Conceptualframework

The Conceptual Framework for Financial
Reporting
The Conceptual Framework was issued by the International Accounting Standards Board in
September 2010. It superseded the Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial
Statements.
஽ IFRS Foundation A15

CONTENTS
from paragraph
FOREWORD
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR FINANCIAL
REPORTING
INTRODUCTION
Purpose and status
Scope
CHAPTERS
1 The objective of general purpose financial reporting OB1
2 The reporting entity to be added
3 Qualitative characteristics of useful financial information QC1
4 The Framework (1989): the remaining text 4.1
FOR THE ACCOMPANYING DOCUMENTS LISTED BELOW, SEE PART B OF
THIS EDITION
APPROVAL BY THE BOARD OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2010
BASIS FOR CONCLUSIONS ON CHAPTERS 1 AND 3
TABLE OF CONCORDANCE
Conceptual Framework
஽ IFRS FoundationA16

Foreword
The International Accounting Standards Board is currently in the process of updating its
conceptual framework. This conceptual framework project is conducted in phases.
As a chapter is finalised, the relevant paragraphs in the Framework for the Preparation and
Presentation of Financial Statements that was published in 1989 will be replaced. When the
conceptual framework project is completed, the Board will have a complete, comprehensive
and single document called the Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting.
This version of the Conceptual Framework includes the first two chapters the Board published
as a result of its first phase of the conceptual framework project—Chapter 1 The objective of
general purpose financial reporting and Chapter 3 Qualitative characteristics of useful financial
information. Chapter 2 will deal with the reporting entity concept. The Board published an
exposure draft on this topic in March 2010 with a comment period that ended on 16 July
2010. Chapter 4 contains the remaining text of the Framework (1989). The table of
concordance, at the end of this publication, shows how the contents of the Framework (1989)
and the Conceptual Framework (2010) correspond.

The Introduction has been carried forward from the Framework (1989). This will be
updated when the IASB considers the purpose of the Conceptual Framework. Until then, the
purpose and the status of the Conceptual Framework are the same as before.
Introduction
Financial statements are prepared and presented for external users by many entities around
the world. Although such financial statements may appear similar from country to
country, there are differences which have probably been caused by a variety of social,
economic and legal circumstances and by different countries having in mind the needs of
different users of financial statements when setting national requirements.
These different circumstances have led to the use of a variety of definitions of the elements
of financial statements: for example, assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses. They
have also resulted in the use of different criteria for the recognition of items in the financial
statements and in a preference for different bases of measurement. The scope of the
financial statements and the disclosures made in them have also been affected.
The International Accounting Standards Board is committed to narrowing these differences
by seeking to harmonise regulations, accounting standards and procedures relating to the
preparation and presentation of financial statements. It believes that further
harmonisation can best be pursued by focusing on financial statements that are prepared
for the purpose of providing information that is useful in making economic decisions.
The Board believes that financial statements prepared for this purpose meet the common
needs of most users. This is because nearly all users are making economic decisions, for
example:
(a) to decide when to buy, hold or sell an equity investment.
(b) to assess the stewardship or accountability of management.
(c) to assess the ability of the entity to pay and provide other benefits to its employees.
(d) to assess the security for amounts lent to the entity.
(e) to determine taxation policies.
(f) to determine distributable profits and dividends.
(g) to prepare and use national income statistics.
(h) to regulate the activities of entities.
The Board recognises, however, that governments, in particular, may specify different or
additional requirements for their own purposes. These requirements should not, however,
affect financial statements published for the benefit of other users unless they also meet the
needs of those other users.
Financial statements are most commonly prepared in accordance with an accounting
model based on recoverable historical cost and the nominal financial capital maintenance
concept. Other models and concepts may be more appropriate in order to meet the
objective of providing information that is useful for making economic decisions although
there is at present no consensus for change. This Conceptual Framework has been developed
so that it is applicable to a range of accounting models and concepts of capital and capital
maintenance.

Purpose and status
This Conceptual Framework sets out the concepts that underlie the preparation and
presentation of financial statements for external users. The purpose of the Conceptual
Framework is:
(a) to assist the Board in the development of future IFRSs and in its review of existing
IFRSs;
(b) to assist the Board in promoting harmonisation of regulations, accounting
standards and procedures relating to the presentation of financial statements by
providing a basis for reducing the number of alternative accounting treatments
permitted by IFRSs;
(c) to assist national standard-setting bodies in developing national standards;
(d) to assist preparers of financial statements in applying IFRSs and in dealing with
topics that have yet to form the subject of an IFRS;
(e) to assist auditors in forming an opinion on whether financial statements comply
with IFRSs;
(f) to assist users of financial statements in interpreting the information contained in
financial statements prepared in compliance with IFRSs; and
(g) to provide those who are interested in the work of the IASB with information about
its approach to the formulation of IFRSs.
This Conceptual Framework is not an IFRS and hence does not define standards for any
particular measurement or disclosure issue. Nothing in this Conceptual Framework overrides
any specific IFRS.
The Board recognises that in a limited number of cases there may be a conflict between the
Conceptual Framework and an IFRS. In those cases where there is a conflict, the requirements
of the IFRS prevail over those of the Conceptual Framework. As, however, the Board will be
guided by the Conceptual Framework in the development of future IFRSs and in its review of
existing IFRSs, the number of cases of conflict between the Conceptual Framework and IFRSs
will diminish through time.
The Conceptual Framework will be revised from time to time on the basis of the Board’s
experience of working with it.
Scope
The Conceptual Framework deals with:
(a) the objective of financial reporting;
(b) the qualitative characteristics of useful financial information;
(c) the definition, recognition and measurement of the elements from which financial
statements are constructed; and
(d) concepts of capital and capital maintenance.

CONTENTS
from paragraph
CHAPTER 1: THE OBJECTIVE OF GENERAL PURPOSE
FINANCIAL REPORTING
INTRODUCTION OB1
OBJECTIVE, USEFULNESS AND LIMITATIONS OF GENERAL PURPOSE
FINANCIAL REPORTING OB2
INFORMATION ABOUT A REPORTING ENTITY’S ECONOMIC RESOURCES,
CLAIMS AGAINST THE ENTITY AND CHANGES IN RESOURCES AND CLAIMS OB12
Economic resources and claims OB13
Changes in economic resources and claims OB15
Financial performance reflected by accrual accounting OB17
Financial performance reflected by past cash flows OB20
Changes in economic resources and claims not resulting from financial
performance OB21

