Dyslipidemia2019

• New evidence has confirmed that the key initiating event in
atherogenesis is the retention of low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol (LDL-C) and other cholesterol-rich apolipoprotein
(Apo) Bcontaining lipoproteins within the arterial wall.
• Several recent placebo-controlled clinical studies have shown that
the addition of either ezetimibe or anti-proprotein convertase
subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to
statin therapy provides a further reduction in atherosclerotic
cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk, which is directly and
positively correlated with the incrementally achieved absolute LDL-
C reduction.
• Furthermore, these clinical trials have clearly indicated that the
lower the achieved LDL-C values, the lower the risk of future
cardiovascular (CV) events, with no lower limit for LDL-C values,
or ‘J’-curve effect.

• For raising high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol
(HDL-C), recent studies have indicated that the currently
available therapies do not reduce the risk of ASCVD.
• Finally, human Mendelian randomization studies have
demonstrated the critical role of LDL-C, and other
cholesterolrich Apo containing lipoproteins, in
atherosclerotic plaque formation and related subsequent
CV events.
• Thus, there is no longer an ‘LDL-C hypothesis’, but
established facts that increased LDL-C values are
causally related to ASCVD, and that lowering LDL
particles and other ApoB-containing lipoproteins as much
as possible reduces CV events.

What is cardiovascular disease
prevention?
• Prevention is defined as a co-ordinated set of actions, either at
the population or individual level, aimed at eliminating
orminimizing the impact of CV diseases and their related
disabilities.
• More patients are surviving their first CVD event and are at
high-risk of recurrences.
• In addition, the prevalence of some risk factors, notably
diabetes (DM) and obesity, is increasing. The importance of
ASCVD prevention remains undisputed and should be
delivered at the general population level by promoting healthy
lifestyle behaviour, and at the individual level by tackling
unhealthy lifestyles and by reducing increased levels of causal
CV risk factors, such as LDL cholesterol or blood pressure
(BP) levels

Total cardiovascular risk estimation
• Persons with documented ASCVD, type 1 or type 2 DM
(T1DM and T2DM, respectively), very high levels of
individual risk factors, or chronic kidney disease (CKD)
are generally at very-high or high total CV risk. No risk
estimation models are needed for such persons; they all
need active management of all risk factors.
• Another approach to this problem is to use CV risk age.
The risk age of a person with several CV risk factors is
the age of a person with the same level of risk but with
ideal levels of risk factors. Thus, a high-risk 40-year-old
would have a risk age >_65 yea

• Risk age has been shown to be independent of the CV
endpoint used, can be used in any population
regardless of baseline risk or secular changes in
mortality, and therefore avoids the need for
recalibration.
• Lifetime risk is another approach to illustrate the
impact of risk factors that may be useful in younger
people. The greater the burden of risk factors, the
higher the lifetime risk

SCORE
• parameters: age, gender, smoking, systolic blood pressure,
and total cholesterol.
• To convert the risk of fatal cardiovascular disease to risk of
total (fatal non-fatal) cardiovascular disease, multiply by 3 in
men and by 4 in women, and slightly less in older people.
• Note: the Systematic Coronary Risk Estimation chart is for use
in people without :
• 1-overt cardiovascular disease,
• 2- diabetes (type 1 and 2),
• 3- chronic kidney disease,
• 4- familial hypercholesterolaemia, or very high levels of
individual risk factors because such people are already at
highrisk and need intensive risk factor management.
Cholesterol: 1 mmol/L = 38.67 mg/dL.

• The SCORE risk charts presented above differ slightly from
those in the 2016 European Society of Cardiology/European
Atherosclerosis Society Guidelines for the management of
dyslipidaemias and the 2016 European Guidelines on
cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice, in that:
• (i) age has been extended from age 65 to 70;
• (ii) the interaction between age
• and each of the other risk factors has been incorporated, thus
reducing the overestimation of risk in older persons in the
original Systematic Coronary Risk Estimation charts; and
• (iii) the cholesterol band of 8 mmol/L has been removed,
since such persons will qualify for further evaluation in any
event

