Crawfish Comparison

Crawfish Comparison
Crawfish, crayfish, also known as crawdads, are basically crustaceans commonly found in
freshwater. These usually look like small lobsters and are organically related to them as well,
whereas lobsters are essentially crustaceans infesting marine water. Crawfish, crawdads or crayfish
compose of the super families of Parastacoidea and Astacoidea. On the other hand clawed lobsters
fall within the family of Nephropidae or Homaridae at times. The body of a crawfish, which is a
decapod crustacean, comprises of as many as nineteen distinctive body parts that are collectively
combined into two primary body parts. These two are the cephalothorax followed by the abdomen.
Furthermore, each of the body segments has two appendages. In general an average
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Coral Reef Research Paper
With their breath–taking beauty, coral reefs are one of the largest nutrient rich underwater
ecosystems. Corals are anthozoans that belong to phylum Cnidaria (NOAA's Coral Reef Information
System). Coral reefs are invertebrates, which are animals that do not have a backbone. Corals have a
symbiotic relationship with smaller organisms in which both benefit. Coral reefs contain
zooxanthellae, which is a type of algae that helps the coral remove wastes and produce oxygen,
while the coral provides a protective shield from the environment (NOAA's Coral Reef Information
System). Zooxanthellae aid the corals in important processes such as photosynthesis by providing
the coral with the necessary components to jump start this vital process. One of the ... Show more
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Ocean acidification occurs because CO2 is dissociating in oceans causing a decrease in CaCO3
concentration (Pandolfi et al. 2011). This occurs because CO2 hydrogen ions race for the carbonate
in CaCO3. This leads to a low rate of skeletal growth because the coral reefs make their skeleton of
CaCO3, and since CO2 is interfering, coral reefs have difficulties growing, therefore slowly become
weaker and weaker (Pandolfi et al. 2011). Ocean acidification also causes low skeletal density and
structural complexity and trade–off in the use of resources for growth vs. reproduction.
CO2 is a greenhouse gas and it is produced by the human activities listed above, which can change
the chemistry of the water by decreasing the pH (Hoegh–Guldberg et al. 2007). The rise in ocean
temperatures is occurring because CO2 levels are constantly increasing because of human activities
such as burning of fossil fuels, cement industry, meat production, destruction of natural habitat and
this is increasing the levels of CO2 in our atmosphere. The CO2 is being absorbed by oceans and
causing an increase in ocean acidification (Hoegh–Guldberg et al.

Caribbean Sea Lizards Research Paper
In the Caribbean Sea, there are more than 700 islands, all have different sizes but have a similar
environment, within these islands, and there are 150 species of lizards under the genus name of
Anolis. These lizards are widely spread out over the islands in the Caribbean, these Anolis have
similar habitat, niche, morphology, and behavior but they are not closely related, which this is
defined as the ectomorph. This means we can found several different species living in the same
environment, but they share different habitats, some of them live on the ground, on the grass and
some live on different part of the tree, which they are spread out in different niches and hunt their
food there. In addition, the scientist also found out even though,

What Is Coral Bleaching?
Known as the rainforest of the ocean, corals are beyond vital for our oceans and for our Earth as a
whole. Corals supply a variety of sea life species with food, shelter, and protection which affect our
ecosystem including humans. However, these vital creatures are being negatively affected by natural
and human caused disasters. These disasters include, temperature and acidity fluctuations, run off,
known as pollution, storms, and overfishing. These disasters are what cause coral bleaching. The
extent of coral bleaching is only increasing and we must preserve corals before they become extinct.
However, the coral that has already been bleached by these disasters are not completely hopeless.
There is a possibility to reverse coral bleaching if watched and treated carefully. Although having a
plant like appearance, corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria.
There are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These animals live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps which have soft–bodies.
At their base is a hard, protective limestone skeleton composed of calcium carbonate. The reef
begins when a polyp attaches itself to a rock on the sea floor, then divides, or buds into thousands of
clones (National Geographic). The skeletal structure of hard corals are normally white, but due to
zooxanthellae algae which reside within the soft tissues of corals, corals obtain color. The most
prolific corals live above 90 feet, close to the surface in tropical waters where the sun's rays can
reach the algae, noted by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). During the
day the zooxanthellae, also known as algae, photosynthesize. It is a mutualistic relationship between
coral and algae. The algae benefits from photosynthesis because the nitrogen, phosphorous, and
carbon dioxide which is respired from the coral polyp is needed to grow. The coral itself benefits
from the energy the algae provides. By night the polyps can feed

The Bleaching Of Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are extremely diverse and important to sea life. They cover about 0.2% of the ocean
floor yet more than 25% of the marine life finds itself home within the coral reefs. Not only do coral
reefs provide shelter for sea life, they also protect shorelines from erosion. In this case, coral reefs
do not just serve the ocean but they serve human life as well. Rainforests are number one when it
comes to their diversity of animals and species, and coral reefs are second in diversity.
Unfortunately, human life has a negative impact on coral reefs at times. Things like pollution and
global warming are essentially wiping out coral reefs which is causing coral bleaching. Because
they are so important to sea and human life it is necessary that ... Show more content on
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Without them, our shorelines would be eroded and storms would cause great devastation. Sea
animals and fish would not have a place to seek shelter, comfort, or nutrition. So, not only do they
look like beautiful underwater gardens, but they bring protection to both fish and human life. No
matter how far into the ocean coral reefs are located, it is important that humans understand how
significant and important they are to our lives, our sea life and our oceans. Just because we do not
directly see the devastation does not mean that it is not occurring. Humans must make a positive
impact to the world in order to help salvage and sustain the coral reefs before it is too late.

