Documentation BP205T Computer Application in pharmacy Documentation .pdf

SCHOOL OF PHARMACY
UNIT – I COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY – BP205T

UNIT – I
Number system: Binary number system, Decimal number system, Octal number system,
Hexadecimal number systems, conversion decimal to binary, binary to decimal, octal to
binary etc, binary addition, binary subtraction – One’s complement ,Two’s complement
method, binary multiplication, binary division Concept of Information Systems and
Software : Information gathering, requirement and feasibility analysis, data flow
diagrams, process specifications, input/output design, process life cycle, planning and
managing the project
Number Systems
The number system is a way to represent or express numbers. You have heard of various
types of number systems such as the whole numbers and the real numbers. But in the
context of computers, we define other types of number systems. They are:
• The decimal number system
• The binary number system
• The octal number system and
• The hexadecimal number system
Decimal Number System (Base 10)
In this number system, the digits 0 to 9 represents numbers. As it uses 10 digits to
represent a number, it is also called the base 10 number system. Each digit has a
value based on its position called place value. The value of the position increases
by 10 times as we move from right to left in the number.
For example, the value of 786 is
= 7 x 102
+ 8 x 101
+ 6 x 100
= 700 + 80 + 6
Binary Number System (Base 2)
A computer can understand only the “on” and “off” state of a switch. These two states
are represented by 1 and 0. The combination of 1 and 0 form binary numbers. These
numbers represent various data. As two digits are used to represent numbers, it is
called a binary or base 2 number system.
The binary number system uses positional notation. But in this case, each digit is
multiplied by the appropriate power of two based on its position.
For example, (101101)2 in decimal is
= 1 x 25
+ 0 x 24
+ 1 x 23
+ 1 x 22
+ 0 x 21
+ 1 x 20
= 1 x 32 + 0 x 16 + 1 x 8 + 1 x 4 + 0 x 2 + 1 x 1

= 32 + 8 + 4 + 1
= (45)10
Octal Number System (Base 8)
This system uses digits 0 to 7 (i.e. 8 digits) to represent a number and the numbers
are as a base of 8.
For example, (24)8 in decimal is
= 2×81
+4×80
= (20)10
Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16)
In this system, 16 digits used to represent a given number. Thus it is also known as the
base 16 number system. Each digit position represents a power of 16. As the base is
greater than 10, the number system is supplemented by letters. Following are the
hexadecimal symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
To take A, B, C, D, E, and F as part of the number system is conventional and has no
logical or deductive reason.
Information system
Information systems (IS) are formal, sociotechnical, organizational systems
designed to collect, process, store, and distribute information. In a sociotechnical
perspective, information systems are composed by four components: task, people,
structure (or roles), and technology.
The six components that must come together in order to produce an information
system are: (Information systems are organizational procedures and do not need a

computer or software, this data is erroneous)
1. Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes
the computer itself, which is often referred to as the central processing unit
(CPU), and all of its support equipment. Among the support, equipment are
input and output devices, storagedevices and communications devices.
2. Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if
any) that support them. Computer programs are machine-readable
instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the system to
function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are
generally stored on some input/output medium, often a disk or tape.
3. Data: Data are facts that are used by programs to produce useful
information. Like programs, data are generally stored in machine-
readable form on disk or tape untilthe computer needs them.
4. Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a
computer system. “Procedures are to people what software is to hardware” is
a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a
system.
5. People: Every system needs people if it is to be useful. Often the most
overlooked element of the system are the people, probably the component that
most influence the success or failure of information systems. This includes
“not only the users, but those who operate and service the computers, those
who maintain the data, and those who support the networkof computers.”
6. Feedback: it is another component of the IS, that defines that an IS may be
provided with a feedback
Data is the bridge between hardware and people. This means that the data we
collect is only data until we involve people. At that point, data is now information.
Types of information system
Some examples of such systems are:
• data warehouses
• enterprise resource planning
• enterprise systems
• expert systems
• search engines
• geographic information system
• global information system
• office automation.
Systems Development Life Cycle
An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) should result in a high quality
system that meets customer expectations, reaches completion within time and cost

evaluations, and works effectively and efficiently in the current and planned
Information Technology infrastructure.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes
policies and procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life
cycles.
SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the
following activities –
• requirements
• design
• implementation
• testing
• deployment
• operations
• maintenance
Phases of SDLC
Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly breaks
down the work into phases that are required to implement either new or modified
Information System.

************
Binary to Decimal Conversion
Decimal to Binary Conversion
Octal to Binary

Octal number is one of the number systems which has value of base is 8, that means
there only 8 symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Whereas Binary number is most familiar
number system to the digital systems, networking, and computer professionals. It is base
2 which has only 2 symbols: 0 and 1, these digits can be represented by off and on
respectively.
Conversion from Octal to Binary number system
There are various direct or indirect methods to convert a octal number into binary
number. In an indirect method, you need to convert an octal number into other
number system (e.g., decimal or hexadecimal), then you can convert into binary
number by converting each digit into binary number from hexadecimal system and
using conversion system from decimal to binary number.
There is a simple direct method to convert an octal number to binary number. Since
there are only 8 symbols (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) in octal representation system
and its base (i.e., 8) is equivalent of 23=8. So, you can represent each digit of octal in
group of 3 bits in binary number.
This method is simple and also works as reverse of Binary to Octal Conversion. The
algorithm is explained as following below.
• Take Octal number as input
• Convert each digit of octal into binary.
• That will be output as binary number.
Example-1 Convert octal number 540 into binary
number. According to above algorithm, equivalent
binary number will be,
= (540)8
= (101 100 000)2
= (101100000)2

= (352.563)8
= (011 101 010 . 101 110 011)2
This is very simple conversion, you can use for mixed (integer with fractional) octal
number as well.
Example-2 −Convertoctalnumber352.563intobinarynumber.
According to above algorithm, equivalent binary number willbe,
Binary addition
One’s Complement and Two’s Complement
One’scomplementandtwo’scomplementaretwoimportantbinaryconcepts.Two’s
complementis especiallyimportantbecauseitallowsustorepresentsignednumbersin
binary,andone’s
= (011101010.101110011)2

complement is the interim step to finding the two’s complement.
Two’scomplementalsoprovidesaneasierwaytosubtractnumbersusingaddition
insteadofusing the longer.
One’s Complement
Ifallbitsinabyteareinvertedbychangingeach1to0andeach0to1,wehaveformedtheone’s
complement of the number.
One’s complement is useful for forming the two’s complement of a number.
Two’s Complement (Binary Additive Inverse)
Thetwo’scomplementisamethodforrepresentingpositiveandnegativeintegervaluesin
binary. Theusefulpartoftwo’scomplementisthatitautomaticallyincludesthesignbit.
Rule: To form the two’s complement, add 1 to the one’s complement.

************
Components Of Information System
An Information system is a combination of hardware and software and
telecommunication networks that people build to collect, create and distribute useful
data, typically in an organisational, It defines the flow of information within the
system. The objective of an information system is to provide appropriate information
to the user, to gather the data, processing of the data and communicate information to
the user of the system.

Components of the information system are as follows:
1. Computer Hardware:
Physical equipment used for input, output and processing. What hardware to use it
depends upon the type and size of the organisation. It consists of input, an output
device, operating system, processor, and media devices. This also includes computer
peripheral devices.
2. Computer Software:
The programs/ application program used to control and coordinate the hardware
components. It is used for analysing and processing of the data. These programs
include a set of instruction used for processing information.
Software is further classified into 3 types:
1. System Software
2. Application Software
3. Procedures
3. Databases:
Data are the raw facts and figures that are unorganised that are and later processed to
generate information. Softwares are used for organising and serving data to the user,
managing physical storageof mediaand virtual resources. As thehardwarecan’twork
withoutsoftwarethesameas software needs data for processing. Data are managed
using Database management system.
Database software is used for efficient access for required data, and to manage
knowledge bases.
4. Network:
• Networks resources refer to the telecommunication networks like the intranet,
extranetand the internet.
• These resources facilitate the flow of information in the organisation.
• Networks consists of both the physicals devises such as networks cards,
routers, hubs and cables and software such as operating systems, web
servers, data servers and application servers.

