Dictionary of pr measurement and research

DICTIONARY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
MEASUREMENT AND RESEARCH

Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
www.instituteforpr.com

This booklet was prepared and edited by

Dr. Don W. Stacks, University of Miami

COMMISSION ON PUBLIC RELATIONS MEASUREMENT & EVALUATION
DICTIONARY EDITORIAL BOARD

Patricia Bayerlein Dr. Walter K. Lindenmann
Gagen MacDonald PR Research & Measurement Specialist

Dr. Kathryn Collins Dr. David Michaelson
General Motors Consultant

John Gilfeather Dr. Tom Watson
Roper ASW Charles Sturt University

Fraser Likely Dr. Donald K. Wright
Likely Communication Strategies Ltd. University of South Alabama
Marcia L. Watson, editorial assistant
University of Miami


FOREWARD TO 2007 EDITION

In the more than three years since the Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and
Research was first released, it has become one of the most popular papers the Institute for
Public Relations has ever published. Week after week, visitors to our free website
(www.instituteforpr.org) download the dictionary. It has been reprinted with permission,
distributed and sometimes debated at major professional and academic conferences.

The truth is that public relations teachers and practitioners traditionally have not used the
same nomenclature – let alone definitions – for many central concepts of research and
measurement. Increasingly, however, it is clear that we should save our creativity for
program development and execution, not for the names and meanings applied to key
elements of the science beneath the art of public relations.

To that end, this second edition covers an expanded number of terms, with input from a
broader group of scholars and research experts. They now represent many more
countries where public relations science is regularly used. The Institute owes an
enormous debt of gratitude to all of them, but particularly to Dr. Don W. Stacks. His
tireless commitment to the Institute’s mission is surpassed only by his commitment to
family and students – and we are so very grateful to be number three on that list.

So, is the dictionary done yet? For now, maybe. But this new edition will undoubtedly
receive even wider distribution, leading to even more debate, and ultimately to further
evolution in our thinking about public relations research and measurement. You are
invited to take part.

Frank Ovaitt
President & CEO
Institute for Public Relations

Gainesville, Florida
January 2006


FOREWORD TO 2002 EDITION

“Words… are innocent, neutral, precise, standing for this, describing that, meaning the
other…so if you look after them you can build bridges across
incomprehension and chaos.

“I don’t think writers are sacred, but words are. The deserve respect. If you get the right
ones in the right order they can nudge the world a little….”

From the play, THE REAL THING by Tom Stoppard

Why a dictionary for public relations measurement and research?

Because we don’t all measure the same things, measure the same ways, or use the same
tools or terminology. To get all of us on the same page we need to know precisely what
we mean when we use or say certain words in measuring our activities and our research.

Some may complain that the words we have chosen to define are too simplistic.
Remember Webster once defended his word choice by explaining that it’s the little words
we think we know the meaning of - but don’t - which cause most of the problems in
understanding and communications.

We thank Dr. Don Stacks and others who have given so generously of their time to
assemble this special choice of words and politely debate each definition. We have listed
their names for you and they will tell you they gratefully acknowledge that this is a work
in progress. Public relations continuously evolves so there are no “final words.”

Jack Felton
President & CEO
Institute for Public Relations

Gainesville, Florida
September 2002


PREFACE TO 2007 EDITION

Public relations measurement and research has progressed far in the five years between
the first and second editions of the Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and
Research. In its desire to answer concerns—among its own membership and from
“internal” and “external” clients—about demonstrating its effectiveness, the profession
began to focus on demonstrating its impact on the client’s outcomes of interest. This in
turn has lead to a more education in research design and evaluation methods.

The second edition of the Dictionary clearly reflects this trend. It does so in several
ways. First, the Dictionary has been expanded by almost 100 terms. Second, its cross-
referencing is more complete. Third, individual terms have been further designated as
statistical “s” or methodological “m” within the individual term definitions. Finally,
terms have been redefined and in many instances are more sophisticated—reflecting a
sophistication of the profession.

I am indebted to the Commission for Public Relations Measurement and Evaluation
members who toiled tirelessly to find suitable new terms and define them so that the user
might better understand not only the term but also its usage(s) in the research and
evaluation process. The second edition would not have been possible without their help.

I would like to acknowledge the help of Ms. Marcia L. Watson who carefully proofed
and corrected versions of the second edition. She did this in addition to her other duties
as a doctoral student at the University of Miami.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge the University of Miami School of Communication
and Dean Sam Grogg for allowing me the time to work on this project.

Don W. Stacks
Coral Gables


Algorithm Behavioral Objective

DICTIONARY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
MEASUREMENT AND RESEARCH1

(“neutral” or “neither agree nor
disagree”) be provided to the
respondent; also known as Likert-
Algorithm – s. a step-by-step problem-
type or Semantic Differential
solving procedure, especially an
measures; s. an output measured as
established, recursive computational
an interval or ratio measure
procedure for solving a problem in a
Audience – m. a specified group from
finite number of steps
within a defined public targeted for
α
Alpha Level (α) – s. the amount of error
influence
or chance allowed in sampling or
inferential testing
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – s. an Bar Graph – s. A representation of a
inferential statistical test of frequency distribution by means of
significance for continuous rectangles (or other indicators)
measurement dependent variables whose widths represent class
against a number of groups as intervals and whose heights
independent variables represent corresponding frequencies;
Articles – m. an output, typically printed see also: graph
but also found on the Internet Baseline – s. an initial measurement
Attitude – m. a predisposition to act or against which all subsequent
behave toward some object; a measures are compared; m. a data
motivating factor in public relations; point established for comparison at
composed of three dimensions: the developmental stage of a
affective (emotional evaluation), research campaign.
cognitive (knowledge evaluation), Behavioral Event Interview (BEI) – an
and connotative (behavioral interview technique used to solicit
evaluation) evidence or examples of a specific
Attitude Research – m. the measuring competency or skill you possess;
and interpreting a full range of BEI is based on the premise that a
views, sentiments, feelings, person's past behavior is the best
opinions, and beliefs that segments predictor of their future performance
of the public may hold toward a Behavioral Objective – m. an objective
client or product that specifies the expected public
Attitude Scale – m. a measure that relations campaign or program
targets respondent attitudes or beliefs outcome in terms of specific
toward some object; typically behaviors; s. a measure that is
interval-level data and requires that actionable in that it is the behavior
an arbitrary or absolute midpoint

1
Terms are identified as either statistical (s) or methodological (m). Common usage is used when
determining whether the term is listed as either statistical or methodological when terms have dual
meanings (e.g., regression).