Chapter 1: The objective of general purpose financial reporting
Introduction
OB1 The objective of general purpose financial reporting forms the foundation of the
Conceptual Framework. Other aspects of the Conceptual Framework—a reporting
entity concept, the qualitative characteristics of, and the constraint on, useful
financial information, elements of financial statements, recognition,
measurement, presentation and disclosure—flow logically from the objective.
Objective, usefulness and limitations of general purpose
financial reporting
OB2 The objective of general purpose financial reporting1
is to provide financial
information about the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential
investors, lenders and other creditors in making decisions about providing
resources to the entity. Those decisions involve buying, selling or holding equity
and debt instruments, and providing or settling loans and other forms of credit.
OB3 Decisions by existing and potential investors about buying, selling or holding
equity and debt instruments depend on the returns that they expect from an
investment in those instruments, for example dividends, principal and interest
payments or market price increases. Similarly, decisions by existing and
potential lenders and other creditors about providing or settling loans and other
forms of credit depend on the principal and interest payments or other returns
that they expect. Investors’, lenders’ and other creditors’ expectations about
returns depend on their assessment of the amount, timing and uncertainty of
(the prospects for) future net cash inflows to the entity. Consequently, existing
and potential investors, lenders and other creditors need information to help
them assess the prospects for future net cash inflows to an entity.
OB4 To assess an entity’s prospects for future net cash inflows, existing and potential
investors, lenders and other creditors need information about the resources of
the entity, claims against the entity, and how efficiently and effectively the
entity’s management and governing board2
have discharged their
responsibilities to use the entity’s resources. Examples of such responsibilities
include protecting the entity’s resources from unfavourable effects of economic
factors such as price and technological changes and ensuring that the entity
complies with applicable laws, regulations and contractual provisions.
Information about management’s discharge of its responsibilities is also useful
for decisions by existing investors, lenders and other creditors who have the
right to vote on or otherwise influence management’s actions.
OB5 Many existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors cannot
require reporting entities to provide information directly to them and must rely
1 Throughout this Conceptual Framework, the terms financial reports and financial reporting refer to general
purpose financial reports and general purpose financial reporting unless specifically indicated otherwise.
2 Throughout this Conceptual Framework, the term management refers to management and the governing
board of an entity unless specifically indicated otherwise.

on general purpose financial reports for much of the financial information they
need. Consequently, they are the primary users to whom general purpose
financial reports are directed.
OB6 However, general purpose financial reports do not and cannot provide all of the
information that existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors
need. Those users need to consider pertinent information from other sources,
for example, general economic conditions and expectations, political events and
political climate, and industry and company outlooks.
OB7 General purpose financial reports are not designed to show the value of a
reporting entity; but they provide information to help existing and potential
investors, lenders and other creditors to estimate the value of the reporting
entity.
OB8 Individual primary users have different, and possibly conflicting, information
needs and desires. The Board, in developing financial reporting standards, will
seek to provide the information set that will meet the needs of the maximum
number of primary users. However, focusing on common information needs
does not prevent the reporting entity from including additional information
that is most useful to a particular subset of primary users.
OB9 The management of a reporting entity is also interested in financial information
about the entity. However, management need not rely on general purpose
financial reports because it is able to obtain the financial information it needs
internally.
OB10 Other parties, such as regulators and members of the public other than
investors, lenders and other creditors, may also find general purpose financial
reports useful. However, those reports are not primarily directed to these other
groups.
OB11 To a large extent, financial reports are based on estimates, judgements and
models rather than exact depictions. The Conceptual Framework establishes the
concepts that underlie those estimates, judgements and models. The concepts
are the goal towards which the Board and preparers of financial reports strive.
As with most goals, the Conceptual Framework’s vision of ideal financial reporting
is unlikely to be achieved in full, at least not in the short term, because it takes
time to understand, accept and implement new ways of analysing transactions
and other events. Nevertheless, establishing a goal towards which to strive is
essential if financial reporting is to evolve so as to improve its usefulness.
Information about a reporting entity’s economic
resources, claims against the entity and changes in
resources and claims
OB12 General purpose financial reports provide information about the financial
position of a reporting entity, which is information about the entity’s economic
resources and the claims against the reporting entity. Financial reports also
provide information about the effects of transactions and other events that

change a reporting entity’s economic resources and claims. Both types of
information provide useful input for decisions about providing resources to an
entity.
Economic resources and claims
OB13 Information about the nature and amounts of a reporting entity’s economic
resources and claims can help users to identify the reporting entity’s financial
strengths and weaknesses. That information can help users to assess the
reporting entity’s liquidity and solvency, its needs for additional financing and
how successful it is likely to be in obtaining that financing. Information about
priorities and payment requirements of existing claims helps users to predict
how future cash flows will be distributed among those with a claim against the
reporting entity.
OB14 Different types of economic resources affect a user’s assessment of the reporting
entity’s prospects for future cash flows differently. Some future cash flows
result directly from existing economic resources, such as accounts receivable.
Other cash flows result from using several resources in combination to produce
and market goods or services to customers. Although those cash flows cannot be
identified with individual economic resources (or claims), users of financial
reports need to know the nature and amount of the resources available for use
in a reporting entity’s operations.
Changes in economic resources and claims
OB15 Changes in a reporting entity’s economic resources and claims result from that
entity’s financial performance (see paragraphs OB17–OB20) and from other
events or transactions such as issuing debt or equity instruments (see
paragraph OB21). To properly assess the prospects for future cash flows from the
reporting entity, users need to be able to distinguish between both of these
changes.
OB16 Information about a reporting entity’s financial performance helps users to
understand the return that the entity has produced on its economic resources.
Information about the return the entity has produced provides an indication of
how well management has discharged its responsibilities to make efficient and
effective use of the reporting entity’s resources. Information about the
variability and components of that return is also important, especially in
assessing the uncertainty of future cash flows. Information about a reporting
entity’s past financial performance and how its management discharged its
responsibilities is usually helpful in predicting the entity’s future returns on its
economic resources.
Financial performance reflected by accrual accounting
OB17 Accrual accounting depicts the effects of transactions and other events and
circumstances on a reporting entity’s economic resources and claims in the
periods in which those effects occur, even if the resulting cash receipts and
payments occur in a different period. This is important because information
about a reporting entity’s economic resources and claims and changes in its
economic resources and claims during a period provides a better basis for

assessing the entity’s past and future performance than information solely
about cash receipts and payments during that period.
OB18 Information about a reporting entity’s financial performance during a period,
reflected by changes in its economic resources and claims other than by
obtaining additional resources directly from investors and creditors (see
paragraph OB21), is useful in assessing the entity’s past and future ability to
generate net cash inflows. That information indicates the extent to which the
reporting entity has increased its available economic resources, and thus its
capacity for generating net cash inflows through its operations rather than by
obtaining additional resources directly from investors and creditors.
OB19 Information about a reporting entity’s financial performance during a period
may also indicate the extent to which events such as changes in market prices or
interest rates have increased or decreased the entity’s economic resources and
claims, thereby affecting the entity’s ability to generate net cash inflows.
Financial performance reflected by past cash flows
OB20 Information about a reporting entity’s cash flows during a period also helps
users to assess the entity’s ability to generate future net cash inflows. It
indicates how the reporting entity obtains and spends cash, including
information about its borrowing and repayment of debt, cash dividends or other
cash distributions to investors, and other factors that may affect the entity’s
liquidity or solvency. Information about cash flows helps users understand a
reporting entity’s operations, evaluate its financing and investing activities,
assess its liquidity or solvency and interpret other information about financial
performance.
Changes in economic resources and claims not resulting from
financial performance
OB21 A reporting entity’s economic resources and claims may also change for reasons
other than financial performance, such as issuing additional ownership shares.
Information about this type of change is necessary to give users a complete
understanding of why the reporting entity’s economic resources and claims
changed and the implications of those changes for its future financial
performance.