Causes And Effects Of Coral Reefs
Only, due to the constant stream of warm tropical water coming from the Caribbean, South Africa
and the bay of Florida mixing with the waters from the Gulf of Mexico, which also create the
tropical air temperature and humidity can they tolerate this location. When these two significantly,
differently tempered water streams merge they create gyres (spiraling water currents). Kind of like
an underwater hurricane.
Most interesting is that the salt content of the ocean water in the keys region fluctuates between 3.3
to 3.6%. Ordinary ocean water has a salinity of 3.5%. What causes this fluctuation? During the dry
season, the ocean water has a higher salt content, some of the ocean waters evaporate and aren't
replenished by runoff water from rain, which would flow into the ocean during the wet season.
These runoff waters carry pollutants, (like fertilizers) which impact the otherwise nutrition poor
region of the Marine sanctuary. Coral reefs consist of coral polyps, which are animals, disguised as
plants. Although they are, of course not plants, they only look plantlike, especially because they take
root on the oceans ground. Sea anemones are such organisms. They are shaped like cups and have
tentacles looking like thick hair that moves with the waves. Corals can be mistaken for rocks as well
because of their calcified inners. However, unlike plants corals cannot make their own food, which
is an indicator that they are animals. The coral polyp is called an invertebrate ranging

Isopoda Research Paper
Isopoda is an order of crustaceans that includes woodlice and their relatives. Isopods live in the sea,
in fresh water, or on land. Most are small greyish or whitish animals with rigid, segmented
exoskeletons. They have two pairs of antennae, seven pairs of jointed limbs on the thorax, and five
pairs of branching appendages on the abdomen that are used in respiration. Females brood their
young in a pouch under their thorax. Isopods have various feeding methods: some eat dead or
decaying plant and animal matter, others are grazers or strain food particles from the water around
them, a few are predators, and some are internal or external parasites, mostly of fishes. Aquatic
species mostly live on the seabed or bottom of freshwater bodies of water,

Cnidarians: The Evolution Of Biolumines
There are more than 11,000 species of Cnidarians and the diversity among them is striking as this
phylum includes organisms from corals to sea jellies (Pechenik 2009). This groups defining
characteristic is that all included have nematocysts or cnidae, which are very complex specialized
stinging cells (Technau & Steele 2011). Many species of both shallow and deep–sea Cnidarians
bioluminesce, with the exception of the family Cubozoa. This leaves the 3 families of Cnidarians:
hydrozoa, scyphozoa and anthozoa (Haddock et al. 2010). Bioluminescence has evolved multiple
times in different families of land and water species. The evolution of bioluminescence is difficult to
follow down evolutionary lines since no phyla is entirely luminous as this ... Show more content on
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Blue light is around 475 nm and is able to radiate the longest distance of any colour through the
open ocean (Widder 2010). Interestingly, the most sensitive wavelengths for detection by deep–sea
fish and shrimp is blue light wavelengths (Haddock & Case 1999). Green light, which has a
wavelength of around 510 nm, is said to be more commonly emitted by marine organisms residing
in turbid environments or those that have chlorophyll as it has a longer wavelength than blue light
and is does not attenuate by scatter as easily after short distances. These environments could be
shallow or benthic (Haddock & Case 1999; Widder 1010). Benthic environments include the ocean
floor and are at a lower depth than the pelagic zone. Coelenterazine is perfectly suited for
luminescence in the open ocean as it produces blue light at a maximum of 470–480 nm. The
emission of blue light by the bioluminescence reaction of this imidazolopyrazine luciferin is almost
wholly based on its own structure with subtle sway by the luciferase reactant (Rees et al.

Red Lipped Batfish Essay
Description
The red–lipped batfish is one of the world's strangest creatures. The strange creature has red lips, it
makes the fish look like it put lipstick on. It has a broad head, it is lumpy like a toad. The red–lipped
batfish is emerald green and has two black stripes running down it's back. It has a glowing point
coming from it's forehead. It is a bilateral symmetry.
Interesting Facts
The red–lipped batfish are terrible swimmers. A fish that can't swim? They have legs that they use to
"walk" across the ocean floor. The red–lipped batfish uses it's red lips to attract mates. This is on the
top 100 strangest fish.
Reproduction
The red–lipped batfish mates sexually. The length of gestation period is 1–3 months. Number born is
approximately 25,000–45,000. Mating season takes place during the summer. How it cares for it's
young are unknown. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It goes no deeper than 100 feet. They hunt for food close to them so them so they don't have to enter
cold water. They like to explore and play around. They live in tall sea plants and stay near the ocean
floor.
Location
The red–lipped batfish lives in the waters of the Galapagos Islands. The fish stays in the intertidal
zone. It can only survive in warm water. It stays near the ocean floor so it can walk. The red–lipped
batfish lives in the tall sea plants.
Diet
The red–lipped batfish is a carnivore. It eats almost anything smaller than them. A few things they
eat are mollusks, shrimp, and crabs. The fish has no known prey. They are in danger from nothing.
The red–lipped batfish are going to be around for a little while.
Eukarya
Kingdom– Animalia Phylum– Chordata Class– Actinopterygii Order–

Essay on Organism Physiology
Organism Physiology
The course in which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed from earlier
forms during the history of the earth is defined as Evolution. Many time organisms evolve due to
environmental changes. To better understand evolution this paper will review a diagram of an
organism and explain how the organism has evolved physiologically to become suited to fit its
environment.
Organism
To understand the evolution of an organism it is important to understand facts about the organism.
The diagram illustrated below is a jellyfish. Jellyfish are located in the Artic Sea, the North Atlantic
and Northern Pacific Ocean. Jellyfish can grow as large as 120 feet long. Some jellyfish has
immortal properties and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This makes them rather inedible; however many creature do pray on them.
Jellyfish do not have specialized osmoregulatory, respiratory, digestive or circulatory systems. They
digest using the gastrovascular cavity; this is where nutrients are absorbed. Since their skin is thin
the body is oxygenated by diffusion and eliminates the need for a respiratory system. Since Jellyfish
are made of 90% water; most of their umbrella mass is gelatinous material. This jelly type material
is called mesoglea; which is surrounded by two lawyers of epithelial calls. This forms the
exumbrella, top surface, and the subunbrella, bottom surface, of the body. The jellyfish do not have
brains but instead they are made up of a network of loose nerves known as nerve net. The nerve net
is located in the epidermis. Jellyfish detect their stimuli by this nerve net. Once detected the nerve
net sends impulses throughout both the nerve net and throughout the circular nerve ring located at
the rim of the jellyfish's body.
Physiological Evolution of Jellyfish One way scientist can determine the evolution of an animal is
by studying the fossils of that particular animal. By studying these fossils they can determine the
changes over that particular time period. Since the jellyfish are such unique animal's scientist have
very little information pertaining to their evolution. This is in part because of the limited amount of
jellyfish fossils that are