Belief 2 Clustered Sample

requested (e.g., outcome) of a target brings about a change in another
audience; see also: outcome variable; s. the result of a significant
Belief – m. a long-held evaluation of interaction term in an analysis of
some object, usually determined on a variance or regression, often
basis its occurrence; clusters of displayed in path analyses or
beliefs yield attitudes sequential equation models
Benchmarking (Benchmark Study) – Census – m. collection of data from
m. a measurement technique that every person or object in a
involves having an organization population
learn something about its own Central Tendency – s. a statistic that
practices, the practices of selected describes the typical or average case
others, and then compares these in the distribution of a variable; see
practices also: mean, median, mode, range,
Bivariate Analysis – s. a statistical standard deviation, standardized
examination of the relationship score, variance, z-score
between two variables Characters – m. a manifest unit of
BRAD – s. British Rate and Data analysis used in content analysis
measure – provides circulation and consisting of individuals or roles
advertising costs data (e.g., occupations, roles, race)
Chi-Square (X2) – s. an inferential
statistical test of significance for
categorical data (nominal or ordinal)
Campaign (Program) – m. the
Circulation – s. number of copies of a
planning, execution, and evaluation
publication as distributed (as
of a public relations plan of action
opposed to read)
aimed at solving a problem
Closed-Ended Question – m. a question
Case Study Methodology – m. an
that requires participants to answer
informal research methodology that
selected and predetermined
gathers data on a specific individual
responses (e.g., strongly agree,
or company or product with the
agree, neither agree nor disagree,
analysis focused on understanding
disagree, strongly disagree)
its unique qualities; is not
Cluster analysis – s. An exploratory
generalizable to other cases or
data analysis tool which aims at
populations
sorting different objects into groups
Categorical Data – s. measurement data
in a way that the degree of
that are defined by their association
association between two objects is
with groups and are expressed in
maximal if they belong to the same
terms of frequencies, percentages,
group and minimal if otherwise
and proportions; see also: nominal
Clustered Sample – m. a type of
data, ordinal data
probability sample that involves first
Category – m. in content analysis the
breaking the population into
part of the system where the content
heterogeneous subsets (or clusters),
(units of analysis) are placed; also
and then selecting the potential
referred to as “subjects” or “buckets”
sample at random from the
Causal Relationship – m. a relationship
individual clusters
between variables in which a change
in one variable forces, produces, or

Coefficient Alpha 3 Confidence Interval

α
Coefficient Alpha (α) – s. a statistical these programs and their products,
test for a measurement’s reliability and by identifying gaps in the overall
for interval and ratio data; also existing communication program;
known as Cronbach’s coefficient uses accepted research techniques
alpha and methodologies; see also: formal
Cohen’s Kappa – s. an intercoder methodology, informal
reliability measure used in content methodology, case study, content
analysis when there are more than analysis, survey, in-depth interview,
two coders; see also: reliability, focus group, experiment, secondary,
content analysis historical, participant-observation
Cohort Survey – m. a type of Communication(s) Research – m. any
longitudinal survey in which some systematic study of the relationships
specific group is studied over time and patterns that are developed when
according to some criteria that stays people seek to share information
the same (e.g., age = 21) while the with each other
samples may differ Community Case Study – m. an
Column Inches – s. total length of an informal methodology whereby the
article if it were all one-column researcher takes an in-depth look at
measured in inches (or centimeters); one or several communities –
determines the total “share of ink” subsections of communities – in
that a company or brand has which an organization has an interest
achieved by impartial, trained researchers
Communication – m. the process that using a mix of informal research
deals with the transmission and methodologies (i.e., participant-
reception of intentional messages observation, role-playing, secondary
that are a part of a natural language analysis, content analysis,
system (e.g., words, phrases, interviewing, focus groups)
sentences, paragraphs) Concurrent Validity – m. a
Communication Product (Product) – measurement device’s ability to vary
m. the end result of the directly with a measure of the same
communication product process construct or indirectly with a
resulting in the production and measure of an opposite construct. It
dissemination of a brochure, media allows you to show that your test is
release, video news release, Web valid by comparing it with an
site, speech, and so forth; see also: already valid test
output, outtake Confidence Interval – s. in survey
Communication(s) Audit – m. a methodology based on a random
systematic review and analysis of sampling technique; the range of
how effectively an organization values or measurement within which
communicates with all of its major a population parameter is estimated
internal and external audiences by to fall (e.g., for a large population we
identifying these audiences, by might expect answers to a question
identifying the communication to be within ±3% of the true
programs and their communication population answer; if 55% responded
products utilized for each audience, positively, the confidence interval
by determining the effectiveness of


Confidence Level 4 Convergent Validity

would be from 52% to 58%); discriminant validity, divergent
sometimes called measurement error validity
Confidence Level – m. in survey Contingency Question – m. a survey
methodology based on a random question that is to be asked only to
sampling technique, the amount of some respondents, determined by
confidence we can place on our their responses to some other
confidence interval (typically set at questions; sometimes called a
95%, or 95 out of 100 cases truly “funnel question”
representing the population under Contingency Table – s. a statistical
study, with no more than 5 cases out table for displaying the relationship
of 100 misrepresenting that between variables in terms of
population); sometimes called frequencies and percentages;
sampling error; s. the amount of sometimes called a “cross tabulation
confidence a researcher has that a table” or “cross tab”
finding between groups or categories Continuous Data – s. data that are
is statistically significant; see also: measured on a continuum, usually as
statistically significant interval data
Construct Validity – m. a dimension of Contour Plot – s. a contour plot is a
measurement; s. a statistically tested graphical technique for representing
form of measurement validity that a 3-dimensional surface by plotting
seeks to establish the dimensionality constant z slices, called contours, on
of a measure; see also: validity, face a 2-dimensional format. That is,
validity, criterion-related validity, given a value for z, lines are drawn
content validity, discriminant for connecting the (x,y) coordinates
validity, divergent validity where that z value occurs. The
Content Analysis – m. an informal contour plot is used to answer the
research methodology (and question “how does Z change as a
measurement tool) that function of X and Y?”
systematically tracks messages Convenience Sample – m. a non-
(written, spoken, broadcast) and probability sample where the
translates them into quantifiable respondents or objects are chosen
form via a systematic approach to because of availability (e.g., “man on
defining message categories through the street”); a type of non-probability
specified units of analysis; the action sample in which who ever happens
of breaking down message content to be available at a given point in
into predetermined components time is included in the sample;
(categories) to form a judgment sometimes called a “haphazard” or
capable of being measured “accidental” sample
Content Validity – m. a form of Convergent Validity – s. a type of
measurement validity that is based construct validity that refers to the
on other researchers or experts principle that the indicators for a
evaluations of the measurement given construct should be at least
items contained in a measure; see moderately correlated among
also: validity, fact validity, construct themselves; see also: Coefficient
validity, criterion-related validity, alpha, validity, face validity, content
validity, construct-related validity,