Role of non-invasive cardiovascular imaging techniques
in the assessment of total cardiovascular disease risk
• In asymptomatic patients at low or moderate risk who would be eligible for
statin therapy , assessment of ASCVD with imaging may have an impact
on medical treatment, both from the physician’s and the patient’s points of
view. Data from the Multi- Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)
showed that 41-57% of individuals who would be eligible for statin therapy
had a CAC score of zero and the rate of atherosclerotic CVD events in the
10 year follow-up period was low (1.5-4.9%).
• In contrast, the rates of ASCVD and coronary heart disease (CHD) events
in individuals with a CAC score >100 Agatston were 18.9 and 12.7 per
1000 person years, respectively.
• Compared with a strategy of treating all patients, the use of CAC score to
guide long-term statin therapy has been shown to be cost-effective.
• Note that CAC score is often very low in patients younger than 45 years of
age with severe familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH), including
homozygous FH (HoFH), and has low specificity in this population

• Overall, CAC score assessment with CT should be considered
in individuals at low or moderate risk in whom the respective
LDL-C goal is not achieved with lifestyle intervention alone,
and pharmacological therapy is an option (see Table 5).
• The use of imaging techniques to determine the presence and
extent of atherosclerotic vascular damage in low-risk
individuals not being considered for statin therapy is not
justified due to low prognostic yield, and the associated costs
and radiation hazards when measuring CAC score, particularly
among low-risk women.
• Of note, CAC score is increased following statin treatment;
therefore, the CAC scores of statin-treated patients should be
interpreted with caution.

Lipoproteins and plasma lipids
• Lipoproteins in plasma transport lipids to tissues for
energy utilization, lipid deposition, steroid hormone
production, and bile acid formation.
• Lipoproteins consist of esterified and unesterified
cholesterol, TGs, and phospholipids and protein
components named apolipoproteins that act as
structural components, ligands for cellular receptor
binding, and enzyme activators or inhibitors

• All ApoB-containing lipoproteins <70 nm in
diameter, including smaller TG-rich lipoproteins and
their remnant particles, can cross the endothelial
barrier, especially in the presence of endothelial
dysfunction, where they can become trapped after
interaction with extracellular structures such as
proteoglycans lipoproteins retained in the arterial
wall provoke a complex process that leads to lipid
deposition and the initiation of an atheroma.

• Continued exposure to ApoB-containing lipoproteins
leads to additional particles being retained over time
in the artery wall, and to the growth and progression
of atherosclerotic plaques. On average, people with
higher concentrations of plasma ApoB-containing
lipoproteins will retain more particles and accumulate
lipids faster, resulting in more rapid growth and the
progression of atherosclerotic plaques

TG
• Elevated plasma TG levels are associated with an
increasing risk of ASCVD, but this association becomes
null after adjusting for non- HDL-C, an estimate of the
total concentration of all ApoB-containing lipoproteins.
• Similarly, lowering TG with fibrates reduces the risk of
CV events by the same amount as LDL-C-lowering
therapies when measured per unit change of non-HD
C,suggesting that the effect of plasma TGs on ASCVD is
mediated by changes in the concentration of TG-rich
lipoproteins as estimated by non-HDL-C.

• A recent Mendelian randomization study demonstrated
that TG-lowering lipoprotein lipase (LPL) variants and
LDL-C-lowering LDL receptor variants had the same
effect on the risk of ASCVD per unit change of ApoB,
suggesting that all ApoB-containing lipoproteins have the
same effect on the risk of CHD.
• Together, these studies strongly suggest that the causal
effect of TG-rich lipoproteins and their remnants on the
risk of ASCVD is determined by the circulating
concentration of ApoB-containing particles, rather than
by the TG content itself

HDL
• In the Effects of Dalcetrapib in Patients with a Recent Acute
Coronary Syndrome (dal-OUTCOMES) trial, treatment with the
cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitor dalcetrapib
increased HDL-C without any effect on LDL-C or ApoB, but did
not reduce the risk of major CV events.
• Similarly, in the Assessment of Clinical Effects of Cholesteryl Ester
Transfer Protein Inhibition with Evacetrapib in Patients at a High-
Risk for Vascular Outcomes (ACCELERATE)
• and Randomized Evaluation of the Effects of Anacetrapib Through
Lipid Modification (REVEAL) trials, treatment with CETP
inhibitors more than doubled HDL-C levels, but did not appear to
reduce the risk of ASCVD events beyond that expected from the
modest reductions in ApoB levels.
• Furthermore, several randomized trials have shown that directly
infused HDL mimetics increase plasma HDLC concentrations, but
do not reduce the progression of atherosclerosis as measured by
intravascular ultrasound

LP(a)
• Lp(a) is an LDL particle with an Apo(a) moiety
covalently bound to its ApoB component.
• It is <70 nm in diameter and can freely flux across the
endothelial barrier, where it can become—similarly to
LDL—retained within the arterial wall and thus may
increase the risk of ASCVD.
• Pro-atherogenic effects of Lp(a) have also been attributed
to pro-coagulant effects as Lp(a) has a similar structure to
plasminogen, and it has pro-inflammatory effects most
likely related to the oxidized phospholipid load carried by
Lp(a).

