is
not as good as western countries but social group workers
and group work is growing day by day.

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Development of Group work in Nepal
The development of social group work in India also
influences group work practice in Nepal. Social group work
in Nepal can be traced back through many forms of
voluntary work by religious and cultural institutions such as
guthi (clan based association), dharmashala (free residences
for the poor) and patipauwa (public resting place) in Nepal.
Nowadays group work process is used in various fields like
health, education, entertainment and psychology etc. to
solve various problems in group. This group work is
frequently used in education to present their view and to
generate leadership quality.
Concept of Group Work
As distinct from the related social work methods of
casework and community organization, social group work
concentrates primarily on providing group experiences to
meet normal developmental needs, to help prevent social
breakdown, to facilitate corrective and rehabilitative goals,
and to encourage citizen involvement and responsible
social action. Characteristically, group work services
involves small groups of members coming together with a
“worker” on a more or less regular basis, usually as
participants in social agency or institution. Groups vary in
size and composition. Participants include persons of all
ages, races, and social classes joining together in natural as
well as formed groups. Professional training in social group
work is provided in most graduate and undergraduate
schools of social work. Group work methods are also used
extensively by a variety of agency workers with different
kinds of preparation and experience.

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Group work is based on many conceptual foundations. Its
values can be traced to ethical and religious beliefs rooted
in the Judeo-Christian tradition; to the humanitarian
movement, which found expression in the early settlement
movement; and to the core of social work values and
philosophy, which have evolved out of a long tradition of
services to people. Its theories and practices were
influenced by the democratic ethic of Mary Follett and
Eduard Lindeman; the educational philosophy of John
Dewey; the sociologies of Durkheim, Simmel, Cooley, and
Mead; the group dynamics of Kurt Levin; the small group
processes of Wilber Newstetter and Grace Coyle; the play
theories of Neva Boyd; Freudian Psychoanalysis; and the
group therapies of S.R Slavson and Fritz Redl. Systems
theory, sociobehavioral theory and existential thought have
influenced some of the more recent versions of practice.
Group work is defined as minimum two or more than two
individual who come together to complete task for the
achievement of goals. Individual are normally related to
each other by organizational or social relationship.
Group work is a method of social work practice in which
individual are placed within small face to face group in
order to solve their problems and to bring about desired
changes at individual, group and community level. It
recognizes the strength of social forces that are generated
with in small groups and helps to mobilize them for change
in the client. In group work process goes for each
individual members and the due as a whole it focused.
Thus, in group as individual develops ability, modification
self-image and generate new pattern of behavior. These
changes should be stabilized during group work to get

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significant result. Group work helps to achieve the overall
objectives in social group work to participate in democratic
system. All the social worker and social administrator need
to understand group work process and need to use this
knowledge for the betterment of the group. Thus, “Group
work is a conscious attempt to help people to become more
effective in group to find out common interest and mutual
satisfaction.”
The group work plays a vital role in development of an
individual. It is the group where emergence of interpersonal
relationship takes place. The family, playmates, class
fellow, neighborhoods are the collection of human being
which forms group in which man lives.
Definition of Group work
Group work is a method of working within group for
enhancement of socially desirable goals. Group work is
based on knowledge of people need of people and their
interdependence. Group work is a method of reducing or
eliminating blocks to social interaction and for getting
desirable purpose. Different people gave different
definition of group work like:
Group work is an “educational process” concerned with
“the development and social adjustment of an individual
through voluntary group association” and “the use of this
association as a means of furthering other socially
desirable ends”
Newsletter (1935, P.291)
“Group work is the method in social work which relates
it’s helping function especially to individual in groups. It’s

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goal is to create qualitative group like the group workers
always works in the actual realistic facts”
Gisela Konopka, (1963)
A modernized and more comprehensive definition of group
work stated as “group work provides a context in which
individuals help each other; it is a method of helping
groups as well as helping individuals; and it can enable
individuals and groups to influence and change personal,
group, and organizational and community problems”
Brown (1994, P.8)
“Social group work is psychological process which is
concerned with developing leadership ability and co-
operation than building on the interest of the group for
social purpose.”
Hamilton, (1940)
“Group work is goal directed activity with small groups of
people aimed at meeting socio-emotional needs and
accomplishing tasks. This activity is directed to individual
members of a group and to the group as a whole within a
system of service delivery.”
Toseland and Rivas, (1984)
Objectives of group work
1. To help the individual to live, to work and to
participate together in the activities. To solve
problems of adjustment by development of individual
personality through the group work process.
2. To prepare the individual to learn to share
responsibilities and help to work in democratic way.
3. To give opportunity to develop leadership. In group
many are given to the members of the group to
develop qualities of leadership.

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4. To make the best use of leisure time of people.
Different methods and ideas are given to the members
of group so that they can use their leisure time
properly.
5. To learn division of labor and specialization of roles.
6. To provide substitution to family and to get emotional
security and opportunity for adjustment with
secondary group.
7. To increase one’s view and social consciousness to
create friendship and preserve hobbies.
8. To help for social adjustment.
9. To prepare the people for social change in life as well
as in society.
Characteristic of group work
1. Group work is practiced within the group
In social group work, the group itself utilizes the
individual with the help of social worker. The group work
is taken as primary means of personality growth change
and development. This brings about individual growth and
social development. Therefore, group work is always
practiced within group members. It also helps to provide
solution of group problems.
2. Based on humanitarian philosophy
Social group gets its inspiration from human
philosophy. Thus, it seeks happiness, joy and prosperity for
individual group and community.
3. To know the status of an individual with his/her group
Group work is done in order to interact with the
people in the group and to know the status of an individual

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in the group. The group worker attempts to establish the
coordination between the individual and hi group.
4. To know the status of an individual within his/her
group
In the group, the group worker becomes useless until
the group members know about the group. Therefore, every
individual tries to know each other or obtain minimum
information about the globe. The group worker by
maintaining close relationship with each other collects
actual information about the group members.
5. To obtain integration between individual and group
There are lots of differences in an individual in a
group. Their aim, views are also quite different from one
another, therefore group work tries to make integration
between individual and group. Due to group interactions
the group also gets benefits.
6. To know various facts involved in group life
Another characteristic of group work is to know various
factors in group work. In group work there are many
factors which help a lot to the members of group like the
member must know about the importance of group social
economic and cultural activities in the group.
7. To motivate the group for spontaneous progress
One of the main jobs of group worker is to motivate
the group members for spontaneous progress in group as
well as in their future program. As a group worker cannot

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be always with them so the group worker tries his best to
maintain group member to make progress in their work.
8. To know the available resources of the group
To run the group certain resources are needed. It is
the duty of group worker to know about the resources
which are available in the group. After having knowledge
about available resources they must be used properly.
9. The group work aims to develop leadership
The aim of group work is to develop the leadership
quality in all the members of the group. In the group work
each person in the group is given several chances to
develop leadership quality. Thus, the group workers must
provide each member with an opportunity to stand on their
feet.
10. Recognition of self determination
Individual in group has full right to choose the course
of his or her progress. The group worker inspires the
individual in the group for participation for solution of the
problem. Thus, it helps to recognize self-determination.
Assumptions of Group work
The basic assumptions of the group work are as follows:
1. Group experience is universal and an essential part of
human existence.
2. Groups can be used to effect changes in the attitudes
and behavior of individuals.
3. Groups offer experience shared with others so that all
can come to have something in common with the
sense of belonging and of growing together.

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4. Groups produce changes which is more permanent
that can be achieved by other methods and change
which is obtained more quickly.
5. Groups assist in the removal or diminution of
difficulties created by previous exposure to the
process of learning.
6. Groups as instruments of helping others may be
economical in the use of scarce resources, e.g., skilled
workers, time etc.
7. A group can examine its own behavior and in so
doing learn about the general patterns of group
behavior (process).
Principles of group work
While group work shares with other methods of
social work, generic principles such as respect for the
individual, non-judgmental attitude and objectivity, out of
its own philosophy and skill evolve basic principles
specific to this method which guide the worker. The worker
also makes judicious use of limitations to direct and control
the behavior of members to obtain the optimum interaction.
Most important is the differential and purposeful use of a
program according to the diagnostic evaluation of
individual members, the group purpose and appropriate
social goals. Well-chosen program media provide
opportunities for a new and differing experience in
relationships and accomplishments. Group work demands
an ongoing evaluation of the progress made by each
individual and the group and finally a warm and disciplined
use of self on the part of the worker.