Correlation 5 Data

criterion-related validity, Crossbreak Analysis – s. a categorical
discriminant validity, divergent analysis that compares the frequency
validity of responses in individual cells from
Correlation (r) – s. a statistical test that one variable against another; see
examines the relationships between also: crosstabulation, frequency,
variables (may be either categorical frequency table
or continuous); see also: correlation Cross-Sectional Survey – m. a survey
coefficient, Pearson Product Moment based on observations representing a
coefficient, Spearman-Rho, r single point in time; see also:
Correlation Coefficient – s. a measure snapshot survey
of association that describes the Crosstabs – s. statistical tables used to
direction and strength of a linear array the data; allows the analyst to
relationship between two variables; go beyond total data into frequencies
usually measured at the interval or and averages as well as to make
ratio data level (e.g., Pearson possible overall as well as sub-group
Product Moment Coefficient, r), but analyses (e.g., comparisons of the
can be measured at the nominal or opinions expressed by sell-side
ordinal level (e.g., Spearman-Rho) analysts with those stated by buy-
Cost Per Thousand (CPM) – s. cost of side investment professionals)
advertising for each 1,000 homes Crosstabulation – s. the result of two
reached by the media categorical variables in a table; see
Cost-Effectiveness – s. an outcome that also: crossbreak analysis, frequency,
may be measured in public relations frequency table
research which evaluates the relation Cumulative Scale (Guttman Scale/
between overall expenditure (costs) Scalogram) – m. a measurement
and results produced, usually the scale that assumes that when you
ratio of changes in costs to change in agree with a scale item you will also
effects agree with items that are less
Covariation – s. a criterion for extreme; see also: outcome,
causation whereby the dependent Guttman Scalogram, Likert scale,
variable takes on different values semantic differential scale
depending on the independent Cyber Image Analysis – m. the
variable measurement of Internet content via
Criterion Variable –m. the variable the chat rooms or discussion groups in
research wants to predict to; see also: cyberspace regarding a client or
dependent variable product or topic; the measurement of
Criterion-Related Validity – m. a form a client’s image everywhere on the
of validity that compares one Internet
measure against others known to
have specified relationships with
what is being measured; the highest
Data – m. the observations or
form of measurement validity; see
measurements taken when
also: validity, face validity, content
evaluating a public relations
validity, content validity,
campaign or program; s. the
discriminant validity, divergent
frequencies, means, percentages
validity
used to assess a campaign or

Database 6 Editorial

program; see also: nominal data, such a way as to paint a picture of
ordinal data, interval data, ratio data what people think or do
Database – s. a collection of data Descriptive Statistics – s. the reduction
arranged for ease and speed of and simplification of the numbers
search and retrieval representing research, to ease
Database Mining – m. a research interpreting the results
technique utilizing existing data; see Descriptive Survey – m. a type of
also, secondary methodology survey that collects in quantitative
Deduction – m. a philosophical logic in form basic opinions or facts about a
which specific expectations or specified population or sample; also
hypotheses are developed or derived known as a “public opinion poll”
on the basis of general principles Design Bias – m. research design bias is
Delphi Technique – m. a research introduced when the study fails to
methodology (usually survey or identify the validity problems or
interview) where the researcher tries when publicity about the research
to forecast the future based on fails to incorporate the researcher’s
successive waves of interviews or cautions
surveys with a panel of experts in a Discriminant Validity – s. a type of
given field as a means of building a validity that is determined by
“consensus” of expert opinion and hypothesizing and examining
thought relating to particular topics differential relations between a test
or issues and measures of similar or different
Demographic Analysis – m. analysis of constructs. It is the opposite of
a population in terms of special convergent validity and is also
social, political, economic, and known as divergent validity; see
geographic subgroups (e.g., age, sex, also: convergent validity, divergent
income-level, race, educational- validity; m. a way of establishing if a
level, place of residence, occupation) measure is measuring what it is
Demographic Data – m. data that supposed to measure; see also:
differentiates between groups of validity, criterion-related validity
people or things (e.g., sex, race, Divergent Validity – s. see also:
income) discriminant validity
Dependent Variable – m. the variable Double-Barreled Question – m. a
that is measured or collected question that attempts to measure
Depth Interview – m. an extensive, two things at the same time; a source
probing, open-ended, largely of measurement error
unstructured interview, usually
conducted in person or by telephone,
in which respondents are encouraged
Editorial – m. the content of a
to talk freely and in great detail
publication written by a journalist, as
about given subjects; also known as
distinct from advertising content
an “in-depth interview”; see also: in-
which is determined by an
depth methodology
advertiser; an article expressing the
Descriptive Research – m. a form of
editorial policy of a publication of a
research that gathers information in
matter of interest (also known as a
“leader” or “leading article”); space

Environmental Scanning 7 Fever Graph

in a publication bought by an Events – s. a community affairs or
advertiser that includes journalistic sponsorship output
copy intended to make the reader Experimental Methodology – m. a
think it originates from an formal research methodology that
independent source (also knows as imposes strict artificial limits or
an “advertorial”); s. an outcome or boundaries on the research in order
measured variable to establish some causal relationship
Environmental Scanning – m. a between variables of interest; is not
research technique for tracking new generalizable to a larger population
developments in any area or field by Explanatory Research – m. a form of
carrying out a systematic review of research that seeks to explain why
what appears in professional, trade, people say, think, feel, and act the
or government publications way they do; concerned primarily
Equal Appearing Interval Scale – m. a with the development of public
measurement scale with predefined relations theory about relationships
values associated with each and processes; are typically
statement; see also: Thurstone scale deductive
Equivalent Advertising Value (AVE) – Exploratory Research – m. a form of
s. equivalent cost of buying space research that seeks to establish basic
devoted to editorial content attitudes, opinions, and behavior
Error Bar – s. a graphical data analysis patterns or facts about a specific
technique for showing the error in population or sample; are typically
the dependent variable and inductive and involve extensive
optionally; the independent variable probing of the population or sample
in a standard x-y plot or data
Ethnographic Research – m. an
relies on the tools and techniques of
Face Validity – m. a form of
cultural anthropologists and
measurement validity that is based
sociologists to obtain a better
on the researcher’s knowledge of the
understanding of how individuals
concept being measured; the lowest
and groups function in their natural
form of measurement validity; see
settings; see also: participant-
also: validity, content validity,
observation
construct validity, criterion-related
Evaluation Research –m. a form of
validity, discriminant validity,
research that determines the relative
divergent validity
effectiveness of a public relations
Facilitator – m. an individual who leads
campaign or program by measuring
a focus group; also known as a
program outcomes (changes in the
moderator
levels of awareness, understanding,
Factor Analysis – s. a statistical tool
attitudes, opinions, and/or behaviors
that allows researchers to test the
of a targeted audience or public)
dimensionality of their measures;
against a predetermined set of
used to assess a measure’s construct
objectives that initially established
validity
the level or degree of change desired
Fever Graph – s. a form of line graph
that measures peaks and valleys of

Field Study Methodology 8 Gross Rating Points (GRP)

data along a continuum that is either Frequency Table – s. a listing of counts
continuous or whose classes and percentages in tabular form; may
represent categories; see also: graph report a single variable or multiple
Field Study Methodology – m. a formal variables; see also: crossbreak
research methodology that imposes analysis, crosstabulation
fewer restrictions or limits or F-Test – s. an inferential test of
boundaries on the research in order significance associated with
to test some causal relationships Analysis of Variance (ANOVA); see
found in experimental research and also: Analysis of Variance
generalize them to a larger Funnel Question – m. a question used
population in a questionnaire or schedule that
Filter Question – m. a question which is moves an interviewer or respondent
used to move a respondent from one from one part of a survey to another
question to another; a question that (e.g., “Are you a registered voter?”
is used to remove a respondent from If the respondent says yes, certain
a survey or interview; see also: questions are asked and if not, then
funnel question other questions are asked); see also:
Focus Group Methodology – m. an filter question
uses a group approach to gain an in-
depth understanding of a client,
Goal (Objective) – m. the explicit
object, or product; is not
statement of intentions that supports
generalizable to other focus groups
a communication strategy and
or populations
includes an intended
Formal Methodology – m. a set of
audience/receiver, a proposed
research methodologies that allows
measurable outcome (or desired
the researcher to generalize to a
level of change in that audience),
larger audience but often fails to gain
and a specific timeframe for that
in-depth understanding of the client,
change to occur
object, or product; a set of
Grand Mean – s. a descriptive statistics
methodologies that follow scientific
which represents the mean of all
or social scientific method; a set of
sample means in a study, weighted
methodologies that are deductive in
by the number of items in each
nature
sample. The grand mean treats the
Formative Evaluation – m. a method of
individuals in the different subsets
evaluating the process by which
(groups) as if there were no
programs occur while activities are
subgroups, but only individual
in their early stages with the intent of
measures in the set. The grand mean
improving or correcting activities
is thus simply the mean of all of the
Frequency – s. a descriptive statistic
scores; see also: mean
that represents the number of objects
Graph – s. a graphical representation of
being counted (e.g., number of
a variable; see also: bar, pie, line,
advertisements, number of people
fever
who attend an event, number of
Gross Rating Points (GRP) – measures
media release pickups)
of weight or readership or audience
equivalent to audience exposure