• Telecommunications networks consist of computers, communications
processors, and other devices interconnected by communications media and
controlled by software.
• Networks include communication media, and Network Support.
5. Human Resources:
It is associated with the manpower required to run and manage the system. People are
the end user of the information system, end-user use information produced for their
own purpose, the main purpose of the information system is to benefit the end user.
The end user can be accountants, engineers, salespersons, customers, clerks, or
managers etc. People are also responsible to develop and operate information
systems. They include systems analysts, computer operators, programmers, and other
clerical IS personnel, and managerial techniques.
********
Project
manageme
nt
Definition
Project management is the application of processes, methods, skills, knowledge and
experience to achieve specific project objectives according to the project acceptance
criteria within agreed parameters.
What is a project?
A project is a unique, transient endeavour, undertaken to achieve planned objectives,
which could be defined in terms of outputs, outcomes or benefits. A project is usually
deemed to be a success if it achieves the objectives according to their acceptance
criteria, within an agreed timescale and budget. Time, cost and quality are the
building blocks of every project.
Time: scheduling is a collection of techniques used to develop and present
schedules that show when work will be performed.
Cost: how are necessary funds acquired and finances managed?
Quality: how will fitness for purpose of the deliverables and management processes be
assured?
The core components of project management are:
• defining the reason why a project is necessary;
• capturing project requirements, specifying quality of the deliverables, estimating
resourcesand timescales;

• preparing a business case to justify the investment;
• securing corporate agreement and funding;
• developing and implementing a management plan for the project;
• leading and motivating the project delivery team;
• managing the risks, issues and changes on the project;
• monitoring progress against plan;
• managing the project budget;
• maintaining communications with stakeholders and the project organisation;
• provider management;
• closing the project in a controlled fashion when appropriate
References
1. https://www.toppr.com/guides/computer-aptitude-and-
knowledge/basics-of- computers/number-systems/
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_system
3. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/system_analysis_and_design/system_analysis_and_
design_devel opment_life_cycle.htm
************

SCHOOL OF PHARMACY
UNIT – II COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY – BP205T

UNIT – II
Web technologies:Introduction to HTML, XML,CSS and Programming languages,
introduction to web servers and Server Products Introduction to databases,
MYSQL, MS ACCESS, Pharmacy Drug database
HTML and XML
HTML is an abbreviation for HyperText Markup Language. XML stands for eXtensible
Markup Language. HTML was designed to display data with focus on how data looks.
XML was designed to be a software and hardware independent tool used to transport and
store data, with focus on what data is.
HTML: HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) is used to create web pages and web
applications. It is a markup language. By HTML we can create our own static page. It is
used for displaying the data not to transport the data. HTML is the combination of
Hypertext and Markup language. Hypertext defines the link between the web pages. A
markup language is used to define the text document within tag which defines the structure
of web pages. This language is used to annotate (make notes for the computer) text so that
a machine can understand it and manipulate text accordingly.
Exa
mple
INP
UT
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>GeeksforGeeks</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>GeeksforGeeks</h1>
<p>A Computer Science portal for geeks</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
XML: XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is also used to create web pages and web
applications. It is dynamic because it is used to transport the data not for displaying the
data. The design goals of XML focus on simplicity, generality, and usability across the

Internet. It is a textual data format with strong support via Unicode for different human
languages. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, the language is widely
used for the representation of arbitrary data structures such as those used in web services.
INPUT
<?xml version = "1.0"?>
<contactinfo>
<address category = "college">
<name>G4G</name>
<College>Geeksforgeeks</College>
<mobile>2345456767</mobile>
</address>
</contactinfo>
Output:
G4G
Geeksforge
eks
234545676
7
Difference between HTML and XML: There are many differences between HTML
and XML. These important differences are given below:
HTM
L
XM
L
HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup
Language.
XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language.
HTML is static. XML is dynamic.
HTML is a markup language. XML provides framework to define markup
languages.
HTML can ignore small errors. XML does not allow errors.
HTML is not Case sensitive. XML is Case sensitive.
HTML tags are predefined tags. XML tags are user defined tags.
There are limited number of tags in
HTML.
XML tags are extensible.

HTML does not preserve white spaces. White space can be preserved in XML.
HTML tags are used for displaying the
data.
XML tags are used for describing the data not for
displaying.
In HTML, closing tags are not
necessary.
In XML, closing tags are necessary.
Programming languages
A program is a set of instructions given to a computer to perform a specific operation. or
computer is a computational device which is used to process the data under the control of a
computer program.While executing the program, raw data is processed into a desired
output format. These computer programs are written in a programming language which are
high level languages. High level languages are nearly human languages which are more
complex then the computer understandable language which are called machine language,
or low level language.So after knowing the basics, we are ready to create a very simple and
basic program. Like we have different languages to communicate with each other, likewise,
we have different languages like C, C++, C#, Java, python, etc to communicate with the
computers. The computer only understands binary language (the language of 0’s and 1’s)
also called machine-understandable language or low-level language but the programs we
are going to write are in a high-level language which is almost similar to human language.
Most Popular Programming Languages –
• C
• Python
• C++
• Java
• SCALA
• C#
• R
• Ruby
• Go
• Swift

• JavaScript
Characteristics of a programming Language –
• A programming language must be simple, easy to learn and use, have good
readability and human recognizable.
• Abstraction is a must-have Characteristics for a programming language in
which ability to define the complex structure and then its degree of usability
comes.
• A portable programming language is always preferred.
• Programming language’s efficiency must be high so that it can be easily converted into
a
machine code and executed consumes little space in memory.
• A programming language should be well structured and documented so that it is
suitablefor application development.
• Necessary tools for development, debugging, testing, maintenance of a program
mustbe provided by a programming language.
• A programming language should provide single environment known as
Integrated Development Environment(IDE).
• A programming language must be consistent in terms of syntax and semantics.
Drug databases and their applications
Drug Databases
Drug databases are sites where information about drugs and medications are stored, and
one of the largest (and most commonly used) drug databases is compiled by the Food &
Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA is a federal agency that oversees and controls all
medications in the U.S., which includes:
• Over-the-counter (OTC) medications
• Prescription medications
• Dietary supplements
• Vaccines
Drug databases and web resources play a very important role in the pharmaceutical field.
Eg.DrugBank
The DrugBank database is a comprehensive, freely accessible, online database containing
information on drugs and drug targets. As both a bioinformatics and a cheminformatics
resource, DrugBank combines detailed drug (i.e. chemical, pharmacological and
pharmaceutical) data with comprehensive drug target (i.e. sequence, structure, and
pathway) information.
The latest release of the database (version 5.0) contains 9591 drug entries including
2037 FDA- approved small molecule drugs, 241 FDA-approved biotech
(protein/peptide) drugs,
96 nutraceuticals and over 6000 experimental drugs.[4]
Additionally, 4270 non-
redundant protein (i.e. drug target/enzyme/transporter/carrier) sequences are linked to

these drug entries. Each DrugCard entry (Fig. 1) contains more than 200 data fields
with half of the information being devoted to drug/chemical data and the other half
devoted to drug target or protein data.
Four additional databases, HMDB, T3DB, SMPDB and FooDB are also part of a general
suite
of metabolomic/cheminformatic databases. HMDB contains equivalent information on
more than 40,000 human metabolites, T3DB contains information on 3100 common
toxins and environmental pollutants, SMPDB contains pathway diagrams for nearly 700
human metabolic pathways and disease pathways, while FooDB contains equivalent
information on ~28,000 food components and food additives.
Web servers
Web Server and Its Type
Web Server: Web server is a program which processes the network requests of the users
and serves them with files that create web pages. This exchange takes place using Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Basically, web servers are computers used to store HTTP files which makes a website and
when a client requests a certain website, it delivers the requested website to the client. For
example, you want to open Facebook on your laptop and enter the URL in the search bar
of google. Now, the laptop will send an HTTP request to view the facebook webpage to
another computer known as the webserver. This computer (webserver) contains all the
files (usually in HTTP format) which make up the website like text, images, gif files, etc.
After processing the request, the webserver will send the requested website-related files to
your computer and then you can reach the website.
Different websites can be stored on the same or different web servers but that doesn’t
affect the actual website that you are seeing in your computer. The web server can be any
software or hardware but is usually a software running on a computer. One web server
can handle multiple users at any given time which is a necessity otherwise there had to be
a web server for each user and considering the current world population, is nearly close to
impossible. A web server is never disconnected from the internet because if it was, then it
won’t be able to receive any requests, and therefore cannot process them.
There are many web servers available in the market both free and paid.
Eg.
Apache HTTP server: It is the most popular web server and about 60 percent of the
world’s web server machines run this web server. The Apache HTTP web server was
developed by the Apache Software Foundation. It is an open-source software which
means that we can access and make changes to its code and mold it according to our

preference. The Apache Web Server can be installed and operated easily on almost all
operating systems like Linux, MacOS, Windows, etc.
************
Databases and
MYSQL.
What is Database?
The Database is an essential part of our life. As we encounter several activities that
involve our interaction with database, for example in the bank, in the railway station, in
school, in a grocery store, etc. These are the places where we need to a large amount of
data at one place and fetching of this data should be easy.
A database is a collection of data which is organized, which is also called as structured
data. It can be accessed or stored at the computer system. It can be managed through
Database management system (DBMS), which is a software which is used to manage data.
Database refers to related data which is in a structured form.
In Database, data is organized into tables which consist of rows and columns and it is
indexed so data gets updated, expanded and deleted easily. Computer databases typically
contain file records data like transactions money in one bank account to another bank
account, sales and customer details, fee details of student and product details. There are
different kinds of databases, ranging from the most prevalent approach, the relational
database, to a distributed database, cloud database or NoSQL database.
Types
• Relational Database:
A relational database is made up of a set of tables with data that fits into a predefined
category.
• Distributed Database:
A distributed database is a database in which portions of the database are stored in
multiple physical locations, and in which processing is dispersed or replicated among
different points in a network.
• Cloud Database:
A cloud database is a database that typically runs on a cloud computing platform.
Database service provides access to the database. Database services make the
underlying software- stack transparent to the user.
Eg. SQL
Structured Query Language or SQL is a standard Database language which is used to
create, maintain and retrieve the data from relational databases like MySQL, Oracle,
SQL Server, PostGre, etc. The recent ISO standard version of SQL is SQL:2019.
As the name suggests, it is used when we have structured data (in the form of tables). All

