Dissertation PDF

Abstract
Previous research has found that the use of the Whole Body Experience Questionnaire (WBEQ)
can improve the body satisfaction in females (Chippendale & Seed, 2013) by encouraging fe-
males to take into consideration a large number of body parts when rating their body satisfac-
tion. The aim of the current study was the use the WBEQ and investigate the increase in body
satisfaction in dieting and non-dieting females. Participants were 72 women, categorised as di-
eters (n=52) or non-dieters (n=22). Participants were asked to complete a body satisfaction mea-
sure before and after completing the WBEQ. Differences pre and post completion of the WBEQ
were calculated for each group. Results shown that starting body satisfaction for dieters was
higher than for non-dieters and dieters had a greater increase in body satisfaction post-comple-
tion of the WBEQ. This indicates that female dieters who are more dissatisfied with their body
are more susceptible to an increase in body-esteem and satisfaction when encouraged to pay
attention to a vast number of body parts.
Page 1

Introduction
The term ‘body image’ was originally coined by Schilder in 1935 and was defined as the picture
we form in our minds of our own body and the way in which our body appears to ourself. Body
satisfaction is seen as a flexible state dependant upon social cultural and environmental changes
and events (Cash, 2002). Body image and self-esteem are two closely linked factors which have
an effect on each other, therefore maintaining a healthy body satisfaction level is important as
a low body satisfaction can lead to unhealthy behaviours (Bell et al., 2007). Body-esteem, which
is how satisfied we are with our body image, is seen to be one of three dimensions of ‘global
self-esteem’ as deemed by Gila, Castro, Gormez and Toro (2005); the other two dimensions are:
social-esteem (popularity, relationships and friendships with others) and performance-esteem
(achievements). Gila et al (2005) argued that a balance between these three dimensions are vi-
tal for good mental health. Further suggested by Kruger, Lee, Ainsworth and Macera (2008) was
that mental illness may be more prevalent in those with an unhealthy imbalance of global-es-
teem and leave them more vulnerable to the effects of mental illness.
Positive body image can be defined as the acceptance, appreciation and protection of ones phys-
ical self (Tylka, 2011). Most research surrounding body image fails to identify what individuals
like about their bodies and assumes a ‘risk-based perspective’ lending to the prevalence to low
body satisfaction levels of many adults (Gillen, 2015). Research into body image and satisfaction
is important as it has an affect on mental state and wellbeing, as found by Williams, Cash and
Santos (2004), women with positive body image and esteem compared to those with low body
esteem reported a number of more beneficial characteristics, such as higher optimism, self-es-
teem and lower perfectionistic self-presentation. Negative body image has been found to have
dangerous affects as Kruger et al. (2008) found that individuals with low body-esteem compared
to both low social and performance-esteem (from the global self-esteem model) are more at risk
for developing an eating disorder.
As dissatisfaction with ones body can have detrimental results and risks (Lawler & Nixon, 2011),
it is important to understand what the impact of low body-esteem and dissatisfaction are and
what contributes to these feelings of discontent. A report published by the APA (American Psy-
Page 2

chological Association; 2007) have identified various factors which young women are frequently
exposed to that damage their body satisfaction and esteem. Many of these factors were identi-
fied as being media based and remarks made by peers and parents. Studies have shown that, in
general, young women will have greater anxiety regarding their appearance after viewing media
portrayals of women’s bodies ‘ideals’ (Monro & Huon, 2005. Cited in APA, 2007) or after being
exposed to magazine covers with sexually exploiting language, such as ‘sexy’ or
‘shapely’ (Roberts & Gettman, 2004. Cited in APA, 2007).
Aside from emotional disturbances, such as anxiety, body dissatisfaction is further found to re-
late to eating disorders, low self-esteem and depressive symptoms in high school and college-
aged girls that view material that is sexually objectifying of women, which contributes to these
mental issues (APA, 2007). This is supported by Bury, Tiggemann and Slater (2014) who identify
that frequent monitoring of ones appearance and self-objectification leads to increased feelings
of shame about one’s body in young women. Given that few women meet the dominant cultural
ideals for an attractive, sexy appearance which is found frequently in media (Wolf, 1991. Cited
in APA, 2007), it is not surprising that a young woman who frequently compares her own body to
the almost impossible cultural ideal standards has a result of feelings of inadequacy and shame.
Playing a large part in exposing an image of the ‘ideal’ female figure is the media, specifically
magazines of which many target females as their core consumers, exposing women to unattain-
able, ‘perfect’ and airbrushed images that are unrealistic to achieve (Yamamiya et al., 2005). It
has been well documented that exposure to media images of the thin ideal can negatively im-
pact on women's body image, affecting levels of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating
(Grabe, Ward & Hyde, 2008; Want, 2009).
Turner, Hamilton, Jacobs, Angood, and Dwyer (1997) examined the impact of exposure to fashion
magazines on women’s body image. Young women who viewed fashion magazines compared to
news magazines preferred to weigh less, shown less satisfaction with their bodies, were more
frustrated about their weight, were more preoccupied with the desire to be thin, and were more
afraid of getting fat compared to those peers who viewed news magazines. This dated research
Page 3

