Data Communication and Networking
- 1. Data Communications and Networking Lect Introduction to Communications By Utkarsha Manpiya
- 2. Communications • Data communication—examines how data, in the form of energy, travel across some medium from a source to a destination.
- 3. A Simplified Communications Model
- 4. Why study communications? • Why should we study communications?
- 5. A Brief History about Communications • 1837- Samuel Morse invented the telegraph. Coding is done with the Morse code • 1876- Alex. Graham Bell invented the telephone. Voice is converted into electrical energy and transmitted over a wire. • 1945- ENIAC was invented as the first electronic computer • 1980s-Personal Computers become a new way of computing • 1990s-came the emergence of the Internet and World Wide Web applications
- 6. What are transmitted via Communication Media? • Voice – encoded signals • Video – encoded images • Data – character streams
- 7. Communication Applications • Voice – telephone, FAX, Video Conferencing, Cellular phones, etc. • Video & Audio – television, VCR, DVD, etc. • Data – LAN, WAN, Internet, etc.
- 8. Networking • Networking—computers communicate with each other via networks. • Computer network—a communication system for connecting computers using a single transmission technology.
- 9. A Simplified Network Model
- 10. Network Topology • Bus topology • Star topology • Ring topology • Fully connected topology • Combined topology
- 11. Protocols • Definition – all parties involved in a communication must agree in a set of rules to be used when exchanging messages. Thus, the set of rules which both the sender and the receiver all comply with is called protocol. • A protocol specifies the message format, meanings, and the procedures is known as a communication protocol. • A communication application doesn’t communicate with the communication hardware directly.
- 12. Key Elements of a Protocol • Syntax – Data formats – Signal levels • Semantics – Control information – Error handling • Timing – Speed matching – Sequencing
- 13. Why Protocols? • Used for communications between entities in a system • Must speak the same language • Entities – User applications – e-mail facilities – terminals • Systems – Computer – Terminal – Remote sensor
- 14. Communication Reference Models • In summary, we need a communication reference model to describe the relationship between various software and hardware. • A reference model describes the layering relationship of software and hardware involved in the communication. • A layered protocol performs specific functions and communicates with the layers directly above and below it.
- 15. Communication Reference Models • The purpose of layering the protocol is to separate specific functions and to make their implementation transparent to other components. • Advantage of layered approach: independent design and testing of each communication software component • Disadvantage: overly layering can affect performance negatively.
- 16. A Communications Model • Source – generates data to be transmitted • Transmitter – Converts data into transmittable signals • Transmission System – Carries data • Receiver – Converts received signal into data • Destination – Takes incoming data
- 17. Protocol Architecture • Task of communication broken up into modules • For example file transfer could use three modules – File transfer application – Communication service module – Network access module
- 18. Protocol Data Units (PDU) • At each layer, protocols are used to communicate • Control information is added to user data at each layer • Transport layer may fragment user data • Each fragment has a transport header added – Destination SAP – Sequence number – Error detection code • This gives a transport protocol data unit
- 19. Standards • Required to allow for interoperability between equipment • Advantages – Ensures a large market for equipment and software – Allows products from different vendors to communicate • Disadvantages – Freeze technology – May be multiple standards for the same thing
- 20. Categories of Protocols • Proprietary system– designed and developed for supporting the communications of machines manufactured by a specific vender • System Network Architecture (SNA) was designed and developed for connecting IBM main frame computers and peripherals (workstations, printers, tape drives, etc.) • NetBEUI – Microsoft’s protocol for simple Windows networks • IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange and Sequenced Packet exchange) – support Novell NetWare products
- 21. Categories of Protocols • Open systems– publicly proposed and evaluated protocols for supporting the internetworking of heterogeneous machine • Open System Interconnect (OSI) was developed by ISO • TCP/IP was designed by IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), another volunteer organization for the engineering issues of the Internet.
- 22. OSI Model • Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) • Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) • Seven layers • A theoretical system delivered too late! • TCP/IP is the de facto standard
- 23. OSI Layers • Application • Presentation • Session • Transport • Network • Data Link • Physical
- 26. Physical Layer • Corresponds to basic hardware. • Example: NIC, modem, cable • Topics include transmission media, data encoding, modulation/demodulation, multiplexing, switching(layer 1)-- circuit switching.