databases that are not relational (or do not use fixed structure tables to store data) and
therefore do not use SQL, are called NoSQL databases. Examples of NoSQL are MongoDB,
DynamoDB, Cassandra, etc
Microsoft access
Microsoft Access is a Database Management System (DBMS) from Microsoft that
combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and
softwaredevelopment tools. It is a member of the Microsoft Office suite of applications,
included in the professional and higher editions.
• Microsoft Access is just one part of Microsoft’s overall data management product
strategy.
• It stores data in its own format based on the Access Jet Database Engine.
• Like relational databases, Microsoft Access also allows you to link related
information easily. For example, customer and order data. However, Access 2013
also complements other database products because it has several powerful
connectivity features.
• It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases.
• As its name implies, Access can work directly with data from other sources,
including many popular PC database programs, with many SQL (Structured Query
Language) databases on the desktop, on servers, on minicomputers, or on
mainframes, and with data stored on Internet or intranet web servers.
• Access can also understand and use a wide variety of other data formats, including
many other database file structures.
• You can export data to and import data from word processing files, spreadsheets, or
database files directly.
• Access can work with most popular databases that support the Open Database
Connectivity (ODBC) standard, including SQL Server, Oracle, and DB2.
• Software developers can use Microsoft Access to develop application software.
Drug databases in the practice of pharmacy
A database that provides information on drug toxicity and how specific drugs
impact the environment.
DrugBank
The DrugBank database is a comprehensive, freely accessible, online database containing
information on drugs and drug targets. As both a bioinformatics and a cheminformatics
resource, DrugBank combines detailed drug (i.e. chemical, pharmacological and
pharmaceutical) data with comprehensive drug target (i.e. sequence, structure, and
pathway) information. Because of its broad scope, comprehensive referencing and
unusually detailed data descriptions, DrugBank is more akin to a drug encyclopedia than a
drug database. As a result, links to DrugBank are maintained for nearly all drugs listed in

Wikipedia. DrugBank is widely used by the drug industry, medicinal chemists,
pharmacists, physicians, students and the general public. Its extensive drug and drug-target
data has enabled the discovery and repurposing of a number of existing drugs to treat rare
and newly identifiedillnesses.
The latest release of DrugBank (version 5.1.5, released 2020-01-03) contains 13,551 drug
entries including 2,629 approved small molecule drugs, 1,372 approved biologics (proteins,
peptides, vaccines, and allergenics), 131 nutraceuticals and over 6,366 experimental
(discovery-phase) drugs. Additionally, 5,248 non-redundant protein (i.e. drug
target/enzyme/transporter/carrier) sequences are linked to these drug entries. Each entry
contains more than 200 data fields with half of the information being devoted to
drug/chemical data and the other half devoted to drug target or protein data.
DrugBank is offered to the public as a freely available resource. Use and re-distribution of
the data, in whole or in part, for commercial purposes (including internal use) requires a
license. We ask that users who download significant portions of the database cite the
DrugBank paper in any resulting publications.
References
1. https://study.com/academy/lesson/pharmacy-drug-databases-web-resources.html
2. https://www.drugbank.ca/about

SCHOOL OF PHARMACY
UNIT – III COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY – BP205T

PHARMACY - UNIT – III
Application of computers in Pharmacy – Drug information storage and retrieval,
Pharmacokinetics, Mathematical model in Drug design, Hospital and Clinical Pharmacy,
Electronic Prescribing and discharge (EP) systems, barcode medicine identification and
automated dispensing of drugs, mobile technology and adherence monitoring Diagnostic
System, Lab-diagnostic System, Patient Monitoring System, Pharma Information System
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics, sometimes described as what the body does to a drug, refers to the
movement of drug into, through, and out of the body—the
time course of its absorption, bioavailability, distribution, metabolism, and
excretion.
Pharmacodynamics, described as what a drug does to the body, involves receptor
binding, postreceptor effects, and chemical interactions. Drug pharmacokinetics
determines the onset, duration, and intensity of a drug’s effect. Formulas relating these
processes summarize the pharmacokinetic behavior of most drugs.
Pharmacokinetics of a drug depends on patient-related factors as well as on the drug’s
chemical properties. Some patient-related factors (eg, renal function, genetic makeup,
sex, age) can be used to predict the pharmacokinetic parameters in populations. For
example, the half-life of some
drugs, especially those that require both metabolism and excretion, may be remarkably
long in the elderly. In fact, physiologic changes with aging affect many aspects of
pharmacokinetics.
Other factors are related to individual physiology. The effects of some individual
factors (eg, renal failure, obesity, hepatic failure, dehydration) can be reasonably
predicted, but other factors are idiosyncratic and thus have unpredictable effects.
Because of individual differences, drug administration must be based on each
patient’s needs—traditionally, by empirically adjusting dosage until the therapeutic
objective is met. This approach is frequently inadequate because it can delay optimal
response or result in adverse effects.
Knowledge of pharmacokinetic principles helps prescribers adjust dosage more
accurately and rapidly. Application of pharmacokinetic principles to individualize
pharmacotherapy is termed therapeutic drug monitoring.
Drug Absorption
Drug absorption is determined by the drug’s physicochemical properties,
formulation, and route of administration. Dosage forms (eg, tablets, capsules,
solutions), consisting of the drug plus other ingredients, are formulated to be given
by various routes (eg, oral, buccal, sublingual, rectal, parenteral, topical,

inhalational). Regardless of the route of administration, drugs must be in solution to
be absorbed. Thus, solid forms (eg, tablets) must be able to disintegrate and
deaggregate.
Unless given IV, a drug must cross several semipermeable cell membranes before it
reaches the systemic circulation. Cell membranes are biologic barriers that
selectively inhibit passage of drug molecules. The membranes are composed
primarily of a bimolecular lipid matrix, which determines membrane permeability
characteristics. Drugs may cross cell membranes by
• Passive diffusion
• Facilitated passive diffusion
• Active transport
• Pinocytosis
Drug Bioavailability
Bioavailability refers to the extent and rate at which the active moiety (drug or
metabolite) enters systemic circulation, thereby accessing the site of action.
Bioavailability of a drug is largely determined by the properties of the dosage form,
which depend partly on its design and manufacture. Differences in bioavailability
among formulations of a given drug can have clinical significance; thus, knowing
whether drug formulations are equivalent is essential.
Plasma drug concentration increases with extent of absorption; the maximum (peak)
plasma concentration is reached when drug elimination rate equals absorption rate.
Bioavailability determinations based on the peak plasma concentration can be
misleading because drug elimination begins as soon as the drug enters the
bloodstream. Peak time (when maximum plasma drug concentration occurs) is the
most widely used general index of absorption rate; the slower the absorption, the

later the peak time.
Drug Distribution to Tissues
After a drug enters the systemic circulation, it is distributed to the body’s tissues.
Distribution is generally uneven because of differences in blood perfusion, tissue
binding (eg, because of lipid content), regional pH, and permeability of cell membranes.
The entry rate of a drug into a tissue depends on the rate of blood flow to the tissue,
tissue mass, and partition characteristics between blood and tissue. Distribution
equilibrium (when entry and exit rates are the same) between blood and tissue is
reached more rapidly in richly vascularized areas, unless diffusion across cell
membranes is the rate-limiting step. After equilibrium, drug concentrations in tissues
and in extracellular fluids are reflected by the plasma concentration. Metabolism and
excretion occur simultaneously with distribution, making the process dynamic and
complex.
After a drug has entered tissues, drug distribution to the interstitial fluid is
determined primarily by perfusion. For poorly perfused tissues (eg, muscle, fat),
distribution is very slow, especially if the tissue has a high affinity for the drug.
Drug Metabolism
The liver is the principal site of drug metabolism. Although metabolism typically
inactivates drugs, some drug metabolites are pharmacologically active—sometimes
even more so than the parent compound. An inactive or weakly active substance that
has an active metabolite is called a prodrug, especially if designed to deliver the
active moiety more effectively.
Drugs can be metabolized by oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, hydration, conjugation,
condensation, or isomerization; whatever the process, the goal is to make the drug
easier to excrete. The enzymes involved in metabolism are present in many tissues
but generally are more concentrated in the liver. Drug metabolism rates vary among
patients. Some patients metabolize a drug so rapidly that therapeutically effective
blood and tissue concentrations are not reached; in others, metabolism may be so
slow that usual doses have toxic effects. Individual drug metabolism rates are
influenced by genetic factors, coexisting disorders (particularly chronic liver
disorders and advanced heart failure), and drug interactions (especially those
involving induction or inhibition of metabolism).