indicates that it has been an identified issue for over a decade with no sign of a developed tool
to increase womens body esteem for mainstream use, in order to avoid the impact these popular
fashion magazines have on body-image.
Further, Richards, Granley and Stein, (2010) shown that exposure to images of thin-ideals in
magazines decreased body satisfaction, induced negative mood states, and a display of eating
disorder symptoms and decreased self-esteem. It was concluded that exposure to thin-ideal im-
ages in the media may contribute to the development of disordered eating habits by causing
body dissatisfaction among women.These findings from both studies demonstrate the damaging
affects to young women’s psychological wellbeing and self-esteem. Although, both studies failed
to attempt to raise the body-esteem and satisfaction of the women who participated in the re-
search who shown they were dissatisfied with the way that they look.
However, the media isn’t the only factor encouraging the social cultural thin ideal, Nichter
(2000) provides additional evidence of the media also supporting ideal body types in females
along with parents and peers also supporting a culture of dieting for girls with unideal body
types. Studies have shown that mother-daughter interactions have an effect on how teenage
girls respond to cultural messages about thinness; further following this, the mothers thinness
and attention to her own slenderness, along with criticisms of their daughters’ weight are posi-
tively correlated to disordered eating in their daughters (Ogle & Damhorst, 2004) providing
strong evidence that parents views of their child’s weight and body image and their expression
of this has a psychologically damaging result.
Peers appear to play a very direct role in the sexualisation of girls, making sexual comments and
evaluations starting in school. One study investigated early adolescents’ experiences with sexual
intimidation from peers (Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007). Even 10 to 12 year olds reported fre-
quent experiences of sexual harassment and comments at school. Although both boys and girls
reported such experiences, the nature and effects of these experiences differed. The rate at
which a girl developed through puberty predicted more peer sexual harassment. Meaning, girls
tend to experience more sexually harassing comments as their bodies mature.These experiences
lead girls to experience greater feelings of shame about their bodies. Evidence discussed here
Page 4

shows how even young girls can be made to feel negatively towards their bodies from such an
early age from peers at school, this combined with possible parents comments and being ex-
posed to various media can takes its toll on girls’ satisfaction with their bodies and how they
view themselves.
Now that the ways in which body-esteem can be affected and the negative effects of low body-
esteem have been discussed, it is important to consider the benefits of improving and encourag-
ing a positive body image and body satisfaction. Positive body image and self-compassion is as-
sociated with fewer depressive symptoms and higher self-esteem (Wasylkiw, MacKinnon, &
MacLellan, 2012). Therefore, if one is proactive in being compassionate toward themselves and
caring for their bodies, those who are more satisfied with their body may have better mental
health, including lower depression and higher self-esteem, compared to those with a more nega-
tive body image.
Aside from just psychological benefits of positive body image and high body-esteem, positive
body image may also be associated with physical health-related indicators. Given that positive
body image reflects liking, acceptance, appreciation and protection of oneself (Tylka, 2011),
those with positive body image may be less inclined to want to modify their body to fit cultural
ideals of what attractiveness is, and as a consequence, may be less likely to harm the body in
the attempt to drastically change the look of their body.
It was found by Gillen (2015) that individuals with greater positive body image and higher body-
esteem report less depressive symptoms, fewer unhealthy dieting habits, greater self esteem
and a greater intention to protect skin from UV damage. Results from this research suggest that
positive body-esteem has significant implications for health and well-being. Health professionals
should encourage positive body-esteem because of its potential health benefits both mentally
and physically. Similarly to this, previous investigations found among predominantly female med-
ical students, individuals with higher body appreciation and satisfaction shown lower levels of
depressive symptoms (Dumitrescu, Zetu, Teslaru, Dogaru, & Dogaru, 2008). Mental health and
wellbeing are positively impacted if an individual has a positive body image and high body satis-
Page 5

faction which indicates the importance of boosting all individuals’ body-esteem to accept and
appreciate their bodies.
All factors that make up body image outlined by Tylka (2011) including love, respect, protection,
acceptance and connection with the body suggest that those with a higher body-esteem and sat-
isfaction would be less like to engage in potentially harming dieting behaviours or behaviours
that would damage their body. This idea that those who have positive body image are more like-
ly to abstain from causing potential damage may suggest those with a higher positive body image
are more likely to resist sociocultural pressure of achieving the ‘ideal’ body type as they value
their bodies greater, as suggested by Murnen (2011) there is social pressure on both men and
women to have lean bodies. Recent research of Andrew, Tiggemann and Clark (2014) suggests
that body appreciation was associated with less weight loss and less disordered eating among
college students. This may be because those who have a positive body image, and therefore
more appreciation for their bodies, seek to protect their bodies from negative impacts that diet-
ing behaviours may induce such as hunger, excessive weight loss and poor nutrition.
Building on the link between body image and dieting, there is ample research which suggests
that low body-esteem is one of the main triggers for the development and maintenance of eat-
ing disorders (Rosen, 2013). Being unsatisfied with ones body image can lead to the desire to
change the body image and shape, specifically through dieting; this is supported by evidence
with conclusions that those with body weight concerns were more likely to develop an eating
disorder (Gower & Shore, 2001). With many findings surrounding the link between body dissatis-
faction and eating disorders, it has been suggested by Wilson, Grilo,and Vitousek (2007) that as
it is body dissatisfaction that commonly underlies the maintenance of an eating disorder, the in-
dividual is less likely to recover if their body-esteem is not improved. There is a clear link be-
tween low body-esteem and eating disorders, although much of the research is purely correla-
tion, so the cause and effect can not be established for definite. Although the definite link be-
tween low body-esteem and eating disorders can not be established for certain by using correla-
tion, the factor that is common in both and could explain this link has been researched.
Page 6

