EARTH SCIENCE TEACHING GUIDE

Teaching Guide for Senior High School
EARTH SCIENCE
CORE SUBJECT
This Teaching Guide was collaboratively developed and
reviewed by educators from public and private schools,
colleges, and universities. We encourage teachers and
other education stakeholders to email their feedback,
comments, and recommendations to the Commission
on Higher Education, K to 12 Transition Program
Management Unit - Senior High School Support Team
at k12@ched.gov.ph. We value your feedback and
recommendations.
The Commission on Higher Education
in collaboration with the Philippine Normal University
INITIAL RELEASE: 14 JUNE 2016

This Teaching Guide by the
Commission on Higher Education is
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Development Team
Team Leader: Leopoldo P. de Silva, Ph.D.
Writers: Catherine C. Abon, Ph.D., Ernesto Ancheta
Dizon Jr., Zoraida S. Dizon, Alfonso Vincent A.
Guzman III, Eddie L. Listanco, D.Sc.
Technical Editor: Rene Juna R. Claveria, Maria Ines
Rosana Balangue-Tarriela
Copy Reader: Sarah Mae U. Penir
Illustrators: Patricia G. De Vera
Cover Artists: Paolo Kurtis N. Tan, Renan U. Ortiz
Published by the Commission on Higher Education, 2016 
Chairperson: Patricia B. Licuanan, Ph.D.
Commission on Higher Education 
K to 12 Transition Program Management Unit 
Office Address: 4th Floor, Commission on Higher Education,
C.P. Garcia Ave., Diliman, Quezon City 
Telefax: (02) 441-0927 / E-mail Address: k12@ched.gov.ph
Senior High School Support Team 
CHED K to 12 Transition Program Management Unit
Program Director: Karol Mark R. Yee
Lead for Senior High School Support: 
Gerson M. Abesamis
Course Development Officers: 
John Carlo P. Fernando, Danie Son D. Gonzalvo
Lead for Policy Advocacy and Communications: 
Averill M. Pizarro
Teacher Training Officers: 
Ma. Theresa C. Carlos, Mylene E. Dones
Monitoring and Evaluation Officer: 
Robert Adrian N. Daulat
Administrative Officers:  
Ma. Leana Paula B. Bato, Kevin Ross D. Nera,
Allison A. Danao, Ayhen Loisse B. Dalena
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Consultants
THIS PROJECT WAS DEVELOPED WITH THE PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY. 
University President: Ester B. Ogena, Ph.D. 
VP for Academics: Ma. Antoinette C. Montealegre, Ph.D. 
VP for University Relations & Advancement: Rosemarievic V. Diaz, Ph.D.
Ma. Cynthia Rose B. Bautista, Ph.D., CHED 
Bienvenido F. Nebres, S.J., Ph.D., Ateneo de Manila University 
Carmela C. Oracion, Ph.D., Ateneo de Manila University 
Minella C. Alarcon, Ph.D., CHED
Gareth Price, Sheffield Hallam University 
Stuart Bevins, Ph.D., Sheffield Hallam University

Introduction
As the Commission supports DepEd’s implementation of Senior High School (SHS), it upholds the vision
and mission of the K to 12 program, stated in Section 2 of Republic Act 10533, or the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013, that “every graduate of basic education be an empowered individual, through a
program rooted on...the competence to engage in work and be productive, the ability to coexist in
fruitful harmony with local and global communities, the capability to engage in creative and critical
thinking, and the capacity and willingness to transform others and oneself.”
To accomplish this, the Commission partnered with the Philippine Normal University (PNU), the National
Center for Teacher Education, to develop Teaching Guides for Courses of SHS. Together with PNU, this
Teaching Guide was studied and reviewed by education and pedagogy experts, and was enhanced with
appropriate methodologies and strategies.
Furthermore, the Commission believes that teachers are the most important partners in attaining this
goal. Incorporated in this Teaching Guide is a framework that will guide them in creating lessons and
assessment tools, support them in facilitating activities and questions, and assist them towards deeper
content areas and competencies. Thus, the introduction of the SHS for SHS Framework.
The SHS for SHS Framework, which stands for “Saysay-Husay-Sarili for Senior High School,” is at the
core of this book. The lessons, which combine high-quality content with flexible elements to
accommodate diversity of teachers and environments, promote these three fundamental concepts:
SAYSAY: MEANING
Why is this important?
Through this Teaching Guide,
teachers will be able to facilitate
an understanding of the value
of the lessons, for each learner
to fully engage in the content
on both the cognitive and
affective levels.
HUSAY: MASTERY
How will I deeply understand this?
Given that developing mastery
goes beyond memorization,
teachers should also aim for
deep understanding of the
subject matter where they lead
learners to analyze and
synthesize knowledge.
SARILI: OWNERSHIP
What can I do with this?
When teachers empower
learners to take ownership of
their learning, they develop
independence and self-
direction, learning about both
the subject matter and
themselves.
SHS for SHS
Framework