• Higher plasma Lp(a) concentrations are associated with an
increased risk of ASCVD, but it appears to be a much weaker
risk factor for most people than LDL-C.
• In contrast, Mendelian randomization studies have
consistently demonstrated that lifelong exposure to higher
Lp(a) levels is strongly and causally associated with an
increased risk of ASCVD.
• While randomized trials evaluating therapies that lower Lp(a)
by 2030% (including niacin and CETp inhibitors) have not
provided evidence that lowering Lp(a) reduces the risk of
ASCVD beyond that which would be expected from the
observed reduction in ApoB-containing lipoproteins, recent
data with PCSK9 inhibitors have suggested a possible role for
Lp(a) lowering in reducing CV risk.

• This conflicting evidence appears Mendelian
randomization study that showed that the causal effect of
Lp(a) on the risk of ASCVD is proportional to the
absolute change in plasma Lp(a) levels.
• Importantly, this study also suggested that people with
extremely high Lp(a) levels >180 mg/ dL (>430 nmol/L)
may have an increased lifetime risk of ASCVD similar to
that of people with heterozygous FH (HeFH).
• Because about 90% of a person’s Lp(a) level is inherited,
extremely elevated Lp(a) may represent a new inherited
lipid disorder that is associated with extremely high
lifetime risk of ASCVD and is twofold more prevalent
than HeFH.

• However, this study and another based on the Heart
Protection Study 2-Treatment of HDL to Reduce the
Incidence of Vascular Events (HPS2-THRIVE) trial
have shown that large absolute changes in Lp(a) may
be needed to produce a clinically meaningful
reduction in the risk of ASCVD events.

Lab measurement of lipids
• In clinical practice, the concentration of plasma lipoproteins is not usually
measured directly but is instead estimated by measuring their cholesterol
content.
• TC in humans is distributed primarily among three major lipoprotein
classes: VLDL, LDL, and HDL.
• Smaller amounts of cholesterol are also contained in two minor lipoprotein
• classes: IDL and Lp(a).
• A standard serum lipid profile measures the concentration of TC and HDL-
C, as well as TG. With these values, the LDL-C concentration can be
estimated.
• Plasma LDL-C can be measured directly using enzymatic techniques or
preparative ultracentrifugation, but in clinical medicine it is most often
calculated using the Friedewald formula:
• LDL-C ¼ TC HDL-C (TG/2.2) in mmol/L
• Or LDL-C ¼ TC HDL-C (TG/5) in mg/dL

• Although convenient, the Friedewald calculated value of
LDL-C has several well-established limitations:
• (i) methodological errors may accumulate since the
formula necessitates three separate analyses of TC, TGs,
and HDL-C; and
• (ii) a constant cholesterol/TG ratio in VLDL is assumed.
• With high TG values (>4.5 mmol/L or >400 mg/ dL) the
formula cannot be used.
• This should especially be considered in non-fasting
samples

• The definition of LDL-C by the Friedewald equation
and by direct measurement is the same: non-HDL-C
VLDL-C, representing the sum of the cholesterol
carried by the biochemically defined LDL, IDL, and
Lp(a) subfractions.
• For the general population, calculated LDL-C and
direct LDL-C show very strong correlations.
• However, calculated LDL-C has found to
underestimate LDL-C at concentrations of TG >_2
mmol/L (177 mg/dL).

• Non-fasting sampling has been used in large population-based studies.100
In most studies, non-fasting samples display a higher TG level of 0.3
mmol/L (27 mg/ dL).
• On average, and for most individuals, this increment will be of no clinical
significance. Indeed, a number of guidelines recommend non-fasting
sampling.
• For general risk screening, non-fasting samples seem to have at least the
same prognostic value as fasting samples.
• The practical advantages of non-fasting samples, including better patient
acceptability, outweigh the potential imprecision in some patients, although
the determination of some key analytes, such as fasting glucose, may be
compromised.
• Furthermore, even if non-fasting sampling can be used in most cases, in
patients with metabolic syndrome (MetS), DM, or hypertriglyceridaemia
(HTG), calculated LDL-C should be interpreted with caution.