One factor that has been suggested as a link between low body-satisfaction and the develop-
ment and maintenance of eating disorders is attentional bias (Jansen, Nederkoorn, and
Mulkens’s, 2005; Roefs et al., 2008); attentional bias is defined as the tendency for individuals to
selectively pay attention to specific details or images as opposed to others they are presented
with. One of the main methods for measuring attentional bias and gaze direction is eye-
tracking.; eye tracking makes it possible to measure visuospatial attention, gaze duration and
fixation frequency (Cho & Lee, 2013).
Research using an eye-tracking system has found that women who have symptoms of eating dis-
orders and those who also rated themselves low on attractiveness, were found to fixate more on
the “ugly” areas of their own body and to other peoples “beautiful” body parts (Jansen, Ned-
erkoon & Mulken, 2005; Roefs et al., 2008). This suggests that those who are dissatisfied with
their body image may look at attractive people more than those they see as unattractive. Fur-
ther, George et al. (2011) found that all female participants in an eye-tracking study tend to fix-
ate on the abdominal region. However, women with anorexia had a wider fixation pattern when
compared to control groups that also fixate on collar bones, thighs, and hip prominence. Sup-
porting research of George et al., (2011) is a study by Janelle et al., (2009) who reported that
women with a high body dissatisfaction tended to focus on those areas they were not satisfied
with (e.g. thighs) whether it was images of themselves or of other women. Similarly Gao et al.,
(2013) found similar results of women who were dissatisfied with their body weight tended to
fixate more on ‘fat’ body images.
Research using participants who did not have an eating disorder but were still highly unsatisfied
with their body is that of Cho and Lee (2013). Cho and Lee (2013) found from a sample of men
(n=39) and women (n=41) exposing to participants images of thin, muscular, normal and fat bod-
ies of the same gender that women shown more attentional bias and gaze fixation on thin fe-
male bodies and men towards muscular male bodies. High body dissatisfaction men and women
also rated muscular and thin bodies as more attractive (respectively) than those with low body
dissatisfaction. The results found that attentional bias was evident between what participants
rated as attractive and the images they fixated on. These results from using participants with
Page 7

eating disorders or those who are highly unsatisfied with their body image illustrates that the
prevalent issues is the focus on negative areas of the body, by focusing on negative areas it will
continue to decrease their body-esteem and dissatisfaction of their bodies.
However, research by Smeets, Jansen and Roefs (2011) shown that women’s body satisfaction
can be significantly increased by attending to their own attractive body parts. Although this
study shows to increase body satisfaction, participants were only temporarily asked to look at
their more self-defined attractive body parts for a short period of time before completing a
questionnaire on body satisfaction; this research still demonstrates the notion of attentional bias
by simply shifting attention selectively to the ‘good’ areas of the body and not looking at the
body holistically and as a whole.
Viewing the body holistically is one issue that many current body satisfaction tools do not mea-
sure. As previous research has found that women tend to focus on the parts of the body they are
dissatisfied with (George et al., 2011; Janelle et al., 2009; Roefs et al., 2008) but viewing the
body holistically can improve body satisfaction (Smeets, Janse & Roefs, 2011); therefore it is im-
portant for women to be encouraged to look at their body as a whole, especially those who are
extremely dissatisfied with their body image.
One of the most empirically supported measures of positive body image to date is the Body Ap-
preciated Scale (BAS) developed by Avalos, Tylka and Wood-Barcalow in 2005 (Gillen, 2015). The
BAS is a 13-item measure of rating scales between 1 and 5 which represents how far a partici-
pant agrees with each statement. The main issue with this tool is that each statement relates to
the body as whole and does not prompt individuals to think about each aspect or body part. An
example of an item is “On the whole, I am satisfied with my body”, this is not encouraging to an
individual to think about the body in a way they don't already, this only asks them to answer
based on their current way of viewing their whole body and doesn’t shift the attentional bias.
Another commonly used body satisfaction measure is the Body Satisfaction Scale (BSS) developed
by Slade, Dewey, Newton, Brodie and Kiemle (1990). Although dated, unlike the BAS it incorpo-
Page 8

rates various body parts asking participants to rate their satisfaction with 16 different body
parts. One main problem with this is that the body parts in each item were vague and could be
interpreted differentially between participants; for example ‘hair’. As it is not clear which as-
pect of hair it is referring to, such as length, colour or fullness, it could therefore lack content
validity as a result of inconsistent interpretation.
An advancement on the BSS is a measure developed by Cash and Szymanski (1995) called the
Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ) which is widely used to measure body image satisfaction.
It comprises of an 11-item inventory measuring participants satisfaction with each of the follow-
ing in relation to how close to their ideal they wish to be: height, skin complexion, hair texture
and thickness, facial features, muscle tone and definition, body proportions, weight, chest (or
breast) size, physical strength, physical coordination and overall physical appearance. Unlike the
BSS, the BIQ is more explicit to the participant regarding the each physical feature and misin-
terpretation is reduced to a minimum, although it could be argued that 11 features is not
enough to account for the amount of detail a full body requires in order to be considered holisti-
cally.
The current study
Previous research has demonstrated that many women are subject to having negative feelings
towards their bodies and that body dissatisfaction can lead to dangerous consequences if it con-
tinued to decrease, such as dieting which also relates to many other risks as discussed. Although
many studies implement various methods of measuring ones body satisfaction, there is very little
research into improving body satisfaction in women who have low body-esteem and dissatisfac-
tion. Therefore, the aim of the current study is to explore whether completing a newly devel-
oped broad-ranging, body esteem tool can enhance body-esteem in females, whilst using a modi-
fied version of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) to measure body-
satisfaction which is a tool that incorporates physique, appearance and attractiveness.
In a previous study (Chippendale & Seed, 2013), The Whole Body Experience (WBEQ) tool has
shown to improve body esteem immediately after completion, it asks participants to state how
happy they are with various parts of their body. Unlike existing measures, The Whole Body Expe-
Page 9