Implementing this course at the senior high school level is subject to numerous challenges
with mastery of content among educators tapped to facilitate learning and a lack of
resources to deliver the necessary content and develop skills and attitudes in the learners,
being foremost among these.
In support of the SHS for SHS framework developed by CHED, these teaching guides were
crafted and refined by biologists and biology educators in partnership with educators from
focus groups all over the Philippines to provide opportunities to develop the following:
1. Saysay through meaningful, updated, and context-specific content that highlights
important points and common misconceptions so that learners can connect to their real-
world experiences and future careers;
2. Husay through diverse learning experiences that can be implemented in a resource-
poor classroom or makeshift laboratory that tap cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
domains are accompanied by field-tested teaching tips that aid in facilitating discovery and
development of higher-order thinking skills; and
3. Sarili through flexible and relevant content and performance standards allow
learners the freedom to innovate, make their own decisions, and initiate activities to fully
develop their academic and personal potential.
These ready-to-use guides are helpful to educators new to either the content or biologists
new to the experience of teaching Senior High School due to their enriched content
presented as lesson plans or guides. Veteran educators may also add ideas from these
guides to their repertoire. The Biology Team hopes that this resource may aid in easing the
transition of the different stakeholders into the new curriculum as we move towards the
constant improvement of Philippine education.
About this 
Teaching Guide

This Teaching Guide is mapped and aligned to the DepEd SHS Curriculum, designed to be highly
usable for teachers. It contains classroom activities and pedagogical notes, and is integrated with
innovative pedagogies. All of these elements are presented in the following parts:
1. Introduction
• Highlight key concepts and identify the essential questions
• Show the big picture
• Connect and/or review prerequisite knowledge
• Clearly communicate learning competencies and objectives
• Motivate through applications and connections to real-life
2. Motivation
• Give local examples and applications
• Engage in a game or movement activity
• Provide a hands-on/laboratory activity
• Connect to a real-life problem
3. Instruction/Delivery
• Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation/hands-on activity
• Show step-by-step solutions to sample problems
• Give applications of the theory
• Connect to a real-life problem if applicable
4. Practice
• Discuss worked-out examples
• Provide easy-medium-hard questions
• Give time for hands-on unguided classroom work and discovery
• Use formative assessment to give feedback
5. Enrichment
• Provide additional examples and applications
• Introduce extensions or generalisations of concepts
• Engage in reflection questions
• Encourage analysis through higher order thinking prompts
6. Evaluation
• Supply a diverse question bank for written work and exercises
• Provide alternative formats for student work: written homework, journal, portfolio, group/individual
projects, student-directed research project
Parts of the 
Teaching Guide

As Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) welcome the graduates of
the Senior High School program, it is of paramount importance to
align Functional Skills set by DepEd with the College Readiness
Standards stated by CHED.
The DepEd articulated a set of 21st century skills that should be
embedded in the SHS curriculum across various subjects and tracks.
These skills are desired outcomes that K to 12 graduates should
possess in order to proceed to either higher education,
employment, entrepreneurship, or middle-level skills development.
On the other hand, the Commission declared the College
Readiness Standards that consist of the combination of knowledge,
skills, and reflective thinking necessary to participate and succeed -
without remediation - in entry-level undergraduate courses in
college.
The alignment of both standards, shown below, is also presented in
this Teaching Guide - prepares Senior High School graduates to the
revised college curriculum which will initially be implemented by AY
2018-2019.
College Readiness Standards Foundational Skills DepEd Functional Skills
Produce all forms of texts (written, oral, visual, digital) based on:
1. Solid grounding on Philippine experience and culture;
2. An understanding of the self, community, and nation;
3. Application of critical and creative thinking and doing processes;
4. Competency in formulating ideas/arguments logically, scientifically, and creatively; and
5. Clear appreciation of one’s responsibility as a citizen of a multicultural Philippines and a
diverse world;
Visual and information literacies, media literacy, critical thinking
and problem solving skills, creativity, initiative and self-direction
Systematically apply knowledge, understanding, theory, and skills for the development of
the self, local, and global communities using prior learning, inquiry, and experimentation
Global awareness, scientific and economic literacy, curiosity,
critical thinking and problem solving skills, risk taking, flexibility
and adaptability, initiative and self-direction
Work comfortably with relevant technologies and develop adaptations and innovations for
significant use in local and global communities
Global awareness, media literacy, technological literacy,
creativity, flexibility and adaptability, productivity and
accountability
Communicate with local and global communities with proficiency, orally, in writing, and
through new technologies of communication
Global awareness, multicultural literacy, collaboration and
interpersonal skills, social and cross-cultural skills, leadership
and responsibility
Interact meaningfully in a social setting and contribute to the fulfilment of individual and
shared goals, respecting the fundamental humanity of all persons and the diversity of
groups and communities
Media literacy, multicultural literacy, global awareness,
collaboration and interpersonal skills, social and cross-cultural
skills, leadership and responsibility, ethical, moral, and spiritual
values
On DepEd Functional Skills and CHED College Readiness Standards

Earth Science
Lesson 1: The Universe
and the Solar System
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of
1. the formation of the universe
Performance Standard
Learning Competency
Describe the historical development of theories that explain the origin of the
(S11ES-Ia-1).
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• Describe the structure and composition of the Universe;
• State the different hypothesis that preceded the Big Bang Theory of the
Origin of the Universe.
• Explain the red-shift and how it used as proof of an expanding universe
• Explain the Big Bang Theory and evidences supporting the theory.
1
60 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Introduction Communicating learning objectives 10
Motivation Question&Answer 10
Instruction Lecture 30
Enrichment Assignment
Evaluation Report and Summary Questions 10
Materials
Projector or print-out of figures
Resources
Lesson Plans/Materials/Teaching Guides
(1) http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/lesson_plans.html
(2) http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/materials.html
(3) http://www.astro.princeton.edu/~dns/teachersguide/website.pdf
(4) http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/WMAP_Universe.pdf (accessed 3
October 2015)
(5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe (accessed 4 October 2015)
(6) https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=RPVvgJoddO4&list=PLrhG2NtyHAZuPW5HP3cyenGGTUqUhumeQ
(accessed 25 October 2015)
(7) Steinhardt P and N Turok. Endless Universe, http://
www.physics.princeton.edu/~steinh/endlessuniverse/
askauthors.html(accessed 13 October 2015)
(8) http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/how-do-stars-form-
and-evolve/ (accessed: 12 october 2015)
(9) http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/solarsys/solarsys.html
Additional resources at the end of the lesson

INTRODUCTION (10 MINS)
Communicating learning objectives
1. Introduce the following learning objectives.
a. Describe the structure and composition of the Universe;
b. Explain the red-shift and how it used as proof of an expanding universe
c. State the different hypothesis that preceded the Big Bang Theory of the Origin of the Universe
d. Explain the Big Bang Theory
2. Introduce the following important terms
a. Baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons that
comprises atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, and other bodies
b. Dark matter - matter that has gravity but does not emit light.
c. Dark Energy - a source of anti-gravity; a force that counteracts gravity and causes the universe to
expand.
d. Protostar- an early stage in the formation of a star resulting from the gravitational collapse of
gases.
e. Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear fusion reaction responsible for the energy produced by stars.
f. Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in their cores;
outward pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is balanced by gravitational forces
g. light years - the distance light can travel in a year; a unit of length used to measure astronomical
distance
MOTIVATION (10 MINS)
Connect the lesson to a real-life problem or question.
1. The teacher tells the students that the Universe is at least 13.8 billion of years old and the Earth/
Solar System at least 4.5-4.6 billions of years old. But how large exactly is a billion? Ask the
students how long will it take them to spend 1 billion pesos if they spend 1 peso per second.
2
Teacher tip
Alternatively, these terms can be defined
during the instruction/delivery.