• LDL-C can be either calculated or measured directly.
• Plasma TG should be assessed to identify people who may
have a greater modifiable risk of ASCVD than is reflected by
LDL-C, due to the presence of an increased concentration of
atherogenic ApoB containing TG-rich lipoproteins and their
remnants, and to identify people in whom calculated and
directly measured LDL-C may underestimate the risk of
ASCVD by underestimating either the concentration of
circulating LDL particles or the cholesterol content carried by
those particles, such as those with very low levels of LDL.
• This may be especially relevant in patients with DM orMetS.
• In general, LDL-C, non-HDL-C, and ApoB concentrations are
very highly correlated. As a result, under most circumstances,
they provide very similar information about ASCVD risk.

• Consistent evidence from epidemiological studies
indicates that higher consumption of fruit, non-starchy
vegetables, nuts, legumes, fish, vegetable oils, yoghurt,
and whole grains, along with a lower intake of red and
processed meats, foods higher in refined carbohydrates,
and salt, is associated with a lower incidence of CV
events.
• Moreover, it indicates that the replacement of animal fats,
including dairy fat, with vegetable sources of fats and
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may decrease the
risk of CVD.

• The most relevant difference between the
Mediterranean and the DASH diet is the emphasis of
the former on extra-virgin olive oil.
• (PREDIMED) trial indicated that participants
allocated to a Mediterranean-type diet, supplemented
with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts, had a significantly
lower (around 30%) incidence of major CV events
compared with those who were on a low-fat diet.

Influence of life style on LDL
• Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are the dietary factor with
the greatest impact on LDL-C levels (0.020.04 mmol/L or
0.81.6 mg/dL of LDL-C increase for every additional 1%
energy coming from saturated fat).
• Partially hydrogenated fatty acids’ of industrial origin
represent the major source of trans fatty acids in the diet;
the average consumption of trans fatty acids. ranges from
0.26.5% of the total energy intake in different
populations.
• Unsaturated fat-rich oils from safflower, sunflower,
rapeseed, flaxseed, corn, olives, or soybean were shown
to reduce LDL-C levels (-0.42 to -0.20 mmol/L) when
used in substitution of SFA-rich foods like butter or lard.

• Body weight reduction also influences TC and LDL-
C levels, but the magnitude of the effect is small: in
obese people, a decrease in LDL-C concentration of
0.2 mmol/L (8 mg/dL) is observed for every 10 kg of
weight loss.
• The reduction of LDL-C levels induced by regular
physical exercise is even smaller.
• The benefits of weight reduction and physical
exercise on the CV risk profile likely impact on other
risk factors, especially hypertension and diabetes.

Influence of life style on TG
• Weight reduction improves insulin sensitivity and decreases
TG levels.
• Regular physical exercise reduces plasma TG levels over and
above the effect of weight reduction.
• Alcohol intake has an impact on TG level.
• Habitual consumption of significant amounts (>10% energy)
of dietary fructose contributes to TG elevation, particularly in
people with HTG or abdominal obesity.
• These effects are dose-dependent; with a habitual fructose
consumption between 15-20% of total energy intake, plasma
TG increases by as much as 30-40%. Sucrose, a disaccharide
containing glucose and fructose, represents an important
source of fructose in the diet

Life style and HDL
• Aerobic physical activity, such as 25-30 km of brisk
walking per week (or any equivalent activity), may
increase HDL-C levels by 0.08-0.15 mmol/L (3.16
mg/dL).
• Smoking cessation may also contribute to HDL-C
elevation, provided that weight gain is prevented.

Life style on lipid profile
• 1- Body weight and physical activity:
• In the case of excess weight, body weight reduction, even if modest (5-
10% of basal body weight), improves lipid abnormalities and favourably
affects the other CV risk factors often present in dyslipidaemic individuals.
• While the beneficial effects of weight reduction on metabolic and
surrogate markers have been demonstrated, the benefits of weight loss
onmortality and CV outcome are less clear.
• Weight reduction can be achieved by decreasing the consumption of
energy-dense foods, inducing a caloric deficit of 300-500 kcal/day.
• The intervention should combine diet and exercise; this approach also leads
to the greatest improvement in physical performance and quality of life,
and mitigates reductions in muscle and bone mass, particularly in older
people.
• It is always appropriate to advise people with dyslipidaemia to engage in
regular physical exercise of moderate intensity for >_30 min/day, even if
they are not overweight