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There are 14 principles of social group work mentioned by
Tom Douglas.
1. Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the
unique difference of each individual
It is the recognition of unique difference of each
individual in this group. The group worker has to
understand each individual and has to help each group
members in regard to his/her own specific needs as well as
in regard to the needs of total group and society in which
he/she exist.
2. Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the
wide variety of groups as groups
The group worker should realize that a group is more
than some of its individual. Its characteristics are related to
group’s goal and composition. This principle includes the
skill of diagnosing a group and acting according to this
diagnosis as well as understanding of the individual.
3. Genuine acceptance of each individual with his unique
strengths and weaknesses
Acceptance includes the professional values
orientation and respect for each individual. He has to accept
the individual with its strength as well as his weakness. He
has to accept the individual in his totality.
4. Establishment of purposeful relationship between group
worker and group member
Group work practice is based on assumption that
change in an individual can occur only through interaction

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with group members. To get change in beneficial ways
people need help in professional way.
5. Encouragement and enabling of help and co-operative
relationships between members
It is the duty of group worker to establish purposeful
relationship between the members of the group. These
relationships can a move in a negative or positive direction.
Thus, it is a group workers role to work towards
relationship between members which become beneficial to
them.
6. Appropriate modification of group process
The group process is express in relationship between
group members, the formation of sub-groups, the
establishment of bond, development of leadership, findings
of data’s etc. The group worker must see these group help
in diagnosis and must know when to work with group
members strengthening and changing them.
7. Encouragement of each member to participate
according to the stage of his capacity and enabling
him/her to become more capable
The group worker must accept the stages of
individual capacity to participate, help him/her to
participates on his/her own level without feelings of forced
or embarrassed and guide him/her in a healthier manner to
be capable.
8. Enabling members to involve themselves in the process
of problem solving

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The group worker does not solve problems for the
group. Similarly, he must not play a role of omniscient/
optimistic person who always know what is the best for the
individual members or for the group as a whole. He helps
group members to become part of problem solving and
finding out their own solutions by interaction with group
members and group worker.
9. Enabling group members to experience increasingly
satisfactory forms of working through conflicts
This principle is related two form of conflict solving
in group interaction. In the group, the individual or a group
as a whole are enabled to move from slugging out
differences of opinions by talking, learning, compromising
or use of democratic method.
10. Provision of opportunities for new and differing
experience in relationship and accomplishments
Workings through new relationship are a part of daily
human life. Group worker works with group members
when special help is needed. e.g., when a people move
from rural to urban areas this kind of help is to be provided
by group worker. It is the responsibility of group worker to
allow the new experience by providing opportunities for
accomplishment.
11. Judicious use of limitations related to the diagnostic
assessment of each individual and the total situation
Limitations are an important part of purposeful work with
individual and the group. this principle includes diagnostic
thinking and skillful use of all the media available to the

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group worker such as; relationship building, use of
different group work process, different program etc.
12. Purposeful and differential use of program according to
diagnostic evaluation of individual members, group
purpose and appropriate goal
Program means any activities which the group does
in the presence of group worker during the course of group
meeting. These activities must not be planned according to
the particular needs or interest of group workers
him/herself but should be done reference to the group
members. This principle includes diagnosis of individual
and group needs and their assessment in relation to the
group and agency purpose.
13. Ongoing evaluation of individual and group progress
Periodic evolution and assessment are part of group
work method. This will help to keep their workers effort
purposeful and flexible. There must be frequently sharing
with individual and group members and also with group
leader. These sharing are always oriented towards the goal.
14. Warm human and disciplined use of self on the part of
the group.
The group worker must be disciplined; they must be
real person who can show the real feelings and actions.
They should have the knowledge of use of self as warm in a
progressive way for the help of group.

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The most helpful group worker is that one who can use
basic principle of group work in a creative and disciplined
way. According H.B.Trecker there are 10 principle of
social group work given below.
1. The principle of planned group formation
Group is the basic unit through which the service is
provided to the individual, consequently, the agency and
the worker responsible for the formation of group or the
acceptance into the agency of already formed groups must
be aware of the factors inherent in the group situation that
make the given group a positive potential for individual
growth and for meeting recognizable needs.
2. The principle of specific objectives
Specific objectives for individual as well as group
development must be consciously formulated by the worker
in harmony with group wishes and capacities and in
keeping with agency function.
3. The principle of purposeful worker group relationship
A consciously purposeful relationship must be
established between the worker and the group members
based on the worker’s acceptance of the group members as
they are and upon the groups willingness to accept help
from the worker because of the confidence the members
have in him and in the agency.
4. The principle of continuous individualization
In group work it is recognized that groups are
different and that individuals utilize group experience in a
variety of ways to meet their differing needs; consequently,

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continuous individualization must be practiced by the
worker. Groups and individuals in the group must be
understood as developing and changing.
5. The principle of guided group interaction
In group work the primary source of energy which
propels the group and influences the individuals to change
are the interaction and reciprocal responses of the
members. The group worker influences the interaction by
the type and the quality of participation.
6. The principle of democratic group self determination
In group work the group must be helped to make its
own decisions and determine its own activities, taking the
maximum amount of responsibility in line with the capacity
and ability. The primary source of control over the group is
the group itself.
7. The principle of flexible functional organization
In group work the group worker guides the group by
setting up an organization to meet the group needs. The
organization thus established should be understood by the
group members, should be flexible and encouraged only if
it meets the felt need of the members. The organization
should be active and should change as the group changes.
8. The principle of progressive program experiences
In social group work, the program experiences in
which the group engages should begin at the level of the
member interest, need, experience and competence and

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should progress in relation to the developing capacity of the
group.
9. The principle of resource utilization
In social group work, the total environment of the
agency and the community possess resources which should
be utilized to enrich the content of group experience for
individuals and for the group as a whole.
10. The principle of evaluation
In social group work, continuous evaluation of
process and programmer in terms of outcomes is essential.
Worker, group and agency share in this procedure as a
means of guaranteeing this greatest possible self-
fulfillment.
Stages and phases of Group work
While working in the group work the group has to
pass through different important stages and phases of the
group work. The steps involved in planning and
implementing educational, treatment and socialization
groups are similar to the procedures followed by social
workers who deal with individual clients. Experience will
demonstrate the futility of these efforts as, barring
unforeseen circumstances, each group will move at its own
pace and eventually arrive at the same destination. Groups
that skip stage or whose development is otherwise thwarted
will often return to a previous stage to complete unfinished
business. While groups do sometimes become mired in one
stage, these occurrences are less common than generally
thought. The procedures for establishing socialization,

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educational and treatment groups are briefly summarized in
the following material and expanded upon throughout the
text.
The stages of group work are classified into three steps.
1. The Beginning stage or Initial stage
2. The Middle stage
3. The Ending stage
1. The Beginning stage or Initial stage
The first stage of the group development is known as
initial stage. This stage comprises of other sub stages like
intake, planning, assessment which helps for the further
development of the group work formation. In this stage the
group members starts getting closer and characterized with
anxiety and uncertainty. Members are cautious with their
behavior which is driven by the desire to be accepted by all
the member of the group. Conflict, controversy and
personal opinion are avoided even though members started
to form impression of each other and gain understanding of
what the group will do together. Some believe that this
cautious behavior prevents the group from getting any
unwanted activities. The main aim and focus of group
members during this stage is to become familiar with each
other and their purpose.
This stage is also known as forming stage and include
activities like gaining and understanding group members
feelings, purpose of group, determining how the team will
be organized and who will be responsible for what. This
phase also include making rough project schedule, making
general group rules and discovering of the available

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resources for the group to use. The stages involved in this
phase are elaborated below.
1.1 Intake
The first stage of group development is known as
intake stage. During this stage, the presenting concerns and
needs of prospective members are identified. Judgments
that some or all of these people could benefit from group
approach are made. An agreement is often formulated
between the members of the group and the group leader
about tentative group goals. This stage may also be referred
to as the contract stage, as the leader and the members
make a commitment to pursue the situation to next step.
1.2 Selection of Member
Individuals most likely to benefit from a group
should be selected as members. Selecting a group requires
attention to both descriptive and behavioral factors. A
decision needs to be made whether to seek homogeneity or
diversity in these factors. There are few guide lines as to
when diversity and when homogeneity of these factors will
be most effective and efficient. Age, sex, and level of
education are descriptive factors that may create
homogeneity or foster diversity within the group. In groups
of children and adolescents, the age span among members
must be kept relatively small because levels of maturity and
interests can vary greatly. Similarly, same sex groupings
may facilitate achieving group goals for pre-adolescents,
but for middle adolescent groups there may be specific
advantages to having representation from both sexes.