rience takes into consideration the finer areas of the body that people tend not to think about
when completing body esteem measures and are subject to attentional bias, such as the eyes,
nails, toes and fingers. This study will be investigating those who are dieting to change their
body shape, therefore indicating they are unsatisfied to some degree with their current body
image or shape to assess the impact the WBEQ can have on those who are wanting to change
their body image.
a) Is the starting body satisfaction score from the MBSRQ lower in those who are in the dieting
condition compared to the non-dieting condition?
b) Do women who are dieting have a different increase in body satisfaction levels after com-
pleting the WBEQ than non-dieting women?
Method
Design
The study employed an independent groups with repeated measures design, with the indepen-
dent variable having two levels - ‘dieters’ and ‘non-dieters’. Several dependent variables were
used for measurement, including a ‘before’ score for body satisfaction and an ‘after’ score for
body satisfaction, measured using the MBSRQ. In addition to the ‘before’ and ‘after’ scores, the
score for the WBEQ was used and the results of a dieting habits questionnaire to determine
whether each participant will be assigned to the ‘dieter’ or ‘non-dieter’ category. This design
allows for the direct comparison of participants in both conditions to be observed after complet-
ing identical questionnaires and measures; therefore the results will be consistent as the proce-
dure for all participants is the same.
Participants/Sample
An opportunity sample of 74 females (dieters n=52, non=dieters n=22) were recruited for this
study (mean age = 31.7, ranging from 18 to 65). Females were recruited by an online advert (see
appendix A) shared and posted across social media websites including Facebook and Twitter. It
could be argued that self-selection participation for this study may produce a bias to those with
a certain body esteem level, but it can be further argued that as this can be a challenging topic
for many people, self-selection is the best sampling method. All participants were required to be
Page 10

female and over the age of 18, the only exclusion criteria was any males and those under the
age of 18. Sampling was restricted to females as there is more evidence based research sur-
rounding women and body image meaning the results found can be comparable to a wider re-
search base. Participants were either assigned to the ‘dieting’ or ‘non-dieting’ condition based
on their answers to the dieting habits questionnaire.
Materials/Tools
• Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ)
The MBSRQ was used to measure body satisfaction in the females, it was reported by Cash (2000)
that the measure had strong reliability and validity, as well as good internal consistency. As sug-
gested by the title, the MBSRQ is used to measure a variety of dimensions of ones body; the MB-
SRQ is a 69-item measurement of 10 sub scales for various bodily assessments including health,
fitness, weight and appearance. As the current study is only concerned with measuring body sat-
isfaction in participants, a modified 7-item version (appendix B) of the MBSRQ (Cash, 2000) was
used to assess participants overall evaluation of body image satisfaction, which includes items
only relating to opinion of body image. As in a previous study (Chippendale & Seed, 2013) within
this series of studies surrounding research into the WBEQ, an additional two items will be added
to gain a clear understanding of the body satisfaction of each participant, these items were:
“overall, I am satisfied with my body appearance” and “overall, I am dissatisfied with my body
appearance”. With these added items, the measurement was 9 items in total. Items 1, 2 and 5
had reverse phrasing in order to reduce response bias.
As the full 69-item MBSRQ is used for measuring aspects including weight and fitness, these
questions may prime participants to think of their body in a particular way and therefore an-
swering the WBEQ with an undesired bias; which is to be avoided by excluding these irrelevant
items which could lend to the invalidity of results.
For the 9-item edited MBSRQ, scoring was altered from that originally developed by Cash (2000).
As opposed to a 5-point Likert scale, a visual analogue scale ranging from 0 to 100 with a five
point scale ranging from ‘definitely disagree’ and ‘definitely agree’ for guidance was used, with
total scores possibly varying from 0 to 900. As in the original MBSRQ, a number of items were
Page 11

reversed, in the edited 9-item MBSRQ, a third items were reversed (items 1, 2 and 5). The al-
tered scoring system allowed more accurate responses from participants regarding their body
confidence and esteem; the scoring also allowed for better comparability with the WBEQ (be-
low) as the rating scale also ranged from 0 to 100 for each item. Self-report style measures are
designed to measure ones subjective attitudes or knowledge directly (Davies, 2003), therefore
using the MBSRQ with this method of measurement provides an appropriate tool for assessing the
individuals attitudes toward their own body image and their satisfaction in the present study.
• Whole Body Experience Questionnaire (WBEQ); (Chippendale & Seed, 2013)
The WBEQ (appendix C) was a tool originally was developed by the researcher to eliminate at-
tentional-bias to certain body parts and encourage a more holistic approach. Like already pub-
lished measurements, the tool taken the form of a questionnaire and comprised of an extensive
list of body parts including weight related body parts (e.g. stomach) and non-weight related
(e.g. teeth).
The WBEQ comprises of 40 items in a random order, and is measured along a visual analogue
scale (VAS) ranging from 0 to 100, allowing participants to place the marker where best fits from
‘very dissatisfied’ to ‘very satisfied’. The questionnaire was originally developed to be used on
paper with the participant marking their satisfaction level with a pencil along a 10cm line with
the same range of satisfaction markers. For the purpose of this study, the tool was created on-
line and therefore an exact 10cm line can not be used, so instead it was changed to range from
0-100 just as a 10cm line would range 0-100mm.
• Dieting habits questionnaire
The dieting habits questionnaire (appendix D) includes a list of 11 questions regarding the partic-
ipants dieting habits (e.g. ‘Are you currently following a specific meal plan?’) and exercise
habits (e.g. ‘Are you currently exercising to lose weight?’) which required a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.
The questionnaire was used to assign participants to the ‘dieting’ or ‘non-dieting’ category after
reviewing their answer to question 9 “Reflecting on your answers to all the previous questions
regarding eating habits and exercise would you consider yourself to be on some form of a diet?”;
the previous questions were used to aid participants in deciding whether they consider them-
Page 12