• 2-Dietary fat
• Avoiding any consumption of trans fat is a key measure
of the dietary prevention of CVD. The trans fatty acids
produced in the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils
account for 80% of total intake.
• As for saturated fat, its consumption should be <10% of
the total caloric intake and should be further reduced
(<7% of energy) in the presence ofhypercholesterolaemia.
• For most individuals, a wide range of total fat intakes is
acceptable, and will depend upon individual preferences
and characteristics.
• However, fat intakes >35-40% of calories are generally
associated with increased intakes of both saturated fat and
calories.
• Conversely, low intakes of fats and oils increase the risk
of inadequate intakes of vitamin E and of essential

1-statin
2-Cholesterol absorption inhibition
3-PCSK9
4-Bile acid sequestrant
5-Lomitapide (VLDL)
6- Mepomersinrime (LDLR)

Drugs for treatment of dyslipidemia
• Statins
• reduce the synthesis of cholesterol in the liver by
competitively inhibiting the enzyme HMG-CoA
reductase, the rate-limiting step in cholesterol
biosynthesis.
• The reduction in intracellular cholesterol promotes
increased LDL receptor (LDLR) expression at the surface
of the hepatocytes, which in turn results in increased
uptake of LDL from the blood, and decreased plasma
concentrations of LDL- and other ApoB-containing
lipoproteins, including TG-rich particles.

Statins and LDL
• A high intensity regimen is defined as the dose of a
statin that, on average, reduces LDL-C by >_50%;
moderate-intensity therapy is defined as the dose
expected to reduce LDL-C by 30-50%.
• Notably, there is considerable inter individual
variation in LDL-C reduction with the same dose of
drug

Statins and TG
• reduce TG levels by 10-20% from baseline values.199
More potent statins (atorvastatin, rosuvastatin, and
pitavastatin) demonstrate robust lowering of TG levels,
especially at high doses and in patients with elevated TGs
(HTG), in whom the absolute risk, and therefore the
absolute risk reduction, is larger.
• The mechanism of the TG-lowering effect has not been
fully elucidated, but it seems to be partly independent of
the LDLR pathway.
• It may involve the upregulation of VLDL uptake by
hepatocytes, as well as a reduction of the production rate
of VLDLs; these effects seem to be dependent on pre-
treatment VLDL concentrations

Statins and HDL and Lpa
• Statins can reduce HDL 1-10%.
• Statins have only modest effect on LP(a), with neeed
for further investihgations.

Pleiotropic effect of statins
• Anti inflammatory and anti oxidant effects of statin
treatment .
• These effects have been shown in vitro and
experimental animals, but their clinical relevance
remains unproven.
• Effect on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality:
• Cholestrol treatment trialist (CTT):
• For each 1mmol/l reduction in LDL-c , major
cardiovascular events (MI, CAD, death , stroke)

• The absolute benefit from statin treatment was lower in people in
primary prevention, who are typically at lower risk.
• In the CTT meta-analysis of treatment in people with a low-risk of
vascular disease, the relative risk reduction of major vascular events
per mmol/L reduction in LDL-C was at least as large in low-risk
individuals (i.e. in primary prevention). In those without a history of
vascular disease, statin therapy reduced the risk of all-cause
mortality by 9% per mmol/L reduction in LDL cholesterol.
• Similar results were reported in a Cochrane review in 2013.
• The West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study (WOSCOPS)
data were recently re-analysed, and demonstrated that even people
without DM and a 10 year predicted ASCVD risk of <7.5% benefit
from statin treatment.
• There was also a legacy effect with a mortality benefit of 18% in
all-cause death over 20 years.
• Statins are effective for the prevention of ASCVD in the elderly,
including those aged >75 years.
• Statins are not effective in a few specific groups, notably those
with heart failure (HF) or patients receiving haemodialysis.

Side effects of statins
• Furthermore, the effects of statins on a number of other
clinical conditions have been evaluated. For cancer, a
meta-analysis of IP from randomized trials has shown
that statins do not have any significant effect on cancer, at
least over a period of 5 years.
• Other conditions, such as dementia, hepatic steatosis,
venous thromboembolism, atrial fibrillation, and
polycystic ovary syndrome have also been studied, and
no effect of statins on thes conditions has been reliably
demonstrated.
• The suggested effect on Alzheimer’s disease was recently
reviewed in a Cochrane analysis reporting no conclusive
effect from statins.