The Benefits of the Florida Coral Reefs
The Florida Reef provides many benefits to our world. The coral living in it are part of the phylum
Cnidaria which a group of invertebrates. Though it may provide many benefits to us, we provide
many dangers to it. Our debris and overfishing can damage the Florida reef along with many other
coral reefs. Not only that, due to over excessive tourists and their recklessness, we are endangering
the Florida Reef even more. So how can human action improve the ocean ecosystem that is the
home to the many species of the Florida reef? One is by polluting less. We can also fish more
carefully and help reduce runoff. We can help the Florida Reef and it can continue to benefit us.
Invertebrates are animals that do not have backbones. There are many different types of
invertebrates divided into phyla. They are Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida,
Echinodermata, Mullusca, Arthropoda, and Chordata. Coral are part of the phylum Cnidaria which
are a type of invertebrates. They include jellyfish, sea anemones, coral and many more. All
cnidarians are shaped in three ways; an umbrella, a cylinder or a bell. The cnidarian world book
article states, "Every cnidarian has at least two layers of cells that form its body wall. An outer layer
makes up the body covering, and an inner layer lines the digestive cavity." However in some cases
there may be an third layer of cell which help support the cnidarian. They eat by opening their
mouth which is at one end which leads to

Research Paper On Jellyfish
Jellyfish. They're some of the most fascinating creatures on planet earth. Unique, and dangerous,
jellyfish (also known as jellies) are soft, gelatinous aquatic animals with what looks like an umbrella
for a head. Powerful tentacles filled with deadly toxins in a painful sting. These neon creatures are
classified in the subphylum Medusozoa, which forms a large part of the phylum Cnidaria; though
not all Meduszoa fall under the jellyfish species.
Overwhelming amounts of jellyfish are found in every ocean, all over the earth. Science points
towards them being the oldest multi–organ animal. Crazy, right? Such a wondrous animal being
nearly 700 million years old; possibly more!
Popularized by English culture, the name jellyfish has been in use since 1796, traditionally being
applied to other animals who share a superficial resemblance like the ctenophores as well. (
"Ctenophora (/tᵻˈnɒfərə/; singular ctenophore, /ˈtɛnəfɔːr/ or /ˈtiːnəfɔːr/; from the Greek κτείς kteis
'comb' and φέρω pherō 'carry'; commonly known as comb jellies) is a phylum of invertebrate
animals that live in marine waters worldwide." ) –Wikipedia ... Show more content on
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The word 'jellyfish' is considered by many to simply be a misnomer. ( "A misnomer is a word or
term that suggests a meaning that is known to be wrong. Misnomers often arise because something
was named long before its correct nature was known, or because the nature of an earlier form is no
longer the norm. A misnomer may also be simply a word that someone uses incorrectly or
misleadingly." )

The Disphotic Zone
The euphotic zone or more commonly known as the sunlit zone is home to over 90% of all marine
life, this includes plankton, sea horses, stingrays, and many more beautiful aquatic animals. The
euphoric zone extends 600 feet below the surface because this is as far as the sun light will go below
the surface. The sunlight that penetrates the water is bright enough to support photosynthesis,
making it the only zone where plant life can grow. This zone is the smallest of all three ocean zones.
The second largest is the disphotic zone The disphotic zone or twilight zone begins where the
euphoric ends and ends 3000 feet down. The pressure in the disphotic zone is increased and only
small amounts of light can penetrate its waters. The only

The Helmet Jellyfish
Cnidaria are a various species, with type ranging from mobile jellyfishes to the static coral. The
Helmet jellyfish is a prime example the cnidarian species. Although it is a direct relation to other
organisms that are completely different in nature, it shares some defining characteristics The Helmet
Jellyfish is radially symmetrical, meaning they can be cut into equal part at any point through the
center. This means the Helmet Jellyfish has no back or front, nor a left or right side. This type of
symmetry is common to this species as they are an older and less developed group of creatures. The
Helmet Jellyfish moves as the typical jellyfish does, radial deltoid muscles in the gastric region
create pulsations contract their bodies and propel water out wards, thus pushing them forward. They
also partially rely on ocean currents to move them long distances. As for defending themselves, the
Helmet Jellyfish has a system of stinging cells on their tentacles that float behind them. These cells
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It had been previously conceived that jellyfish are not social by nature and just coexist in groups
called blooms. However by tracking the movements of their movements via sonar, marine biologist
Stein Kaartvedt has found that some jellyfish, around 10%, have begun to sync of with specificity
other jellyfish. Following their patterns and even hunting for food together in small groups of 2–3.
The data has shown that the jellies can recognize their partners from distances of 2 meters. It is not
yet known how they recognize each other for they only disturb water writhing a few centimeters of
themselves, so they cannot feel each other. They also do not follow their partners specific path so it
is admissible that they do not follow using scent or taste. Scientists believe is has something to do
with their light receptors being able to detect the light of other

Blue Glaucus Atlanticus Research Paper
What you are about to read will tell you what a Blue Glaucus Atlanticus is and where it's habitat is,
it's lifecycle, what it looks like, and what is it's diet. The Blue Glaucus mainly a on hydrozoans
although there also known to be cannibalistic. One of the specialities of their diet is the Portugese
Man–O–War, Physalia physalis (Linnaeus, 1758), they're known for their painful stings that they
give when you touch their tentacles. The Blue Glaucus will eat the tentacles, both the fired and
unfired stinging cells will pass these stings into special pouches in their cerata which they then use
for defence. The Blue Glaucus has four stages in their life cycle, stage one is when the Blue Glaucus
will hatch from the egg strings and will be 1

Research Paper On Sea Pens
Sea Pens
Description
Sea pens are colonies of polyps( polyps: animals that have a fixed base,column like body, with
mouth and tentacles.). Each polyps resembles a feathery quill. Sea pens are bilateral (bilateral: being
able to divide into even halves). There is no typical weight for sea pens, but the height ranges from 2
inches to 6 feet. Sea pens have various colors. Their colors range from dark orange, yellow, and
white.
Habitat
Sea pens are octocoral, which means they are a type of soft coral. Like any other coral sea pens like
to live on sandy or muddy surfaces. Sea pens are generally located on the gulf of Alaska to Southern
California. The sea pens biome varies. Some sea pens live in intertidal zones while others live in the
deep