Drug Excretion
The kidneys are the principal organs for excreting water-soluble substances. The
biliary system contributes to excretion to the degree that drug is not reabsorbed from
the GI tract. Generally, the contribution of intestine, saliva, sweat, breast milk, and
lungs to excretion is small, except for exhalation of volatile anesthetics. Excretion
via breast milk may affect the breastfeeding infant
Hepatic metabolism often increases drug polarity and water solubility. The resulting
metabolites are then more readily excreted.
Discuss the various applications of computers in pharmacy.
Computers in pharmacy are used for the information of drug data, records and files, drug
management (creating, modifying, adding and deleting data in patient files to generate
reports), business details. The field of pharmacy is awe fully benefitted by use of
computers getting and comparing the information to yield an accurate study. In field of
operation like new drug discovery, drug design analysis, and manufacturing of drugs
and in hospital pharmacy computers are widely used. The drug discovery, designing,
manufacturing and analysis have become virtually possible only through the
development of upcoming various hard wares and soft wares. Receiving the details,
storing it and processing it and its dissemination is the main role of computers and this
continuous flow of information shows effective functioning of any system.
Applications of Computers in Pharmacy
1. Usage of computers in the retail pharmacy
2. Computer aided design of drugs (CADD)
3. Use of Computers in Hospital Pharmacy
4. Data storage and retrieval
5. Information system in Pharmaceutical Industry
6. Diagnostic laboratories
7. Computer aided learning
8. Clinical trial management
9. Adverse drug events control
10. Computers in pharmaceutical formulations
11. Computers in Toxicology and Risk Assessment
12. Computational modeling of drug disposition
13. Recent development in bio computation of drug development
14. In Research Publication
15. Digital Libraries
Usage of computers in the retail pharmacy
• Providing a receipt for the patient
• Record of transaction of money
• Ordering low quantity of products via electronic transitions
• Generation of multiple analysis for day, week, month for number of prescription
handles and amounts of cash
• Estimation of profits and financial rational analysis

• Printing of billing and payment details
• Inventory control purpose
• Whenever the drugs or medicaments are added to the stock or else removed from
stock; the position of stock gets updated instantaneously
• Records of various drug data, i.e., drug data information
• Computers are useful for getting the complete drug information which is used to satisfy
the queries
by patients about toxicology, adverse drug reactions, and drug-drug and drug-food
interactions.
• Drug Bank Data Base gives complete and detailed description of drug
(pharmacological and
pharmaceutical action) and also involves bioinformatics and cheminformation.
Computer aided design of drugs (CADD)
• CADD is referred as a distinct and advanced drug designing process
• It is a process of pronouncement of new medications
• With a base of the refined graphics software existing or feed data the medicinal
chemist have a
scope to design the new molecules and improve their efficiency of the action
Use of computers in hospital pharmacy
• In receiving and allotment of drugs
• Storing the details of every individual
• Professional supplies
• Records of dispensed drugs to inpatient and outpatient
• Information of patients records
• Patient monitoring (blood pressure, pulse rate, temperature)
The other applications include -
Data storage and retrieval
Information system in pharmaceutical
industry Pharmacoinformatics
Diagnostic
laboratories
Computer aided
learning Clinical
trial management
Computers in pharmaceutical formulations
Computers in toxicology and risk
assessment Computational modeling of
drug disposition
*************
Discuss the phases in drug design and development

Any drug development process must proceed through several stages in order to produce
a product that is safe, efficacious, and has passed all regulatory requirements.
Detailed Stages of Drug Development
1. Discovery
2. Product Characterization
3. Formulation, Delivery, Packaging Development
4. Pharmacokinetics And Drug Disposition
5. Preclinical Toxicology Testing And IND Application
6. Bioanalytical Testing
7. Clinical Trials
Discovery
Discovery often begins with target identification – choosing a biochemical
mechanism involved in a disease condition. Drug candidates, discovered in academic
and pharmaceutical/biotech research labs, are tested for their interaction with the drug
target. Up to 5,000 to 10,000 molecules for each potential drug candidate are
subjected to a rigorous screening process which can include functional genomics
and/or proteomics as well as other screening methods. Once scientists confirm
interaction with the drug target, they typically validate that target by checking for
activity versus the disease condition for which the drug is being developed. After
careful review, one or more lead compounds are chosen.
Product Characterization
When the candidate molecule shows promise as a therapeutic, it must be characterized—
the molecule’s size, shape, strengths and weaknesses, preferred conditions for
maintaining function, toxicity, bioactivity, and bioavailability must be determined.
Characterization studies will
undergo analytical method development and validation. Early stage pharmacology
studies help to characterize the underlying mechanism of action of the compound.
Formulation, Delivery, Packaging Development
Drug developers must devise a formulation that ensures the proper drug delivery
parameters. It is critical to begin looking ahead to clinical trials at this phase of the
drug development process. Drug formulation and delivery may be refined continuously
until, and even after, the drug’s final approval. Scientists determine the drug’s
stability—in the formulation itself, and for all the parameters involved with storage and
shipment, such as heat, light, and time. The formulation must remain potent and sterile;
and it must also remain safe (nontoxic). It may also be necessary to
perform leachables and extractables studies on containers or packaging.

Classification of Information Sources
Pharmacokinetics And Drug Disposition
Pharmacokinetic (PK) and ADME (Absorption/Distribution/Metabolism/Excretion)
studies provide useful feedback for formulation scientists. PK studies yield parameters
such as AUC (area under the curve), Cmax (maximum concentration of the drug in
blood), and Tmax (time at which Cmax is reached). Later on, this data from animal PK
studies is compared to data from early stage clinical trials to check the predictive
power of animal models.
Preclinical Toxicology Testing and IND Application
Preclinical testing analyzes the bioactivity, safety, and efficacy of the formulated drug
product. This testing is critical to a drug’s eventual success and, as such, is scrutinized
by many regulatory entities. During the preclinical stage of the development process,
plans for clinical trials and an Investigative New Drug (IND) application are prepared.
Studies taking place during the preclinical stage should be designed to support the
clinical studies that will follow.
Bioanalytical Testing
Bioanalytical laboratory work and bioanalytical method development supports most of
the other activities in the drug development process. The bioanalytical work is key to
proper characterization of the molecule, assay development, developing optimal
methods for cell culture or fermentation, determining process yields, and providing
quality assurance and quality control for the entire development process. It is also
critical for supporting preclinical toxicology/pharmacology testing and clinical trials.
Clinical Trials
Clinical trials are research investigations in which people volunteer to test new
treatments, interventions or tests as a means to prevent, detect, treat or manage various
diseases or medical conditions. Some investigations look at how people respond to a
new intervention* and what side effects might occur
Drug information
It is called drug information, medication information, or drug informatics. It’s really
the discovery, use, and management of information in the use of medications. Drug
information covers the gamut from identification, cost, and pharmacokinetics to
dosage and adverse effects. We may also need information about the body, health, or
diseases in order to better utilize the drug information.
Drug information sources have been traditionally classified in three different
categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary
PRIMARY SOURCES
Primary literature consists of clinical research studies and reports, both published and

unpublished. Not all literature published in a journal is classified as primary literature,
for example, review articles or editorials are not primary literature.
SECONDARY SOURCES
Secondary literature refers to references that either index or abstract the primary
literature, with the goal of directing the user to relevant primary literature.
TERTIARY SOURCES
Tertiary sources provide information that has been summarized and distilled by the
author or editor to provide a quick easy summary of a topic. Some examples of tertiary
resources include textbooks, compendia, review articles in journals, and other general
information, such as may be found on the Internet.
The role of a clinical pharmacy
Clinical pharmacy is the branch of pharmacy in which clinical pharmacists
provide direct patient care that optimizes the use of medication and
promotes health, wellness, and disease prevention. Clinical pharmacists care for
patients in all health care settings but the clinical pharmacy movement initially began
inside hospitals and clinics. Clinical pharmacists often work in collaboration with
physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and other healthcare professionals.
Clinical pharmacists can enter into a formal collaborative practice agreement with
another healthcare provider, generally one or more physicians, that allows pharmacists
to prescribe medications and order laboratory tests.
Within the system of health care, clinical pharmacists are experts in the therapeutic use
of medications. They routinely provide medication therapy evaluations and
recommendations to patients and other health care professionals. Clinical pharmacists
are a primary source of scientifically valid information and advice regarding the safe,
appropriate, and cost-effective use of medications. Clinical pharmacists are also
making themselves more readily available to the public. In the past, access to a clinical
pharmacist was limited to hospitals, clinics, or educational institutions. However,
clinical pharmacists are making themselves available through a medication information
hotline, and reviewing medication lists, all in an effort to prevent medication errors in
the foreseeablefuture.
Clinical pharmacists interact directly with patients in several different ways. They use
their knowledge of medication (including dosage, drug interactions, side effects,
expense, effectiveness, etc.) to determine if a medication plan is appropriate for their
patient. If it is not, the pharmacist will consult the primary physician to ensure that the
patient is on the proper medication plan. The pharmacist also works to educate their
patients on the importance of taking and finishing their medications.