Guttman Scale 9 Inferential Research

among one percent of the
population; see also: Targeted Gross
Rating Points (TGRP) Image Research – m. a research
Guttman Scale (Cumulative program or campaign that
Scale/Scalogram) – m. a systematically studies people’s
measurement scale that assumes perceptions toward an organization,
unidimensionality and that people, individual, product, or service;
when faced with a choice will also sometimes referred to as a
choose items less intense than the “reputation study”
one chosen Impressions – m. the number of people
who might have had the opportunity
to be exposed to a story that has
appeared in the media; also known
Histogram – s. a representation of a
frequency distribution by means of as “opportunity to see” (OTS); s.
rectangles whose widths represent usually refers to the total audited
class intervals and whose heights circulation of a publication or the
represent corresponding frequencies; audience reach of a broadcast
a bar chart representing a frequency vehicle
distribution; heights of the bars Incidence – s. the frequency with which
represent observed frequencies; see a condition or event occurs in a
also: graph given time and population or sample
Historical Methodology – m. an Independent t-Test – s. an inferential
informal research methodology that statistical test of significance that
examines the causes and effects of compares two levels of an
past events independent variable against a
Holsti’s Reliability Coefficient – s. a continuous measured dependent
fairly simple reliability measure used variable
in content analysis; see also: Independent Variable – m. the variable
reliability, content analysis, against which the dependent variable
intercoder reliability, intracoder is tested
reliability, Scott’s pi, and In-Depth Interview Methodology – m.
Krippendorf’s alpha an informal research methodology in
Hypothesis – m. an expectation about which an individual interviews
the nature of things derived from another in a one-on-one situation;
theory; a prediction of how an see also: in-depth interview
independent variable changes a Induction – m. a philosophical logic in
dependent variable; formally stated which general principles are
as a predication (e.g., males will developed from specific
purchase more of X than females), observations
but tested via the null hypothesis Inferential Research – m. statistical
(males and females will not differ in analyses that test if the results
their purchases of X) observed for a sample are indicative
Hypothesis Testing – m. determining of the population; the presentation of
whether the expectations that a information that allows us to make
judgments whether the research
hypothesis represents are, indeed,
results observed in a sample
found in the real world

Inferential Statistics 10 Issues Research

generalize to the population from was poorly written; s. tested for via
which the sample was drawn reliability analyses; see also:
Inferential Statistics – s. statistical tests Coefficient Alpha, KR-20
that allow a researcher to say within Intercoder Reliability – m. the
a certain degree of confidence reliability of content analysis coding
whether variables or groups truly when the coding is done by two or
differ in their response to a public more coders; see also: reliability,
relations message; see: Analysis of intracoder reliability, Holsti’s
Variance, Chi-Square, bivariate Reliability Coefficient, Scott’s pi,
correlation, correlation, Pearson Krippendorf’s alpha, Cohen’s kappa
Product Moment Correlation, Interval Data – m. measurement data
Spearman-rho, regression, path that are defined on a continuum and
analysis, sequential equation model, assumed to have equal spacing
t-test between data points (see interval and
Informal Methodology – m. a research ratio data); s. includes temperature
methodology that does not allow the scale, standardized intelligence test
researcher to generalize to a larger scores, Likert-type scale, semantic
audience but gains in-depth differential scale, Guttman
understanding of the client, object, Scalogram; see also: attitude
or product research, attitude scale, data,
Informational Objective – m. an variable, Likert scale, Guttman
objective that establishes what Scalogram
information a target audience should Interview Schedule – m. a guideline for
know or the degree of change in asking questions in person or over
knowledge levels after the the telephone interviewers are tasked
conclusion of a public relations with predicting your likelihood of
campaign or program success in a given position and use
Inputs – m. the research information and your past behavior as one indicator
data from both internal and external of your future performance
sources applied in the conception, Intracoder reliability – m. the
approval, and design phases of the reliability of content analysis coding
input stage of the communication when the coding is done by only one
production process coder, usually the researcher; s.
Inquiry Research – m. a formal or obtained from statistical tests which
informal research methodology that analyze coder decisions versus
employs systematically content chance; see also: reliability,
analysis, survey methodology, intercoder reliability, Cohen’s kappa,
and/or interviewing techniques to Holsti’s Reliability Coefficient,
study the range and types of Krippendorf’s alpha, Scott’s pi
unsolicited inquiries that an Issues Research – m. a formal or
organization may receive from informal research methodology that
customers, prospective customers, or systematically studies public policy
other target audience groups questions of the day, with the chief
Instrumental Error – m. in focus on those public policy matters
measurement, error that occurs whose definition and contending
because the measuring instrument positions are still evolving


Items 11 Mall Intercept Research

Items – s. a manifest unit of analysis
used in content analysis consisting
an entire message itself (e.g., an Latent Content – m. from content
advertisement, story, press release) analysis, an analysis of the
underlying idea, thesis, or theme of
content; the deeper meanings that are
Judgmental Sample – m. a type of non- intended or perceived in a message
probability sample in which Likert Scale – m. an interval-level
measurement scale that requires
individuals are deliberately selected
for inclusion in the sample by the people to respond to statements on a
set of predetermined reactions,
researcher because they have special
knowledge, position, characteristics usually strongly agree, agree, neither
or represent other relevant agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly
dimensions of the population that are disagree; must possess an odd
deemed important to study; see also: number of reaction words or phrases;
purposive sample also called “summated ratings
method” because the scale requires
at least two, if not three, statements
per measurement dimension
Key Performance (Performance Line Graph – s. a representation of
Result) – m. the desired end effect or frequency distribution by means of
impact of a program of campaign lines representing data points at
performance various intervals along a continuum;
Known Group t-Test – s. an inferential see also: Graph
statistical test of significance that Longitudinal Survey – m. a type of
compares the results for a sampled survey that consists of different
group on some continuous individuals or objects that is
measurement dependent variable observed or measured over time
against a known value; see also: (e.g., multiple snapshot samples)
inferential statistics, independent t-
test
KR-20 – s. a reliability statistic for
Mail Survey – m. a survey technique
nominal- or ordinal-level
whereby a questionnaire is sent to a
measurement; also known as Kuder-
respondent via the mail (or Internet)
Richardson Formula 20; see also:
and the respondent self-administers
reliability, Coefficient Alpha
the questionnaire and then sends it
Krippendorf’s Alpha – s. a fairly
back
simple content analysis coding
Mall Intercept Research – m. a special
reliability measure; see also:
type of person-to-person surveying
reliability, intercoder reliability,
in which in-person interviewing is
Intracoder reliability, Holsti’s
conducted by approaching
Reliability Coefficient, Scott’s pi,
prospective participants as they stroll
Cohen’s kappa
through shopping centers or malls; a
non-probability form of sampling