selves to be classified as a ‘dieter’ as many people do not consider an increase in exercise to
change body shape to be dieting. There was also demographic questions within this asking par-
ticipant gender, age, height and weight.
Procedure
An invitation was posted online to social media websites asking females over the age of 18 to
take part. The advert (appendix A) included a brief description of what the study would involve,
the eligibility criteria and the online website link to the questionnaire was launched on the
‘Qualtrics’ website. After clicking the link, the participant would be presented with the partici-
pant information sheet (appendix E) which outlined what the study would require of the partici-
pant, assured confidentiality and a warning of the sensitive nature of some questions. By clicking
‘I Agree’ at the bottom of the page, the participant was giving consent to take part. Following
this, as the questionnaire was anonymous, it was required that the participant entered a ‘code
word’ so that their data set could be identified for their data to be removed and destroyed if
they wished to withdraw from the research (Appendix F).
For all questionnaires, participants were asked to answer the questions as truthfully and to the
best of their ability as possible. The first measurement of the study was the 9-item MBSRQ which
was presented to participants in a visual analogue scale format, allowing them to slide the
markers to where best fitted from 0 to 100. Following the MBSRQ was the WBEQ, participants
were asked to consider each body part listed and think about how satisfied they were with it and
then drag the marker to the appropriate position on the scale. After completing the WBEQ, the
MBSRQ was presented to the participants for a second time in the same format, this was pre-
sented a second time to be used as a comparison for the first one to detect any changes in body
satisfaction before and after completing the WBEQ.
The final portion of the online questionnaire asked participants to answer a dieting and exercise
habits questionnaire to determine whether they would be assigned to the ‘dieters’ or ‘non-di-
eters’ condition. They were asked the explicit question “considering your answers to the above
questions, would you consider yourself to be on some form of diet?”, this gave an indication as
to whether they felt they were dieting or not. Although, for the purpose of this study the term
Page 13

‘diet’ includes exercising to lose weight or change body shape along with eating habits to lose
weight or change body shape, and for this reason it will not be the participants answer to this
question alone that determines the category in which they are assigned. Demographic questions
such as gender, height and weight were also asked; although the participants were informed that
they may leave these blank if they wish so as it may be sensitive information to many partici-
pants.
After completing the series of questionnaires, a debrief sheet (appendix G) was displayed to the
participants and they were provided with some further information of what the study was inves-
tigating, how they can find out about the results and information about how to withdraw. The
participants who wanted to find out about the research feedback were supplied with a Partici-
pant Feedback Form (Appendix H). As body image can be a distressing subject for many, some
links to articles and booklets about increasing body confidence were included; participants were
advised that visiting these webpages may be beneficial to them if they feel they suffer from low
body confidence or low body esteem.
Ethical Considerations
Participants were asked questions about their body and body satisfaction which may cause mild
emotional discomfort, but participants were assured that they do not have to answer all ques-
tions. Participants were not deceived during the study, they were fully aware of the nature of
the questions and what the study required of them and what the study was investigating. All
questions in the study have been risk assessed and approved by Northumbria University ethics
committee (appendix I). Participants were asked to provide a ‘code word’ to provide anonymity;
all electronic data was password protected; all data will be protected in line with the data pro-
tection act.
Results
Treatment of data
Page 14

After data has been imported to SPSS from Qualtrics, all the participants that had incomplete
datasets were removed. Those that had did not give a score for three or more body parts on the
WBEQ were removed, the reason for this is many people may find some body areas sensitive to
rate themselves on and it was therefore decided that there would be lenience for those deciding
not to give a score, it was decided that up to two missed body parts was acceptable.
After editing participant data, the variables which were not relevant to the analyses were then
removed (i.e. information sheet, IP addresses, debrief sheet and blank variables after importing
the data from Qualtrics).
Following the removal of all irrelevant variables and participants with insufficient datasets, the
questions from the MBSRQ which were reverse phrased (1, 2 and 5) were then reverse scored in
SPSS (i.e. ‘0’ was changed to equal ‘100’, 1 to 99 etc.). Total scores were calculated for the MB-
SRQ ‘before’ score, MBSRQ ‘after’ score and also the WBEQ for each participant. To determine
the conditions of which each participant would be in was determined by their answer to ques-
tion 9 in the dieting questionnaire which was “Reflecting on your answers to all the previous
questions regarding eating habits and exercise, would you consider yourself to be on some form
of a diet?”; it was decided that the best method of determining categories for participants
would be a self-report method using this question. Following this, the difference between each
participants ‘before’ and ‘after’ score was then calculated to analyse which group have the
greatest increase in body satisfaction (i.e. the change in score from their ‘before’ to their ‘af-
ter’ score).
Statistical results
The overall mean scores were calculated for body satisfaction before and after completion of
the WBEQ. Table 1 shows the difference between mean scores between the two groups (dieters
and non-dieters).
The table below provides the means and standard deviations for the average body satisfaction
score before completion of the WBEQ and also after, for both ‘dieters’ and ‘non-dieters’. The
difference between overall score was calculated for a clearer observation for how much the
overall body satisfaction increased or decreased by in each group.
Page 15