Keys National Marine Sanctuary
I am writing about the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The natural marine sanctuary has
been In Florida. There are much fish In the sanctuary, but there is only one kind of species that Is
really important to the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The thing that is really popular or
important is the coral polyps. Now the coral polyps is a flower. It has tiny, soft sea anemone. Just
like animals that make a cup of calcium carbonate around themselves for their own protection.
Thousands and thousands of these tiny polyps build all their skeletons together to form a colony.
They keep building the skeletons on top of each other and sometimes It grows up to hundreds of
meters tall. Did you know there are four main types of coral habitat in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary? The coral polyps are the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some large school of fish can be found looking for food, such as the schoolmasters and the sergeant
majors. During the day that is when the coral polyps are the busiest, because the spiny lobsters and
long–spined black urchins hide In It. At the night time, that is when they come out to get their own
food. Fish that live near the coral polyps are usually very colorful. There are lagoons in between
barrier reef and the shoreline. The lagoon has calm water and has sand on the bottom. Lagoons are
usually covered in turtle grass and green algae. But enough talking about lagoons. The coral polyps
issue is the death of the corals worldwide.
The reason that the coral polyps are dying is because of the diseases overfishing, It's basically a
fancy way of saying coral bleaching. One–quarter of all marine species is found in coral reefs. The
coral reefs are food to most species. The organisms that live in the coral polyps are being studied for
new medicines. Each organism fits into the food web because well something eats them and then
that species that is being eaten will be eating another

Coral Reefs Provide About Earth's History
Objectives:
How do coral reefs form?
What evidence do limestone deposits from coral reefs provide about Earth's history?
Vocabulary:
Algae: aquatic based plants that contains chlorophyll, lacking roots, stems, and leaves that can be
anywhere from microscopic to having a long and distinguished form
Calcium: the chemical element of atomic number 20, a soft gray metal
Calcite: a white or colorless mineral consisting of calcium carbonate. It is a major constituent of
sedimentary rocks such as limestone, marble, and chalk, can occur in crystalline form (as in Iceland
spar), and may be deposited in caves to form stalactites and stalagmites
Coral Reefs: A structure of calcite skeletons built up by coral animals in warm, shallow ocean water
Limestone: a hard sedimentary ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also provide evidence of past environments
Coral reefs have been forming in the ocean for more than 400 million years
There used to be coral reefs in central parts of North America which today are pieces of sedimentary
Reefs that formed million years in the United States are exposed in Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana,
Texas, New Mexico, and many other

The plague of the oceans has come back from the dead and...
The plague of the oceans has come back from the dead and is not showing mercy. With all the
pollution being brought on by human life, water is being contaminated which is causing some
substances to rise in population and is sickening al who come in contact with the poisonous
substance. Imagine just doing your job when you come in contact with the poisonous elements also
known as Lyngbya majuscula, or fireweed. Your skin breaks out in blisters and welts and no matter
how much you try it doesn't stop neither does the burning sensation that comes with it. You go to
shake this off your fishing nets only to have trouble breathing as the substance fills the air making
your throat close. Well this is what is happening to the fishermen of ... Show more content on
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Also the destruction of wetlands and overfishing have played a big role in letting this substance get
out of hand. With overfishing and the destruction of wetlands competing organisms that usually
keep the element from getting out of hand, are dying. And with less and less organisms to keep it in
check the growth only becomes faster. The effects of this are not only found in Morenton Bay,
Australia, but worldwide. During Swedish summers strands of the crynobacteria wash up on shore
as a yellow–ish substance. Dead fish pop out along the coast and if the locals get near it, their eyes
burn and they can't breathe. On the southern coast of Mauii in Hawaii the high tide brings in green
algae so foul smelling that condominium owners hired tractor drivers to scrape it off the beach each
morning because of the smell. On the Gulf Coast of Florida residents complain that harmful algae
blooms are longer lasting, more frequent and bigger. This is killing off many sea mammals and is
flooding the Florida emergency rooms with patients suffering from repertory diseases. North of
Venice, Italy, a sticky mixture of algae and bacteria collects on the Adriatic Sea in spring and
summer. This white mucus washes ashore, fouling beaches, or congeals into submerged blobs, some
bigger than a person. On the Spanish coast jellyfish have become so large that special nets have to
be strung to protect

Essay about Coral Reefs
Coral reefs have been undergoing global degradation due to increasing natural and anthropogenic
impacts for at least the last half–century. The intensity and frequency of stressors, including global
climate change, have rapidly increased in number over recent years (Hughes & Connell 1999;
Hoegh–Guldberg et al. 2007; Pandolfi et al. 2011). Frequent disturbances such as
hurricanes/cyclones, predation outbreaks, diseases and mass bleaching events eat–away at the
percent of living coral cover and without recovery, the available space is colonized by sponges, soft
corals, and macroalgae. These alternative organisms are often competitive dominants in less than
ideal conditions (Norström et al. 2009). The transition is termed a phase–shift from ... Show more
1993; Lirman 2001; Box & Mumby 2007), increased localized sedimentation (Nugues & Roberts
2003), interfering with the settlement of coral larvae through space preemption and/or biofilm
production (Birrell et al. 2005; Birrell et al. 2008; Box & Mumby 2007; Vermeij et al. 2009), and
allelopathy or chemically mediated competition (deNys et al. 1991, Morrow et al. 2011).
Macroalgae can cause physical stress (Quan–Young & Espinoza–Avalos 2006) decreased
photosynthetic abilities (Titlyanov et al. 2007), reduced fecundity (Foster et al. 2008), and harbor
potential coral pathogens (Nugues et al. 2004). The ability of macroalgae to competitively damage
stony corals also depends on the species of macroalgae (Maypa & Raymundo 2004; Birrell et al.
2008), and other compounding factors such as irradiance, sedimentation, dissolved nutrients, and
level of herbivory on the reef.
Over the past several decades the incidence of coral disease has increased, with striking correlation
to increasing macroalgal cover (Goreau et al. 1998; Harvell et al. 1999; Harvell 2004; Weil & Smith
2006). The enhanced need for disease research coupled with the massive advancements in molecular
techniques made the study of coral–associated microbes more efficient and less cost prohibitive.
Thus, we have recently recognized the significant role microorganisms play in the physiology of
both healthy and diseased corals. The term holobiont was coined to describe the dynamic
relationship

Characterisation In Away By GowAway By Gow
With the will to search for new experiences and fresh perceptions of the world we live in, creates the
ability for individuals to overcome confronting challenges and provide gains through the journey of
personal realization, new ideas and acceptance of ourselves and who we truly are. This is
represented through the play 'Away' composed by Gow that addresses the contextual era of 1967
where the after effects of the great depression and the WW2 was huge and where a high influx of
migrants settled Australia. furthermore, these themes are exploited through William Shakespeare's
pastoral romance, 'the tempest' through the involvement of characters who undergo a fortuitous
discovery of self.
Through newfound discoveries and contemporary ways of thinking, beliefs and identity have been
altered and transformed. In "Away", Gow's characterisation of tom and Coral exploit deep personal
realisations. For Tom going away on holiday allows for him to make sense of what is happening and
reflect on life, his realisation is not on the issue of dying the realisation is on living, and this
realisation is made through watching people in his lives and how they waste time and he starts to
change his belief that, in fact, it might not be a curse but a privilege as he has meaning in his life and
a purpose to live. Corals self–realization is composed through the introduction of new characters she
can communicate with and hear other people's stresses. these aid her in the realisation it is ok for a