- 27. Data Link Layer • Specifies how to organize data into frames and how to transmit frames over a network. • Detail topics include the format of a data frame, i.e., framing, error detection/correction, frame level error recovery.
- 28. Network Layer • Specifies how to assign addresses and how to forward packets to its destination. • Detail topics include fragmentation, assembly, routing, flow control.
- 29. Transport Layer • The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the session layer, split it up into smaller units, if needed, pass them to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. • The transport layer also determines the type of services, connection-oriented or connectionless. • Congestion control
- 30. Session Layer • Allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. • Major functions include managing dialog. • Session layer determines whether traffic can only go in one direction or both directions at the same time.
- 31. Presentation Layer • Controls the encoding and decoding of data, data compression.
- 32. Application Layer • Controls the interface with users. • Application, presentation, session layers are usually implemented together instead of using laying architecture.
- 33. TCP/IP Protocol Architecture • Developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet switched network (ARPANET) • Used by the global Internet • No official model but a working one. – Application layer – Transport layer: host-to-host (application to application) – Internet layer: network routing and congestion control – Network access layer: access transmission medium – Physical layer
- 35. The Internet • Explosive growth – – starts out as a research project of a few dozen nodes. Now, it spans 82 countries and has millions of nodes. – It has been growing exponentially since its inception. • Used in all Venues- – Government – Education – Private companies
- 36. History of the Internet • Late 60s—the U.S. government realizes the importance of allowing their research and development sites to electronically “talk” to each other. The government-funded Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA) created ARPANET in 1969. • Mid 1970’s – ARPA began to work on connecting computers in all associated agencies. The early Internet had emerged.
- 37. History of the Internet(cont’d) • Mid 1980’ – the Internet split into ARPANET and MILNET. • 1986 – NSFNET began to work; the National Science Foundation funded a new wide area network that connected all of its supercomputing centers. • 1996 – Telecommunications Reform Act.
- 38. Who run the Internet? • No one person, group or organization owns. The backbone of it is funded by the National Science Foundation in the U.S. • In addition, there is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and Internet Advisory Board (IAB) who help to set standards (TCP/IP) for those who wish to connect to, and use, the Internet. • The IAB makes its standard available via documents called RFC (Request for Comment).
- 39. What is TCP/IP? • TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is actually a set of standards that describe how data is to be transferred between computers. • TCP/IP is the common tongue that all computers must speak to communicate via Internet. • There are implementations for UNIX, Windows, Macintosh, and just about any computer operating systems you can think of. • TCP/IP is implemented as part of an Operating System.
- 40. Other Names of the Internet • ARPANET : the U.S. Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects (ARPA) • The TCP/IP Internet • The (Global) Internet
- 41. Physical Layer • Physical interface between data transmission device (e.g. computer) and transmission medium or network • Characteristics of transmission medium • Signal levels • Data rates • etc.
- 42. Network Access Layer • Exchange of data between end system and network • Destination address provision • Invoking services like priority
- 43. Internet Layer (IP) • Systems may be attached to different networks • Routing functions across multiple networks • Implemented in end systems and routers
- 44. Transport Layer (TCP) • Reliable delivery of data • Ordering of delivery
- 45. Application Layer • Support for user applications • e.g. http, SMPT
- 46. OSI v TCP/IP
- 47. Plethora of Terminology:where do they come from? • Hardware – switches, nodes, boxes, bridges, routers, gateways, etc. • Software – protocol, seven protocol layers, protocol stack, protocol suite, etc. • Market – computer venders “invent” new term to make a mint. • Politics – “the Information Highway”. • Computer research community – objected-oriented technology, CORBA(Common Object Request Broker Architecture), Java, JavaScript, Dynamic Java, Java 2, etc.
- 48. What’s Next? – Data Transmission • Two issues— – Medium – Form of energy • READING ASSIGNMENT: – Chapter 1 (ignoring some details)
- 49. Extra Reading Material • Stallings, W. Data and Computer Communications (6th edition), Prentice Hall 1999 chapter 1 • Web site for Stallings book – www.shore.net/~ws/DCC6e.html • Web sites for IETF, IEEE, ITU-T, ISO • Internet Requests for Comment (RFCs) • Usenet News groups – comp.dcom.* – comp.protocols.tcp-ip