Manifest Content 12 Message Content Analysis

Manifest Content – m. from content content validity, construct validity,
analysis, an analysis of the actual criterion-related validity
content of a message exactly as it Media – m. includes newspapers,
appears as opposed to latent content business and consumer magazines
that must be inferred from messages and other publications, radio and
Market Research – m. any systematic television, the Internet; company
study of buying or selling behavior reports, news wires, government
Mean – s. a descriptive statistic of reports and brochures; Internet Web
central tendency that describes the sites and discussion groups
“average” of a set of numbers on a Media Evaluations – m. the systematic
continuum; also called “average;” appraisal of a company’s reputation,
the process of applying a precise products or services, or those of its
number or metric, which is both competitors, as measured by their
valid and reliable, to the evaluation presence in the media
of some performance Median – s. a descriptive statistic of
Measurement – m. a way of giving an central tendency indicating the
activity a precise dimension, midpoint in a series of data; the point
generally by comparison to some above and below which 50 percent
standard; usually done in a of the data values fall
quantifiable or numerical manner; Mention Prominence – s. an outcome
see also: data, scale based on an indication of how
Measurement Bias – m. failure to prominent a company, product, or
control for the effects of data issue was mentioned in the media;
collection and measurement, e.g. typically measured in percent of
tendency of people to give socially article and position within the output
desirable answers (e.g., headline, above the fold, first
Measurement Error – m. the amount of three minutes)
error found in a research campaign; Mentions – s. an output or outcome
in surveys it is the amount of error in consisting of counts of incidents of a
individual responses; s. a term that company or product or person
expresses the amount of doubt that a appears in the media, one mention
researcher may accept in terms of constitutes a media placement
findings; see also: confidence Message Content – m. the verbal,
interval visual, and audio elements of a
Measurement Reliability – m. the message; the material from which
extent to which a measurement scale content analyses are conducted; s. a
measures the same thing over time; trend analysis factor that measures
s. a statistical reporting of how what, if any, of planned messages
reliable a measure is; see also: are actually contained in the media;
Coefficient Alpha, test-retest see also: message content analysis
reliability, split-half reliability) Message Content Analysis – m.
Measurement Validity – m. the extent analysis of media coverage of
to which a measurement scale messages regarding a client, product,
actually measures what it believed to or topic on key issues
measure; see also: face validity,


Message Strength 13 Null Hypothesis

Message Strength – s. trend analysis Nominal Data – s. measurement data
factor that measures how strongly that are simple categories in which
message about a client or product or items are different in name only and
topic was communicated do not possess any ordering; data
Mode – s. a descriptive statistic of that are mutually exhaustive and
central tendency indicating the most exclusive; the simplest or lowest of
frequently occurring (the most all data; categorical data; example:
typical) value in a data series male or female, where neither is seen
Moderator – m. an individual who leads as better as or larger than the other
a focus group; also known as a Nonparametric Statistics – s.
facilitator inferential and descriptive statistics
Monitoring – m. a process by which based on categorical data; see also:
data are systematically and regularly Chi-Square, Spearman-rho
collected about a research program Non-Probability Sample – m. a sample
over time; see also: environmental drawn from a population whereby
scanning respondents or objects do not have
Motivational Objective – m. an an equal change of being selected for
objective that establishes the desired observation or measurement
level of change in a target audience’s Nonverbal Communication – m. that
specific attitudes or beliefs after a aspect of the communication that
public relations campaign deals with the transmission and
Multiple Regression – s. a statistical reception of messages that are not a
technique that employs multiple part of a natural language system
dependent variables to predict an (e.g., visual, spoken [as opposed to
outcome variable (dependent verbal], environmental)
variable); see also: Regression, Norm – s. short for “normative data”;
independent variable, dependent see also: normative data
variable Normal Curve – s. measurement data
Multivariate Analysis – s. an inferential reflecting the hypothetical
or descriptive statistic that examines distribution of data points or cases
the relationship among three or more based on interval- or ratio-level data
variables that are “normally distributed” and
error free; all continuous or
parametric data sets have their own
normally distributed data that fall
Network Analysis – m. a formal or
under its specific normal curve
informal research method that
Normative Data – s. the proprietary set
examines how individuals or units or
of scores that allow comparison of
actors relate to each other in some
results to other studies and see
systematic way
“where you stand” and provide a
Neutral Point – s. a point midway
context
between extremes in attitude
measurement scales; in Likert-type Null Hypothesis – s. the hypothesis of
scales usually defined as “neutral” or no difference that is formally tested
“neither agree nor disagree”; see in a research campaign or program;
also: attitude, attitude scale, Likert its rejection is the test of the theory;
scale, semantic differential scale it is the formal hypothesis that all

Objective 14 Output

inferential statistics test; see also: and ordered; categorical data;
inferential statistics example: income as categories of
under $25K, $26K–$50K, $51K–
$75K, $76K–$100K, over $100K
Outcomes – m. quantifiable changes in
Objective – m. a measurable outcome in awareness, knowledge, attitude,
three forms: informational opinion, and behavior levels that
(cognitive), motivational occur as a result of a public relations
(attitudinal/belief), behavioral program or campaign; an effect,
(actionable); an explicit statement of consequence, or impact of a set or
intentions that supports a program of communication activities
communication strategy, and to be or products, and may be either short-
measurable, includes an intended term (immediate) or long term; s. the
audience/public, a proposed change dependent variable in research; see
in a communication effect, a precise also: dependent variable
indication of the amount or level of Outgrowth – m. the culminate effect of
change and a specific timeframe for all communication programs and
the change to occur products on the positioning of an
Omnibus Survey – m. an “all purpose” organization in the minds of its
national consumer poll usually stakeholders or publics; s. an
conducted on a regular schedule outcome statistics used as a
(once a week or every other week) dependent variable in some research;
by major market research firms; also see also: dependent variable,
called “piggyback” or “shared-cost” outcome
survey Output – m. what is generated as a
Open-Ended Question – m. open-ended result of a PR program or campaign
questions probe the dimensions of that impacts on a target audience or
attitudes and behavior held by a public to act or behave in some way
particular respondent through an — this is deemed important to the
interactive conversation between researcher (also known as a
respondent and interviewer “judgmental sample”); the final stage
Opinion – m. a verbalized or written of a communication product,
evaluation of some object production, or process resulting in
Opportunities to See (OTS) – m. the the production and dissemination of
number of times a particular a communication product (brochure,
audience has the potential to view a media release, Web site, speech,
message, subject or issue; s. an etc.); s. the number of
outcome statistic based on outputs communication products or services
serving as a dependent variable in resulting from a communication
some research; see also: dependent production process; the number
variable, impressions, outcome, distributed and/or the number
output reaching a targeted audience;
Ordinal Data – s. measurement data sometimes used as an outcome
that are categories in which items are serving as a dependent variable in
different in name and possess an research; see also: dependent
ordering of some sort; data that are variable, outcome
mutually exhaustive and exclusive