How Does Coral Bleaching Affect The Marine Environment
When thinking of oceans, people imagine the only living things that are in the waters are fish and
small organisms. But there is much more some individuals may not know. Some shallow and deep
oceans are home to coral. These groups of coral are classified as marine invertebrates. They breathe
and consume microscopic animals called zooplankton. Coral reefs receive their energy from the
sunlight, they turn it sugars for their energy. The marine invertebrates are living things that are a
vital part of the ocean and human beings. Saldy these communities are in major trouble
Coral bleaching may seem new and a strange topic, but it has been around and wreaking havoc for
many of years. Bleaching starts to happen when the water temperatures rise slightly above average
temps for more than several days, which then kills the vibrant coral ("Global Warming"). The coral
reefs get their vivid color from algae and other small organisms. They are found in the coral's tissue.
Algae helps supply food for the reef through carbohydrates. The algae creates the carbohydrates
through photosynthesis ("Coral Reefs"). Coral bleaching ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The coral reef's ecosystem are in major threat of the current bleaching events. Coral reefs are the
main marine environment, which includes a variety of over 4,000 fish, and 800 different type of
hard coral ("Corals"). Over 25 percent of marine animals are supported by the coral environment
("Coral Reefs"). The reefs are a key element of the ocean's ecosystem ("Coral Reef Destruction").
Water temperatures are estimated to keep rising in the decades to come, which intensifies coral
bleaching and other problems like black band disease, and white plague. These illnesses cause a
majority of the coral to die, which will then lead to their ecosystem to plummet ("Global Warming").
Research as estimated that one to eight million organisms are yet unknown to scientists

Pteropod Essay
Pteropods are shelled animals about the dimension a small pea that are consumed by several animals
of almost every size which range from krill to dolphins. Pteropods are at the bottom of many food
chains and a decrease in their numbers can possibly destroy the chances of survival of multiple
species and not only those of the ocean. However, these small creatures are challenged by the
accelerating ocean acidification and thus, their shell formation hampered due to the deficiency of
free calcium carbonate. Several research on pteropod indicates that growth rate and calcification of
shelled pteropods decline with ocean acidification (Busch D.S. et al. 2014; Comeau S. et al. 2009).
In an under–saturated sea water comparing with aragonite, pteropods favour to ... Show more
et al. 2014). Shell dissolution due to ocean acidification has been observed in several species of
pteropods (Johnson K.M. et al 2016; Bednaršek N. et al 2014; Busch D.S. et al. 2014). Lischka S. et
al (2012) reported that the aragonite saturation state <0.3 resulted in the reduced survival rate in
pteropods. Along with survival, growth and a biochemical functions impairment also reported due
the negative effect of ocean acidification (Lischka S. et al. 2011; Hoshijima U. et al 2017).
Echinoderms: Echinoderms, among the most numerous and ecologically successful categories of
marine animals, and are ideal prospect for studying ecologically significant elements of organismal
efficiency, like as swimming, acidification stress (Chan K.Y.K et al 2015). Sub littoral starfish and
sea urchins signify an essential grazing group while in many places, echinoderms such as urchins
and sea cucumbers are utilized for food (Micael et al. 2009). Calcified echinoderms have the
existence of an internal skeleton that covered with spines and skin. The skeleton differs with the
kind of echinoderms. Sea urchins and sand money have ossicles that fused, while in sea cucumbers,
the calcareous plates have degenerated and are buried in

What Is Chelonibia?
Chelonibia is a genus of acorn barnacles in the family Chelonibiidae of the subphylum Crustacea,
which up until 1830's was considered in the subphylum molluscs because of their calcareous shell
and sessile pattern ( source). Chelonibia members are epibionts that fasten themselves to many
marine vertebrates such as whales, manatees, crabs, horseshoe crabs and turtles (source). They have
also been documented on sea snakes, alligators and inanimate substrates, but are not typically found
on classic barnacle habitat such as boats, rocks, or docks (source). These motile substrates enable
epibionts to gather nutrients from the water flow and some of these organism support abundant and
diverse epibiont communities (source). Five living species of Chelonibia have been described,
Chelonibia ramose, Chelonibia careta, Chelonibia manati, and Chelonibia testudinaria, all of whom
are obligate commensal with particular hosts– ranging from custaceans and chelicerates to sea
turtles and sirenians (sourece). Not one of these barnacle species occur on all documented hosts;
though C. testudinaria is found on all species of sea turtles (source). C. testudinaria is well adapted
to exist on the back of sea turtles, the walls are thickened and the ... Show more content on
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testudinaria obtained from the Atlantic in the Georgia coast (GA00 GA01),from the Gulf Coast off
of Florida (FL) and from the Pacific Coast off of Mexico (B). We also analyzed genotypic data in
the form of three microsatellite loci from each of three Pacific populations: Santa Barbara, Mexico,
and Hawaii. We have asked (i) whether there is evidence to support that there is more than one
Barnacle species; (ii) what are the relationships of the Barnacle populations; and (iii) is there
evidence of gene flow among the Pacific populations, are they in H–W equilibrium, and is there
evidence of reproductive

The Cannonball Jellyfish : The Cannonball Jellyfish
Sierra Barrett
Research Paper
Kimberly Scubacz
Biology 1010
The Cannonball Jellyfish It is a sweltering summer day and you are at the beach with your closest
friends and family. It is now time for you to get some relief from the sun and hurdle into the cool,
salty water. You stand up on the float that you were floating on, leap into the air, bring your knees
towards your chest while wrapping your arms around your now balled up body and shout
"CANNONBALL!" at the top of your lungs. As you fall into the water, you feel something slimy
brush past your leg. Ironically, your stunt was not the only Cannonball that was going for a swim. In
fact, there are thousands of them. Stomolophus meleagris, more commonly known as the
Cannonball Jellyfish, is a species of jellyfish in the family Stomolophidae. The Cannonball Jellyfish
earned its name because of its resemblance to a cannonball. This fascinating creature is also less
officially known as a Cabbagehead Jellyfish – which also derives from its resemblance. The
Cannonball Jellyfish is a member of the Jellyfish family. A jellyfish is a marine invertebrate
belonging to the Schyphoan class of the Cnidaria phylum. A fully matured jellyfish possesses a
medusa body form, meaning that their body is shaped similarly to an umbrella or a bell. Given that
there are over 200 species of jellyfish, they all have unique shaped bodies. Though there are so
many distinct species of jellies, the Cannonball Jellyfish is by one of the most common