CHAPTER 2: THE REPORTING ENTITY
[to be added]

CONTENTS
from paragraph
CHAPTER 3: QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF USEFUL
FINANCIAL INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION QC1
QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF USEFUL FINANCIAL INFORMATION QC4
Fundamental qualitative characteristics QC5
Relevance QC6
Faithful representation QC12
Applying the fundamental qualitative characteristics QC17
Enhancing qualitative characteristics QC19
Comparability QC20
Verifiability QC26
Timeliness QC29
Understandability QC30
Applying the enhancing characteristics QC33
THE COST CONSTRAINT ON USEFUL FINANCIAL REPORTING QC35

Chapter 3: Qualitative characteristics of useful financial
information
Introduction
QC1 The qualitative characteristics of useful financial information discussed in this
chapter identify the types of information that are likely to be most useful to the
existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors for making
decisions about the reporting entity on the basis of information in its financial
report (financial information).
QC2 Financial reports provide information about the reporting entity’s economic
resources, claims against the reporting entity and the effects of transactions and
other events and conditions that change those resources and claims. (This
information is referred to in the Conceptual Framework as information about the
economic phenomena.) Some financial reports also include explanatory
material about management’s expectations and strategies for the reporting
entity, and other types of forward-looking information.
QC3 The qualitative characteristics of useful financial information3
apply to financial
information provided in financial statements, as well as to financial information
provided in other ways. Cost, which is a pervasive constraint on the reporting
entity’s ability to provide useful financial information, applies similarly.
However, the considerations in applying the qualitative characteristics and the
cost constraint may be different for different types of information. For example,
applying them to forward-looking information may be different from applying
them to information about existing economic resources and claims and to
changes in those resources and claims.
Qualitative characteristics of useful financial information
QC4 If financial information is to be useful, it must be relevant and faithfully
represent what it purports to represent. The usefulness of financial information
is enhanced if it is comparable, verifiable, timely and understandable.
Fundamental qualitative characteristics
QC5 The fundamental qualitative characteristics are relevance and faithful
representation.
Relevance
QC6 Relevant financial information is capable of making a difference in the decisions
made by users. Information may be capable of making a difference in a decision
even if some users choose not to take advantage of it or are already aware of it
from other sources.
QC7 Financial information is capable of making a difference in decisions if it has
predictive value, confirmatory value or both.
3 Throughout this Conceptual Framework, the terms qualitative characteristics and constraint refer to the
qualitative characteristics of, and the constraint on, useful financial information.

QC8 Financial information has predictive value if it can be used as an input to
processes employed by users to predict future outcomes. Financial information
need not be a prediction or forecast to have predictive value. Financial
information with predictive value is employed by users in making their own
predictions.
QC9 Financial information has confirmatory value if it provides feedback about
(confirms or changes) previous evaluations.
QC10 The predictive value and confirmatory value of financial information are
interrelated. Information that has predictive value often also has confirmatory
value. For example, revenue information for the current year, which can be
used as the basis for predicting revenues in future years, can also be compared
with revenue predictions for the current year that were made in past years. The
results of those comparisons can help a user to correct and improve the
processes that were used to make those previous predictions.
Materiality
QC11 Information is material if omitting it or misstating it could influence decisions
that users make on the basis of financial information about a specific reporting
entity. In other words, materiality is an entity-specific aspect of relevance based
on the nature or magnitude, or both, of the items to which the information
relates in the context of an individual entity’s financial report. Consequently,
the Board cannot specify a uniform quantitative threshold for materiality or
predetermine what could be material in a particular situation.
Faithful representation
QC12 Financial reports represent economic phenomena in words and numbers. To be
useful, financial information must not only represent relevant phenomena, but
it must also faithfully represent the phenomena that it purports to represent.
To be a perfectly faithful representation, a depiction would have three
characteristics. It would be complete, neutral and free from error. Of course,
perfection is seldom, if ever, achievable. The Board’s objective is to maximise
those qualities to the extent possible.
QC13 A complete depiction includes all information necessary for a user to
understand the phenomenon being depicted, including all necessary
descriptions and explanations. For example, a complete depiction of a group of
assets would include, at a minimum, a description of the nature of the assets in
the group, a numerical depiction of all of the assets in the group, and a
description of what the numerical depiction represents (for example, original
cost, adjusted cost or fair value). For some items, a complete depiction may also
entail explanations of significant facts about the quality and nature of the items,
factors and circumstances that might affect their quality and nature, and the
process used to determine the numerical depiction.
QC14 A neutral depiction is without bias in the selection or presentation of financial
information. A neutral depiction is not slanted, weighted, emphasised,
de-emphasised or otherwise manipulated to increase the probability that
financial information will be received favourably or unfavourably by users.
Neutral information does not mean information with no purpose or no

influence on behaviour. On the contrary, relevant financial information is, by
definition, capable of making a difference in users’ decisions.
QC15 Faithful representation does not mean accurate in all respects. Free from error
means there are no errors or omissions in the description of the phenomenon,
and the process used to produce the reported information has been selected and
applied with no errors in the process. In this context, free from error does not
mean perfectly accurate in all respects. For example, an estimate of an
unobservable price or value cannot be determined to be accurate or inaccurate.
However, a representation of that estimate can be faithful if the amount is
described clearly and accurately as being an estimate, the nature and limitations
of the estimating process are explained, and no errors have been made in
selecting and applying an appropriate process for developing the estimate.
QC16 A faithful representation, by itself, does not necessarily result in useful
information. For example, a reporting entity may receive property, plant and
equipment through a government grant. Obviously, reporting that an entity
acquired an asset at no cost would faithfully represent its cost, but that
information would probably not be very useful. A slightly more subtle example
is an estimate of the amount by which an asset’s carrying amount should be
adjusted to reflect an impairment in the asset’s value. That estimate can be a
faithful representation if the reporting entity has properly applied an
appropriate process, properly described the estimate and explained any
uncertainties that significantly affect the estimate. However, if the level of
uncertainty in such an estimate is sufficiently large, that estimate will not be
particularly useful. In other words, the relevance of the asset being faithfully
represented is questionable. If there is no alternative representation that is
more faithful, that estimate may provide the best available information.
Applying the fundamental qualitative characteristics
QC17 Information must be both relevant and faithfully represented if it is to be useful.
Neither a faithful representation of an irrelevant phenomenon nor an unfaithful
representation of a relevant phenomenon helps users make good decisions.
QC18 The most efficient and effective process for applying the fundamental
qualitative characteristics would usually be as follows (subject to the effects of
enhancing characteristics and the cost constraint, which are not considered in
this example). First, identify an economic phenomenon that has the potential to
be useful to users of the reporting entity’s financial information. Second,
identify the type of information about that phenomenon that would be most
relevant if it is available and can be faithfully represented. Third, determine
whether that information is available and can be faithfully represented. If so,
the process of satisfying the fundamental qualitative characteristics ends at that
point. If not, the process is repeated with the next most relevant type of
information.
Enhancing qualitative characteristics
QC19 Comparability, verifiability, timeliness and understandability are qualitative
characteristics that enhance the usefulness of information that is relevant and
faithfully represented. The enhancing qualitative characteristics may also help