Outtake 15 Performance Indicator

Outtake – m. measurement of what Participant-Observation – m. an
audiences have understood and/or informal research methodology
heeded and/or responded to a where the researcher takes an active
communication product’s call to role in the life of an organization or
seek further information from PR community, observes and records
messages prior to measuring an interactions, and then analyzes those
outcome; audience reaction to the interactions
receipt of a communication product, Path Analysis – s. a statistical technique
including favorability of the product, that establishes relationships
recall and retention of the message between variables with arrows
embedded in the product, and between variables indicating the
whether the audience heeded or pattern of causal relationships
responded to a call for information usually in the form of a “path
or action within the message; s. diagram”; see also: path diagram
sometimes used as an outcome Path Diagram – s. a graphical
serving as a dependent variable in representation of the causal
research; see also: dependent relationships between variables
variable, outcome showing both direction and strength
of relationship
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient
(r) – s. a correlation statistic used
Paired t-Test – s. an inferential
with interval and ratio data; see also:
statistical test of significance that
correlation, data, Spearman-rho
compares data that are collected
Percent of Change – s. a measure of
twice on the same sample; see also:
increase or decrease of media
inferential statistics, independent t-
coverage
test, known-group t-test
Percentage – s. a descriptive statistic
Panel Survey – m. a type of survey that
based on categorical data; defined as
consists of the same individuals or
the frequency count for a particular
objects that is observed or measured
category divided by the total
over time; a type of survey in which
frequency count; example: 10 males
a group of individuals are
out of 100 people = 10%; see also:
deliberately recruited by a research
descriptive statistics
firm because of their special
Percentage Point – s. the number that a
demographic characteristics for the
percentage is increased or decreased
express purpose of being interviewed
Performance – m. the act of carrying-
more than once over a period of time
out, doing, executing, or putting into
for various clients on a broad array
effect; a deed, task, action, or
of different topics or subjects
activity as a unit of a program of
Parameter – s. in sampling, a
performance
characteristic of a population that is
Performance Indicator – m. a sign or
of interest
parameter that, if tracked over time,
Parametric Statistics – s. inferential
provides information about the on-
and descriptive statistics based on
going results of a particular program
continuous data; see also: data,
of performance or campaign; s. an
descriptive statistics, inferential
outcome measured during a public
statistics

Performance Measure 16 Proportion

relations campaign that serves as a program on business investment; s.
dependent variable; see also: data, the outcome (dependent) variable
dependent variable which demonstrates the impact of a
Performance Measure – m. is a number public relations campaign or
that shows the exact extent to which program investment on the overall
a result was achieved; s. in a business outcomes; a causal
research campaign, an outcome of indicator of public relations impact;
some sort serving as a dependent see also: causal relationships,
variable; see also: data, dependent Return on Investment (ROI)
variable, outcome Probability Sample – m. a sample
Performance Result (Key drawn at random from a population
Performance) – m. the desired end such that all possible respondents or
effect or impact of a program of objects have an equal chance of
campaign performance being selected for observation or
Performance Target – m. a time- measurement
bounded and measurable Probe Question – m. a question used in
commitment toward achieving a a questionnaire or schedule that
desired result requires the participant to explain an
Periodicity – s. a bias found in sampling earlier response, often in the form of
due to the way in which the items or “why do you think this?”
respondents are chosen; example: Product (Communication Product) –
newspapers may differ by being m. the end result of the
daily, weekly, weekday only, and so communication product or process
forth resulting in the production and
Pie Graph – s. A representation of a dissemination of a brochure, media
frequency distribution by means of release, video news release, Web
triangular portions of a pie whose site, speech, and so forth; an output
sections represents the percentages or outtake; see also: output, outtake
of the variable of interest; see also: Program (Campaign) – m. the
graph planning, execution, and evaluation
Piggyback Survey – m. see: omnibus of a public relations plan of action
survey aimed at solving a problem
Poll – m. a form of survey research that Prominence of Mention – m. trend
focuses more on immediate behavior analysis factor that measures how
than attitudes; a very short survey- prominently a client or product or
like method whose questionnaire topic was mentioned and where that
asks only very short and closed- mention occurred (e.g., headline, top
ended questions; see also: in-depth of the fold, what part of a broadcast);
survey, survey methodology s. an output unit of analysis used as a
Position Papers – m. print output dependent variable; see also:
Positioning – m. trend analysis factor dependent variable, output
that measures how a client or Proportion – s. a descriptive statistic
product or topic was positioned in based on categorical data; defined as
the media (e.g., leader, follower) the percentage as made part of one
PR Return on Investment (PRROI) – (1.0); example: 10 males out of 100
m. the impact of a public relations


Psychographic Research 17 Questionnaire

people are 10 hundredths of the or relevant dimensions of the
sample population
Psychographic Research – m. research Push Poll – m. a survey technique in
focusing on a population or sample’s which an interviewer begins by
non-demographic traits and acting as if the telephone call is a
characteristics, such as personality general survey but then asks the
type, life-style, social roles, values, respondent a question implying
attitudes, and beliefs questionable behaviors or outcomes
Psychometrics – s. a branch of of a person or product
psychology that deals with the
design, administration, and
interpretation of quantitative tests for
the measurement of psychological Q-Sort – m. a measurement instrument
variables such as intelligence, that focuses on respondent beliefs by
aptitude, and personality traits; also asking them to sort through piles of
called psychometry opinion statement and sort them into
Public – m. a group of people who have piles on an 11-point continuum
consequences on an organization or usually bounded by “most-like-me”
affected by the consequences of to “most-unlike-me”; see also:
organizational decisions; a group of attitude scale
people from which the public Qualitative Research – m. usually
relations campaign or program refers to studies that are somewhat to
selects specific targeted audiences in totally subjective, but nevertheless
an attempt to influence it regarding a in-depth, using a probing, open-
company, product, issue, or ended, response format or reflects an
individual; see also: audience, ethnomethodological orientation
sample Quantitative Research – m. usually
Public Opinion Poll – m. a type of refers to studies that are highly
survey that collects basic opinions or objective and projectable, using
facts about a specified population or closed-ended, forced-choice
sample; also known as a descriptive questionnaires; research that relies
survey; see also: poll, survey heavily on statistics and numerical
methodology measures
Public Relations Effectiveness – s. the Question – m. a statement or phrase
degree to which the outcome of a used in a questionnaire or schedule
public relations program is that elicits either an open- or closed-
consonant with the overall objectives ended response from a research
of the program as judged by some participant; see also: funnel and
measure of causation; see also: probe questions
causal relationship. Questionnaire – m. a measurement
Purposive Sample – m. a non- instrument that contains exact
probability sample in which questions and measures an
individuals are deliberately selected interviewer or survey researcher uses
for inclusion based on their special to survey through the mail, Internet,
knowledge, position, characteristics, in person, or via the telephone; may
be closed-ended and open-ended, but