From table 1, it can be observed that the starting body satisfaction for non-dieters (M=477.86)
was much higher than dieters (M=378.59) by almost 100 points. Following completion of the
WBEQ, it can be observed that the dieters were found to have increased body satisfaction
(M=391.96), compared to the non-dieters (M=469.54) who were seen to have a decrease, al-
though even after this decrease the average body satisfaction score was still higher than those
who were dieting. From observing the exact scores from each participants it can be concluded
that for dieters and for both groups overall, approximately two thirds of participants were found
to have an increase in body satisfaction after completing the WBEQ; (to view the full descriptive
statistics refer to appendix J).
The difference between before and after scores for body satisfaction were then calculated. The
‘before’ score was deducted from the ‘after’ score to give a body satisfaction difference score
for all participants. A test of distribution was then conducted to measure the frequencies of the
difference scores for body satisfaction; a Shapiro-Wilk distribution test was used due to the
small sample sizes as this was deemed the best fit. The distribution test revealed that scores
were normally distributed for the dieters (n=52, sig=.197) condition but not the non-dieters
(n=22, sig=.000) condition given the small sample size within each condition. For an illustration
of distribution frequencies see appendix K.
As both groups were not found to be normally distributed, and the results cannot be transformed
into normally distributed data due to negative scores for some participants, the Mann-Whitney U
test was used as a replacement for a t-test to conduct analysis. This will take into consideration
Dieters (N=52) Non Dieters (N=22)
Mean SD Mean SD
MBSRQ ‘before’ 378.59 163.17 477.86 180.36
MBSRQ ‘after' 391.96 186.23 469.54 191.82
Difference 13.36 68.61 -8.31 104.73
Table 1: Means and standard deviations of participants’ body satisfaction score before and after completing WBEQ and
the average difference between the scores
Page 16

that both conditions are not normally distributed unlike the t-test which assumes both groups
are normally distributed.
From the Mann-Whitney U test it can be concluded that the difference between dieters and non-
dieters body satisfaction difference scores are not significant (U=533, p=.645); (see appendix L
for Mann-Whitney U SPSS output). This indicates that even though the dieters were seen to have
an increase in body satisfaction greater than non-dieters, it is not a significant increase.
Discussion
An aim of the study was to establish whether those that are dieters are seen to have a different
increase in body satisfaction levels after completing the The Whole Body Experience Question-
naire. From observing the results of the analysis, the results suggest that those who are dieting,
overall, are found to have a greater increase in body satisfaction after completing the WBEQ
compare to non-dieters. A second aim of the study was to investigate whether those that were
dieting had a lower starting body satisfaction than non-dieters, from investigating the means it
shows that this is the case. The statistical analysis is not significant, but there is evidence from
looking at averages and from the individual participant statistics that it does have a positive im-
pact on the majority of peoples body satisfaction.
Dieters, on average were found to benefit from the WBEQ as an overall increase in body satisfac-
tion was observed from before taking the WBEQ, to after. However, for non-dieters it was found
that the WBEQ had decreased the overall average score for body satisfaction for the non-dieting
group, this may be due to non-dieters being more satisfied with their bodies to begin with as
they view their body holistically, unlike dieters who are found to concentrate on the body parts
they are most dissatisfied with (George et al., 2011; Janelle et al., 2009; Roefs et al., 2008);
and therefore non-dieters show an average overall decrease in body satisfaction, as they are
then encouraged to think about areas they may not be satisfied with but did not pay attention to
these areas prior to completion of the WBEQ. A suggestion for why dieters were seen to have an
increased body satisfaction overall is that due to those who are unsatisfied with their body con-
centrating on the parts they do not like, by encouraging them to consider a vast majority of the
areas in detail by rating each one, it can encourage those individuals to appreciate other areas
Page 17

of their body they do not normally have attentional-bias to. These findings for dieters support
that of Smeets, Jansen and Roefs (2011) who shown that women’s body satisfaction can be in-
creased by attending to their own attractive body parts, but this was not the case with those
who were classified as non-dieters and therefore this study does not fully support the findings of
Smeets et al. (2011). Although it could be argued that a sample of 22 non-dieters was an inade-
quate sample size, considering the comparison of 52 dieters, therefore potentially lending to the
unreliability of results for non-dieters.
Although many studies have looked at body satisfaction in females (Gower & Shore, 2001; Wil-
son, Grilo,& Vitousek, 2007; Tiggemann & Slater, 2014), including those who are symptomatic of
eating disorders, this is one of the first studies to attempt to raise the body satisfaction of those
who are most dissatisfied with their body and indicate they are trying to change their body type
through diet and exercise. Before the study was conducted it was anticipated that those who are
dieting would show a lower starting body satisfaction and they would also have a greater in-
crease in body satisfaction and subsequently, this is what was found.
It is also important to consider the methodological limitations of the current study. One weak-
ness is the sampling method employed. As participants were recruited from social media and
websites, as a result it may influence a bias to particular personality traits and particular char-
acteristics.; this may be one explanation of why condition groups were unbalanced (dieters
n=52, non-dieters n=22). This may have implications for the validity of findings of the study, and
generalisability may be limited. If sampling procedures were altered so that participants could
be recruited by email or posters also, it may have increased the sample size as well as broaden-
ing the range of personality types and also ages as the oldest participant was 65. There was no
participants over the age of 65, this may be because the study was advertising participation on
social media websites and social media websites which are heavily populated with users be-
tween 16-34 years, with 98% of aged 16-34 year olds using a social network site (OFCOM, 2014)
with a small population of those over age 60. Although the oldest participant in this study was
65, the age range of 18 to 65 was very widespread for adult females and it could be investigated
in future research the impact of the WBEQ on the elderly. In addition to the sampling method
Page 18