Biologically Diverse Coral Reef
In the article "Continental drift created biologically diverse coral reefs" it explains how researchers
study the evolution of many marine species and how they were affected by plate tectonics. The
scientists used 100 million years of Earth's history and the history of continental drifts to create a
computer model of patterns of new marine species. From this computer model "scientists were able
to show that the drift of the continental plates was the likely driving force behind the emergence of
new species" (ETH Zurich). Researchers concluded that continental drift increased the biodiversity
of marine species. If a "reef is divided into two separate reefs due to plate tectonics, for example, the
two populations in each patch would continue

Ningaloo Reef Research Paper
There are a lot of activities that providing, such as snorkeling or scuba diving at the most popular
scuba diving destination such as Tasmania and Queensland which the tourist can explore the coral
reefs and enjoy the beauty of the sea. At the same time, Ningaloo Reef is the place that tourist
actually can swim with the whale sharks.
Besides that, the places like Philip Island, which located near Melbourne can actually exploring and
viewing the smallest penguin in the world, Animal Park, koala convention center and farm.
However, tourist can choose a wildlife coast cruise for seal viewing, dolphin viewing and whale
viewing. It is very convenient for the tourist who is a senior citizen.
Tourist also can experience a camel tour at Australia's ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some people would love to watch animals' daily behavior. They would like to know more and
understand more about the animals. They can observe the animals from a distance, touching them or
feeding them.
Besides that, tourist love wildlife tourism because they want to learn more about nature, be
physically active, meet people that share similar interest and learn outdoor skills (Kretchman &
Eagles, 1990). The tourist can meet more people when they are visiting the same destination. They
also can share their experience and knowledge with each other because they share the similar
interest. Furthermore, tourist also could be physically active by joining the wildlife activities. A lot
of the activities required a lot of skills that we usually don't do such as diving, snorkeling, horse
riding or jungle trekking.
Tourist who join jungle trekking and stay inside the jungle to explore the nature also could learn
outdoor skills. It is a useful tourism experience for tourist. People who go for wildlife tourism they
usually like to learn more about nature. At the same time, they are nature appreciation who would
loves to appreciate the beauty of nature and protect the nature. They could relax and escape from
their working environment by enjoying the

Gorgonia Research Paper
The class of Gorgonia falls under the Kingdom Animalia and Phylum Cnidaria. Life starts for a
Gorgonia when a larvae settles on hard surface in the ocean and begins to grow in a polyp. Polyps
grow on other polyps indefinitely, which in the end creates the various shapes of a Gorgonia body.
Gorgonias are asexual, so they reproduce by the means of fragmentation/cloning. These creatures do
not have a reputation for living long. They are short lived and typically do not die of old age; they
die from chemical imbalances, growing too big and detaching, and tumors. Gorgonias are sessile,
meaning they do not move from the one place that they are attached. These creatures are notorious
for their fan–like shape. Because of the way it grows, the Gorgonia is asymmetric, meaning they do
not have identical body alignment on either side. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some Gorgonia can be found near tropic or subtropic shores; this helps them more easily feed with
the stronger currents and pull of the waves. Gorgonia have a symbiotic relationship with certain
algae to help with having a more ideal consumption rate of plankton, their main food source. In this
symbiotic relationship, the algae benefits from getting a stable home by attaching to the Gorgonia
rather than free–floating in the ocean while the Gorgonia benefit from getting an extra "boost" from
the algae. The algae goes through photosynthesis so it gives energy and oxygen to the Gorgonia. The
algae also draws more plankton to the Gorgonia. Although the Gorgonia looks like a plant, it is
indeed an animal and digests and uses food just as any other animal. This creature's way of
defending its body from attacks is by chemical defense, which wards off any unwanted creature
causing it harm. Predators are typically

Moon Jellyfish
Moon Jellyfish are in the "Animalia Kingdom, Phylum Cnidarian, Class Scyphozoan, Order
Semaeostomeae, Family Ulmaridae, and Genus Aurelia" ( Myers, 2016 ; Espinosa, ; 2016 ; Parr,
2016 ; Jones, 2026 ; Hammond, 2016 ; Dewey, 2016). The morphological description of Cnidarians
are corals, sea anemones, jellyfish and hydroids. These cnidarians form a diverse phylum that
contains ~9000 species, which live in aquatic (predominantly marine) environments. The phylum–
defining trait of Cnidaria is the stinging cell, the nematocyte an extrusive organelle used for
predation, adhesion and defense (Holstein, 1981; Lengfeld et al., 2009; Tardent and Holstein, 1982)
(Steele and Technau; 2011). Also, this phylum, Cnidarians, are divided into two groups, "Anthozoa
(sea anemones, corals and sea pens), which live as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both of these groups have an external radial symmetry. Cnidarians have a single opening that acts as
both mouth and anus and is generally surrounded by nematocyte–bearing tentacles (Steele and
Technau; 2011).
The moon jellyfish have a unique image, they have a alien–looking appearance. Since they have a
glowing circular bells. Moon jellies have little fringe that curve food towards the mucous layer. The
moon jellyfish store their prey in pouches and once their oral arm pick the food up, the jelly then
digest it. The Monterey Bay Aquarium Foundation states that "the coloration of a

Environmental Effects Of Coral Reef Bleaching
Coral Reefs have a huge role in our environment, even though they only make up less than one
percent of the oceans' ecosystems. They provide shelter for twenty–five percent of marine species,
protect shorelines, support fishing industries, provide money from tourism, and could help scientists
discover the next, big, medical breakthrough. They are so biodiverse, they are referred to as 'the
Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans'. Coral reefs are found in shallow circumtropical waters along the
shore of continents. Corals live in waters that have poor nutrition and they have certain tolerance
levels to water temperature, salinity, UV radiation, opacity, and nutrient quantities.
All these wonderful benefits of coral reefs are at risk from coral reef bleaching. Bleaching is bad for
the coral because the endosymbiotic algae have a crucial role in the survival of coral. They provide
energy in photosynthate. Bleaching is the lessening of zooxanthellate invertebrates. When the
zooxanthellae are expelled, the tissues turn white. It generally happens when water is too warm,
even though other things can provoke bleaching.
Climate change is thought to play a role in increased events of coral bleaching around the world. It
can lead to the extinction of many coral species. Climate change could also cause major reef tracts
destruction. Coral reef bleaching events have been increasing in the past twenty years worldwide.
Bleaching is caused by various human activities and variations in the