Quota Sample 18 Research Bias

typically employs more closed- one predictor (independent) variable;
ended questions see also: Multiple regression; m. a
Quota Sample – m. a type of non- source of error or invalidity in
probability sample that draws its experimental methodology that may
sample based on a percentage or impact on the validity of the
quota from the population and stops experiment; see also: experimental
sampling when that quota is met; a methodology, validity, inferential
non-probability sample that attempts statistics
to have the same general distribution Reliability – m. the extent to which
of population characteristics as in the results would be consistent, or
sample; see also: poll, survey replicable, if the research were
methodology conducted a number of times; s. a
statistical measure accessing
consistency of a measure, usually
through the Coefficient Alpha or
Range – s. a descriptive central
KR-20 statistic in measurement or
tendency statistics that expresses the
Cohen’s Kappa, Hosti’s reliability
difference between the highest and
coefficient, Krippendorf’s alpha, or
lowest scores in the data set;
Scott’s pi; see also: measurement
example: responses to a question on
reliability, Cohen’s Kappa, Holsti’s
a 1 to 5 Likert-type scale where all
reliability coefficient, Scott’s pi
reaction categories were used would
Reputation – s. An outcome variable
yield a range of 4 (5 minus 1)
often used dependent variable in
Ratio Data – s. measurement data that
public relations research dealing
are defined on a continuum and
with the public’s perception of some
possess an absolute zero point;
source’s credibility, trustworthiness,
examples: number of children, a
or image based on the source’s
bank account, absolute lack of heat
behavior; see also: dependent
(0o Kelvin = –459.67o or –273.15C)
variable
Reach – m. refers to the scope or range
Research – m. the systematic effort
of distribution and thus coverage that
before (formative research) or during
a given communication product has
and/or after (summative or
in a targeted audience group;
evaluative research) a
broadcasting, the net unduplicated
communication activity aimed at
(also called “duplicated”) radio or
discovering and collecting the facts
TV audience for programs or
or opinions pertaining to an
commercials as measured for a
identified issue, need, or question;
specific time period
may be formal or informal
Readership – m. number of people who
Research Bias – m. unknown or
actually read each issue of a
unacknowledged error created
publication, on average; s. an
during the design, measurement,
outcome variable that often serves as
sampling, procedure, or choice of
a dependent variable; see also:
problem studied; see also:
dependent variable, outcome
experimental methodology, validity,
Regression – s. a statistical tool that
regression
predicts outcomes based on one
outcome (dependent) variable and

Research Instrument 19 Secondary Methodology

Research Instrument – m. tool used to that reflect an underlying structure
collect data; see also, questionnaire, toward some attitude or belief
interview schedule, semi-structured object; see also: attitude scale
interview, structured interview Scalogram (Guttman
Respondent – m. the individual from Scale/Cumulative Scale) – m. a
whom data is collected through measurement scale that assumes (a)
participation in a research campaign; unidimensionality and (b) that
sometimes called participant or, in people, when faced with a choice
psychological study, subject will also choose items less intense
Response Rate – m. from survey than the one chosen; see also:
methodology, the number of attitude scale, Likert-type scale,
respondents who actually completed semantic differential scale
an interview; s. the percentage of Scattergram – s. a descriptive statistics
completed surveys (often adjusted based on continuous data that
for mailing errors) graphically demonstrated how data
Results – s. the outcome demonstrated are distributed between two
to have been impacted upon by a variables; also known as a scatter
public relations campaign; m. that diagram or scatterplot
which is measured in a campaign as Schedule – m. the timeline on which a
dependent variables; see also: public relations program or
dependent variable, outcome, output, campaign is conducted; a list of
outtake, outgrowth questions, usually open-ended, used
Return on Investment (ROI) – s. an in focus group and in-depth
outcome variable that equates profit interviews to gather data; see also:
from investment; see also: Public survey methodology, in-depth
relations return on investment, interview
dependent variable Scott’s pi – s. a coding reliability
measure employed in content
analysis that reduces the impact of
chance agreement among intercoder
Sample – m. a group of people or
or intracoder coding; see also:
objects chosen from a larger
reliability, content analysis, Holsti’s
population; see also: probability
Reliability Coefficient,
sample, non-probability sample;
Krippendorf’s alpha, Cohen’s kappa
convenience sample; panel survey;
Screener Question – m. one of several
longitudinal survey; snapshot survey
questions usually asked at the
Sampling Error – m. the amount of
beginning of an interview or survey
error expected or observed in
to determine if the potential
surveys that may be attributed to
respondent is eligible to participate
problems in selecting respondents; s.
in the study; see also: funnel
the amount of error that is acceptable
question
or expected based on the sample size
Secondary Methodology – m. an
and expressed as confidence in
sampling form a population; see
examines extant data in order to
also: confidence level
draw conclusions; a systematic re-
Scale –m. a measurement instrument
analysis of a vast array of existing
consisting of attitude or belief items

Semantic Differential 20 Snowball Sample

data; often used in benchmarking Share of Voice (SOV) – s. measurement
and benchmark studies of total coverage devoted to
Semantic Differential Scale – m. an radio/television coverage to a
attitude measure that asks particular industry or topic as
respondents to evaluate an attitude analyzed to determine what percent
object based on bipolar adjectives or of outputs or Opportunities to See
phrases separated by a continuum (OTS) is devoted to a client or
represented as consisting of an odd product; also known as “share of
number of intervals; developed by coverage”; an outcome often used as
Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum; see a dependent variable; see also:
also: attitude scale, Guttman dependent variable, outcome
Scalogram, Likert-type scale Shared-Cost Survey – see: omnibus
Semantic Space – m. the idea that survey
people can evaluate attitude objects Simple Random Sample – m. a type of
along some spatial continuum; often probability sample in which numbers
associated with attitude researchers are assigned to each member of a
Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum population, a random set of numbers
Semi-Structured Interview – m. an is generated, and then only those
interview conducted with a fairly members having the random
open framework which allows for numbers are included in the sample
focused, conversational, two-way Situation Analysis – m. an impartial,
communication; it can be used both often third-party assessment of the
to give and receive information public relations and/or public affairs
Sequential Equation Model – s. a problems, or opportunities, that an
statistical methodology similar to organization may be facing at a
path analysis but that uses as given point in time
measures that are created such as Skip Interval – m. the distance between
attitude, intelligence, reputation people selected from a population
rather than actual indicators (e.g., based on systematic sampling;
sales, revenue) to test an usually defined as the total
hypothesized causal relationship population divided by the number of
between predictor (independent) and people to be sampled (e.g., for a
outcome (dependent) variables; see sample of 100 people to be drawn
also: dependent variable, from a population of 10,000 people,
independent variable, path analysis, the skip interval would be
regression, multiple regression 100/10,000 = 100 individuals
Share of Ink (SOI) – s. measurement of skipped between selected
the total press/magazine coverage participants)
found in articles or mentions devoted Snapshot Survey – m. a type of survey
to a particular industry or topic as that consists of individuals or objects
analyzed to determine what percent that is observed or measured once;
of outputs or Opportunities to See see also: “cross-sample survey”
(OTS) is devoted to a client or Snowball Sample – m. a type of non-
product; an outcome often used as a probability sample in which
dependent variable; see also: individuals who are interviewed are
dependent variable, outcome