The benefits of E – prescribing
Electronic prescribing (e-prescribing or e-Rx) is the computer-based electronic
generation, transmission, and filling of a medical prescription, taking the place of paper
and faxed prescriptions. E-prescribing allows a physician, pharmacist, nurse
practitioner, or physician assistant to use digital prescription software to electronically
transmit a new prescription or renewal authorization to a community or mail-order
pharmacy. It outlines the ability to send error-free, accurate, and understandable
prescriptions electronically from the healthcare provider to the pharmacy. E-
prescribing is meant to reduce the risks associated with traditional prescription script
writing. It is also one of the major reasons for the push for electronic medical records.
By sharing medical prescription information, e-prescribing seeks to connect the
patient's team of healthcare providers to facilitate knowledgeable decision making.
Barcode medication administration
Bar code medication administration (BCMA) is a bar code system designed by Glenna
Sue Kinnick to prevent medication errors in healthcare settings and to improve the
quality and safety of medication administration. The overall goals of BCMA are to
improve accuracy, prevent errors, and generate online records of medication
administration.
It consists of a bar code reader, a portable or desktop computer with wireless
connection, a computer server, and some software. When a nurse gives medication to a
patient in a healthcare setting, the nurse can scan the barcode on the patient's wristband
on the patient to verify the patient's identity. The nurse can then scan the bar code on
medication and use software to verify that he/she is administering the right medication
to the right patient at the right dose, through the right route, and at the right time ("five
rights of medication administration").Bar code medication administration was designed
as an additional check to aid the nurse in administering medications; however, it cannot
replace the expertise and professional judgment of the nurse. The implementation of
BCMA has shown a decrease in medication administration errors in the healthcare
setting.
The role of automated dispensing in healthcare
Automated dispensing is a pharmacy practice in which a device dispenses medications
and fills prescriptions. The most important thing a hospital pharmacy should enforce is
patient safety. Wrong drug and wrong dose errors are the most common errors
associated with ADC use.
Automated dispensing machines—decentralized medication distribution systems that
provide computer-controlled storage, dispensing, and tracking of medications—have
been recommended as one potential mechanism to improve efficiency and patient
safety, and they are now widely used in many hospitals.
Pharmacist’s Role in Medication Adherence
Medication adherence, or taking medications correctly, is generally defined as the
extent to which patients take medication as prescribed by their doctors. This involves
factors such as getting prescriptions filled, remembering to take medication on time,

and understanding the directions
Pharmacists have a major role in improving medication adherence in patients. They can
confirm that patients are on the correct medications and are not taking any other
treatments/drugs that may undermine the effectiveness of important therapies.
The use of Mathematical Modeling In Drug Discovery And Development.
In the fields of medicine, biotechnology and pharmacology, drug discovery is the
process by which new candidate medications are discovered. Drug discovery is a
complex undertaking facing many challenges, not the least of which is a high attrition
rate as many promising candidates prove ineffective or toxic in the clinic owing to a
poor understanding of the diseases, and thus the biological systems, they target.
Therefore, it is broadly agreed that to increase agreed that to increase the productivity
of drug discovery one needs a far deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms of
diseases, taking into account the full biological context of the drug target and moving
beyond individual genes and proteins. Mathematical methods are increasingly being
used in drug discovery to enquire into biological systems, with a view to understanding
the behavior in a more holisticway.
Present difficulties in drug development include an increase in cost and duration of drug
development, and only few new medical entities reach approval. It takes from 10 to 15
years to bring a new drug to market — at a cost of more than $1 billion. Many new
potential drugs fail because researchers lack reliable information about their behavior.
That leads to problems for both pharma industry and public health. Moreover, one can
observe some lack of interest of drug pharma for some disease areas due to high
potential costs of research. Mathematical model based approaches also been suggested
to expand the use of simulations in support of clinical drug development for predicting
outcomes of planned trials.

SCHOOL OF PHARMACY
UNIT – IV COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY – BP205T

UNIT – IV
Bioinformatics: Introduction, Objective of Bioinformatics, Bioinformatics Databases,
Concept of Bioinformatics, Impact of Bioinformatics in Vaccine Discovery
An overview on bioinformatics and its applications
Put simply, bioinformatics is the science of storing, retrieving and analysing large amounts of biological
information. It is a highly interdisciplinary field involving many different types of specialists, including
biologists,molecularlifescientists,computerscientistsandmathematicians.
The term bioinformatics was coined by Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper to describe "the study
of informatic processes in biotic systems" and it found early use when the first biological sequence
data begantobeshared. Whilsttheinitialanalysis methods arestillfundamentaltomanylarge-
scale experimentsinthemolecularlifesciences,nowadays bioinformatics is consideredtobea
much broader discipline, encompassing modelling and image analysis in addition to the classical
methods usedforcomparison oflinearsequences orthree-dimensionalstructures.
Abroadoverviewofthedifferenttypesofdatathatfallwithinthescopeofbioinformatics.
Traditionally,bioinformaticswasusedtodescribethescienceofstoringandanalysingbiomolecular
sequencedata,butthetermisnowusedmuchmorebroadly,encompassingcomputational
structuralbiology,chemicalbiologyandsystemsbiology(bothdataintegrationandthemodellingof
systems).
Themolecularlifescienceshavebecomeincreasinglydatadrivenbyandreliantondatasharing
throughopen-accessdatabases.Thisisastrueoftheappliedsciencesasitisoffundamentalresearch.
Furthermore, it is not necessary to be a bioinformatician to make use of bioinformatics databases,
methods and tools. However, as the generation of large data-sets becomes more and more central to
biomedical research, it’s becoming increasingly necessary for every molecular life scientist to
understandwhatcan(and,importantly,whatcannot)beachievedusingbioinformatics,andtobeable
toworkwithbioinformaticsexpertstodesign,analyseandinterprettheirexperiments.

The role of public databases
There are a small number of bioinformatics centres of excellence worldwide that have taken on the
responsibility to collect, catalogue and provideopen accessto published biological data (Figure 3).
Among these centres are:
• TheEMBL-European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI)
• TheUS NationalCenterforBiotechnology Information (NCBI)
• The National Institute of Genetics in Japan(NIG)
This work began in the early 1980s when DNA sequence data began to accumulate in the scientific
literature. The EMBLData Library (now the European NucleotideArchive) was developed to store
DNA sequences published in the scientific literature. The NCBI’s GenBank and NIG’s DDBJ
followed.
Theroleofbioinformaticscentresofexcellenceinmakingbiologicaldataavailablefortheresearch
community.
Goals of Bioinformatics
Tostudyhownormalcellularactivitiesarealteredindifferentdiseasestates,thebiologicaldatamust
be combined to form a comprehensive picture of these activities. Therefore, the field of bioinformatics
has evolved such that the most pressing task now involves the analysis and interpretation of various
types ofdata. This includes nucleotide andamino acid sequences,protein domains, andprotein
structures.[16]
The actual process of analyzing and interpreting data is referred to as computational
biology.Importantsub-disciplineswithinbioinformaticsandcomputationalbiologyinclude:
• Developmentandimplementationofcomputerprograms thatenableefficientaccess to,
management and use of, various types ofinformation
• Developmentofnewalgorithms(mathematicalformulas)andstatisticalmeasuresthatassess
relationships among members of large data sets. For example, there are methods to locate a
gene within a sequence, to predict protein structure and/or function, and to cluster protein
sequences into families ofrelated sequences.
Theprimarygoalofbioinformaticsistoincreasetheunderstandingofbiologicalprocesses.Whatsets

it apart from other approaches, however, is its focus on developing and applying computationally
intensive techniques to achieve this goal. Examples include: pattern recognition, data
mining, machine learning algorithms, and visualization. Major research efforts in the field
includesequence alignment,gene finding,genome assembly,drug design,drug discovery,protein
structure alignment,protein structure prediction,prediction ofgene expression andprotein–protein
interactions,genome-wideassociationstudies,themodelingofevolutionandcelldivision/mitosis.
Bioinformatics now entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational
and statistical techniques, and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the
management and analysis ofbiological data.
*******************
Biological databases and their uses
Biologicaldatabasesemergedasaresponsetothehugedatageneratedbylow-costDNAsequencing
technologies.OneofthefirstdatabasestoemergewasGenBank,whichisacollectionofallavailable
protein and DNA sequences. It is maintained by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and
the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). GenBank paved the way for the
Human GenomeProject(HGP).TheHGP allowed completesequencing and reading ofthegenetic
blueprint. Thedatastoredinbiologicaldatabasesisorganizedforoptimalanalysisandconsistsoftwo
types: raw and curated (or annotated). Biological databases are complex, heterogeneous,
dynamic, and yet inconsistent.
Why are these Important?
Earlier, databases and databanks were considered quite different. However, over the time, database
became a preferable term. Data is submitted directly to biological databases for indexing,
organization,anddataoptimization. Theyhelpresearchersfindrelevantbiologicaldatabymakingit
available in a format that is readable on a computer. All biological information is readily accessible
throughdataminingtoolsthatsavetimeandresources.Biologicaldatabasescanbebroadlyclassified
as sequence and structure databases. Structure databases are for protein structures, while sequence
databases are fornucleic acid andprotein sequences.
Kinds of Biological Databases
Biological databases can be further classified as primary, secondary, and composite databases.
Primarydatabasescontaininformationforsequenceorstructureonly.Examplesofprimarybiological
databases include:
• Swiss-Prot and PIR for protein sequences
• GenBank and DDBJ for genome sequences
• Protein Databank for protein structures
Secondary databases contain information derived from primary databases. Secondary databases store
information such as conserved sequences, active site residues, and signature sequences. Protein
Databank datais stored insecondary databases. Examples include:
• SCOP at Cambridge University