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1.3 Assessment and Planning
A more in-depth assessment and statement of goals
and plans for action occurs during this phase. In reality, this
step is completed only when the group ends because the
dynamic nature of most groups requires an ongoing
adjustment of goals and intervention plans. Goals should be
time-limited with a reasonable chance for attainment, and
the leader should ensure that all goals are clearly stated to
aid in later evaluations. Clarification of goals also
eliminates hidden agendas.
Objective in the Beginning stage
According to Toseland and Rivas the beginning
phase is often considered by novice and experienced
workers as the most difficult stage of group work because
members are seeking direction yet are suspicious of
worker’s attempts to improve goals on them.
All group members should focus on certain objectives as
they begin a group.
1. Introducing members of the group so they feel
comfortable with one another.
2. The workers and the agency perceive setting, the
purpose and function of the group as it. Perceived by
worker and the agency.
3. Balancing task and socio-emotional aspects of the
group process.
4. Providing the opportunity and the climate for members
to give feedback about the fit between their needs, the
workers view of their needs and the service provided by
the agency.

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5. Setting goals.
6. Contracting.
7. Facilitating member motivation and ability to work in
the group.
2. The Middle stage
This is the most important phase of group work and
is again divided into 3 stages storming, norming and
performing stage. This stage is also known as intervention
or treatment phase. The middle stage focuses on the goal
achievement. Members work together to achieve the goals
expressed in the contracts they have made with the group’s
leader, other group members and the group as a whole. The
stages in middle stage are briefly explained below.
2.1 Storming
This stage sees group members begin to confront
each other as they begin to vie for roles within the group
that will help them to belong and to feel valued. Thus as
members begin to assert their individual personalities, the
comfort of the forming stage begins to come under siege.
Members experience personal, intra and inter group
conflicts. Aggression and resentment may manifest in this
stage and thus if strong personalities emerge and leadership
is unresponsive to group and individual needs, the situation
may become destructive to the group’ s development.
Indeed there is a high potential for individuals to abandon
the group during this stage, as for some the pressures
created by the group may become too much of a strain.

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The potential for oppressive behavior is strong within the
storming phase as group members vie for preferred roles
and release frustrations built within the forming period.
This personal oppression should be discouraged whilst it is
understood that a degree of conflict is necessary if the
group is to further develop.
There will be a greater conflict and competition between
group members because the group member have
understood their task and they feel themselves as a part of
group and begin to address some of the important issues
surrounding the group. In this stage more dominant of
group members emerges while on the other hand some
members stay in comfort and security suppressing their
feelings. Even though this individuals stay quite the issue
may still exist. All the members need clarification
regarding leadership, authority, rules, responsibilities,
structures, evaluation criteria and reward system. So the
group can move on to the next phase.
2.2 Norming
During norming stage the group members becomes
united again. In this stage the group begins to work more
constructively together towards formal identified or
informal tasks. Roles begin to develop and be allocated
within the group and although these may be accepted, some
members may not be comfortable with the role or roles
which they have been allocated. During this stage sub-
groups are likely to form in order that a supportive
environment is once more created. Acceptable and
unacceptable behaviors within the group are created and

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reinforced and thus the `norms` for this group become
fabricated.
The storming and norming phases of group development
are inextricably linked, as it is often through the storming
and challenging that acceptable group norms become set. It
is important that a youth worker works hard during this
stage to ensure oppression against individuals within the
group does not become the acceptable norm, as then all
group members will oppress these individuals. Thus,
individual oppressions must be challenged and emphasis
placed on challenging attitudes and opinions but not group
members.
Group members acknowledge their talent. Skill, and
experience with each other so that the members bring
together. The group remains focus on group purpose and
goal; members are flexible, interdependent and trust each
other. Leadership is shared and members are willing to
adopt the need of group. The group establishes
cohesiveness and commitment. In the process, the members
discover new ways to work together.
2.3 Performing stage
This stage sees the group performing effectively with
defined roles, in fact at this stage it could be said that the
group has transformed into a team. It is now that decisions
may be positively challenged or reinforced by the group as
a whole. The discomfort of the storming and norming
phases has been overcome and the group has a general
feeling of unity. This is the best stage for a group to
complete tasks, assuming that task, rather than process and
individuals, are the focus of the group.

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Performing stage is marked by high productivity. Group
works as unit to achieve group goal. The group members
are unified, loyal and supportive which helps for decision
making process. Problem solving experimentation and
testing possible solution are high as group members are
focus on completion of task and achievements. The overall
objective of the group during the performing stage is to
complete their mission and fulfill their purpose by
achievement of goal.
3. The Ending stage
The ending stage is the final phase of the group work.
This stage includes the evaluation, termination and the
ending of the group’s work. This stage is also known as
adjourning stage. Group purposes have been achieved and
members have learned new behavioral patterns to enable
them to move on to other social experiences. All the good
things must come to end and this is also true in case of
group work. After a group has successfully completed their
task, they must dissolve from both the task and group
members. This stage is also a time for reflection and
acknowledgement of the participant about the past and part
of group activities. During the closing phase the leader has
the opportunity to encourage members to share their
thoughts and feeling about the session. This stage can be
difficult for some members but some members are
encouraged to take what they learn from group.
Termination is not always easily accomplished, as members
may be reluctant to move on and may display regressive
behavior to prolong the existence of the group. Members
may express anger or may psychologically deny that

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termination is approaching. However, there will be
certainly more opportunity to be the part of group in future
and the group members are free from the group norms,
values and rules.
Types of Group in Group Work
According to Johnson and Johnson, a group means
two or more individuals in face to face interaction, each
aware of positive interdependence as they strive to achieve
mutual goals, each aware of his or her membership in the
group and each aware of the others who belong to the
group. There are a variety of groups that occur in social
group work practice. Each groups functions on the basis of
their objectives to achieve their aim. The groups help to the
group and the group members to solve the problems. There
are different types of group like- social conversation,
recreational/skill building, educational, task oriented,
socialization, treatment groups etc. Each group has their
own type of objectives and functions.
The main purposes of group work are as follows:
 Personality development.
 Therapeutic or curative treatment.
 Educational
 Recreational
 Task oriented
1. Recreational Group
Recreational activities refer to the activities that are
done during a free time of a person for amusement or

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entertainment. Recreational activities can be done either
communal or solitary. Recreational activities exist for
people of all age group, sex, and provide enjoy as well as
physical and mental stimulation. The recreational activities
are often done for enjoyment, amusement or pleasure and
are consider being fun.
Human spend their time in activities of daily living,
working, sleeping, social duties and leisure time. The
leisure time is free time and use for recreation. Recreation
is an essential part of human life. We can find different
forms of recreational activities which are formed by
individuals according to their interest and surrounding
socio-economic environment. Recreational activities can be
active or passive outdoor or indoor, healthy or unhealthy
and useful for society or may be harmful.
Thus, the group formed for recreational purpose are called
recreational group. This group provides entertainment to
the people. Many recreational activities are organized by
public institution, voluntary work group, agency, private
groups supported by membership fees. Reading, playing,
listening music, watching television, sports, travel,
gambling, drinking alcohol etc. are some examples of
recreational activities and places such as parks, seminar
hall, zoo, cinema, gardens, are important places for
recreational activities.
2. Therapeutic/ Treatment Group
Therapeutic groups are generally composed of
members with severe emotional, behavioral and personal
problems. Leaders of such groups must have superb
counseling and group leadership skills, including the ability
to accurately perceive the core of each member’s response
to what is being communicated. Group leaders must also

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have the personal capacities to develop and maintain a
constructive atmosphere within a group. As in one on one
counseling, the goal of treatment groups is to have
members explore their problems in depth and then develop
strategies for resolve them.
Purpose of Therapeutic group
Therapeutic group attempts to give individual a safe
and comfortable place where they can look out problems
and emotional issues. Patients get insights into their own
thoughts and behaviors and offer suggestions and support
to other. In addition to the patients who have difficult time
with interpersonal relationship can get benefit from the
social interaction of the group therapy experience.
Precautions in Therapeutic group
Especially patients who are suicidal, homicidal
(murderer), psychotic in the middle of major crisis are
typically not referred for group therapy until their behavior
and emotional state are not stabilized. Patient with brain
disease or traumatic shock are also not suitable for group
therapy.
Types of Therapeutic group
a. Homogenous therapeutic group
b. Heterogeneous therapeutic group
c. Time limited therapeutic group
d. Time unlimited therapeutic group
e. Short-term therapeutic group

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a. Homogenous therapeutic group
Homogenous therapeutic groups are composed of patients
of the same age, race, sex, socioeconomic level and similar
category of illness.
b. Heterogeneous therapeutic group
Heterogeneous therapeutic group are composed of variety
of issues with different age group, sex, race and
socioeconomic level of members with different category of
illness.
c. Time limited therapeutic group
The idea of providing intensive therapy through time-
limited group experiences is relatively new. The focus of
time-limited therapeutic groups varies a great deal
according to the model chosen by the therapist. Yet some
generalizations can be made about several dimensions of
the manner in which brief group therapy is implemented.
The preferred timeline for time-limited group therapy is not
more than two sessions per week (except in the residential
settings), with as few as six sessions in all, or as many as
12, depending on the purpose and goals of the group.
Sessions are typically 1 1/2 to 2 hours in length. Residential
programs usually have more frequent sessions.
d. Time unlimited therapeutic group
In this group, the meetings are not pre-determined. The
number of session depends on goals and setting of group.
The time of this session is not fixed and there is no exact
time limitation.
e. Short term therapeutic group