• Furthermore, neurocognitive functions were
extensively investigated in the Evaluating PCSK9
Binding Antibody Influence on Cognitiv Health in
High Cardiovascular Risk Subjects (EBBINGHAUS)
study and no excess risk was observed among
patients on a statin regimen randomized to a PCSK9
mAb.

• Adverse effects on muscle:
• Myopthy is the most clinical adverse effect of statin,
particularly with interaction with other drugs.
• Rhabdomyolysis:is the most severe form of statin-
induced muscle damage,
• 1- characterized by severe muscular pain,
• 2-muscle necrosis, and
• 3-myoglobinuria potentially leading to renal failure and
death.
• In rhabdomyolysis, creatine kinase (CK) levels are
elevated by >_10 times, and often >_40 times, the upper
limit of normal (ULN).

• The frequency of rhabdomyolysis has been estimated to
represent 1-3 cases/100 000 patient-years.
• Patients taking statin therapy frequently report muscle
symptoms [so-called ‘statin-associated muscle symptoms’
(SAMS)], and in nonrandomized, observational studies,
statins are associated with
• 1-muscular pain and
• 2-tenderness (myalgia) without CK elevation or major
functional loss, with the reported frequency of SAMS in
such studies varying between 10-15% among statin-
treated individuals.

Nocebo effect
• The Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial
Lipid-Lowering Arm (ASCOT-LLA) study addressed
this issue by comparing the incidence of four
different adverse events, including muscle-related
symptoms, during both the blinded, placebo-
controlled trial and its open-label extension study.
• They concluded that a nocebo effect (i.e. one caused
by negative expectations) may partly explain the
higher frequency of SAMS in observational studies
compared with in trials.

• Several studies have shown a considerable LDL-C-
lowering effect of alternative dosing, such as every
other day or twice a week, with atorvastatin or
rosuvastatin.
• Although no clinical endpoint trials are available, this
strategy should be considered in high-risk patients in
whom statin treatment with daily doses is not
possible

Liver side effects
• The activity of ALT , in the plasma is a marker of hepatocellular
damage.
• Mild elevation of ALT occurs in 0.5-2.0% of patients on statin
treatment, more commonly with potent statins or high doses.
• The common definition of clinically relevant ALT elevation has
been an increase of three times the ULN on two consecutive
occasions.
• Mild elevation of ALT has not been shown to be associated with
true hepatotoxicity or changes in liver function. Progression to liver
failure is exceedingly rare, therefore routine monitoring of ALT
during statin treatment is no longer recommended.
• Patients with mild ALT elevation due to steatosis have been studied
during statin treatment and there is no indication that statins cause
any worsening of liver disease.

Increased recent onset of DM
• Patients on statin treatment have been shown to
exhibit an increased risk of dysglycaemia and
development of type 2 diabetesmellitus (T2DM).
• Several studies have shown that this is a consistent,
dose-related effect.
• Aminor, not clinically relevant elevation of glycated
haemoglobin (HbA1c) has also been observed.
• The number needed to cause one case of diabetes has
been estimated as 255 over 4 years of statin treatment

• However, the risk is higher with the:
• 1- more potent statins at high doses
• 2-the elderly,
• 3-and other risk factors for diabetes such as overweight or
insulin resistance.
• Overall, the absolute reduction in the risk of CVD in high-risk
patients clearly outweighs the possible adverse effects of a
small increase in the incidence of diabetes.
• This effect is probably related to the mechanism of action of
statins, as Mendelian randomization studies have confirmed
the increased risk of DM in individuals with HMG-CoA
reductase polymorphisms that reduce cholesterol synthesis

Statins and hemorrhagic stroke
• Small meta-analysis, suggested the increased
incidence of hge in patients on statins, but the stroke
preventive effect by lowering the LDL-c level, out
weight the reported side effect.

Statins and kidney func
• There is no clear evidence that satins have benfits or
adverse effects on KFT.
• Proteinuria was reported with rosuvasatin at dose of
80mg.
• The proteinuria induced by statins is of tubular
origin, usually transitory, and is believed to be due to
reduced tubular reabsorption and not to glomerular
dysfunction. In clinical trials, the frequency of
proteinuria is generally low and, in most cases, is not
higher than for placebo.

Drug interactions
• All currently available statins except pravastatin rosuvastatin,
and pitavastatin undergo major hepatic metabolism via the
CYPs. These isoenzymes are mainly expressed in the liver and
intestine.
• Pravastatin does not undergo metabolism through the CYP
system, but is metabolized by sulfation and conjugation.
• Combination of statins with gemfibrozil enhances the risk of
myopathy, and its association with statins must be avoided.
There is no or very little increased risk for myopathy when
combining statins with other fibrates, such as fenofibrate,
bezafibrate, or ciprofibrate.