• CATH at the University College of London
• PROSITE ofthe Swiss Institute ofBioinformatics
• eMOTIF at Stanford Composite databases contain a variety of primary databases, which
eliminates the need to search each one separately. Each composite database has different search
algorithms and data structures. The NCBI hosts these databases, where links to the Online
MendelianInheritanceinMan(OMIM)is found.
The Future
Because of high-performance computational platforms, these databases have become important in
providing the infrastructure needed for biological research, from data preparation to data extraction.
The simulation of biological systems also requires computational platforms, which further
underscorestheneedforbiologicaldatabases.Thefutureofbiologicaldatabases looksbright,inpart
due to the digital world.
Intermsofresearch,bioinformaticstoolsshouldbestreamlinedforanalyzingthegrowingamountof
data generated from genomics, metabolomics, proteomics, and metagenomics. Another future trend
willbetheannotation ofexistingdataandbetterintegrationofdatabases.
With a large number of biological databases available, the need for integration, advancements, and
improvements in bioinformatics is paramount. Bioinformatics will steadily advance when
problems aboutnomenclatureandstandardizationareaddressed.Thegrowthofbiologicaldatabases
will pave the way for further studies on proteins and nucleic acids, impacting therapeutics,
biomedical,and related fields.
***************
The role of bioinformatics in drug and vaccine development.
Vaccines are the pharmaceutical products that offer the best cost‐benefit ratio in the prevention or
treatment of diseases. In that a vaccine is a pharmaceutical product, vaccine development and
production are costly and it takes years for this to be accomplished. Several approaches have been
applied to reduce the times and costs of vaccine development, mainly focusing on the selection of
appropriateantigensorantigenicstructures, carriers,andadjuvants.
One of these approaches is the incorporation of bioinformatics methods and analyses into vaccine
development. This chapter provides an overview of the application of bioinformatics strategies in
vaccine design and development, supplying some successful examples of vaccines in
which bioinformatics has furnished a cutting edge in their development. Reverse
vaccinology, immunoinformatics, and structural vaccinology are described and addressed in
the design and development of specific vaccines against infectious diseases caused by bacteria,
viruses, and parasites.
These include some emerging or re‐emerging infectious diseases,as well as therapeuticvaccines to
fight cancer, allergies, and substance abuse, which have been facilitated and improved by using
bioinformaticstoolsorwhichareunderdevelopmentbasedonbioinformaticsstrategies.

Thesuccess of vaccination is reflected in its worldwide impact by improving human and veterinary
healthandlifeexpectancy.Ithasbeenassertedthatvaccination,aswellascleanwater,hashadsuch a
major effect on mortality reduction and population growth. In addition to the invaluable role of

traditional vaccines to prevent diseases, the society has observed remarkable scientific and
technologicalprogresssincethelastcenturyintheimprovementofthesevaccinesandthegeneration
of newones.
This has been possible by the fusion of computational technologies with the application of
recombinant DNA technology, the fast growth of biological and genomic information in
database banks,andthepossibilityofacceleratedandmassivesequencingofcompletegenomes.This
has aided in expanding the concept and application of vaccines beyond their traditional
immunoprophylactic functionofpreventing infectious diseases,andalso servingas therapeutic
productscapableof modifying the evolution ofa disease and even cure it.
Vaccines are the pharmaceutical products that offer the best cost‐benefit ratio in the prevention or
treatment of diseases. In that it is a pharmaceutical product, a vaccine development and production
are costly and it takes years for this to be accomplished. Several approaches have been applied to
reduce the times and costs of their development, mainly focusing on the selection of appropriate
antigens or antigenic structures, carriers, and adjuvants. One of these approaches is the incorporation of
bioinformatics methods andanalyses intovaccine development.
At present, there are many alternative strategies to design and develop effective and safe new‐
generation vaccines, based on bioinformatics approaches through reverse vaccinology,
immunoinformatics, and structural vaccinology.
Reverse vaccinology
Reversevaccinologyisamethodologythatusesbioinformaticstoolsfortheidentificationof
structuresfrombacteria,virus,parasites,cancercells,orallergensthatcouldinduceanimmune
responsecapableof protecting againsta specific disease
Immunoinformatics
Theimmunologicalsystemcanbeclassifiedascellularorhumoraland,dependingonthedisease,it
canbeinducedtheexpectedimmuneresponse.Ifavaccinethatinducesacellularresponseis
needed,forexampleatuberculosisvaccineoraparasitevaccineagainstleishmaniasis[23],the
softwaremustsearchforantigensthatcanberecognizedbythemajorhistocompatibilitycomplex
(MHC)moleculespresentinTlymphocytes.SoftwareforthispurposeincludeTEpredict,
CTLPred, nHLAPred,ProPred‐I,MAPPP,SVMHC,GPS‐MBA,PREDIVAC,NetMHC,
NetCTL,MHC2Pred,IEDB,
BIMAS,SVMHC,POPI,Epitopemap,iVAX,FRED2,Rankpep,BIMAS,PickPocket,KISS,and
MHC2MIL.
Structural vaccinology
Structuralvaccinologyfocusesontheconformationalfeaturesofmacromolecules,mainlyproteins
that makethemgood candidate antigens.This approach tovaccinedesign hasbeen used mainly to
selectordesignpeptide‐basedvaccinesorcross‐reactiveantigenswiththecapabilityofgenerating
immunityagainstdifferent antigenically divergentpathogens.

********
A brief timeline of the major events in the history and the origins of bioinformatics.
A Chronological Hlstory of Blolnformatlcs
• 19S3 - Watson & Crick pmposed the double helix model for DNA based x-ray data
obtained by Franklin & Wilkins.
• 19S4 - Perutz’s group develop heavy atom methods to solve the phase problem in
protein crystallography.
• 19S5 - The sequence of the first pmtein to be analysed, bovine insulin, is announed by
• 19G9 - The ARPANET is created by linking computers at Standford and UCLA.
• 1970 - The details of the Needleman-Wiinsch algorithm for sequence comparison are
published.
• 1972 - The first recombinant DNA molecule is created by Paul Berg and his gmup.
• 1973 - The Brookhaven Pmtein DataBank is annoiineced (Acta.Ctyst.B,1973,29:1764).
Roberi Metcalfe receives his Ph.D finn Harvard University. His thesis describes
Ethernet.
• 1974 - Vint Cerf and Robert Khan develop the concept of connecting networks of
computers into an "internet“ and develop the Transmission Control Protocol {TCP}.
• 1975 - Microsofi Corporation is founded by Bill Gates and Paul Allen.
Two-dimensional electrophoresis, where separation of proteins on SDS
polyacrylamide gel is combined with separation according to isoelectric points, is
announced by P.H.OTarre1.
• 1988 - The National Centre for Biotechnology Information {NCBI) is established at the
National Cancer Institute.
The Human Genome Intiative is started (commission on Life Sciences, National
Research council. Mapping and sequencing the Human Genome, National Academy
Press: wahington, D.C.), 1988.
The FASTA algorith for sequence comparison is published by Pearson and Lupman. A
new pmgram, an Internet computer vinis defined by a student, infects 6,000 military
computers in the US.
• 1989 - The genetics Computer Group (GCG) becomes a privatae company.
Oxford Molecular Gmup,Ltd.{OMG) founded, UK by Anthony Marchigton, David Ricketts,
James Hiddleston, Anthony Rsss, and W.Graham Richards. Primary products: Anaconds,
Asp, Cameleon and others (molecular modeling, drug design, protein design).
• 1990 - The BLAST program (Altschul,st.al.) is implemented.
Molecular applications group is founded in California by Michael Levitt and Chris Lee. Their
primary pmducts are Look and SegMod which are used for molecular modeling and protein
deisign.
InforMax is founded in Bsthesda, MD. The company's products address sequence analysis,
database and data management, searching, publication graphics, clone oonsbuction, trapping
and primsr design.
• 1991 - The research institute in Geneva (CERN} announces the creation of the protocols
which make -up the World Wide Web.
The creation and use of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) is described.
Incyte Pharmaceuticals, a genomics company headqiiartered in Palo Alto California, is

formed.
Myriad Genetics, Inc. is founded in Utah. The company’s goal is to lead in the discovery of
major common human disease genes and their related pathways. The company has discovered
and sequenced, with its academic cnllaboratnrs, the

********
Nucleic acid and protein databases with an example.
TheNucleicAcid Database (NDB)(http://ndbserver.rutgers.edu)isawebportalprovidingaccess
to information about 3D nucleic acid structures and theircomplexes.
Protein sequence databases Introduction: The Protein database is a collection of
sequences from several sources, including translations from annotated coding regions in
GenBank,RefSeqandTPA, as well as records fromSwissProt, PIR,PRF, and PDB.
DNA databases
Primary databases
International Nucleotide Sequence Database (INSD) consists of the following databases.
• DNA Data BankofJapan (National Institute of Genetics)