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The temporal or practical definition of short-term therapy is
a group experience lasting, by design, 6 months or less.
According to the functional definition, the member’s group
experience is planned to be neither longer nor shorter than
what is necessary for the treatment of a psychological
problem. The group members are encourage to help each
other by offering their own suggestions insight regarding
their problems. There are no definite rules for group
therapy but the patient must follow some basic guidelines.
The main task of therapy is to guide the group members for
self-determination.
3. Support Group
In support group members provide each other with
various types of help in different problematic situation. The
help provided is usually non-professional and non-material
for sharing particular problematic characteristic. Members
with the same issue or problems come together for sharing
problems making strategies to empower and for sense of
community. The help may take in the form of providing
relevant information, sharing personal experience, listening
and accepting other experiences, providing sympathy and
establishing social networks.
Some examples of support group are advocacy group,
interest group, pressure group, trade union environmental
group, etc. Similarly, extended families are also examples
of traditional support group.
Support group maintain interpersonal contacts among their
members in varieties of ways. Traditionally group members
meet personally that allow them for conversation and
interaction. Nowadays support group maintain contacts
with each other by means of printed letters, telephone,
calls, internet, mailing, etc. Members in some support
group are formally controlled with admission requirement

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and membership fees. But other support groups are open
and allow anyone to attend on meeting.
Types of support group
a. Self-help support group
b. Professionally operated support group
c. Online support group
a. Self-help support group
A self-help support group is fully organized and
managed by its members, who are commonly volunteers
and have personal experience in the subject of the group's
focus. These groups may also be referred to as fellowships,
peer support groups, lay organizations, mutual help groups,
or mutual aid self-help groups.
b. Professionally operated support group
Professionally operated support groups are facilitated
by professionals who most often do not share the problem
of the members, such as social workers, psychologists, or
members of the clergy. The facilitator controls discussions
and provides other managerial service. Such professionally
operated groups are often found in institutional settings,
including hospitals, drug-treatment centers and correctional
facilities. These types of support group may run for a
specified period of time, and an attendance fee is
sometimes charged.
c. Online support group
Since at least 1982, the Internet has provided a venue
for support groups. Discussing online self-help support
groups as the precursor to e-therapy, Martha Ainsworth

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notes that "the enduring success of these groups has firmly
established the potential of computer-mediated
communication to enable discussion of sensitive personal
issues.”
Support groups have long offered companionship and
information for people coping with diseases or disabilities,
and online situational oriented groups have expanded to
offer support for people facing various life circumstances,
especially those involving personal and cultural
relationships.
Many people who use online support groups are simply
seeking informational support. Others are looking for a
means to feel like they are not alone. For this reason, 97%
of people who use online support groups are lurkers, people
who read messages without posting their own comments.
People who were most likely to post were those who were
looking for empathy and emotional support.
4. Anonymous Group
Anonymous is used as mass noun loosely associated
with international network of different people. A website
associated with group is described as “internet gathering”
with very loose and decentralized command structure that
operates on ideas rather than directives. The group became
known for different activities, government, religious, co-
operation and corporate website.
Anonymous group was originated in 2003 A.D representing
the concept of many online and offline community.
Anonymous members are known as “Anons”. Anonymous
group has no strictly defined philosophy and other features
of group. A website associated with this group describes it
as internet gathering where group members operate their

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ideas rather than directives. In some ways, it may be
impossible to motivate many participants because many of
the members even don not leave any trace of their thoughts,
motivations, and reaction. Anonymous group has no
leadership; no action can be attributed to the members.
Membership is open and anyone who wishes to be member
can join this group. The group has few rules like not
disclosing one’s identity, not attacking against
confidentiality.
5. Socialization Group
The process of learning to adopt the behavioral
patterns of community is called socialization. The most
important or fertile period of socialization is usually the
early stage of life i.e., childhood. During which individual
develop skills and knowledge and learn roles necessary to
function within the cultural and social environment.
Socialization also includes adults moving from different
environment where they learn a new set of behavior.
Socialization is influence primarily by the family through
which children first learn family norms and community
values. Other important influences include schools, peer
groups, people, mass media, working place, government
etc. The degree to which the norms of a particular society
or community are adopted determines the socialization
process.
Socialization is the term used by sociologists,
psychologists, anthropologists, political scientists and
educationalists to refer to the lifelong process of getting
and passing norms, values, customs, and ideologies by
participating within the society. Thus, socialization is the
process by which social and cultural continuity is attained.
Socialization is the process by which human infant begin to

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acquire skills necessary to perform functions in their
society.
Stages of Socialization Group
Richard Moreland and John Levine (1982) created a
model of group socialization based upon the assumption
that individuals and groups change their evaluations and
commitments to each other over time. Since these changes
happen in all groups, Moreland and Levine speculate that
there is a predictable sequence of stages that occur in order
for an individual to transition through a group.
Moreland and Levine identify five stages of socialization
which mark this transition; investigation, socialization,
maintenance, re-socialization, and remembrance. During
each stage, the individual and the group evaluate each other
which lead to an increase or decrease in commitment to
socialization.
a. Investigation stage
This stage is marked by a cautious search for
information. The individual compares groups in order to
determine which one will fulfill their needs
(reconnaissance), while the group estimates the value of the
potential member (recruitment). The end of this stage is
marked by entry to the group, whereby the group asks the
individual to join and they accept the offer.
b. Socialization stage
The individual has moved from prospective member
to new member, they must accept the group’s culture. At
this stage, the individual accepts the group’s norms, values,
and perspectives (assimilation), and the group adapts to fit

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the new member’s needs (accommodation). The acceptance
transition point is then reached and the individual becomes
a full member. However, this transition can be delayed if
the individual or the group reacts negatively. For example,
the individual may react cautiously or misinterpret other
members’ reactions if they believe that they will be treated
differently as a new comer.
c. Maintenance stage
During this stage, the individual and the group
negotiate what contribution is expected of members (role
negotiation). While many members remain in this stage
until the end of their membership, some individuals are not
satisfied with their role in the group or fail to meet the
group’s expectations (divergence).
d. Re-socialization stage
Some individuals who are not satisfied with their
roles or fail to meet the group expectation reach this stage
or point. There are two possible outcomes of Re-
socialization:
 Differences are resolved and the individual becomes a
full member again (convergence).
 The group expels the individual or the individual
decides to leave (exit).
e. Remembrance
In this stage, former members reminisce about their
memories of the group, and make sense of their recent
departure. If the group reaches a consensus on their reasons

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for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of
the group become part of the group’s tradition.
Types of Socialization
1. Primary Socialization
Primary socialization occurs when a child learns
attitudes, behaviors, values and actions appropriate for the
individuals as a member of society and culture. This is
mainly influenced by family and friends and his foundation
for future socialization.
2. Secondary Socialization
Secondary socialization refers to the process of
learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a
smaller group within the larger society. Basically, it is the
behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of
society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the
home. It is where children and adults learn how to act in a
way that is appropriate for the situations they are in.
Schools require very different behavior from the home, and
Children must act according to new rules. New teachers
have to act in a way that is different from pupils and learn
the new rules from people around them. Secondary
Socialization is usually associated with teenagers and
adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring
in primary socialization.
3. Anticipatory Socialization
Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of
socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future
positions, occupations, and social relationships. For

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example, a couple might move in together before getting
married in order to try out, or anticipate, what living
together will be like.
4. Re- socialization
Re-socialization refers to the process of discarding
former behavior patterns and reflexes, accepting new ones
as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout
the human life cycle. Re-socialization can be an intense
experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break
with his or her past, as well as a need to learn and be
exposed to radically different norms and values.
5. Organizational Socialization
Organizational socialization is the process whereby
an employee learns the knowledge and skills necessary to
assume his or her organizational role. As newcomers
become socialized, they learn about the organization and its
history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. This
acquired knowledge about new employees' future work
environment affects the way they are able to apply their
skills and abilities to their jobs.
6. Group Socialization
Group socialization is the theory that an individual's
peer groups, rather than parental figures, influences his or
her personality and behavior in adulthood. Adolescents
spend more time with peers than with parents. Therefore,
peer groups have stronger correlations with personality
development than parental figures do. For example, twin
brothers, whose genetic makeup is identical, will differ in