Sociogram 21 Summary Evaluation

asked to suggest other individuals terms of the confidence that we have
for further interviewing that the results are due to what was
Sociogram – s. a pictorial representation measured X% of the time (e.g., 95%
of the actual relationships of confident); see also: inferential
individuals within a specified unit statistics, confidence interval
such as a public, target audience, or Stratified Sample – m. a type of
work unit probability sample that involves first
Sources Mentioned – m. trend analysis breaking the total population into
factor that measures who was quoted homogenous subsets (or strata), and
in media coverage; also known as then selecting the potential sample at
“quoteds” random from the individual strata;
Speaking Engagements – s. print or example: stratify on race would
broadcast or Internet communication require breaking the population into
product output; see also: output racial strata and then randomly
Spearman-rho – s. a correlation statistic sampling within each strata
used with nominal or ordinal data; Structured Interview – m. an interview
see also: correlation, data, Pearson with a pre-defined set of questions
Product Moment Coefficient and responses which may provide
Split-Half Reliability – s. a test for a more reliable, quantifiable data than
measure’s reliability where a sample an open-ended interview and can be
is randomly split and one segment designed rigorously to avoid biases
receives a part of the measure and in the line of questioning
the second segment receives the rest Summary Measure – s. summary
σ
Standard Deviation (σ) –s. a measures combine information of
descriptive statistic of central different types and from different
tendency which indexes the sources which together permit a
variability of a distribution; the rapid appraisal of a specific
range from the mean within which phenomenon to identify differences
approximately 34% of the cases fall, (e.g. between groups, countries),
provided the values are distributed in observed changes over time or
a normal curve expected changes (e.g. as a
Standardized Score (Z-Score) – s. a consequence of policy measures);
descriptive statistic based on there are four key elements to
continuous data that expresses summary measures: the selection of
individual scores based on their relevant parameters to be included,
standard deviations from the group the reliable measurement/collection
mean; range of scores is usually – of these parameters, the unit in
3.00 to +3.00; see also: Z-score which the summary measure will be
Statistical Significance – s. refers to the expressed and the relative weight of
degree to which relationships each of the constituents in the total
observed in a sample can be summary measure
attributed to sampling error or Summative Evaluation – m. a method
measurement error alone; expressed of evaluating the end of a research
in terms of confidence that the program; the basis of establishing
relationships are due to error X% of the dependent measures; see also:
the time (e.g., 5%) expressed in dependent variable


Survey Methodology 22 Type of Article

Survey Methodology – m. a formal Throughputs – m. the development,
research methodology that seeks to creative, and production activities
gather data and analyze a (writing, editing, creative design,
population’s or sample’s attitudes, printing, fabrication, etc.) as part of
beliefs, and opinions; data are gather the throughput stage of a
in-person or telephone (face-to-face), communication product production
or self-administered via the mail, e- process
mail, or fax; see also: survey Time/Space Measures – s. a manifest
methodology, longitudinal survey, unit of analysis used in content
panel survey, cohort survey, analysis consisting of physically
snapshot survey measurable units (e.g., column
Symbols/Words – s. a manifest unit of inches, size of photographs,
analysis used in content analysis broadcast time for a story); see also:
consisting of specific words (e.g., content analysis
pronouns, client name, logotypes) Tone – s. trend and latent content
that are counted; see also: content analysis factor that measures how a
analysis target audience feels about the client
Systematic Sample – m. a type of or product or topic; typically defined
probability sample in which units in as positive, neutral/balanced, or
a population are selected from an negative; often used as an outcome
available list at a fixed interval after and dependent variable; see also:
a random start dependent variable, outcome,
content analysis
Trend Analysis – m. tracking of
performance over the course of a PR
Target Audience – m. a very specific
campaign or program; survey
audience differentiated from
method whereby a topic or subject is
“audience” by some measurable
examined over a period of time
characteristic or attribute (e.g., sports
through repeated surveys of
fishermen)
independently selected samples
Targeted Gross Rating Points (TGRP)
(snapshot or cross-sectional survey)
– s. Gross Rating Points (GRP)
t-Test – s. an inferential statistical test of
targeted to a particular group or
significance for continuous
target audience; an outcome often
measurement dependent variables
used as a dependent variable; see
against a bivariate independent
also: dependent variable, Gross
variable; used when total number of
Rating Points, outcome
observations are less than 100; see
Test-Retest Reliability – s. a test for a
also: paired t-test; independent t-
measure’s reliability by testing the
test; known group t-test, inferential
same sample with the same measure
statistics
over time
Type of Article – m. categories of a
Themes – s. a latent unit of analysis
publication such as “product
used in content analysis that
review,” “by-lined article,”
measures an underlying theme or
“editorial,” “advertorial,” “feature
thesis (e.g., sexuality, violence,
story;” s. trend analysis factor that
credibility); see also: content
measures the nature of client or
analysis

Units of Analysis 23 Z-Score

product or topic coverage (e.g., Verbatim – m. A transcript of the actual
column inches, broadcast time); comments participants make in a
often used as a dependent variable; focus group or individuals. Many
see also; dependent variable researchers include verbatims in
their final reports to support their
interpretation of the finding; s. data
which may be used in content
Unit of Analysis – m. the specification
analysis; see also: interview
of what is to be counted in content
schedule, semi-structured interview,
analysis methodology; consist of
structured interview, content analysis
symbols/words, time/space
measures, characters, themes, and
items; may be manifest (observable)
or latent (attitudinal) Weighted Average – s. an average that
Univariate Analysis – s. the takes into account the proportional
examination of only one variable at a relevance of each component, rather
time than treating each component
Universe – m. the set of all the units equally
from which a sample is drawn; also Weighting – s. assigning a numerical
called the population coefficient to an item to express its
relative importance in a frequency
distribution
Word/Symbol – s. from content
Validity – m. the extent to which a
analysis, a unit of analysis consisting
research project actually measures
of the actual word or symbol
what it is intended, or purports to
communicated in the media; see
measure; see also: measurement
also: content analysis
validity
Value – m. an underlying cultural
expectation, usually directs an
individual’s beliefs Z-Score (Standardized Score) – s. a
Variance (σ2) – s. a descriptive statistic
σ descriptive statistic of central
of central tendency that measures the tendency that takes data from
extent to which individual scores in a different types of scales and
data set differ from each other; the standardizes them as areas under the
sum of the squared standard normal curve for comparison
deviations from the mean (σ) purposes; see also: standardized
score


The Commission on Public Relations
Measurement & Evaluation

Formed under the auspices of the Institute for Public
Relations, the Commission exists to establish standards and
methods for public relations research and measurement,
and to issue authoritative best-practices white papers.
------------------------------

The Institute for Public Relations™
This independent foundation is dedicated to the science
beneath the art of public relations™. The Institute exists to
build and document research-based knowledge in the field
of public relations, and to mainstream this knowledge by
making it available and useful to practitioners, educators,
researchers and the clients they serve.

A wide array of papers authored by members of the
Commission on Public Relations Measurement &
Evaluation can be found at www.instituteforpr.org.


Dictionary of pr measurement and research

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