• EMBL (European Bioinformatics Institute)
• GenBank(NationalCenter forBiotechnology Information)
DDBJ(Japan),GenBank(USA)andEuropeanNucleotideArchive(Europe)arerepositoriesfor
nucleotidesequencedatafromallorganisms.Allthreeacceptnucleotidesequencesubmissions,and
thenexchangenewandupdateddataonadailybasistoachieveoptimalsynchronisationbetween
them.Thesethreedatabasesareprimarydatabases,astheyhouseoriginalsequencedata.They
collaborate with Sequence Read Archive (SRA), which archives raw reads from high-
throughput sequencing instruments.
Secondary databases
• 23andMe's database
• HapMap
• OMIM (OnlineMendelian Inheritance inMan): inherited diseases
• RefSeq
• 1000GenomesProject:launchedinJanuary2008.Thegenomesofmorethanathousand
anonymousparticipantsfromanumberofdifferentethnicgroupswereanalyzedandmade
publicly available.
• EggNOG Database: a hierarchical, functionally and phylogenetically annotated
orthology resourcebasedon5090organismsand2502viruses.Itprovidesmultiple
sequence alignmentsandmaximum-likelihoodtrees,aswellasbroadfunctional
annotation.[
RNA databases
• miRBase:themicroRNAdatabase
• Rfam:adatabaseofRNAfamilies
Amino acid / protein databases
Protein sequence databases
• Database ofInteracting Proteins (Univ. ofCalifornia)
• DisProt:databaseofexperimentalevidencesofdisorderinproteins(IndianaUniversity
SchoolofMedicine,TempleUniversity, Universityof Padua)
• InterPro:classifiesproteinsintofamiliesandpredictsthepresenceofdomainsandsites
• MobiDB:databaseofintrinsicproteindisorderannotation(UniversityofPadua)
• neXtProt: ahumanprotein-centric knowledge resource
• Pfam:proteinfamiliesdatabaseofalignmentsandHMMs(SangerInstitute)
• PRINTS:acompendiumofproteinfingerprintsfrom(ManchesterUniversity)
• PROSITE: database ofprotein families anddomains
• ProteinInformationResource(GeorgetownUniversityMedicalCenter[GUMC])
• SUPERFAMILY:libraryofHMMsrepresentingsuperfamiliesanddatabaseof
(superfamily andfamily)annotationsforallcompletely sequenced organisms
• Swiss-Prot:proteinknowledgebase(SwissInstituteofBioinformatics)
• NCBI:proteinsequenceandknowledgebase(NationalCenterforBiotechnology
Information)
Protein structure databases

• Protein Data Bank (PDB), comprising:
o Protein DataBank in Europe (PDBe)
o ProteinDatabank in Japan (PDBj)
o ResearchCollaboratoryforStructuralBioinformatics (RCSB)
• Structural Classification of Proteins(SCOP)
********
Genome annotation and its importance
DNAannotationorgenomeannotationistheprocessofidentifyingthelocationsofgenesandallof
thecodingregionsinagenomeanddeterminingwhatthosegenesdo.Anannotation(irrespective
ofthecontext)isanoteaddedbywayofexplanationorcommentary.Onceagenomeissequenced,
it needs to be annotated to make sense of it.
Process
Genome annotation consists of three main steps:.
1. identifyingportions ofthe genomethatdonotcode for proteins
2. identifyingelementsonthegenome,aprocesscalledgeneprediction
3. attaching biological information to these elements
Automaticannotationtoolsattempttoperformthesestepsviacomputeranalysis,asopposedto
manual annotation (a.k.a. curation) which involves human expertise. Ideally, these approaches co-
existandcomplement eachotherinthe sameannotation pipeline.
Asimplemethodofgeneannotationreliesonhomologybasedsearchtools,likeBLAST,tosearch
for homologousgenesinspecificdatabases,theresultinginformationisthenusedtoannotategenes
and genomes. However, as information is added to the annotation platform, manual annotators
becomecapableofdeconvolutingdiscrepanciesbetweengenesthataregiventhesameannotation.
Somedatabasesusegenomecontextinformation,similarityscores,experimentaldata,and
integrationsofotherresourcestoprovidegenomeannotationsthroughtheirSubsystemsapproach.
Otherdatabases(e.g.Ensembl)relyoncurateddatasourcesaswellasarangeofdifferentsoftware
tools in theirautomated genome annotation pipeline
Bioinformatics in understanding molecular evolution
Molecularevolutionistheprocessofchangeinthesequencecompositionofcellularmoleculessuch
as DNA, RNA, and proteins across generations. The field of molecular evolution uses
principles ofevolutionarybiologyandpopulationgeneticstoexplainpatternsinthesechanges.
Molecularsystematicsistheproductofthetraditionalfieldsofsystematicsandmoleculargenetics.It
uses DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to resolve questions in systematics, i.e. about their
correctscientificclassificationortaxonomyfromthepointofviewofevolutionarybiology.
Molecular systematics has been made possible by the availability of techniques for DNA
sequencing, which allow the determination of the exact sequence of nucleotides or bases in either
DNA or RNA. Atpresentit isstill along andexpensive processto sequence theentiregenomeofan
organism, and this has been done for only a few species. However, it is quite feasible to determine
the sequence of a defined area of a particular chromosome. Typical molecular systematic

analyses requirethe sequencing of around 1000 base pairs.

********
Bioinformatics help in understanding gene regulation
Generegulationis thecomplexorchestrationofeventsbywhichasignal,potentiallyanextracellular
signal such as ahormone, eventually leads to an increase or decrease in the activity of one or
moreproteins.Bioinformaticstechniqueshavebeenappliedtoexplorevariousstepsinthisprocess.
Forexample,geneexpressioncanberegulatedbynearby elementsinthegenome.Promoteranalysis
involves the identification and study of sequence motifs in the DNA surrounding the coding region
of a gene. These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into
mRNA.Enhancerelements far away from the promoter can also regulate gene expression, through
three-dimensional looping interactions. These interactions can be determined by bioinformatic
analysis ofchromosome conformation capture experiments.
Expressiondatacanbeusedtoinfergeneregulation:onemightcompare microarray datafromawide
varietyofstatesofanorganismtoformhypothesesaboutthegenesinvolvedineachstate.Inasingle-
cellorganism,one might compare stages ofthe cellcycle, along with various stress conditions (heat
shock, starvation, etc.). One can then apply clustering algorithms to that expression data to determine
whichgenesareco-expressed.Forexample,theupstreamregions(promoters)ofco-expressedgenes
can be searched for over-represented regulatory elements. Examples of clustering algorithms applied
in gene clustering are k-means clustering, self-organizing maps (SOMs), hierarchical clustering,
and consensus clustering methods.
********
OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) is a continuously updated catalog of human
genesandgeneticdisordersandtraits,withaparticularfocusonthegene-phenotyperelationship.As
of 28 June 2019, approximately 9,000 of the over 25,000 entries in OMIM represented
phenotypes; therestrepresented genes,manyofwhich wererelated toknownphenotypes.
OMIMistheonlinecontinuationofDr.VictorA.McKusick'sMendelian Inheritance in
Man (MIM), whichwaspublishedin12editionsbetween1966and1998.Nearlyallofthe1,486
entriesinthe first edition of MIM discussed phenotypes.
MIM/OMIM is produced and curated at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine (JHUSOM).
OMIM becameavailableontheinternetin1987underthedirectionoftheWelchMedicalLibrary at
JHUSOM with financial support from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. From 1995 to
2010,OMIMwas availableontheWorldWideWebwithinformaticsandfinancialsupportfromthe
National Center for Biotechnology Information. The current OMIM website (OMIM.org),
which was developed with funding from JHUSOM, is maintained by Johns Hopkins
Universitywith financial support from the National Human Genome Research Institute.
********

The importance of PUBMED
PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and
abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of
Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health maintain the database as part of the Entrez
system ofinformation retrieval.
From 1971 to 1997, online access to the MEDLINE database had been primarily through
institutional facilities, such asuniversity libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered
in the era of private, free, home- and office-based MEDLINE searching. The PubMed system was
offered free to the public starting in June 1997.
Content
In addition to MEDLINE, PubMed provides access to:
• olderreferencesfromtheprintversionofIndex Medicus,backto1951andearlier
• referencestosomejournalsbeforetheywereindexedinIndexMedicusandMEDLINE,
for instance Science, BMJ, and Annals of Surgery
• veryrecententriestorecordsforanarticlebeforeitisindexedwithMedicalSubject
Headings (MeSH) and added to MEDLINE
• acollectionofbooks available full-textandothersubsets ofNLM records
• PMC citations
• NCBI Bookshelf
ManyPubMedrecordscontainlinkstofulltextarticles,someofwhicharefreelyavailable,often
inPubMedCentral andlocal mirrors,suchas UK PubMedCentral.
InformationaboutthejournalsindexedinMEDLINE,andavailablethroughPubMed,isfoundin
the NLM Catalog.