• 1 billion/(60 s/min*60 min/hr*24 hr/day*365days/year)
• ~32 years
• How long is 13.8 billion years?
2. Show students the series of photographs as follows:
Figure 1: Solar System (Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/
Planets2013.svg/2000px-Planets2013.svg.png)
3

Figure 2: Milky Way Galaxy Figure 3: View from Hubble. The Milky
(Source: http://physics.highpoint.edu/~mdewitt/ Way is but part of billions of galaxies
phy1050/images/week6/milky-way-top-view.png) in the universe.
(Source: http://astronomynow.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/03/
eso1507b_640x646.jpg)
INSTRUCTION (30 MINS)
Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation
Lecture proper (outline)
A. Introduction
• Any explanation of the origin of the Universe should be consistent with all information about its
composition, structure, accelerating expansion, cosmic microwave background radiation
among others.
B. Structure, Composition, and Age
• The universe as we currently know it comprises all space and time, and all matter & energy in it.
4

• It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter (“ordinary” matter consisting of protons, electrons, and
neutrons: atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae, and other bodies), 24% cold dark matter
(matter that has gravity but does not emit light), and 71.4% dark energy (a source of anti-
gravity)
• Dark matter can explain what may be holding galaxies together for the reason that the low total
mass is insufficient for gravity alone to do so while dark energy can explain the observed
accelerating expansion of the universe.
• Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most abundant elements.
• Stars - the building block of galaxies born out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies (fig. 4).
Instabilities within the clouds eventually results into gravitational collapse, rotation, heating up,
and transformation to a protostar-the core of a future star as thermonuclear reactions set in.
• Stellar interiors are like furnaces where elements are synthesized or combined/fused together.
Most stars such as the Sun belong to the so-called “main sequence stars.” In the cores of such
stars, hydrogen atoms are fused through thermonuclear reactions to make helium atoms (fig.
4). Massive main sequence stars burn up their hydrogen faster than smaller stars. Stars like our
Sun burnup hydrogen in about 10 billion years.
5
Teacher tip
Hydrogen and Helium as the most abundant
elements in the universe. Having the lowest
mass, these are the first elements to be
formed in the Big Bang Model of the Origin
of the Universe.
• A star's energy comes from
combining light elements into
heavier elements by fusion, or
“nucler burning” (nucleosynthesis).
• In small stars like the sun, H
burning is the fusion of 4 H nuclei
(protons) into a He nucleus (2
protons + 2 neutrons).
• Forming He from H gives off lots
of energy(i.e. a natural hydrogen
bomb).
• Nucleosynthesis requires very high
T. The minimum T for H fusion is
5x106o
C.
Figure 4: Birth, evolution, death, and rebirth
of stars
Image Source: http://
www.cyberphysics.co.uk/graphics/diagrams/
space/lifecycle_of_star.jpg

• The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or as planets, asteroids, or other bodies in
the accompanying planetary system.
• A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of galaxies form superclusters. In between
the clusters is practicallyan empty space. This organization of matter in the universe suggests
that it is indeed clumpy at a certain scale. But at a large scale, it appears homogeneous and
isotropic.
• Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion years old. The diameter of the universe is
possibly infinite but should be at least 91 billion light-years (1 light-year = 9.4607 × 1012 km). Its
density is 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3.
C. Expanding Universe
• In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his significant discovery of the “redshift” (fig. 5) and its
interpretation that galaxies are moving away from each other, hence as evidence for an
expanding universe, just as predicted by Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity.
• He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to pass through a prism are shifted toward the
red part of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward the band of lower frequency; thus, the
inference that the star or galaxy must be moving away from us.
Figure 5. Red shift as evidence for an expanding universe. The positions of
the absorptions lines for helium for light coming from the Sun (A) are
shifted towards the red end as compared with those for a distant star (B).
(Source: http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/Q&A/KS4/space/diagrams/
spectra.png)
• This evidence for expansion contradicted the previously held view of a static and unchanging
universe.
6
Teacher tip
• Isotropic - having physical properties
that are the same when measured in
different directions
• Two ways by which astronomers
estimate the age of the universe :1) by
estimating the age of the looking
oldest stars; and 2) by measuring the
rate of expansion of the universe and
extrapolating back to the Big Bang.
http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/
uni_age.html
This is similar to the Doppler effect for
sound waves: to a stationary observer, the
frequency or pitch of a receding source
decreases as it moves away.