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personality because they have different groups of friends,
not necessarily because their parents raised them differently
7. Gender Socialization
Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior
and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys
learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning"
happens by way of many different agents of socialization.
The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender
roles, but so are one’s friends, school, work and the mass
media.
8. Racial Socialization
Racial socialization has been defined as "the
developmental processes by which children acquire the
behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic
group, and come to see themselves and others as members
of the group". The existing literature conceptualizes racial
socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers
have identified five dimensions that commonly appear in
the racial socialization literature: cultural socialization,
preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism,
and other. Cultural socialization refers to parenting
practices that teach children about their racial history or
heritage and is sometimes referred to as pride development.
Preparation for bias refers to parenting practices focused on
preparing children to be aware of, and cope with,
discrimination. Promotion of mistrust refers to the
parenting practices of socializing children to be wary of
people from other races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing

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children with the belief that all people are equal and should
be treated with a common humanity.
9. Planned Socialization
Planned socialization occurs when other people take
actions designed to teach or train others—from infancy on.
10. Natural Socialization
Natural socialization occurs when infants and
youngsters explore, play and discover the social world
around them. Natural socialization is easily seen when
looking at the young of almost any mammalian species
(and some birds). Planned socialization is mostly a human
phenomenon; and all through history, people have been
making plans for teaching or training others.
11. Positive Socialization
Positive socialization is the type of social learning
that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We
tend to like the people who fill our social learning
processes with positive motivation, loving care, and
rewarding opportunities
12. Negative Socialization
Negative socialization occurs when others use
punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to "teach us a
lesson;" and often we come to dislike both negative
socialization and the people who impose it on us. A high
ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person
unhappy, defeated or pessimistic about life.

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6. Saving and Credit Group
The saving and credit group is small group of few members
responsible for owning, managing and operating this joint
saving entity. In this group the members contributes small
amount of saving over time, buy shares from the groups.
After certain period, if everybody has been saving, a
sizable group capital would have mounted. At the end of
the year, members get dividends then either the group
ceases or they restart the new round with some members
leaving and new members joining.
Types of Groups according to Charles Cooley
1. Primary group
2. Secondary group
1. Primary group
A primary group is typically a small social group
(small-scale society) whose members share close, personal,
enduring relationships. These groups are marked by
members' concern for one another, in shared activities and
culture. Examples include family, childhood friends, and
highly influential social groups. Primary groups play an
important role in the development of personal identity. A
primary group is a group in which one exchanges implicit
items, such as love, caring, concern, animosity, support,
etc. Examples, of these would be family groups, love
relationships, crisis support groups, church groups, etc.
Relationships formed in primary groups are often long-
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psychologically comforting to the individuals involved and
provide a source of support.
Characteristic of Primary group
a. Physical proximity
Relationship of group members may be close and have
regular contact, seeing & talking with each other makes
exchange the ideas and opinion easily due to limited
boundary.
b. Small size
The size of primary group is small. This relationship is
intimate, personal and known one another personally.
c. Stability
The relationship is intimate. Thus, primary groups are
stable to some extent.
d. Similar background
Members have similar background
e. Limited self interest
Most of the members of primary group have similar and
limited self- interest.
f. Intensity of shared interest
There will be more frequently sharing of interest among the
group members.
2. Secondary group
People in a secondary group interact on a less
personal level than in a primary group, and their
relationships are temporary rather than long lasting. Since
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people’s roles are more interchangeable. A secondary
group is one you have chosen to be a part of. They are
based on interests and activities. They are where many
people can meet close friends or people they would just call
acquaintances. Secondary groups are groups in which one
exchange explicit commodities, such as labor for wages,
services for payments, etc. Examples of these would be
employment, vendor-to-client relationships, etc.
Characteristic of Secondary group
a. Large in size
Secondary group has large sized group members. Thus,
group members are much free, everybody gets chance to
perform their best.
b. Formal and interpersonal relationship
Relationship between group members is formal and non-
personal in nature.
c. Option of membership
Due to larger members, the group members are free to
choose the members.
d. Active and inactive participation
Secondary group has both active and inactive members.
e. Indirect relationship
The members of secondary group have indirect relationship
only.
f. Good oriented
Members have indirect relationship with one another but
they are goal oriented relationship. Members work hard to
achieve their goal.

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g. State/ Condition of an individual
The state or condition of each individual is seen or
observed by other members.
Classification of Group on the basis of Formality
1. Formal group
2. Informal group
1. Formal Group
Those group which are formally created in an
organization and follow the rules and regulations
prescribed by the organization are called formal groups.
Formal groups are created to achieve specific
organizational objectives and are concerned with the co-
ordination of work activities. Formal groups can be
differentiated into command group, task group and
functional group.
1.1 Command group
The group explained by formal organization are called
command group and this type of group is displayed in
organizational chart. For e.g., A company’s organization
starts with chairman, board of director, manager, in charge,
worker is a typical type of command group.
1.2 Task group
People working together to achieve a common task is
called task group. Members are grouped together from the
same department to complete specific goal. This group is in
the command group.
1.3 Functional group
Functional groups are treated to carry out specific function
in an organization. This type of group is formed till the
specific function is ongoing.

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2. Informal Group
These groups may be formed within organization or outside
the organization. They do not necessarily follow the rules
and guidelines of organization. They informally follow the
guideline of informal groups. These groups are often called
friendship group, interest group etc. Some example of
informal groups are gossiping group of canteen, jogging
club group etc.
Models of Group work
Group work scholars made great strides in developing
group work practice theories. For the better practice of
group work different Models were developed by different
group work practitioner and experts. The group work
models are conceptualized as multidimensional process or
activities that occurs amongst and between members,
including sharing data, discussion of taboo topics,
developing a universal perspective, mutual support,
individual problem solving and strength developing etc.
1. The Mutual Aid Model
Mutual Aid as group work model can be understood as an
exchange of help wherein the group member is both the
provider as well as the recipient of help in service of
achieving common group and individual goals.
The Mutual Aid Model of group work practice (Gitterman,
2004) has its roots in the practice theory proposed by
William Schwartz which was introduced in the article,
“The Social Worker in the Group”. Schwartz envisioned
the group as an “enterprise in mutual aid, an alliance of
individuals who need each other in varying degrees, to
work on certain common problems”.
Schwartz elaborated: “the fact is that this is a helping
system in which clients need each other as well as the
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many helping relationships, is a vital ingredient of the
group process and constitutes a need over and above the
specific tasks for which the group was formed”. Schwartz
preferred to think of this model as social work with groups.
Schwartz regarded this approach as resonant with the
demands of a variety of group types including, Natural and
formed Therapeutic and task Open and closed Voluntary
and mandatory Schwartz initially thought of this approach
as an organic systems model later to refer to it as the
mediating model and then the interactionist model. The
model initially proposed by Schwartz has been further
developed most notably by Lawrence Shulman and Alex
Gitterman, who have since referred to this model as the
Mutual Aid Model
2. Cognitive-Behavioral Group Work Model
The Cognitive-Behavioral Group Work Model is
recognized as influential contemporary group work practice
approach. The approach suggested by Rose integrates
cognitive and behavioral interventions with small group
strategies. While primacy is not placed on establishing the
group as a mutual aid system in quite the same way as with
the Mutual Aid Model, the worker promote group
discussion and member interaction. Furthermore, drawing
upon Yalom’s Therapeutic Factor construct Rose (2004)
points out the benefits of universality, altruism, and group
cohesion as well as mutual reinforcement, factors which are
conceptually resonant with mutual aid.
Program in Group Work
Programs in group work include different activities
relationship, interaction and experience which are planned
and carried out with the help of group worker to meet the

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needs of individual groups and communities. Program
planned and discussed, then the group discover and use
their resources in order to make the program more
effective. In program making process the group worker
should keep in the mind that the program must be
according to the needs and interest of group members. It is
the group workers main duty to see the age, central
background, cultural aspect and also the economic
difference of group members. Whenever a program is meet
every member should be given chance to share experience
and interest. In order to make program more effective, the
rules and regulation must be made flexible and include
simple to complex rules. By keeping all these points in
mind the group worker can guide and load the group to
make better program.
Importance of Program in Group Work
1. To develop good personality.
2. To socialize the people.
3. To utilize group members to achieve their goals.
4. To establish and develop good relationship among
group members.
5. To settle their dispute and conflict among the group
members and to control their conflict.
Role of Group worker in Program
1. Helping the group members to plan the program.
2. Discovering potentials and interest of members with in
the group.
3. Using the environment to stimulate new program
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4. Using limitations in right manner. i.e., limitation caused
by materials, rules, situations etc.
Use of Program Media
Largely because of its early linkages to the field of
creation, group work has recognized the value of additional
types of activities in pursuit of change goals. Often, group
workers introduce varied tasks and program to supplement
discussion, depending on the particular composition and
goals of the group. Since verbal abilities are less developed
among younger children, games and crafts activities have
been effectively used as part of their program. With
adolescents and adults, on the other hand, a number of
social activities and planning for group action are found
effective. Within institution client groups can be helped to
explore problems of the social environmental condition by
being permitted to undertake limited self-government.
Many messages for social development and
conscientization are given through the use of folk media in
villages and urban community groups. All these program
activities extend the opportunities for meaningful
interaction among clients, significant involvement with
social tasks and acquisition of valued interpersonal skills.
For any of the types of models or approaches of groups
referred there are in any setting of group work practice, one
or a combination of the following program activities which
can be used for diagnostic problem solving or treatment
purpose.