determine which of two ways should be used to depict a phenomenon if both are
considered equally relevant and faithfully represented.
Comparability
QC20 Users’ decisions involve choosing between alternatives, for example, selling or
holding an investment, or investing in one reporting entity or another.
Consequently, information about a reporting entity is more useful if it can be
compared with similar information about other entities and with similar
information about the same entity for another period or another date.
QC21 Comparability is the qualitative characteristic that enables users to identify and
understand similarities in, and differences among, items. Unlike the other
qualitative characteristics, comparability does not relate to a single item. A
comparison requires at least two items.
QC22 Consistency, although related to comparability, is not the same. Consistency
refers to the use of the same methods for the same items, either from period to
period within a reporting entity or in a single period across entities.
Comparability is the goal; consistency helps to achieve that goal.
QC23 Comparability is not uniformity. For information to be comparable, like things
must look alike and different things must look different. Comparability of
financial information is not enhanced by making unlike things look alike any
more than it is enhanced by making like things look different.
QC24 Some degree of comparability is likely to be attained by satisfying the
fundamental qualitative characteristics. A faithful representation of a relevant
economic phenomenon should naturally possess some degree of comparability
with a faithful representation of a similar relevant economic phenomenon by
another reporting entity.
QC25 Although a single economic phenomenon can be faithfully represented in
multiple ways, permitting alternative accounting methods for the same
economic phenomenon diminishes comparability.
Verifiability
QC26 Verifiability helps assure users that information faithfully represents the
economic phenomena it purports to represent. Verifiability means that
different knowledgeable and independent observers could reach consensus,
although not necessarily complete agreement, that a particular depiction is a
faithful representation. Quantified information need not be a single point
estimate to be verifiable. A range of possible amounts and the related
probabilities can also be verified.
QC27 Verification can be direct or indirect. Direct verification means verifying an
amount or other representation through direct observation, for example, by
counting cash. Indirect verification means checking the inputs to a model,
formula or other technique and recalculating the outputs using the same
methodology. An example is verifying the carrying amount of inventory by
checking the inputs (quantities and costs) and recalculating the ending
inventory using the same cost flow assumption (for example, using the first-in,
first-out method).

QC28 It may not be possible to verify some explanations and forward-looking financial
information until a future period, if at all. To help users decide whether they
want to use that information, it would normally be necessary to disclose the
underlying assumptions, the methods of compiling the information and other
factors and circumstances that support the information.
Timeliness
QC29 Timeliness means having information available to decision-makers in time to be
capable of influencing their decisions. Generally, the older the information is
the less useful it is. However, some information may continue to be timely long
after the end of a reporting period because, for example, some users may need to
identify and assess trends.
Understandability
QC30 Classifying, characterising and presenting information clearly and concisely
makes it understandable.
QC31 Some phenomena are inherently complex and cannot be made easy to
understand. Excluding information about those phenomena from financial
reports might make the information in those financial reports easier to
understand. However, those reports would be incomplete and therefore
potentially misleading.
QC32 Financial reports are prepared for users who have a reasonable knowledge of
business and economic activities and who review and analyse the information
diligently. At times, even well-informed and diligent users may need to seek the
aid of an adviser to understand information about complex economic
phenomena.
Applying the enhancing qualitative characteristics
QC33 Enhancing qualitative characteristics should be maximised to the extent
possible. However, the enhancing qualitative characteristics, either individually
or as a group, cannot make information useful if that information is irrelevant
or not faithfully represented.
QC34 Applying the enhancing qualitative characteristics is an iterative process that
does not follow a prescribed order. Sometimes, one enhancing qualitative
characteristic may have to be diminished to maximise another qualitative
characteristic. For example, a temporary reduction in comparability as a result
of prospectively applying a new financial reporting standard may be worthwhile
to improve relevance or faithful representation in the longer term. Appropriate
disclosures may partially compensate for non-comparability.
The cost constraint on useful financial reporting
QC35 Cost is a pervasive constraint on the information that can be provided by
financial reporting. Reporting financial information imposes costs, and it is
important that those costs are justified by the benefits of reporting that
information. There are several types of costs and benefits to consider.

QC36 Providers of financial information expend most of the effort involved in
collecting, processing, verifying and disseminating financial information, but
users ultimately bear those costs in the form of reduced returns. Users of
financial information also incur costs of analysing and interpreting the
information provided. If needed information is not provided, users incur
additional costs to obtain that information elsewhere or to estimate it.
QC37 Reporting financial information that is relevant and faithfully represents what
it purports to represent helps users to make decisions with more confidence.
This results in more efficient functioning of capital markets and a lower cost of
capital for the economy as a whole. An individual investor, lender or other
creditor also receives benefits by making more informed decisions. However, it
is not possible for general purpose financial reports to provide all the
information that every user finds relevant.
QC38 In applying the cost constraint, the Board assesses whether the benefits of
reporting particular information are likely to justify the costs incurred to
provide and use that information. When applying the cost constraint in
developing a proposed financial reporting standard, the Board seeks
information from providers of financial information, users, auditors, academics
and others about the expected nature and quantity of the benefits and costs of
that standard. In most situations, assessments are based on a combination of
quantitative and qualitative information.
QC39 Because of the inherent subjectivity, different individuals’ assessments of the
costs and benefits of reporting particular items of financial information will
vary. Therefore, the Board seeks to consider costs and benefits in relation to
financial reporting generally, and not just in relation to individual reporting
entities. That does not mean that assessments of costs and benefits always
justify the same reporting requirements for all entities. Differences may be
appropriate because of different sizes of entities, different ways of raising capital
(publicly or privately), different users’ needs or other factors.