What Is The Difference Between Phylum Prifera And Pylum...
Comparison between Non–Cephalized Phylum Porifera and Phylum Cnidaria
Kenneth Ng, A0125933E, Group A05
In the Animalia kingdom, many different phylum emerged over a long period of time due to
evolution. Each phylum exhibit different characteristics which the multicellular animals have
developed to adapt to the environment for survival. Examples are such as developing the ability to
move from water to land and from land to water, apart from being sessile. There are also
developmental structures of the animals to allow them to adapt for survival, like having
exoskeletons or internal skeletal structures for support, skin for protection, muscles for locomotion,
nervous system for senses and digestive systems for digesting complex food (Farabee, 2007). It is
said that organisms without cephalisation are able to survive in oceans filled with planktons.
Organisms without cephalisation from the ocean are mainly from phylum Porifera (a.k.a. sponges)
and phylum Cnidaria. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both groups are diploblastic and are made up of 2 layers of cells – the ectoderm and endoderm, with
a layer of jelly–like mesoglea between them (McDarby, 2001; Kimball, 2014). Both groups have
species which manufacture chemicals and toxins, to prevent infection and other organisms from
growing on them (Dettner, 2010). Though there are some similarities between the 2 phyla, there are
distinct differences between them in the aspects of anatomy and

Evolution of Animals and Their Organ Systems
Organ Systems Project
(Digestive, Excretory, Circulatory, Reproductive, Nervous) There is an enormous variety of life on
our planet Earth ranging from simple cell bacteria to complex multicellular animals. Animals are
creatures in the kingdom Animilia, one of the kingdoms in Whitakers 5 kingdom system. Their
bodies consist of 555tanimal eukaryotic cells. Meaning their cell or cells contain a nucleus, are
surrounded by a cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer) and can self–reproduce in a free medium.
However, not all animals are anatomically the same. They have evolutionized, inside and out, from
the ancestral protozoa all the way to the most complex animals chordates. As the animals evolved,
cells became tissue, tissues became organs, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Micronuclei are very carefully copied and moved so that each daughter cell gets one, but once
division is complete usually new macronuclei will be produced from each cell's micronucleus, so
careful shepherding of the macronucleus is not necessary. Sexual reproduction in ciliates is called
conjugation. During conjugation, there is a transfer of genetic material via cell–to–cell contact by a
bridge–like connection. The last system, which can be replaced by an organelle in the protozoa, is
the nervous system. The function of the nervous system is to regulate and correlate body activities
through conduction within and between individual cells or neurons, which eventually cause a
response in some other system. In the paramecium, the macro and micronuclei are responsible for
the functions of the nervous system. The nucleus is the control center of the cell and it contains the
genetic info needed to copy to make new cells. Just as the brain, nerves and spinal cord would work;
the micronucleus and macronucleus control the activities of the cell. The next phylum of animals,
more complex than protozoa, is phylum Porifera (also known as sponges). Sponges are multicellular
filter feeding marine animals that have cell/tissue level of organization. They are sessile, meaning
they cannot move from the substratum and they have a water filled central cavity.

Write An Essay On Puertarnalis
1. Vampyroteuthis infernalis falls under the Mollusca phylum, class Cephalopoda, order
Vampyromorphida, and family Vampyroteuthidae. 2. Phylum Mollusca (originating from the Latin
word for "soft") includes organisms such as snails, octopi, squids, clams, and oysters. They are
organisms that have soft bodies typically composed of a head and foot region. The dorsal epidermal
tissue surrounding the body is called the mantle, and some organisms have specialized glands that
secrete excretions that form their hard exoskeletons, like in clams and snails. Class Cephalopoda are
considered one of the most intelligent, most mobile, and the largest of all the molluscs. These
organisms include the octopi, squid, cuttlefish, and the Vampyroteuthis infernalis. ... Show more
infernalis have two dorsal fins on its mantle that are used for swimming in addition to their jet
propulsion locomotive ability, but its low metabolism and weaker musculature does not allow for
long distances. While it cannot change colours, this animal is covered with photophores, with the
larger and more complex ones at the tips of the arms and at the base of its fins, which contributes to
its bioluminescent ability. When turned off, the animal is invisible in the dark waters, and when the
photophores are turned on, V. infernalis have the ability to modulate the intensity of the light and
create patterns by moving its arms, confusing predators or attracting prey. When threatened, this
animal can spread its webbed arms over its head and mantle, a position known as the "pineapple
posture". This protects the animal's head and mantle from injury, can fool predators into thinking it's
a different animal, and its black underside allows it to blend in to the inky sea depths. In lieu of an
ink sac, it can also eject a luminescent mucous cloud from the tips of its arms to escape predators.
For the V. infernalis's mode of reproduction, it is estimated that males transfer spermatophores to the
female from their funnel. The female discharges fertilized eggs into the water, and these opaque,
matured eggs (3–4mm in diameter) are often found free–floating in small masses in deep water.
Once the eggs hatch, they resemble the adult form but lack the webbing between the arms and have
smaller

Causes Of Coral Reef Bleaching
Neida M. Gutierrez
Mrs. Ybarra
Chemistry CC
20 Oct, 2017
Research paper: Causes of coral reef bleaching and how Co2 emissions affect coral populations
The effects of Co2 emissions over the years have greatly impacted the way coral reefs thrive in
certain parts of the ocean. To understand why coral reefs are dying throughout the oceans it is
imperative to first see what a coral is and what it is composed of. Corals are oceanic invertebrates
which fall into the phylum Cnidaria. Corals reefs mostly consist of shells made of aragonite, which
is the crystallized form of CaCo3. Small algae called zooxanthellae helps the corals with the vibrant
colors they are known for. Coals are one of the most inhabitable species found because of what they
can be composed of. For example, one species that make up the coral reefs are sea anemone. Sea
Anemones are chemically composed of a poison in their tentacles that fire viciously into their
victims penetrating them with a paralyzing neurotoxin. Clownfish, however, had a mucus–like layer
that protects them from the poison and is able to make a home out of the anemone. There is so much
life that is brought by coral reefs. There can be a plethora of symbiotic relationships found in coral
reefs. As years start to progress and humans are started to manipulate the natural environment of
these biological inhibitors. Coral reefs annually benefit human both directly and indirectly by $375
and about 500 million people need the reefs in