2-Cholesterol absorption inhibitors

Effect of ezetimibe on cardiovascualr morbidity
and mortality (SEAES, SHARP, Improve –IT)

4-Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin
type 9 inhibitors

1-Fibrates
2-n3 PUFA
3-nictotinic acid

3-Nicotinic acid (Niacin)
• Main action at liver and adipose tissue
• In liver nicotinic acid inhibits diacylglycerol acyl
transferase-2, resulting in decreased secretion of VLDL
and reduction of plasma level of IDL and LDL.
• Nictonic acid primarily increase HDL c and APoA1 by
stimulating Abo A production in the liver.
• 2 randomized control trails, using long acting niacin,
didn’t show any affect , with increased serious adverse
events .
• Not approved in Europe now

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein
inhibitors

ORION 4 to inhibit the synthesis of PCsk9
Bempeodic acid that inhibit cholesterol sysnthesis

1-famlial combined hyperlipidemia
2-Famlial Hypercholesteremia (He FH and HoFH)
3- Familial dysbetalipoprotenemia

• In general, in a patient with dyslipidaemia, the pattern of
inheritance commonly does not suggest that there is a
major single gene (monogenic) disorder causing the
abnormality; rather, it stems from the inheritance of more
than one gene variant affecting lipoprotein metabolism
that, on its own, might have relatively little effect, but in
combination with another or others has a greater
influence on TC, TGs, or HDL-C. The pattern of
inheritance is polygenic.
• It is common to find that high LDL-C, high TG, or low
HDL-C levels affect several family members

Familial combined hyperlipidemia
• Familial combined hyperlipidaemia (FCH) is a highly
prevalent mixed dyslipidaemia (1:100-200) characterized by
elevated levels of LDLC,
• TGs, or both, and is an important cause of premature CAD.
• FCH is a complex disease, and the phenotype is determined
by the interaction of multiple susceptibility genes and the
environment.
• It has considerable overlap with the dyslipidaemic phenotypes
of T2DM and MetS. Even within a family, the phenotype
shows high inter- and intrapersonal variability based on lipid
values (TGs, LDL-C, HDL-C, and
• ApoB).

• FCH has no monogenic component and is not linked
to a single genetic cause, but the phenotype is high
LDL-C and/or high TGs.
• Therefore, the diagnosis is commonly missed in
clinical practice; the combination of ApoB >120
mg/dL and TGs >1.5 mmol/ L (>133 mg/dL) with a
family history of premature CVD can be used to
identify people who most probably have FCH

• The concept of mixed dyslipidaemia is also valuable
clinically in assessing CV risk. It emphasizes both the
importance of considering family history in deciding how
rigorously to treat dyslipidaemia and that elevated LDL-C
levels portend a higher risk when HTG is also present.
• Statin treatment decreases CV risk by the same relative
amount in people with HTG as in those without.
• Because the absolute risk is often greater in those with
HTG, they may therefore benefit greatly from LDL-
lowering therapy

2-Familial hypercholesterolemia
• Heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia.
• FH is a common codominant monogenic dyslipidaemia causing
premature CVD due to lifelong elevation of plasma levels of LDL-
C.
• If left untreated, men and women with HeFH typically develop
early CAD before the ages of 55 and 60 years respectively.
• The risk of CHD among individuals with definite or probable HeFH
is estimated to be increased at least 10-fold. However, early
diagnosis and appropriate treatment can dramatically reduce the risk
for CAD.
• The prevalence of HeFH in the population is estimated to be 1/200-
250 translating to a total number of cases between 14-34 million
worldwide.
• Only a minor fraction of these cases is identified and properly
treated

• FH is a monogenic disease caused by loss-of-function
mutations in the LDLR or apoB genes, or a gain-of-
function mutation in the PCSK9 gene; around 95% of
FH cases are caused by mutations in LDLR.
• More than 1000 different mutations that cause FH
have been identified in LDLR.
• The different mutations cause reduced function or
complete loss-of-function, the latter being associated
with more severe hypercholesterolaemia and CVD

Diagnosis of FH
• The diagnosis can be verified by showing causative mutations in the
pathogenic genes. However, in most studies, the frequency of detectable
mutations in patients with a clinically definite or probable HeFH is
between 60-80%.
• This suggests that a considerable proportion of patients with FH have
either a polygenic cause of the disease or that other genes, yet to be
identified, are involved.
• Genetic testing and cascade screening. Probands (index cases) should be
identified according to the following criteria:
• • TC >_8 mmol/L (>_310 mg/dL) without treatment in an adult or adult
family member (or >95th percentile by age and gender for country);
• • Premature CHD in the patient or a family member;
• • Tendon xanthomas in the patient or a family member; or
• • Sudden premature cardiac death in a family member.

