Database Systems Concepts, 5th Ed

Chapter 1: Introduction Part 1: Relational databases Chapter 2: Relational Model Chapter 3: SQL Chapter 4: Advanced SQL Chapter 5: Other Relational Languages Part 2: Database Design Chapter 6: Database Design and the E-R Model Chapter 7: Relational Database Design Chapter 8: Application Design and Development Part 3: Object-based databases and XML Chapter 9: Object-Based Databases Chapter 10: XML Part 4: Data storage and querying Chapter 11: Storage and File Structure Chapter 12: Indexing and Hashing Chapter 13: Query Processing Chapter 14: Query Optimization Part 5: Transaction management Chapter 15: Transactions Chapter 16: Concurrency control Chapter 17: Recovery System Database System Concepts Part 6: Data Mining and Information Retrieval Chapter 18: Data Analysis and Mining Chapter 19: Information Retreival Part 7: Database system architecture Chapter 20: Database-System Architecture Chapter 21: Parallel Databases Chapter 22: Distributed Databases Part 8: Other topics Chapter 23: Advanced Application Development Chapter 24: Advanced Data Types and New Applications Chapter 25: Advanced Transaction Processing Part 9: Case studies Chapter 26: PostgreSQL Chapter 27: Oracle Chapter 28: IBM DB2 Chapter 29: Microsoft SQL Server Online Appendices Appendix A: Network Model Appendix B: Hierarchical Model Appendix C: Advanced Relational Database Model

Chapter 1: Introduction provides a general overview of the nature and purpose of database systems. We explain how the concept of a database system has developed, what the common features of database systems are, what a database system does for the user, and how a database system interfaces with operating systems. We also introduce an example database application: a banking enterprise consisting of multiple bank branches. This example is used as a running example throughout the book. This chapter is motivational, historical, and explanatory in nature. Overview (Chapter 1).

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Database-System Applications 1.2 Purpose of Database Systems 1.3 View of Data 1.4 Database Languages 1.5 Relational Databases 1.6 Database Design 1.7 Object-based and Semistructured databases 1.8 Data Storage and Querying 1.9 Transaction Management 1.10 Data Mining and Analysis 1.11 Database Architecture 1.12 Database Users and Administrators 1.13 History of Database Systems

1.1 Database System Applications DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise Collection of interrelated data Set of programs to access the data An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use Database Applications: Banking: all transactions Airlines: reservations, schedules Universities: registration, grades Sales: customers, products, purchases Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions Databases touch all aspects of our lives

1.2 Purpose of Database Systems In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of file systems Drawbacks of using file systems to store data: Data redundancy and inconsistency Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files Difficulty in accessing data Need to write a new program to carry out each new task Data isolation — multiple files and formats Integrity problems Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become “buried” in program code rather than being stated explicitly Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.) Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.) Atomicity of updates Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either complete or not happen at all Concurrent access by multiple users Concurrent accessed needed for performance Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies Example: Two people reading a balance and updating it at the same time Security problems Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

1.3 View of Data Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored. Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among the data. type customer = record customer_id : string; customer_name : string; customer _ street : string; customer_city : integer; end ; View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security purposes.

Level of Abstraction An architecture for a database system

Instances and Schemas Similar to types and variables in programming languages Schema – the logical structure of the database Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and accounts and the relationship between them) Analogous to type information of a variable in a program Physical schema : database design at the physical level Logical schema : database design at the logical level Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time Analogous to the value of a variable Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema without changing the logical schema Applications depend on the logical schema In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.

Data Models A collection of tools for describing Data Data relationships Data semantics Data constraints Relational model Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design) Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational) Semistructured data model (XML) Other older models: Network model Hierarchical model

1.4 Database Language Data Manipulation Language (DML) Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate data model DML also known as query language Two classes of languages Procedural – user specifies what data is required and how to get those data Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies what data is required without specifying how to get those data SQL is the most widely used query language

1.4 Database Language Data Definition Language (DDL) Specification notation for defining the database schema Example: create table account ( account-number char (10), balance integer ) DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data) Database schema Data storage and definition language Specifies the storage structure and access methods used Integrity constraints Domain constraints Referential integrity ( references constraint in SQL) Assertions Authorization

1.5 Relational Databases Relational Model Example of tabular data in the relational model Attributes

SQL SQL : widely used non-procedural language Example: Find the name of the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465 select customer.customer_name from customer where customer.customer_id = ‘192-83-7465’ Example: Find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465 select account.balance from depositor , account where depositor.customer_id = ‘192-83-7465’ and depositor.account_number = account.account_number Application programs generally access databases through one of Language extensions to allow embedded SQL Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL queries to be sent to a database

1.6 Database Design The process of designing the general structure of the database: Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design requires that we find a “good” collection of relation schemas. Business decision – What attributes should we record in the database? Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we have and how should the attributes be distributed among the various relation schemas? Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database

The Entity-Relationship Model Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable from other objects Described by a set of attributes Relationship: an association among several entities Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:

1.7 Object-Based and Semistructured Databases Object-Relational Data Models Extend the relational data model by including object orientation and constructs to deal with added data types. Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-atomic values such as nested relations. Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative access to data, while extending modeling power. Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.

Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C) Originally intended as a document markup language not a database language The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures made XML a great way to exchange data , not just documents XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange formats. A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and querying XML documents/data 1.7 Object-Based and Semistructured Databases XML: Extensible Markup Language

1.8 Data Storage and Querying Storage Management Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low-level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks: Interaction with the file manager Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data Issues: Storage access File organization Indexing and hashing

1.8 Data Storage and Querying Query Processing 1. Parsing and translation 2. Optimization 3. Evaluation

Query Processing (Cont.) Alternative ways of evaluating a given query Equivalent expressions Different algorithms for each operation Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can be enormous Need to estimate the cost of operations Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the database must maintain Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of complex expressions

1.9 Transaction Management A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a database application Transaction-management component ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures. Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.