D. Activity: Doppler Effect and Interactive (http://molebash.com/doppler/horn/horn1.ht)
Ask the students to watch two short video clips filmed inside a car. Try to determine where the horn is
coming from. Is it coming from inside the car or outside the car? If outside the car, where?
- Video 1 - horn is coming from the inside of the car. There is hardly any change in the volume
and pitch of the horn.
- Video 2 - horn is coming from outside of the car. Specifically, the horn is coming from another
car travelling in an opposite direction. Notice how the pitch and volume of the car varies with
distance from the other car. Pitch and volume increases as the other car approaches.
E. Cosmic Microwave Background
• There is a pervasive cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation in the universe. Its
accidental discovery in 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson earned them the
physics Nobel Prize in 1978.
• It can be observed as a strikingly uniform faint glow in the microwave band coming from all
directions-blackbody radiation with an average temperature of about 2.7 degrees above
7
• If there is internet access, teacher can
play these two movie clips directly from
the website; (http://molebash.com/
doppler/horn/horn1.htm)
• Alternatively, the movie clips can be
downloaded (also saved in the CD)

absolute zero (fig. 6).
Figure 6: Cosmic microwave background radiation map showing small variations
from WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe).
(Source: http://wmap.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/ContentMedia/map_model_2.gif)
A. Origin of the Universe
Non-scientiﬁc Thought
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which narrate that the world arose from
an infinite sea at the first rising of the sun.
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who,
alone in a dark and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited the
stars, sun, and moon.
• In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet,
eyes, and mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme being
created the universe, including man and other living organisms.
8
Teacher Tip
Unlike hypotheses in the sciences, religious
beliefs cannot be subjected to tests using
the scientific method. For this reason, they
cannot be considered valid topic of
scientific inquiry.

Steady State Model
• The now discredited steady state model of the universe was proposed in 1948 by Bondi and
Gould and by Hoyle.It maintains that new matter is created as the universe expands thereby
maintaining its density.
• Its predictions led to tests and its eventual rejection with the discovery of the cosmic
microwave background.
Big Bang Theory
• As the currently accepted theory of the origin and evolution of the universe, the Big Bang
Theory postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a tiny, dense and
hot mass to its present size and much cooler state.
• The theory rests on two ideas: General Relativity and the Cosmological Principle. In Einstein’s
General Theory of Relativity, gravity is thought of as a distortion of space-time and no longer
described by a gravitational field in contrast to the Law of Gravity of Isaac Newton. General
Relativity explains the peculiarities of the orbit of Mercury and the bending of light by the
Sun and has passed rigorous tests. The Cosmological Principle assumes that the universe is
homogeneous and isotropic when averaged over large scales. This is consistent with our
current large-scale image of the universe. But keep in mind that it is clumpy at smaller scales.
• The Big Bang Theory has withstood the tests for expansion: 1) the redshift 2) abundance of
hydrogen, helium, and lithium, and 3) the uniformly pervasive cosmic microwave background
radiation-the remnant heat from the bang.
9
The uniform nature (even in all direction) of
the CMB precludes propagation from a
point source (i.e. from ancient stars as
explained by the steady state model).
Misconception:
The “bang” should not be taken as an
explosion; it is better thought of a
simultaneous appearance of space
everywhere. The theory does not identify
the cause of the “bang.”