• Cascade screening of family members of a known
index case allows for the efficient identification of
new cases.
• Cascade screening is best performed by a lipid clinic.
In most families, the cases may be identified with TC
or LDL-C analysis; however, genetic testing is
recommended when the causative mutation is known

• Cholesterol-lowering treatment should be initiated as
soon as possible after a diagnosis has been made. To
improve risk assessment, the use of imaging
techniques to detect asymptomatic atherosclerosis is
recommended. The concept of cumulative cholesterol
burden illustrates the importance of early treatment
(for children).

Homozygous FH (HoFH)
• Is a rare and life-threatening disease. The clinical
picture is characterized by extensive
• xanthomas,
• marked premature and
• progressive CVD, and
• TC >13 mmol/L (>500 mg/dL).
• Most patients develop CAD and aortic stenosis
before the age of 20 years and die before 30 years of
age.
• The frequency of HoFH is estimated to be 1/160
0001/320 000. The early identification of these
children and prompt referral to a specialized clinic is
crucial.

• The patients should be treated with intensive LDL-
lowering drug therapy and, when available, with
lipoprotein apheresis. This treatment (every 12
weeks) can decrease plasma LDL-C levels by 55-
70%. The procedure frequency may be adjusted for
each patient as lipid levels, symptoms, and other
disease-related parameters
• For a more detailed discussion on HoFH, see the EAS
consensus statements

Familial hypercholesterolaemia in children.
• FH is diagnosed in children based on phenotypic
criteria including elevated LDL-C plus a
• family history of elevated LDL-C, premature CAD,
and/or positive genetic testing. Testing during
childhood is optimal to discriminate between FH and
non-FH using LDL-C. In children with a family
history of high cholesterol or premature CHD, an
accepted cut-off is >_4.0 mmol/L (>_160 mg/dL).
• If a parent has a known genetic defect, the diagnostic
level for the child is >_3.5 mmol/L (>_130 mg/dL).
• If possible, genetic testing of the child is suggested.

Familial dysbetaliproteinemia
• (i.e. type III hyperlipoproteinaemia; remnant removal disease) is rare and is
generally inherited as a autosomal recessive disorder with variable
penetrance.
• Familial dysbetalipoproteinaemia produces a characteristic clinical
syndrome in which both TC and TGs are elevated before treatment, usually
both in the range of 7-10 mmol/L.
• patients develop tubero eruptive xanthomas, particularly over the elbows
and knees, and palmar ,xanthomata in the skin creases of the hands and
wrists.
• The risk of CAD is very high, and accelerated atherosclerosis of the
femoral and tibial arteries is also prevalent.
• The syndrome is usually not expressed at a young age or in women before
menopause. The majority of cases are homozygous for the E2 isoform of
ApoE. ApoE is important for the hepatic clearance of chylomicron
remnants and IDL.
• ApoE2 binds less readily than the E3 and E4 isoforms to hepatic receptors.
• However, without some coincidental cause of dyslipidaemia such as
dyslipidaemia associated with HTG, DM, obesity, or hypothyroidism,
ApoE2 homozygosity does not generally cause familial
dysbetalipoproteinaemia.

• The detection of ApoE2 homozygosity in a dyslipidaemic
patient is diagnostic and analysis of ApoE isoforms is
now available in most clinical laboratories. The presence
of cholesterol remnants characteristic of familial
dysbetalipoproteinaemia can be reliably predicted on the
basis of plasma levels of cholesterol, TGs, and ApoB.
• If suspicion is confirmed, ApoE genotyping can be
performed. In older patients with xanthomata resembling
those of familial dysbetalipoproteinaemia who prove not
to be homozygous for ApoE2, a paraprotein should be
sought.
• The treatment of familial dysbetalipoproteinaemia should
be undertaken in a specialist clinic.
• Most cases respond well to treatment with a statin or, if
dominated by high TGs, a fibrate; often a combination of
a statin and a fibrate may be needed.

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