1
SCHOOL OF PHARMACY
UNIT – V COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY – BP205T

2
UNIT – V
Computers as data analysis in Preclinical development: Chromatographic dada
analysis(CDS), Laboratory Information management System (LIMS) and Text Information
Management System(TIMS)
An overview of data and analysis methods using computers in healthcare.
Information has been the key to a better organization and new developments. The more
information we have, the more optimally we can organize ourselves to deliver the best
outcomes. That is why data collection is an important part for every organization. We can
also use this data for the prediction of current trends of certain parameters and future
events. As we are becoming more and more aware of this, we have started producing and
collecting more data about almost everything by introducing technological developments in
this direction. Today, we are facing a situation wherein we are flooded with tons of data
from every aspect of our life such as social activities, science, work, health, etc. In a way,
we can compare the present situation to a data deluge. The technological advances have
helped us in generating more and more data, even to a level where it has become
unmanageable with currently available technologies. This has led to the creation of the
term ‘big data’ to describe data that is large and unmanageable. In order to meet our
present and future social needs, we need to develop new strategies to organize this data and
derive meaningful information. One such special social need is healthcare. Like every other
industry, healthcare organizations are producing data at a tremendous rate that presents
many advantages and challenges at the same time. In this review, we discuss about the
basics of big data including its management, analysis and future prospects especially in
healthcare sector.
‘Big data’ is massive amounts of information that can work wonders. It has become a topic
of special interest for the past two decades because of a great potential that is hidden in it.
Various public and private sector industries generate, store, and analyze big data with an
aim to improve the services they provide. In the healthcare industry, various sources for big
data include hospital records, medical records of patients, results of medical examinations,
and devices that are a part of internet of things. Biomedical research also generates a
significant portion of big data relevant to public healthcare.
This data requires proper management and analysis in order to derive meaningful
information. Otherwise, seeking solution by analyzing big data quickly becomes
comparable to finding a needle in the haystack. There are various challenges associated
with each step of handling big data which can only be surpassed by using high-end
computing solutions for big data analysis. That is why, to provide relevant solutions for
improving public health, healthcare providers are required to be fully equipped with
appropriate infrastructure to systematically generate and analyze big data.
An efficient management, analysis, and interpretation of big data can change the game by
opening new avenues for modern healthcare. That is exactly why various industries,
including the healthcare industry, are taking vigorous steps to convert this potential into
better services and financial advantages. With a strong integration of biomedical and
healthcare data, modern healthcare organizations can possibly revolutionize the medical
therapies and personalized medicine.

3
Chromatography Data System
Chromatography is a laboratory technique for the separation of a mixture. The mixture is
dissolved in a fluid called the mobile phase, which carries it through a structure holding
another material called the stationary phase. The various constituents of the mixture
travel at different speeds, causing them to separate. The separation is based on
differential partitioning between the mobile and stationary phases. Subtle differences in a
compound's partition coefficient result in differential retention on the stationary phase
and thus affect the separation.
Chromatography may be preparative or analytical. The purpose of preparative
chromatography is to separate the components of a mixture for later use, and is thus a form
of purification. Analytical chromatography is done normally with smaller amounts of
material and is for establishing the presence or measuring the relative proportions of
analytes in a mixture.
Sometimes referred to as a chromatography data management system (CDMS), a
chromatography data system(CDS) is a set of dedicated data-collection tools that interface
and/or integrate with a laboratory's chromatography equipment. A base CDS will set up a
desired methodology to be used by the chromatography equipment, acquire data from
it, process the acquired data, store the information in a database, and interface with
other laboratory informatics systems to importand export files and data.
A CDS may be set up for use in three primary ways:
as a standalone system that controls two or more chromatographs
as a standalone system that controls a single chromatograph, including LC-MS
or GC-MS instruments
as a networked system that controls multiple instruments in one or more labs
********
LIMS – Its benefits & advantages
A Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS) is software that allows you to
effectively manage samples and associated data. By using a LIMS, your lab can automate
workflows, integrate instruments, and manage samples and associated information.
Key advantages of using a LIMS

4
A Laboratory Information Management System offers a multitude of benefits in terms of
laboratory data management. Some of the key functional benefits of a LIMS are:
1. Sample management wherein a user can efficiently track samples through the laboratory
and allocate storage locations that mimic the sample storage hierarchy.
2. Workflow automation that leads to a decrease in possible human errors by eliminating
manual entry of data.
3. Configurable user interface to meet the unique requirements of different laboratories and
mirror their existing workflows.
4. Secure and restricted access to the data leading to better data privacy and protection.
5. Easy data backup and data mining options, resolving data accessibility issues.
6. User-role based access distribution to mirror the real-time laboratory personnel hierarchy.
7. Ease of reporting, wherein an authorized user can quickly generate reports pertaining to
(a) the various tests performed, and (b) data required for auditing and quick analysis (for
example, the total number of samples logged during a particular period or from a particular
region).
8. Streamlined billing process by generating invoices and integrating with the various
payment portals.
********
Text information management systems

6
********
Chromatography and its types
The twelve types are: (1) Column Chromatography (2) Paper Chromatography (3) Thin
Layer Chromatography (4) Gas Chromatography (5) High Performance Liquid
Chromatography (6) Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography (7) Supercritical Fluid
Chromatography (8) Affinity Chromatography
(9) Reversed Phase Chromatography (10) Two Dimensional Chromatography (11)
Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography and (12) Counter Current Chromatography.
There are different kinds of chromatographic techniques and these are classified according
to the shape of bed, physical state of mobile phase, separation mechanisms. Apart from
these there are certain modified forms of these chromatographic techniques involving
different mechanisms and are hence categorized as modified or specialized chromatographic
techniques.
Laboratory information
A laboratory information system (LIS) is a software system that records, manages, and
stores data for clinical laboratories. An LIS has traditionally been most adept at sending
laboratory test orders to lab instruments, tracking those orders, and then recording the
results, typically to a searchable database.
Components of LIMS
Components may
include:
• Electronic lab notebooks.
• Sample management programs.
• Process execution software.

7
• Records management software.
• Applications to interface with analytical instruments or data systems.
• Workflow tools.
• Client tracking applications.
• Best practice and compliance databases.
********
Preclinical studies in drug development
In drug development, preclinical development, also named preclinical studies and
nonclinical studies, is a stage of research that begins before clinical trials (testing in
humans) can begin, and during which important feasibility, iterative testing and drug
safety data are collected.
The main goals of pre-clinical studies are to determine the safe dose for first-in-man
study and assess a product's safety profile. Products may include new medical devices,
drugs, gene therapy solutions and diagnostic tools. On average, only one in every 5,000
compounds that enters drug discovery to the stage of preclinical development becomes
an approved drug.
Preclinical studies refer to the testing of a drug, procedure or other medical treatment in
animals before trials may be carried out in humans. During preclinical drug development,
the drug's toxic and pharmacological effects need to be evaluated through in vitro and in
vivo laboratory animal testing.
Why are preclinical studies important?
The most important role of preclinical pharmacology studies is to identify the starting dose
for Phase I clinical trials. In these studies, the safety profiles of lead compounds are
evaluated through a battery of assessment assays adapted to determining side effects of new
agents.
Types of data generated in a hospital environment
Health data is any data "related to health conditions, reproductive outcomes, causes of
death, and quality of life"[1]
for an individual or population. Health data includes clinical
metrics along with environmental, socioeconomic, and behavioral information pertinent to
health and wellness. A plurality of health data are collected and used when individuals
interact with health care systems. This data, collected by health care providers, typically
includes a record of services received, conditions of those services, and clinical outcomes
or information concerning those services. Historically, most health data have been sourced
from this framework. The advent of e Health and advances in health information
technology, however, have expanded the collection and use of health data—but have also
engendered new security, privacy, and ethical concerns. The increasing collection and use
of health data by patients is a major component of digital health
Health data are classified as either structured or unstructured. Structured health data are
standardized and easily transferable between health information systems. For example, a
patient's name, date of birth, or a blood-test result can be recorded in a structured data
format. Unstructured health data, unlike structured data, are not standardized. Emails, audio
recordings, or physician notes about a patient are examples of unstructured health data.

8
While advances in health information technology have expanded collection and use, the
complexity of health data has hindered standardization in the health care industry.
The standard operating procedures in preclinical development
Preclinical drug development stages. Following identification of a drug target and
candidate compounds, several early activities, such as pharmacology, in vivo efficacy, and
experimental toxicology, can contribute to the selection of a lead candidate for preclinical
development. These preclinical activities provide the basis for an Investigational New Drug
(IND) application to the FDA for permission to initiate clinical testing in humans. ADME,
absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion; API, active pharmaceutical ingredient;
PK, pharmacokinetics; Prep, preparation; Tox, toxicity.
Drug development is time consuming and costly which contains preclinical, clinical and
after-market. In principle, if all the processes are straight-forward, a drug can be developed
in a seven year period. In practice, drug development takes in excess of twelve years.
Procedures are tightly regulated both for safety and to ensure drugs are effective. Of the
many compounds studied with the potential to become a medicine, most are eliminated
during the initial research phases. Clinical trials follow extensive research using in vitro and
animal studies. Even so, many drugs are withdrawn or fail, never becoming approved as
medicines. Common reasons include side-effects, the drug proving less effective than
hoped or lacking financial viability.
References
1. https://www.wikipedia.org
2. https://www.enago.com/academy/biological-databases-an-overview-and-future-
perspectives/
3. https://www.intechopen.com/books/vaccines/the-impact-of-bioinformatics-on-vaccine-
design- and-development

Documentation BP205T Computer Application in pharmacy Documentation .pdf

More Related Content

Similar to Documentation BP205T Computer Application in pharmacy Documentation .pdf (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Documentation BP205T Computer Application in pharmacy Documentation .pdf