The Dangers Of Coral Reef Bleaching
Coral Reef Bleaching
Coral Reefs have a huge role in our environment, even though they only make up less than one
percent of the oceans' ecosystems. They provide shelter for twenty–five percent of marine species,
protect shorelines, support fishing industries, provide money from tourism, and could help scientists
discover the next, big, medical breakthrough(Oceans and Coasts). Coral reefs are so biodiverse, they
are referred to as 'the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans'. These diverse ecosystems are found in
shallow circumtropical waters along the shore of continents. Corals thrive in waters that have poor
nutrition and they have certain tolerance levels of water temperature, salinity, UV radiation, opacity,
and nutrient quantities. (Buchheim) All these wonderful benefits of coral reefs are at risk from coral
reef bleaching. Coral reef bleaching is the lessening of zooxanthellate invertebrates. Bleaching is
bad for the coral because the endosymbiotic algae has a crucial role in the survival of coral.
Zooxanthellae provide energy in photosynthate. When zooxanthellae are expelled, the tissues turn
white. It generally occurs when water is too warm, even though other things can provoke bleaching.
Bleaching events have been increasing in the past twenty years worldwide. (Buchheim) Bleaching is
caused by various human activities and variations in the reefs' environment like the temperature of
the water, solar irradiance, sedimentation, subaerial exposure, freshwater dilution,

Marine Invertebrate Essay
Corals, sea anemones, sea urchins, molluscs, crustaceans and worms are all included in the large,
diverse group we call marine invertebrates. They are classed as an invertebrate as they all share one
common key feature; they do not have a backbone. Invertebrates seem like a simple life form but
they are truly beautiful, interesting and complex creatures that roam our oceans. But which is the
most interesting invertebrate? Would it be Porifera, Cnidaria, Bryozoans, Vermiforms, Mollusca,
Crustacea, Echinodermata or Chordata? With marine invertebrates making up around 97% of the
worlds described species it is open for a large debate (Arkive n.d).
I believe the most interesting marine invertebrate would the cnidarians. There are approximately
9,000 living species worldwide within the Cnidaria phylum (Bird 2007). The cnidarians are
classified into four main classes; Scyphozoa (purple jelly and moon jelly), Cubozoa (box jelly),
Hydrozoa (Portuguese man of war and hydra) and Anthozoa (anemones and coral). Cnidarians are
entirely aquatic – mainly marine, have a radical body plan with no head end, the coelenteron only
has one opening that serves as its mouth and anus and they are also diploblastic. These are just a few
of their interesting key features. According to fossil records, the cnidarians made their earliest
appearance around 600 million years ago (Shape of Life n.d). There are no immediate animals that
have been discovered, the earliest cnidarians could have formed from

Dinoflagellates Research Paper
Dinoflagellates are eukaryotic microorganisms that are commonly found in marine environments.
They are a large group of flagellate protists that are also identified as algae. Most dinoflagellates
possess plastids, a double membrane organelle that stores pigments used in photosynthesis [1, 2].
However, some dinoflagellates only acquire these temporarily by digesting food algae [1]. A large
portion of dinoflagellates are mixotrophic, phagotrophy with photosynthesis [3]. There are roughly
2,000 species of dinoflagellates living and more than 1,700 of them live in marine environments [4].
Dinoflagellates possess two flagella that produce forward movement and also provide a turning
ability [5]. Another unique characteristic of dinoflagellates is the ability to bioluminesce. In total, 68
species are bioluminescent and emit a blue–green light due to the stimulation of the enzyme
dinoflagellate luciferase [6, 7]. Although there are many defining characteristics of dinoflagellates,
there is still confusion as to whether they should be identified as algae or protists.
Protists are mostly unicellular and can be heterotrophic or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
There are too many variations in pigmentation, metabolism, and morphology to group all
dinoflagellates together. In an effort to gain a better understanding of where they belong
evolutionarily, researchers have begun using the nuclear–encoded large subunit ribosomal RNA
gene (LSU rDNA) for phylogenetic analysis. It contains conserved and divergent sequences [19].
The accumulation of LSU rDNA information can aid in identifying dinoflagellates at a species level
and can track the dispersal of other marine microorganisms [16].It has also been proposed that the
dinoflagellate lineage is linked to the endosymbiosis of a chromist haptophyte algae that contained
chlorophyll a and c

The Great-Barrier Reef Acidification
As corals also use calcium–carbonate to build their structures, ocean acidification will also impede
their growth by corroding pre–existing coral skeletons, whilst simultaneously decreasing the growth
of new ones (Smithsonian, 2016). When the pH is lower, the corals have to use more energy to bind
the carbonate building–blocks, hence the calcification rate is lower, and they lay down weaker
skeletons (EPOCA, 2008). One study showed that, in acidifying conditions, coralline–algae, which
build calcium–carbonate skeletons and help stabilise coral–reefs, covered up to 92% less area
(Andersson, 2007). It is also predicted that by 2100, 70% of all cold–water corals will live in under–
saturated carbonate waters (ESF, 2009). Coral forms a barrier that ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Mussels and oysters are projected to have decreased shell–growth by 25% and 10% respectively by
the end of the century (Fabry, 2008). Whilst urchins and starfish, which build their shells from
magnesium–calcite, a form of calcium–carbonate that dissolves faster than aragonite, will have
frailer shells. Apart from shell–building, Mussels' byssal threads, which they use to attach onto rocks
in the pounding surf, cannot cling on well in acidic water. Meanwhile, oyster–larvae fail to begin
growing their shells. During the first 48 hours of their life, oyster–larvae have a massive growth
spurt, building their shells quickly so they can start feeding, however, acidic–seawater dissolves
away their shells before they can form (Smithsonian, 2016). In 2008, this caused oyster die–offs in
the U.S. Pacific Northwest, posing a threat to an industry worth $270 million, employing 3,200
people (Iaea, 2016). Ocean acidification is expected to impact several economically important
marine resources, including fish stocks, shellfish, and coral reefs. The effect on human populations
will depend on their vulnerability, resilience and adaptation capabilities (ESF, 2009).
Furthermore, 38% of global fish production is harvested by small–scale fishers, of which 95% live
in developing countries (FAO, 2011). Therefore, ocean acidification will have a proportionately
greater negative impact on

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