being a weakness, the sample itself also lends to the generalisability limits of the study, as the
sample size was only 74 yet the age range was from 18 to 65, therefore it would not be suitable
to apply these results to a wider population as the sample is unrepresentative of all female
18-65 year olds.
A second weakness of the study may be the measure used to measure body satisfaction. As the
MBSRQ was only nine items long once the additional questions had been added it could be ar-
gued that these nine items were not sufficient to measure and understand a persons overall
body image compared to the 40-item WBEQ. If an additional measure had been implemented to
measure body satisfaction before and after more reliable results may have been produced, as
well as a change in significance level. However, as the present study was trying to measure only
body satisfaction the measure employed was reasonable; in addition, a longer measure may have
increased participant dropout rate and could be vulnerable to superficial responses and social
desirability.
A final weakness of the study was that the data was analysed using a Mann-Whitney U test, this
was for the reason that the data was not normally distributed and therefore a t-test or ANOVA
was unable to be ran on the data. Therefore due to this a main or interaction effect for ‘before’
and ‘after’ body satisfaction scores could not be observed and instead a comparison between
groups for the difference between ‘before’ and ‘after’ scores were observed instead. A main or
interaction effect could have given a greater insight into the reasons behind the ‘before’ and
‘after’ scores for each group.
It is important to discuss the future direction of the current study. As the APA report (2007), pre-
viously mentioned, shown evidence for even young girls to have an impacted body esteem and
body image it would be interesting to see the effects that the WBEQ has on girls under the age
of 18. As Cho and Lee (2013) found that men also shown attentional bias to those areas they dis-
like about their body it would be insightful to observe whether the WBEQ has the same impact
on males body-satisfaction as it does on females. It would also be ideal that a qualitative study
is conducted regarding completion of the WBEQ to develop an understanding behind statistical
Page 19

results; it would give a great insight into the experience of those dealing with low levels of body
satisfaction.
Finally, the research conducted was based on a sample of dieters and non-dieters, it is suggested
that dieters also possess similar symptoms to those that have eating disorders regarding body
image dissatisfaction (Cho & Lee, 2013; Jansen, Roefs et al., 2008; Nederkoon & Mulken, 2005).
Therefore, the results of this study suggest that it could be beneficial to use the WBEQ in a clini-
cal setting to increase the body satisfaction of those most at risk. The study could be tested on
those with eating disorder symptoms and further, those with eating disorders to observe the im-
pact on these groups. Further, mental health and wellbeing are positively impacted if an individ-
ual has a positive body image and high body satisfaction which indicates the importance of
boosting all individuals’ body-esteem to accept and appreciate their bodies (Dumitrescu, Zetu,
Teslaru, Dogaru, & Dogaru, 2008; Wasylkiw, MacKinnon, & MacLellan, 2012). The WBEQ could be
implemented in a range of setting where dieting and exercise is concerned, for example, at
weight-loss clubs such as Slimming World and Weight Watchers or within sports centres and gyms
to encourage people to appreciate their body and to improve a healthier well-being regarding
body image and mental health.
In conclusion, although body satisfaction was higher in females who were dieting before comple-
tion of the WBEQ, and this group seen an increase in body satisfaction, it was found that those
who were not dieting had an overall decrease in body satisfaction. Therefore these results sug-
gest that the WBEQ could be beneficial to those who are seeking to change their body image due
to dissatisfaction. As a decrease in non-dieting was found, this may suggest that those who
aren’t seeking to change their body image are more susceptible to having a negative change in
body satisfaction when encouraged to look at each part of their body in detail. The present
study provides a greater understanding of how females who are dieting and not dieting can have
a change in body satisfaction from being asked to consider all aspects of their body. This piece of
research provides a stepping stone into research in increasing individuals body satisfaction levels
to improve overall mental health and wellbeing.
Page 20

References
American Psychological Association, (2007). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of
Girls. Retrieved February 21, 2015
Andrew, R., Tiggemann, M., & Clark, L. (2014). Positive body image and young women’s health:
Implications for sun protection, cancer screening, weight loss and alcohol consumption be-
haviours. Journal of health psychology, 1-12
Avalos, L., Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. (2005). The Body Appreciation Scale: development
and psychometric evaluation. Body image, 2(3), 285-297.
Bell, B.T., Lawton, R. & Dittmar, H. (2007). The impact of thin models in music videos on adoles-
cent girls’ body dissatisfaction. Body Image. 4(2), 137-145.
Bury, B., Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2014). Directing gaze: The effect of disclaimer labels on
women's visual attention to fashion magazine advertisements. Body image, 11(4), 357-363.
Cash, T. (2000). Manual for the body-image ideals questionnaire. Norfolk, Virginia: Old Dominion
University.
Cash, T.F. (2002). ‘Beyond traits: Assessing body image states’, in Cash, T.F and Pruzinsky, T.
(ed.) Body images: A handbook of theory, Research, and Clinical Practice. New York: Guil-
ford Press.
Cho, A., & Lee, J. H. (2013). Body dissatisfaction levels and gender differences in attentional
biases toward idealized bodies. Body image, 10(1), 95-102.
Chippendale, J., & Seed, J. (2013). ‘The Whole Body Experience: Enhancing body-esteem in fe-
males‘. Masters Student Research Project. Northumbria University.
Davies, S.F. (2003). Handbook of research methods in experimental psychology. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing.
Dumitrescu, A. L., Zetu, L., Teslaru, S., Dogaru, B. C., & Dogaru, C. D. (2008). Is it an associa-
tion between body appreciation, self-criticism, oral health status and oral health-related
behaviors? Romanian journal of internal medicine, 46(4), 2343.
Gao, X., Li, X., Yang, X., Wang, Y., Jackson, T., & Chen, H. (2013). I can’t stop looking at them:
Interactive effects of body mass index and weight dissatisfaction on attention towards
body shape photographs. Body image, 10(2), 191-199.
George, H. R., Cornelissen, P. L., Hancock, P. J., Kiviniemi, V. V., & Tovee, M. J. (2011). Differ-
ences in eye-movement patterns between anorexic and control observers when judging
body size and attractiveness. British Journal of Psychology, 102(3), 340-354.
Gila, A., Castro, J., Gomez, J and Toro, T. (2005). Social and Body Self-Esteem in Adolescents
with Eating Disorders. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 1,
63-71.
Gillen, M. M., (2015). Associations between positive body image and indicators of men's and
women's mental and physical health. Body image, 13, 67-74.
Page 21