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Play:
The use of all types of games (physical, intellectual,
memory, sensory) including playing with blocks, toys, sand
and water, in the case of young children.
Drama, mime, use of puppets and masks and role-play:
In these, members of the group are asked to act various
parts which have significance to their problems of
difficulties. Individuals thereby gain insight into their own
behavior and that of others.
Music and arts and crafts:
The former which can be vocal or instrumental on a solo or
group basis depict and provide an outlet for all varieties of
human emotions whereas the latter, through work with
diverse materials such as wood, clay, paper, straw or paints,
given ample scope for self-expression, creativity, balance
and harmony.
Talk:
This is the action most people associate immediately with
group activities especially of a problem-solving or
therapeutic nature dealing with critical topics related to the
client’s personal lives. Included in this activity are small
group discussions, lectures, seminars, conversations,
sensitivity games and encounter sessions. (A much used
mode of communication, talk is an essential part of most of
the other activities.)
Movement:
This kind of activity is being used, as counter to the rather
overemphasized verbal communication just referred to.

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Activities include exploration of touch, non-verbal
communication, dance, mime and physical encounter.
Work:
This activity speaks for itself and covers projects and tasks
of all kinds of complexity which involve an ongoing
process of cooperative endeavor.
1. Puppet Show
Puppets are often molded/ carved out of various
types of materials and covered with hairs or wool of sheep
or other animals. Puppets may represent human, animals,
robots, any objects, creatures, mythical beings, newly
imagined creatures, monsters etc. Puppets are typically
animated only in the head and face. Their arms and other
parts are mobile expressive. Puppets are typically made of
soft material. They are presented by puppeteers who are
usually not visible and remain hidden behind a set or
outside the camera. Usually four types of puppets are
common like Shadow puppet, String puppet, Rod and Hand
or Glove puppet.
The puppet holder holds the puppet above his hand or in
front of his body with one hand operating the head and
mouth and other hand holding the arms. The performer who
controls the mouth usually provides the voice for the
character as technology have evolved varieties of means to
operate puppets where developed. This puppet can be used
in group programme to create awareness among people as
well as for providing entertainment to the peoples.
Steps of Puppet Shows
1. Selection of subject matter.

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2. Collection and construction of materials (puppet).
3. Determination of place, time and date.
4. Management of setting, place and light.
5. Discussion and evaluation.
Some factors should be consider in use of puppets like use
of puppets according to content, showing puppets in such a
way that audience can observe and get entertainment.
2. Street Play
Street Theater/Drama is a form of theatrical
performance and presentation done in outdoor public places
without specific paying audience. The places can be
anywhere including shopping centers, car parks, street
corner etc. They are specially seen in outdoor places where
large number of people gathers. The actors who perform
street drama range from buskers to the organized theater
companies or group that one at experiment from the
performance or to promote their main stream work.
Sometimes performance are paid specially for street
festival, children performs street shows but often street play
performers are unpaid or gathered some income by
dropping of coins by the audience. Street play has simple
costumes and prop and often there is little or no sound
system street drama includes dance, mime. The
performance needs to be highly visible, loud and simple to
follow in order to attract a crowd.
Different people have different motivations to use street as
a space for performance. This can be used in group work
performance for generating awareness among people
regarding different social problem like drug abuse,
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etc. because this is the easiest, simplest and cheapest
method. By getting any topic of theme street drama can be
conducted using available resources.
Steps of Street Drama
1. Selection of content or topic.
2. Preparation for the street play.
3. Rehearsal
4. Arrangement of materials.
5. Presentation and discussion.
6. Evaluation.
Skills in Group Work
Facilitation/ Moderation skill
Facilitation is the art of leadership in group
communication. A facilitator is one who fulfills the
leadership role. This facilitation and facilitator is often used
with moderating and moderator.
In the group work process the group worker has to play the
role of facilitator to solve the problems in the group during
group work process by giving necessary information. Thus,
in group work facilitation is a way of helping group
members to progress. It helps a group to increase their
performance by identify alternative solutions to problems
and making group decision.
Group facilitator is neither a content expert nor a lecturer.
A facilitator helps to move group members towards
progress by interaction with the participants and build up
proper relation. The facilitator may also give new
information to the group members at needy time. But the
key role of facilitator is to make learning environment
where group members learn together.
Many skills are required to be a good facilitator. The basic
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practices: timekeeping, following an agreed-upon agenda,
and keeping a clear record. The higher-order skills involve
watching the group and its individuals in light of group
dynamics. In addition, facilitators also need a variety of
listening skills including ability to paraphrase; stack a
conversation; draw people out; balance participation; and
make space for more reticent group members. It is critical
to the facilitator's role to have the knowledge and skill to be
able to intervene in a way that adds to the group's creativity
rather than taking away from it. A successful facilitator
embodies respect for others and a watchful awareness of
the many layers of reality in a human group.
The International Association of Facilitators was founded
in 1993 to promote facilitation as a profession. The IAF
maintains the Certified Professional Facilitator program.
The core competencies are:
1. Create collaborative client relationships.
2. Plan appropriate group processes.
3. Create and sustain a participatory environment.
4. Guide group to appropriate and useful outcomes.
5. Build and maintain professional knowledge.
6. Model positive professional attitude.
"The facilitator's job is to support everyone to do their best
thinking and practice. To do this, the facilitator encourages
full participation, promotes mutual understanding and
cultivates shared responsibility. By supporting everyone to
do their best thinking, a facilitator enables group members
to search for inclusive solutions and build sustainable
agreements"
Kaner, et al., 1996

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Types of facilitators
Business facilitators
Business facilitators’ work in business, and other
formal organizations but facilitators may also work with a
variety of other groups and communities. It is a tenet of
facilitation that the facilitator will not lead the group
towards the answer that he/she thinks is best even if they
possess an opinion on the subject matter. The facilitator's
role is to make it easier for the group to arrive at its own
answer, decision, or deliverable.
This can and does give rise to organizational conflict
between hierarchical management and theories and practice
of empowerment. Facilitators often have to navigate
between the two, especially where overt statements about
empowerment are not being borne out by organizational
behaviors.
Conflict resolution facilitators
Conflict resolution facilitators are used in peace and
reconciliation processes both during and after the conflict.
Their role is to support constructive and democratic
dialogue between groups with diverse and usually
diametrically opposite positions. Conflict resolution
facilitators must be impartial to the conflicting groups (or
societies) and must adhere to the rules of democratic
dialogue. They may not take parts or express personal
opinions. Their most usual role is to support groups
develop shared vision for an ideal future, learn to listen to
each other, and understand and appreciate the feelings,
experiences and positions of the 'enemy'.
Educational facilitators
Educators in dialogic learning and other peer
instruction approaches often serve as facilitators.
According to one common definition, an educational
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education and the subject matter as a teacher, but works
with the goal of having students take as much responsibility
for their own learning as possible. Instructors at a College,
for example, are often referred to as facilitators due to their
role in provoking learning by facilitating a conversation
among students about the text rather than instructing the
students directly. In language teaching, teachers may shift
to a facilitative role to increase student ownership of the
learning process. Effective facilitation requires self-
monitoring and careful attention to the details of interaction
as well as the content of the material
Small group facilitators
Facilitators can be appointed to accommodate the
engagement of participants, who in small and medium-
sized groups, aim to work through a particular agenda. In
order to ensure the successful working of the group, the
facilitator is appointed in place of what would once have
been a chairperson's role. Along with other officers, the
facilitator is appointed at the group's AGM to fill the role
for the year ahead. Groups that have adopted this model
include prayer groups, men's groups, writing groups and
other community organizations.
Training facilitators
Training facilitators are used in adult education.
These facilitators are not always subject experts, and
attempt to draw on the existing knowledge of the
participant(s), and to then facilitate access to training where
gaps in knowledge are identified and agreed on. Training
facilitators focus on the foundations of adult education:
establish existing knowledge, build on it and keep it
relevant. The role is different from a trainer with subject
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take a group through an agenda designed to transmit a body
of knowledge or a set of skills to be acquired.
Wrap around facilitators
Wraparound facilitators are facilitators in the social
services community. They originally served disabled teens
who were transitioning into adulthood. Now they include
facilitators serving children between the ages of 0–3 years
who are in need of services. Outside the meetings, the
facilitator organizes meetings, engages team members and
conducts follow through. During meetings the facilitator
leads and manages the team by keeping the participants on
track and encourages a strength-based discussion
addressing the child's needs. The facilitator encourages
equal participation among team members.
Classification of Facilitation Activities
Zane Berge (1995) has purposed a widely used
classification of facilitation activities under four categories.
Like, Pedagogic, Social, Managerial and Technical.
Pedagogic Field
The Pedagogic role is concerned with the teacher’s
contribution of specialized knowledge and insight for
discussion using questions to encourage student’s response
to discuss on critical concept. By changing students’
behavior, teacher prepares students to lead the pedagogic
activities by themselves.
Social Field
The social sector also facilitation and moderation
skill can be used to solve various social problems. e.g., in
our country Nepal many local government policy makers
do not have effective facilitation skills. Thus, the local
government was provided with facilitation and moderation