1.10 Data Mining and Analysis The process of semiautomatically analyzing large databases to find useful patterns and rules Similar to Knowledge Discovery in AI (also called Machine Learning), but dealing with very large database Decision Support System for Business Data-Warehouse (DW) On-Line Analytical Processsing (OLAP) Information Retrieval from unstructured textual data

1.11 Database Architecture Overall System Structure

1.11 Database Architecture The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by the underlying computer system on which the database is running: Centralized Client-server Parallel (multi-processor) Distributed

1.12 Database Users and Administrators Database Users Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with the system Application programmers – interact with system through DML calls Sophisticated users – form requests in a database query language Specialized users – write specialized database applications that do not fit into the traditional data processing framework Naïve users – invoke one of the permanent application programs that have been written previously Examples, people accessing database over the web, bank tellers, clerical staff

1.12 Database users and Database Administrator Database Administrator Coordinates all the activities of the database system; the database administrator has a good understanding of the enterprise’s information resources and needs. Database administrator's duties include: Schema definition Storage structure and access method definition Schema and physical organization modification Granting user authority to access the database Specifying integrity constraints Acting as liaison with users Monitoring performance and responding to changes in requirements

1.13 History of Database Systems 1950s and early 1960s: Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage Tapes provide only sequential access Punched cards for input Late 1960s and 1970s: Hard disks allow direct access to data Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use Ted Codd defines the relational data model Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work IBM Research begins System R prototype UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

History (cont.) 1980s: Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems SQL becomes industrial standard Parallel and distributed database systems Object-oriented database systems 1990s: Large decision support and data-mining applications Large multi-terabyte data warehouses Emergence of Web commerce 2000s: XML and XQuery standards Automated database administration

Ch 1: Summary (1) A database-management system(DBMS) consists of a collection of interrelated data and a collection of programs to access that data. The data describe one particular enterprise. The primary goal of a DBMS is to environment that is both convenient and efficient for people to use in retrieving and storing information. Database systems are ubiquitous today, and most people interact, either directly or indirectly, with databases many tiles every day. Database systems are designed to store large bodies of information. The management of data involves both the definition of structures for the storage of information and provision of mechanisms for the manipulation of information. In addition, the database system must provide for the safety of the information stored, in the face of system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access. If data are to be shared among several users, the system must avoid possible anomalous results.

Ch 1: Summary (2) A major purpose of a database system is to provide users with an abstract view of the data. That is, the system hides certain details of how the data are stored and maintained. Underlying the structure of a database is the data model: a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships, data semantics, and data constraints. A data-manipulation language(DML) is a language that enables users to access or manipulate data The overall design of the database is called the database schema. A database schema is specified by a set of definitions that are expressed using data definition language(DDL).

Ch 1: Summary (3) The relational data model is widely used to store data in databases. Other data models are the object-oriented model, the object-relational model, and semistructured data models.. The entity-relationship(E-R) data model is a widely used data model, and it provides a convenient graphical representation to view data, relationships,and constraints. A database system has several subsystems. The storage manager subsystem provides the interface between the low level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. The query processor subsystem compiles and executes DDL and DML statements. The transaction manager subsystem is responsible for ensuring that the database remains in a consistent(correct) state despite system failures. The transaction manager also ensures that concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.

Ch 1: Summary (4) Database applications are typically broken up into front-end part that runs at client machines and a part that runs at the back-end. In two-tier architectures, the front-end directly communicates with a database running at the back-end. In three -tier architectures, the back end part is itself broken up into an application server and a database server. Database users can be categorized into several classes, and each class of users usually uses different type of interface to the database.

Ch 1: Bibliographical Notes (1) We list below general purpose books, research paper collections, and Web sites on databases. Subsequent chapters provide references to material on each topic outlined in this chapter. Codd[1970] is the landmark paper that introduced the relational model. Textbooks covering database system include Abiteboul et al.[1995]. Date[2003], Elmasri and Navathe[2000], O’Neil and O’Neil[2000], Ramakrishnan and Gehrke[2000], Garcia-Molinar et al. [2001] and Ullman[1998]. Textbook coverage of transaction processing is provided by Bernstein and Newcomer[1997] and Reuter[1993]. Several books contain collections of research papers on database management. Among these are Bancilhon and Buneman[1990], Date[1986], Date[1990], Kim[1995], Zaniolo et al.[1997], and Hellerstein and Stonebreaker[2005].

Ch 1: Bibliographical Notes (2) A review of accomplishments in database management and an assessment of future research challenges appears in Silberschatz et al.[1990], Silberschatz et al.[1996], Bernstein et al.[1990] and Abiteboul et al [2003]. The home page of the ACM Special Interest Group on Management of Data (see www.acm.org/sigmod ) provides a wealth of information about database research. Database vendor Web sites(see the tools section below) provide details about their respective products.

Ch1: Tools There are a large number of commercial database system in use today. The major ones include : IBM DB2( www.ibm.com/software/data ), Oracle( www.oracle.com ), Microsoft SQL server( www.microsoft.com/sql ), Informix( www.informix.com ), and Sybase( www.sybase.com ). Some of these systems are available free for personal or noncommercial use, or for development, but are not free for actual development. There are also a number of free/public domain database systems; widely used ones include MySQL( www.mysql.com ) and PostgresSQL( www.postgressql.org ). A more complete list of links to vendor Web sites and other information is available from the home page of this book, at www.db-book.com

Database Systems Concepts, 5th Ed

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Database Systems Concepts, 5th Ed