Gowers, S., and Shore, A. (2001). Development of weight and shape concerns in the  
aetiology of eating disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 236-242.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns
among women: a meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological
bulletin, 134(3), 460.
Hawkins, N., Richards, P. S., Granley, H. M., & Stein, D. M. (2004). The impact of exposure to
the thin-ideal media image on women. Eating disorders, 12(1), 35-50.
Janelle, C. M., Hausenblas, H. A., Ellis, R., Coombes, S. A., & Duley, A. R. (2009). The time
course of attentional allocation while women high and low in body dissatisfaction view self
and model physiques. Psychology and Health, 24(3), 351-366.
Jansen, A., Nederkoorn, C., & Mulkens, S. (2005). Selective visual attention for ugly and beauti-
ful body parts in eating disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(2), 183-196.
Kruger, J., Galuska, D. A., Serdula, M. K., & Jones, D. A. (2004). Attempting to lose weight: spe-
cific practices among US adults. American journal of preventive medicine, 26(5), 402-406.
Kruger, J., Lee, C., Ainsworth, B., and Macera, C. (2008). Body Size Satisfaction and Physical Ac-
tivity Levels Among Men and Women. Obesity, 16, 1976-1979.
Lawler, M., & Nixon, E. (2011). Body dissatisfaction among adolescent boys and girls: The effects
of body mass, peer appearance culture and internalization of appearance ideals. Journal
of youth and adolescence, 40(1), 59-71.
Mogg, K., Millar, N., & Bradley, B. P. (2000). Biases in eye movements to threatening facial ex-
pressions in generalized anxiety disorder and depressive disorder. Journal of abnormal psy-
chology, 109(4), 695.
Murnen, S. K., (2011). Gender and body images. T.F. Cash, L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image: A hand-
book of science, practice, and prevention (2nd ed.), Guilford Press, New York (2011),173–
179
Nichter, M. (2000). Fat talk: What girls and their parents say about dieting. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Pinhas, L., Fok, K. H., Chen, A., Lam, E., Schachter, R., Eizenman, O., ... & Eizenman, M.
(2014). Attentional biases to body shape images in adolescents with anorexia nervosa: An
exploratory eye-tracking study. Psychiatry research, 220(1), 519-526.
OFCOM (2014). Adults’ Media Use and Attitudes Report 2014. (2014, April 29). Retrieved February
10, 2015.
Ogle, J. P., & Damhorst, M. L. (2004). Constructing and deconstructing the body malleable
through mother–daughter interactions. Sociological Inquiry, 74(2), 180-209.
Roefs, A., Jansen, A., Moresi, S., Willems, P., van Grootel, S., & van der Borgh, A. (2008). Look-
ing good. BMI, attractiveness bias and visual attention. Appetite, 51(3), 552-555.
Rosen, J. C. (2013). Body image disorder: Definition, development, and contribution to eating
disorders. The etiology of bulimia: The individual and familial context, 157-177.
Schilder, P., (1935). The image and appearance of the human body.
Page 22

Slade, P. D., Dewey, M. E., Newton, T., Brodie, D., & Kiemle, G. (1990). Development and pre-
liminary validation of the Body Satisfaction Scale (BSS). Psychology and Health, 4(3),
213-220.
Smeets, E., Jansen, A., & Roefs, A. (2011). Bias for the (un) attractive self: On the role of atten-
tion in causing body (dis) satisfaction. Health Psychology, 30(3), 360.
Turner, S. L., Hamilton, H., Jacobs, M., Angood, L. M., & Dwyer, D. H. (1997). The influence of
fashion magazines on the body image satisfaction of college women: an exploratory analy-
sis. Adolescence, 32(127), 603-614.
Tylka, T. L., (2011). Positive psychology perspectives on body image. T.F. Cash, L. Smolak (Eds.),
Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (2nd ed.), Guilford Press,
New York (2011), 56–64
Want, S. C. (2009). Meta-analytic moderators of experimental exposure to media portrayals of
women on female appearance satisfaction: Social comparisons as automatic processes.
Body Image, 6(4), 257-269.
Williams, E. F., Cash, T. F., & Santos, M. T. (2004). Positive and negative body image: Precursors,
correlates, and consequences. Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy.
Wilson, G. T., Grilo, C. M., & Vitousek, K. M. (2007). Psychological treatment of eating disorders.
American Psychologist, 62(3), 199.
Wasylkiw, L., MacKinnon, A. L., MacLellan, A. M., (2012). Exploring the link between self-com-
passion and body image in university women. Body Image, 9, 236–245
Yamamiya, Y., Cash, T. F., Melnyk, S. E., Posavac, H. D., & Posavac, S. S. (2005). Women's expo-
sure to thin-and-beautiful media images: Body image effects of media-ideal internalization
and impact-reduction interventions. Body image, 2(1), 74-80.
Page 23

Dissertation PDF

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Similar to Dissertation PDF (15)

Dissertation PDF