CONTENTS
from paragraph
CHAPTER 4: THE FRAMEWORK (1989): THE REMAINING
TEXT
UNDERLYING ASSUMPTION 4.1
Going concern 4.1
THE ELEMENTS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 4.2
Financial position 4.4
Assets 4.8
Liabilities 4.15
Equity 4.20
Performance 4.24
Income 4.29
Expenses 4.33
Capital maintenance adjustments 4.36
RECOGNITION OF THE ELEMENTS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 4.37
The probability of future economic benefit 4.40
Reliability of measurement 4.41
Recognition of assets 4.44
Recognition of liabilities 4.46
Recognition of income 4.47
Recognition of expenses 4.49
MEASUREMENT OF THE ELEMENTS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 4.54
CONCEPTS OF CAPITAL AND CAPITAL MAINTENANCE 4.57
Concepts of capital 4.57
Concepts of capital maintenance and the determination of profit 4.59

Chapter 4: The Framework (1989): the remaining text
The remaining text of the Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial
Statements (1989) has not been amended to reflect changes made by IAS 1 Presentation of
Financial Statements (as revised in 2007).
The remaining text will also be updated when the Board has considered the elements of financial
statements and their measurement bases.
Underlying assumption
Going concern
4.1 The financial statements are normally prepared on the assumption that an
entity is a going concern and will continue in operation for the foreseeable
future. Hence, it is assumed that the entity has neither the intention nor the
need to liquidate or curtail materially the scale of its operations; if such an
intention or need exists, the financial statements may have to be prepared on a
different basis and, if so, the basis used is disclosed.
The elements of financial statements
4.2 Financial statements portray the financial effects of transactions and other
events by grouping them into broad classes according to their economic
characteristics. These broad classes are termed the elements of financial
statements. The elements directly related to the measurement of financial
position in the balance sheet are assets, liabilities and equity. The elements
directly related to the measurement of performance in the income statement are
income and expenses. The statement of changes in financial position usually
reflects income statement elements and changes in balance sheet elements;
accordingly, this Conceptual Framework identifies no elements that are unique to
this statement.
4.3 The presentation of these elements in the balance sheet and the income
statement involves a process of sub-classification. For example, assets and
liabilities may be classified by their nature or function in the business of the
entity in order to display information in the manner most useful to users for
purposes of making economic decisions.
Financial position
4.4 The elements directly related to the measurement of financial position are
assets, liabilities and equity. These are defined as follows:
(a) An asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events
and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the
entity.
(b) A liability is a present obligation of the entity arising from past events,
the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the
entity of resources embodying economic benefits.

(c) Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting
all its liabilities.
4.5 The definitions of an asset and a liability identify their essential features but do
not attempt to specify the criteria that need to be met before they are recognised
in the balance sheet. Thus, the definitions embrace items that are not
recognised as assets or liabilities in the balance sheet because they do not satisfy
the criteria for recognition discussed in paragraphs 4.37–4.53. In particular, the
expectation that future economic benefits will flow to or from an entity must be
sufficiently certain to meet the probability criterion in paragraph 4.38 before an
asset or liability is recognised.
4.6 In assessing whether an item meets the definition of an asset, liability or equity,
attention needs to be given to its underlying substance and economic reality and
not merely its legal form. Thus, for example, in the case of finance leases, the
substance and economic reality are that the lessee acquires the economic
benefits of the use of the leased asset for the major part of its useful life in
return for entering into an obligation to pay for that right an amount
approximating to the fair value of the asset and the related finance charge.
Hence, the finance lease gives rise to items that satisfy the definition of an asset
and a liability and are recognised as such in the lessee’s balance sheet.
4.7 Balance sheets drawn up in accordance with current IFRSs may include items
that do not satisfy the definitions of an asset or liability and are not shown as
part of equity. The definitions set out in paragraph 4.4 will, however, underlie
future reviews of existing IFRSs and the formulation of further IFRSs.
Assets
4.8 The future economic benefit embodied in an asset is the potential to contribute,
directly or indirectly, to the flow of cash and cash equivalents to the entity. The
potential may be a productive one that is part of the operating activities of the
entity. It may also take the form of convertibility into cash or cash equivalents
or a capability to reduce cash outflows, such as when an alternative
manufacturing process lowers the costs of production.
4.9 An entity usually employs its assets to produce goods or services capable of
satisfying the wants or needs of customers; because these goods or services can
satisfy these wants or needs, customers are prepared to pay for them and hence
contribute to the cash flow of the entity. Cash itself renders a service to the
entity because of its command over other resources.
4.10 The future economic benefits embodied in an asset may flow to the entity in a
number of ways. For example, an asset may be:
(a) used singly or in combination with other assets in the production of
goods or services to be sold by the entity;
(b) exchanged for other assets;
(c) used to settle a liability; or
(d) distributed to the owners of the entity.

4.11 Many assets, for example, property, plant and equipment, have a physical form.
However, physical form is not essential to the existence of an asset; hence
patents and copyrights, for example, are assets if future economic benefits are
expected to flow from them to the entity and if they are controlled by the entity.
4.12 Many assets, for example, receivables and property, are associated with legal
rights, including the right of ownership. In determining the existence of an
asset, the right of ownership is not essential; thus, for example, property held on
a lease is an asset if the entity controls the benefits which are expected to flow
from the property. Although the capacity of an entity to control benefits is
usually the result of legal rights, an item may nonetheless satisfy the definition
of an asset even when there is no legal control. For example, know-how
obtained from a development activity may meet the definition of an asset when,
by keeping that know-how secret, an entity controls the benefits that are
expected to flow from it.
4.13 The assets of an entity result from past transactions or other past events.
Entities normally obtain assets by purchasing or producing them, but other
transactions or events may generate assets; examples include property received
by an entity from government as part of a programme to encourage economic
growth in an area and the discovery of mineral deposits. Transactions or events
expected to occur in the future do not in themselves give rise to assets; hence,
for example, an intention to purchase inventory does not, of itself, meet the
definition of an asset.
4.14 There is a close association between incurring expenditure and generating assets
but the two do not necessarily coincide. Hence, when an entity incurs
expenditure, this may provide evidence that future economic benefits were
sought but is not conclusive proof that an item satisfying the definition of an
asset has been obtained. Similarly the absence of a related expenditure does not
preclude an item from satisfying the definition of an asset and thus becoming a
candidate for recognition in the balance sheet; for example, items that have
been donated to the entity may satisfy the definition of an asset.
Liabilities
4.15 An essential characteristic of a liability is that the entity has a present
obligation. An obligation is a duty or responsibility to act or perform in a
certain way. Obligations may be legally enforceable as a consequence of a
binding contract or statutory requirement. This is normally the case, for
example, with amounts payable for goods and services received. Obligations
also arise, however, from normal business practice, custom and a desire to
maintain good business relations or act in an equitable manner. If, for example,
an entity decides as a matter of policy to rectify faults in its products even when
these become apparent after the warranty period has expired, the amounts that
are expected to be expended in respect of goods already sold are liabilities.
4.16 A distinction needs to be drawn between a present obligation and a future
commitment. A decision by the management of an entity to acquire assets in
the future does not, of itself, give rise to a present obligation. An obligation
normally arises only when the asset is delivered or the entity enters into an
irrevocable agreement to acquire the asset. In the latter case, the irrevocable