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skill training to make relationship central authority as well
as common people.
Managerial Field
In administrative field also their skill can be used to
solve problems among the staff and to guide them to
achieve the goals of the organization.
Technical Field
In technical field technician works as a facilitator to
solve various technical problems in factories and industries.
Group Dynamic
The group dynamics refers to changes which take
place within groups and is concerned with the interaction
and forces obtained between group members in social
settings. It is a study of groups and forces operating within
a group. A group doesn’t simply mean individuals
possessing same identical features. For instance, a
collection of students or beggars doesn’t form a group.
These are class. A group is formed when the “Two or more
individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular objectives. Group dynamics
is studied on the basis of formation, structure, interaction,
behavior and process of group. The study of group process
form most important subject of the study. Due to this
reason many people understand that group dynamics has
group process.
Features of Group Dynamics
1. Concerned with group
Group dynamics is concerned with group. Whenever
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continuously changing and adjusting relationship with
respect to each other. The members of the group may
interact, may be in state of tension, may be attracted or
repelled to each other, may seek the resolution of these
tensions and return to equilibrium after the resolution.
2. Changes
Changes go on occurring like introduction of the new
members, changes in leadership, presence of old and new
members and the rate of change- fast or slow. The groups
may dissolve if the members are not enthusiastic about the
goals; they have no faith in the ideology and do not identify
themselves with the group. This means that the
cohesiveness in the group has decreased.
3. Rigidity or Flexibility
There may be rigidity of flexibility (cohesiveness or
conflict) that influence a group dynamics. If the members
get along well there is smooth sailing for the group and if
there is conflict it leads to problems. A rigid group may not
change and lacks adaptability to change. But the members
if are able to solves the problems, the equilibrium can be
maintained. The conflict and tension if increases with in the
group, this can cause an open flare up and strong measures
are urgently.
4. Group Organization
The group organization is essential. It leads to greater
group effectiveness, participation, cooperation and a
constructive morale. The leader will be effective only if the
group is organized and stable. Some degree of organization
is essential for effective functioning of the group and
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members have in the group. The organized group is one
with every member having specific roles and acting
towards other members in the prescribed manner.
5. Continuous process of restructuring, adjusting and
readjusting members
Dynamic group always is in continuous process of
restructuring, adjusting and readjusting members to one
another for the purpose of reducing the tension, eliminating
the conflicts and solving the problems which its members
have in common. The changes may take within a group and
it is interesting to study the way the change do occurs. The
frequent changes indicate the capacity of the group to
change and adapt.
Principles of the Group Dynamics
1. The members of group must have strong sense of
belonging to the group. The barrier between the leaders
and to be led must be broken down.
2. The more attraction of a group to its members, the
greater influence it would exercise on its members.
3. The greater the prestige of the group member in the
eyes of the members, the greater influence he/she
would exercise on theme.
4. The successful efforts to change individuals sub parts of
the group would result in making them confirm to the
norms of the group.
5. Information relating to the need for change, plans for
change and the consequence of the change must be
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6. The pressures for change when strong can be
established in the group by creating a shared perception
by the members for the need for the change.
7. The changes in one part of the groups may produce
stress in the other parts, which can be reduced only by
eliminating the change or by bringing about
readjustments in the related parts.
8. The groups arise and function owing to common
motives.
9. The groups survive by pacing the members into
functional hierarchy and facilitating the action towards
the goal.
10. The intergroup relations, group organization, member
participation is essential for effectiveness of a group.
Factors affecting Group Dynamics
1. Background
 Past experiences with a group
2. Participation patterns
 Over participation
 Non-participation
 Order and contribution
3. Communication patterns
 Methods of communicating
 Speaking abilities of members
 Listening skills
 Nonverbal cues
4. Procedures
 Standard procedures of operation
 Rules and regulations
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 Influence of leader’s behavior
 Leadership knowledge and skills
6. Member behavior
 Maturity
 Willingness to follow
 Acceptance of responsibility
7. Group cohesion
 Degree of team work
8. Sub-groups
 Friendship
 Common views
 Frequent changes
9. Atmosphere
 Degree of informality
 Open environment
10. Standards
 Code of operation for the group
Different useful Theories
Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud is perhaps one of the earliest theorists to
provide an explanation of human personality. Freud
conceptualized that the human mind has two broad
systems. One he described as conscious, pre-conscious and
unconscious and the other as Id, Ego and super Ego. Freud
suggested that mind was composed of thoughts (ideas),
feelings, instincts, drives, conflicts and motives. Most of
these elements were located in the unconscious or
preconscious. There is a repressed area which serves as a
barrier where a lot of disturbing material (thoughts and
feelings), as unresolved conflicts, are placed through the
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repression is a process in which unacceptable desires,
memories and thoughts are excluded from consciousness
by sending the material into the unconscious under the
repressed barrier. Freud suggests that this results in
producing irritants such as unwanted emotions and
behaviors such as anger, hallucinations, etc.
Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis conceptualized frame
Describing the second system Freud explains that Id is the
primitive psychic force hidden in the unconscious. It
represents the basic needs and drives such as hunger, thirst,
sex and self-preservation, which support other personality
factors. Id governed by the pleasure principle primarily
seeks to express itself irrespective of the consequences,
while Ego acts as the rational component of the mind which
controls the thinking of the mind. Super ego serves as the
conscience by indicating what is right and wrong socially
and morally. Freud conceptualized that people pass through
six psychosocial development stages. During any one of the
stages conflicts may arise and if it remains unresolved the
person’s personality development will be affected.

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He thought that disturbances can arise from several
sources. Traumatic experiences which a person’s ego is not
able to cope with directly are repressed. Similarly internal
unconscious processes could also cause disturbances.
Freud, in elaborating the group’s influence on human
behavior, specifically mentions about the importance of
group leader, and the early life experiences of the members.
The members use transference in their interactions that
occur within the group and try to recreate their conflicts
and defense mechanisms.
More recent psychoanalytic group treatment have adapted
and modified classical psychoanalytic theory to emphasize
the current experiences of group interaction. Through
direct, mutual interpersonal communications members
build interpersonal skills, adaptive capacities and ego
strength, and develop self-awareness of their behavior and
its implications in a group situation. The cohesiveness of
the group helps members to feel secure and able to share
the intimate personal details of their life and to act out their
conflicts in the safe and supportive environment of the
group. For details see the text on psychoanalytic theory. A
number of psychologists have contributed in developing
learning theory as an explanation of human behavior.
Learning Theory
Learning Theory has created a lot of controversy in group
work as it focuses more on individual than on group
dynamics with reference to influencing individual
behaviour. Learning theory also provides a frame work for
understanding human behaviour. It provides an
understanding of the social functioning of persons within
their environments. The person in dynamic interaction with
all aspects of the environment is the focus of attention.
Further, it emphasizes the importance of assessment of
observable behaviour, and advocates the use of specific
terms in defining behaviour. And finally it takes a positive