nature of the agreement means that the economic consequences of failing to
honour the obligation, for example, because of the existence of a substantial
penalty, leave the entity with little, if any, discretion to avoid the outflow of
resources to another party.
4.17 The settlement of a present obligation usually involves the entity giving up
resources embodying economic benefits in order to satisfy the claim of the other
party. Settlement of a present obligation may occur in a number of ways, for
example, by:
(a) payment of cash;
(b) transfer of other assets;
(c) provision of services;
(d) replacement of that obligation with another obligation; or
(e) conversion of the obligation to equity.
An obligation may also be extinguished by other means, such as a creditor
waiving or forfeiting its rights.
4.18 Liabilities result from past transactions or other past events. Thus, for example,
the acquisition of goods and the use of services give rise to trade payables (unless
paid for in advance or on delivery) and the receipt of a bank loan results in an
obligation to repay the loan. An entity may also recognise future rebates based
on annual purchases by customers as liabilities; in this case, the sale of the goods
in the past is the transaction that gives rise to the liability.
4.19 Some liabilities can be measured only by using a substantial degree of
estimation. Some entities describe these liabilities as provisions. In some
countries, such provisions are not regarded as liabilities because the concept of a
liability is defined narrowly so as to include only amounts that can be
established without the need to make estimates. The definition of a liability in
paragraph 4.4 follows a broader approach. Thus, when a provision involves a
present obligation and satisfies the rest of the definition, it is a liability even if
the amount has to be estimated. Examples include provisions for payments to
be made under existing warranties and provisions to cover pension obligations.
Equity
4.20 Although equity is defined in paragraph 4.4 as a residual, it may be sub-classified
in the balance sheet. For example, in a corporate entity, funds contributed by
shareholders, retained earnings, reserves representing appropriations of
retained earnings and reserves representing capital maintenance adjustments
may be shown separately. Such classifications can be relevant to the
decision-making needs of the users of financial statements when they indicate
legal or other restrictions on the ability of the entity to distribute or otherwise
apply its equity. They may also reflect the fact that parties with ownership
interests in an entity have differing rights in relation to the receipt of dividends
or the repayment of contributed equity.
4.21 The creation of reserves is sometimes required by statute or other law in order to
give the entity and its creditors an added measure of protection from the effects
of losses. Other reserves may be established if national tax law grants

exemptions from, or reductions in, taxation liabilities when transfers to such
reserves are made. The existence and size of these legal, statutory and tax
reserves is information that can be relevant to the decision-making needs of
users. Transfers to such reserves are appropriations of retained earnings rather
than expenses.
4.22 The amount at which equity is shown in the balance sheet is dependent on the
measurement of assets and liabilities. Normally, the aggregate amount of equity
only by coincidence corresponds with the aggregate market value of the shares
of the entity or the sum that could be raised by disposing of either the net assets
on a piecemeal basis or the entity as a whole on a going concern basis.
4.23 Commercial, industrial and business activities are often undertaken by means of
entities such as sole proprietorships, partnerships and trusts and various types
of government business undertakings. The legal and regulatory framework for
such entities is often different from that applying to corporate entities. For
example, there may be few, if any, restrictions on the distribution to owners or
other beneficiaries of amounts included in equity. Nevertheless, the definition
of equity and the other aspects of this Conceptual Framework that deal with equity
are appropriate for such entities.
Performance
4.24 Profit is frequently used as a measure of performance or as the basis for other
measures, such as return on investment or earnings per share. The elements
directly related to the measurement of profit are income and expenses. The
recognition and measurement of income and expenses, and hence profit,
depends in part on the concepts of capital and capital maintenance used by the
entity in preparing its financial statements. These concepts are discussed in
paragraphs 4.57–4.65.
4.25 The elements of income and expenses are defined as follows:
(a) Income is increases in economic benefits during the accounting period
in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of
liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to
contributions from equity participants.
(b) Expenses are decreases in economic benefits during the accounting
period in the form of outflows or depletions of assets or incurrences of
liabilities that result in decreases in equity, other than those relating to
distributions to equity participants.
4.26 The definitions of income and expenses identify their essential features but do
not attempt to specify the criteria that would need to be met before they are
recognised in the income statement. Criteria for the recognition of income and
expenses are discussed in paragraphs 4.37–4.53.
4.27 Income and expenses may be presented in the income statement in different
ways so as to provide information that is relevant for economic decision-making.
For example, it is common practice to distinguish between those items of
income and expenses that arise in the course of the ordinary activities of the
entity and those that do not. This distinction is made on the basis that the
source of an item is relevant in evaluating the ability of the entity to generate

cash and cash equivalents in the future; for example, incidental activities such
as the disposal of a long-term investment are unlikely to recur on a regular basis.
When distinguishing between items in this way consideration needs to be given
to the nature of the entity and its operations. Items that arise from the ordinary
activities of one entity may be unusual in respect of another.
4.28 Distinguishing between items of income and expense and combining them in
different ways also permits several measures of entity performance to be
displayed. These have differing degrees of inclusiveness. For example, the
income statement could display gross margin, profit or loss from ordinary
activities before taxation, profit or loss from ordinary activities after taxation,
and profit or loss.
Income
4.29 The definition of income encompasses both revenue and gains. Revenue arises
in the course of the ordinary activities of an entity and is referred to by a variety
of different names including sales, fees, interest, dividends, royalties and rent.
4.30 Gains represent other items that meet the definition of income and may, or may
not, arise in the course of the ordinary activities of an entity. Gains represent
increases in economic benefits and as such are no different in nature from
revenue. Hence, they are not regarded as constituting a separate element in this
Conceptual Framework.
4.31 Gains include, for example, those arising on the disposal of non-current assets.
The definition of income also includes unrealised gains; for example, those
arising on the revaluation of marketable securities and those resulting from
increases in the carrying amount of long-term assets. When gains are recognised
in the income statement, they are usually displayed separately because
knowledge of them is useful for the purpose of making economic decisions.
Gains are often reported net of related expenses.
4.32 Various kinds of assets may be received or enhanced by income; examples
include cash, receivables and goods and services received in exchange for goods
and services supplied. Income may also result from the settlement of liabilities.
For example, an entity may provide goods and services to a lender in settlement
of an obligation to repay an outstanding loan.
Expenses
4.33 The definition of expenses encompasses losses as well as those expenses that
arise in the course of the ordinary activities of the entity. Expenses that arise in
the course of the ordinary activities of the entity include, for example, cost of
sales, wages and depreciation. They usually take the form of an outflow or
depletion of assets such as cash and cash equivalents, inventory, property, plant
and equipment.
4.34 Losses represent other items that meet the definition of expenses and may, or
may not, arise in the course of the ordinary activities of the entity. Losses
represent decreases in economic benefits and as such they are no different in
nature from other expenses. Hence, they are not regarded as a separate element
in this Conceptual Framework.

4.35 Losses include, for example, those resulting from disasters such as fire and flood,
as well as those arising on the disposal of non-current assets. The definition of
expenses also includes unrealised losses, for example, those arising from the
effects of increases in the rate of exchange for a foreign currency in respect of
the borrowings of an entity in that currency. When losses are recognised in the
income statement, they are usually displayed separately because knowledge of
them is useful for the purpose of making economic decisions. Losses are often
reported net of related income.
Capital maintenance adjustments
4.36 The revaluation or restatement of assets and liabilities gives rise to increases or
decreases in equity. While these increases or decreases meet the definition of
income and expenses, they are not included in the income statement under
certain concepts of capital maintenance. Instead these items are included in
equity as capital maintenance adjustments or revaluation reserves. These
concepts of capital maintenance are discussed in paragraphs 4.57–4.65 of this
Conceptual Framework.
Recognition of the elements of financial statements
4.37 Recognition is the process of incorporating in the balance sheet or income
statement an item that meets the definition of an element and satisfies the
criteria for recognition set out in paragraph 4.38. It involves the depiction of the
item in words and by a monetary amount and the inclusion of that amount in
the balance sheet or income statement totals. Items that satisfy the recognition
criteria should be recognised in the balance sheet or income statement. The
failure to recognise such items is not rectified by disclosure of the accounting
policies used nor by notes or explanatory material.
4.38 An item that meets the definition of an element should be recognised if:
(a) it is probable that any future economic benefit associated with the item
will flow to or from the entity; and
(b) the item has a cost or value that can be measured with reliability.4
4.39 In assessing whether an item meets these criteria and therefore qualifies for
recognition in the financial statements, regard needs to be given to the
materiality considerations discussed in Chapter 3 Qualitative characteristics of useful
financial information. The interrelationship between the elements means that an
item that meets the definition and recognition criteria for a particular element,
for example, an asset, automatically requires the recognition of another
element, for example, income or a liability.
The probability of future economic benefit
4.40 The concept of probability is used in the recognition criteria to refer to the
degree of uncertainty that the future economic benefits associated with the item
will flow to or from the entity. The concept is in keeping with the uncertainty
that characterises the environment in which an entity operates. Assessments of
4 Information is reliable when it is complete, neutral and free from error.

the degree of uncertainty attaching to the flow of future economic benefits are
made on the basis of the evidence available when the financial statements are
prepared. For example, when it is probable that a receivable owed to an entity
will be paid, it is then justifiable, in the absence of any evidence to the contrary,
to recognise the receivable as an asset. For a large population of receivables,
however, some degree of non-payment is normally considered probable; hence
an expense representing the expected reduction in economic benefits is
recognised.
Reliability of measurement
4.41 The second criterion for the recognition of an item is that it possesses a cost or
value that can be measured with reliability. In many cases, cost or value must be
estimated; the use of reasonable estimates is an essential part of the preparation
of financial statements and does not undermine their reliability. When,
however, a reasonable estimate cannot be made the item is not recognised in the
balance sheet or income statement. For example, the expected proceeds from a
lawsuit may meet the definitions of both an asset and income as well as the
probability criterion for recognition; however, if it is not possible for the claim
to be measured reliably, it should not be recognised as an asset or as income; the
existence of the claim, however, would be disclosed in the notes, explanatory
material or supplementary schedules.
4.42 An item that, at a particular point in time, fails to meet the recognition criteria
in paragraph 4.38 may qualify for recognition at a later date as a result of
subsequent circumstances or events.
4.43 An item that possesses the essential characteristics of an element but fails to
meet the criteria for recognition may nonetheless warrant disclosure in the
notes, explanatory material or in supplementary schedules. This is appropriate
when knowledge of the item is considered to be relevant to the evaluation of the
financial position, performance and changes in financial position of an entity by
the users of financial statements.
Recognition of assets
4.44 An asset is recognised in the balance sheet when it is probable that the future
economic benefits will flow to the entity and the asset has a cost or value that
can be measured reliably.
4.45 An asset is not recognised in the balance sheet when expenditure has been
incurred for which it is considered improbable that economic benefits will flow
to the entity beyond the current accounting period. Instead such a transaction
results in the recognition of an expense in the income statement. This
treatment does not imply either that the intention of management in incurring
expenditure was other than to generate future economic benefits for the entity
or that management was misguided. The only implication is that the degree of
certainty that economic benefits will flow to the entity beyond the current
accounting period is insufficient to warrant the recognition of an asset.

Recognition of liabilities
4.46 A liability is recognised in the balance sheet when it is probable that an outflow
of resources embodying economic benefits will result from the settlement of a
present obligation and the amount at which the settlement will take place can
be measured reliably. In practice, obligations under contracts that are equally
proportionately unperformed (for example, liabilities for inventory ordered but
not yet received) are generally not recognised as liabilities in the financial
statements. However, such obligations may meet the definition of liabilities
and, provided the recognition criteria are met in the particular circumstances,
may qualify for recognition. In such circumstances, recognition of liabilities
entails recognition of related assets or expenses.
Recognition of income
4.47 Income is recognised in the income statement when an increase in future
economic benefits related to an increase in an asset or a decrease of a liability
has arisen that can be measured reliably. This means, in effect, that recognition
of income occurs simultaneously with the recognition of increases in assets or
decreases in liabilities (for example, the net increase in assets arising on a sale of
goods or services or the decrease in liabilities arising from the waiver of a debt
payable).
4.48 The procedures normally adopted in practice for recognising income, for
example, the requirement that revenue should be earned, are applications of the
recognition criteria in this Conceptual Framework. Such procedures are generally
directed at restricting the recognition as income to those items that can be
measured reliably and have a sufficient degree of certainty.
Recognition of expenses
4.49 Expenses are recognised in the income statement when a decrease in future
economic benefits related to a decrease in an asset or an increase of a liability
has arisen that can be measured reliably. This means, in effect, that recognition
of expenses occurs simultaneously with the recognition of an increase in
liabilities or a decrease in assets (for example, the accrual of employee
entitlements or the depreciation of equipment).
4.50 Expenses are recognised in the income statement on the basis of a direct
association between the costs incurred and the earning of specific items of
income. This process, commonly referred to as the matching of costs with
revenues, involves the simultaneous or combined recognition of revenues and
expenses that result directly and jointly from the same transactions or other
events; for example, the various components of expense making up the cost of
goods sold are recognised at the same time as the income derived from the sale
of the goods. However, the application of the matching concept under this
Conceptual Framework does not allow the recognition of items in the balance sheet
which do not meet the definition of assets or liabilities.
4.51 When economic benefits are expected to arise over several accounting periods
and the association with income can only be broadly or indirectly determined,
expenses are recognised in the income statement on the basis of systematic and
rational allocation procedures. This is often necessary in recognising the