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approach that if behaviour is learned then it can also be
unlearned.
Respondent conditioning refers to the emission of
behaviour in response to a specific stimulus. The stimulus
could be a word, sight or a sound. The second type of
learning is called modeling, which simply refers to learning
by observation. The children of parents who smoke are
likely to be smokers. Children of parents with ability to
control their feelings under stress are likely to learn self-
control. However, a number of factors or conditions can
affect the effectiveness of modeling. Some of them are
similarity of the model to the observer, the prestige, status
and expertise of the model, and the diversity of models
around the observer. Operant conditioning is a type of
learning in which behaviour are altered primarily by
regulating the subsequences which follow them. New
behaviour could be learned and undesirable behaviour
could be weakened and eliminated by regulating the
consequences. By using the learning theory framework, the
group can provide reinforcements to strengthen behaviour.
There are both positive and negative reinforcements. A
good example of negative reinforcement in a group
situation is to discourage behaviour by booing, if the proper
dress code or language or behaviour code is violated.
The person will then behave in a particular manner to avoid
the booing. However, a more server response like
terminating the membership to weaken a behavior is called
punishment. Similarly extinction or withdrawal of
reinforcements results in weakening of particular
behaviour. The learning theory thus provides a framework
for group workers to modify behaviour. The context could
be achievement of group tasks and development, or helping
the members to unlearn behaviors that create problems in
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Sociologists have also studied groups and their functioning.
They have come up with a number of interesting findings
that are helpful in highlighting the functioning of groups.
Field Theory
Kurt Lewin was one of the pioneers to scientifically study
group functioning. He focused on the forces that influenced
the working of groups. He and his colleagues tried to study
leadership styles by creating groups with different styles of
leaderships in order to see their impact on the functioning
of the group.
Lewin’s Force Field Analysis Explained
It is commonly observed that a leader becomes
authoritarian when the members are seeking favors, rather

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than questioning the decisions or even discussing the issues
objectively.
Lewin argued that the leadership style is a product of leader
and member interaction rather than a personality trait of the
leader. Further, Lewin, while developing his Field Theory,
argued that a group has a life space and it has movement. It
tries to accomplish goals or group tasks and faces hurdles
in its movement (locomotion). Lewin believed that group
was an entity of opposing forces which keep the group
members in the group and move them along in achieving
group goals. However, the behaviour of individual
members and the group itself should be seen as a product of
the totality of the group situation (Lewin, 1964)
Lewin introduced several concepts to help in the
understanding of forces at work in the group. Some of them
are
 Roles- status rights and duties of group members;
 Norms – Rules governing the behaviour of group
members;
 Power – the ability of members to influence on
another;
 Cohesion-The attraction the group members feel
towards one another and towards the group;
 Consensus- the degree of agreement regarding
goals and other group phenomena, and
 Valence – the potency of goals and objects in the
life space of the group.
Other field theorists have continued to work on the
characteristics of group that influence the individual
behaviour. Cohesion has been identified as an important
factor, defined as, “the totality of forces acting on
individual members to keep them in the group.
Cohesion reflects the agreement on goals and norms,
shared understanding and a greater homogeneity in

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demographic background, as also the productivity,
satisfaction and cooperative interaction patterns. Lewin
developed T-group as a means to observe the effects of
group process on group members and as a means to induce
changes in behaviour. Lewin thus helped in developing a
theory that people change when they see their behaviour as
others see it, thus leading to development of the feedback
method whereby the group members and the group leader
provide feedback to the individual as to how his/her
behaviour was affecting them. Role plays and simulations
are also used to highlight the group process. The group
workers using the field theory framework can design their
own interventions in working with the group for achieving
the group goals along with individual development.
Systems Theory
Systems theory is also helpful to explain the functioning of
a group. Talcott Persons defined social system as a set of
interdependent elements trying to function as a unified
whole to maintain order and a stable equilibrium. The
social systems are constantly facing new challenges as the
environment around them and within, is constantly
changing. Therefore, they must act to maintain the
equilibrium if they have to survive. This act of survival
depends upon four basic functions:
a. Integration
b. Adaptation
c. Pattern maintenance
d. Goal attainment.
The group viewed as a system would therefore be able to
achieve its objectives if it is able to carry out these four
functions effectively.

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It is able to integrate members by achieving individual and
group goal matching. It also has the capacity to make
changes to adapt itself to outside demands like that of the
community and the sponsoring organization and with the
internal dynamics as it changes with time. The pattern
maintenance would require development of norms and
guidelines to regulate its activities and develop well defined
objectives, identify and procedures that are able to sustain
these over time. The functioning of a system depends to a
great extent on the carrying out the role assigned to them.
The goal attainment is the final task to ensure the smooth
functioning of the system. The members will lose interest
and the functioning of the group will be affected if the
goals are attainable is an important attribute of group
stability and functioning. Parsons pointed out that problems
will arise during the functioning of the group; the group,

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including its leadership must make use of its resources
effectively to tackle the problems to maintain the
equilibrium of the group.
Robert Bales, however, believed that the survival of the
group depends on two central tasks. The first he termed the
instrumental problems related to tasks or goal related
functions and the second, socio-emotional tasks related to
the interpersonal relationships between members, and
between members and leader, for coordinating and
maintaining the emotional unity and morale of the group.
While the instrumental problems generally arise on account
of the external pressures, the socio emotional problems are
rooted in the internal dynamics of the group. The insights
are helpful for workers to deal with both kinds of
challenges in their working with groups. It is often seen
that exclusive focus on one results in ignoring the other,
making the group dysfunctional in the process. However,
Bales sees this as natural, as the group struggles to maintain
a dynamic equilibrium between the two sets of functions.
Bales prefers a certain amount of tension and antagonism to
Parsons; emphasis on harmony. The worker can keep in
mind that the emphasis on tasks will vary in different
groups, depending upon the central purpose of the group. It
will be different in a self-help group formed to achieve a
specific task, than in a group of children. it is also possible
to analyze the interaction between members in a group by
using a tool developed by Bales called interaction Process
Analysis.
Conflict Theory
Although sociologists differ in their understanding of
conflict as a social phenomenon in society, yet some of the
explanations of conflicts are helpful in understanding the
conflicts in groups and in dealing with them.

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Sociologists have identified two broad categories of
conflict:
1. Endogenous conflict: This refers to sources of
changes from within a society
2. Exogenous conflict: This refers to changes from
without or between systems
Endogenous conflict highlights the following sources of
conflict
a. Inherent predilection to change
b. Conflict over the differential distribution of
resources such as wealth, power and prestige
c. Conflict of values
d. Conflict of authority
e. Conflict between individual and collectivity
The exogenous conflict identifies three sources:
a. Wars
b. Cultural invasions
c. Conflict of ideology
Lewis Coser (1973) distinguishes between realistic and
non-realistic conflicts. Realistic conflicts are conflicts
arising on account of non-fulfillment of specific of specific
demands, whereas non –realistic conflicts are rooted in the
need for release of tension and are not oriented towards
achievement of any specific demand.
Function of social conflict
In every group there are occasions for conflict, since
individuals and sub-groups are likely to make rival claims
to scarce resources, prestige or power positions. But social
structures differ in the way the group allows expression to
these claims. Some are more tolerant, others are not.
Closely built groups are likely to suppress conflict. The
feeling of hostility tends to accumulate and intensify and

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when it breaks out it will be intense. This is because of two
factors. Firstly, it will not aim at resolving the immediate
issue as all accumulated grievances will come to fore.
Secondly, it is because of total personality involvement of
the group members. It is important for a group worker to
remember that the hostility should not be permitted to
accumulate and conflict should be allowed to occur
wherever a resolution of tension seems to be allowed to
occur wherever a resolution of tension seems to be
indicated. In such cases the conflict is likely to remain
focused primarily on the condition leading to its outbreak.
Conflicts within a group can also help to revitalize existing
norms and help to develop new norms as well.
Exchange Theory
The central concern of the exchange theory is to find an
explanation for the human transactions of giving and
receiving. James Frazer suggests that men enter in to
institutionalized patterns of exchange to satisfy their
economic needs. But there is a difference between
economic exchange and social exchange.
Social exchange process yields for the larger society a
moral code of behaviour, which acquires an independent
existence outside the social exchange situation and which
informs all social, economic, and political interpersonal
relationships in society. The triple obligations of social
exchange- to give, to receive and to repay – are to be
understood not as self- interest but in terms of
interpersonal, hence inter-group, relations. Social exchange
transaction creates social bonds creating ties between
individuals and the collectivity. Levi-Strauss argued that it
is the exchange which is important not the things which are
exchanged and the primary function of the exchange is
structural integration of the collectivity.
Homans and Blau among others have developed the
exchange theory to explain members‟ behaviour within a

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group. They argued that all members in a group will try to
maximize individual rewards and minimize punishments.
All human interaction according to them is seeking
something in return from the other. The behaviour is
conditioned to maximize rewards and minimize punishment
in all interactions. However, the process requires taking
decisions and carrying out tasks assigned. Deviations occur
as members to not attempt to maximize rewards, which
create difficulties in accepting the exchange theory. The
cognitive process and the members capacities are not full
explained by the exchange theory can be summarized as
follows: social behaviour is an exchange of goods, material
and non-material, such as approval or prestige. Persons that
give to others try to get something in return, and persons
who receive from others are under pressure to give in
return. This process of exchange tends to create equilibrium
to balance the exchanges.

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