expenses associated with the using up of assets such as property, plant,
equipment, goodwill, patents and trademarks; in such cases the expense is
referred to as depreciation or amortisation. These allocation procedures are
intended to recognise expenses in the accounting periods in which the
economic benefits associated with these items are consumed or expire.
4.52 An expense is recognised immediately in the income statement when an
expenditure produces no future economic benefits or when, and to the extent
that, future economic benefits do not qualify, or cease to qualify, for recognition
in the balance sheet as an asset.
4.53 An expense is also recognised in the income statement in those cases when a
liability is incurred without the recognition of an asset, as when a liability under
a product warranty arises.
Measurement of the elements of financial statements
4.54 Measurement is the process of determining the monetary amounts at which the
elements of the financial statements are to be recognised and carried in the
balance sheet and income statement. This involves the selection of the
particular basis of measurement.
4.55 A number of different measurement bases are employed to different degrees and
in varying combinations in financial statements. They include the following:
(a) Historical cost. Assets are recorded at the amount of cash or cash
equivalents paid or the fair value of the consideration given to acquire
them at the time of their acquisition. Liabilities are recorded at the
amount of proceeds received in exchange for the obligation, or in some
circumstances (for example, income taxes), at the amounts of cash or
cash equivalents expected to be paid to satisfy the liability in the normal
course of business.
(b) Current cost. Assets are carried at the amount of cash or cash equivalents
that would have to be paid if the same or an equivalent asset was
acquired currently. Liabilities are carried at the undiscounted amount of
cash or cash equivalents that would be required to settle the obligation
currently.
(c) Realisable (settlement) value. Assets are carried at the amount of cash or
cash equivalents that could currently be obtained by selling the asset in
an orderly disposal. Liabilities are carried at their settlement values; that
is, the undiscounted amounts of cash or cash equivalents expected to be
paid to satisfy the liabilities in the normal course of business.
(d) Present value. Assets are carried at the present discounted value of the
future net cash inflows that the item is expected to generate in the
normal course of business. Liabilities are carried at the present
discounted value of the future net cash outflows that are expected to be
required to settle the liabilities in the normal course of business.
4.56 The measurement basis most commonly adopted by entities in preparing their
financial statements is historical cost. This is usually combined with other
measurement bases. For example, inventories are usually carried at the lower of

cost and net realisable value, marketable securities may be carried at market
value and pension liabilities are carried at their present value. Furthermore,
some entities use the current cost basis as a response to the inability of the
historical cost accounting model to deal with the effects of changing prices of
non-monetary assets.
Concepts of capital and capital maintenance
Concepts of capital
4.57 A financial concept of capital is adopted by most entities in preparing their
financial statements. Under a financial concept of capital, such as invested
money or invested purchasing power, capital is synonymous with the net assets
or equity of the entity. Under a physical concept of capital, such as operating
capability, capital is regarded as the productive capacity of the entity based on,
for example, units of output per day.
4.58 The selection of the appropriate concept of capital by an entity should be based
on the needs of the users of its financial statements. Thus, a financial concept of
capital should be adopted if the users of financial statements are primarily
concerned with the maintenance of nominal invested capital or the purchasing
power of invested capital. If, however, the main concern of users is with the
operating capability of the entity, a physical concept of capital should be used.
The concept chosen indicates the goal to be attained in determining profit, even
though there may be some measurement difficulties in making the concept
operational.
Concepts of capital maintenance and the determination
of profit
4.59 The concepts of capital in paragraph 4.57 give rise to the following concepts of
capital maintenance:
(a) Financial capital maintenance. Under this concept a profit is earned only if
the financial (or money) amount of the net assets at the end of the period
exceeds the financial (or money) amount of net assets at the beginning of
the period, after excluding any distributions to, and contributions from,
owners during the period. Financial capital maintenance can be
measured in either nominal monetary units or units of constant
purchasing power.
(b) Physical capital maintenance. Under this concept a profit is earned only if
the physical productive capacity (or operating capability) of the entity (or
the resources or funds needed to achieve that capacity) at the end of the
period exceeds the physical productive capacity at the beginning of the
period, after excluding any distributions to, and contributions from,
owners during the period.
4.60 The concept of capital maintenance is concerned with how an entity defines the
capital that it seeks to maintain. It provides the linkage between the concepts of
capital and the concepts of profit because it provides the point of reference by
which profit is measured; it is a prerequisite for distinguishing between an
entity’s return on capital and its return of capital; only inflows of assets in

excess of amounts needed to maintain capital may be regarded as profit and
therefore as a return on capital. Hence, profit is the residual amount that
remains after expenses (including capital maintenance adjustments, where
appropriate) have been deducted from income. If expenses exceed income the
residual amount is a loss.
4.61 The physical capital maintenance concept requires the adoption of the current
cost basis of measurement. The financial capital maintenance concept, however,
does not require the use of a particular basis of measurement. Selection of the
basis under this concept is dependent on the type of financial capital that the
entity is seeking to maintain.
4.62 The principal difference between the two concepts of capital maintenance is the
treatment of the effects of changes in the prices of assets and liabilities of the
entity. In general terms, an entity has maintained its capital if it has as much
capital at the end of the period as it had at the beginning of the period. Any
amount over and above that required to maintain the capital at the beginning of
the period is profit.
4.63 Under the concept of financial capital maintenance where capital is defined in
terms of nominal monetary units, profit represents the increase in nominal
money capital over the period. Thus, increases in the prices of assets held over
the period, conventionally referred to as holding gains, are, conceptually,
profits. They may not be recognised as such, however, until the assets are
disposed of in an exchange transaction. When the concept of financial capital
maintenance is defined in terms of constant purchasing power units, profit
represents the increase in invested purchasing power over the period. Thus,
only that part of the increase in the prices of assets that exceeds the increase in
the general level of prices is regarded as profit. The rest of the increase is treated
as a capital maintenance adjustment and, hence, as part of equity.
4.64 Under the concept of physical capital maintenance when capital is defined in
terms of the physical productive capacity, profit represents the increase in that
capital over the period. All price changes affecting the assets and liabilities of
the entity are viewed as changes in the measurement of the physical productive
capacity of the entity; hence, they are treated as capital maintenance
adjustments that are part of equity and not as profit.
4.65 The selection of the measurement bases and concept of capital maintenance will
determine the accounting model used in the preparation of the financial
statements. Different accounting models exhibit different degrees of relevance
and reliability and, as in other areas, management must seek a balance between
relevance and reliability. This Conceptual Framework is applicable to a range of
accounting models and provides guidance on preparing and presenting the
financial statements constructed under the chosen model. At the present time,
it is not the intention of the Board to prescribe a particular model other than in
exceptional circumstances, such as for those entities reporting in the currency
of a hyperinflationary economy. This intention will, however, be reviewed in
the light of world developments.

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