Figure 7: Big Bang Timeline
(Source: http://futurism.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/big-bang-theory-timeline1.jpg)
6. Evolution of the Universe according to the Big Bang Theory
• From time zero (13.8 billion years ago) until 10-43 second later, all matter and energy in the
universe existed as a hot, dense, tiny state (fig. 7). It then underwent extremely rapid,
exponential inflation until 10-32 second later after which and until 10 seconds from time zero,
conditions allowed the existence of only quarks, hadrons, and leptons.
• Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took place and produced protons, neutrons, atomic nuclei, and
then hydrogen, helium, and lithium until 20 minutes after time zero when sufficient cooling did
not allow further nucleosynthesis.
• From then on until 380,000 years, the cooling universe entered a matter-dominated period
when photons decoupled from matter and light could travel freely as still observed today in the
form of cosmic microwave background radiation.
10

• As the universe continued to cool down, matter collected into clouds giving rise to only stars
after 380,000 years and eventually galaxies would form after 100 million years from time zero
during which, through nucleosynthesis in stars, carbon and elements heavier than carbon were
produced.
• From 9.8 billion years until the present, the universe became dark-energy dominated and
underwent accelerating expansion. At about 9.8 billion years after the big bang, the solar
system was formed.
ENRICHMENT
Ask the students to submit a brief report on the following topic/questions.
• What is the fate of the universe? Will the universe continue to expand or will it eventually
contract because of gravity?
11
Teacher tip
It was previously thought that the gravity
would eventually stop the expansion and
end the universe with a “Big Crunch” and
perhaps to generate another “bang” . This
would occur if the density of the universe is
greater than the critical density. But if it is
lower, there would be not enough
gravitational force to stop or reverse the
expansion---the universe would expand
forever leading to the “Big Chill” or “Big
Freeze” since it cools during expansion. The
recent observation of accelerating
expansion suggests that the universe will
expand exponentially forever.
Submitted work may be evaluated using the
following criteria:
• Logical discussion of scientific concepts
used for the argument (egeffects of
gravity, expansion), consistent
discussions of pros and cons
• Logical build up of reasoning to
support the choice.

EVALUATION (20 MINS)
1. (NOT VISIBLE) 2. (NEEDS
IMPROVEMENT)
3. (MEETS
EXPECTATIONS)
4. (EXCEEDS
EXPECTATIONS)
Enrichment report
Summary questions
Explains the concept of
the Red Shift and how it
used as an evidence for an
expanding universe.
Applies understanding of
the Doppler effect to
differentiate between
source of sound in two
movie clips
Describes the cosmic
microwave background
radiation and its
significance.
States the different
hypotheses that preceded
the Big Bang Theory of the
origin of the universe
Explain the origin and
evolution of the Universe
according to the Big Bang
Theory.
12

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Lesson Plan/Materials/Teaching Guides
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Solar_System_formation_and_evolution_hypotheses#Classification_of_the_theories (accessed 13
October 2015)
2. ”The Origin of the Universe, Earth, and Life." National Academy of Sciences. Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy
of Sciences, Second Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 1999. http://www.nap.edu/read/6024/chapter/3#8 (accessed
2 October 2015)
3. http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-big-bang/ (accessed 5 October 2015)
Activities for teaching of the Universe 
1. http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/science-society/activities-universe
2. http://molebash.com/doppler/horn/horn1.htm
Short Article
1. http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/?origin-universe
13

Earth Science
Lesson 2: Universe and
the Solar System
Content Standard
1. the formation of the universe and the solar system.
Learning Competency
Compare the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the Solar System.
(S11ES-Ia-2).
• Identify the large scale and small scale properties of the solar system; and
• Discuss the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system;
1
60 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Prelection 5
Enrichment Short Research Assignment
Evaluation Pen & Paper Assignment 10
Materials
Projector or print-out of figures
Resources
(1) http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/solarsys/solarsys.html
(2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
History_of_Solar_System_formation_and_evolution_hypotheses#Classifi
cation_of_the_theories (accessed 13 October 2015)
(3) "The Origin of the Universe, Earth, and Life." National Academy of
Sciences. Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy
of Sciences, Second Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies
Press, 1999. http://www.nap.edu/read/6024/chapter/3#8 (accessed 2
October 2015)
(4) http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-
big-bang/ (accessed 5 October 2015)
(5) http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec24.html (accessed 27
March 2016)
(6) http://discovery.nasa.gov/education/pdfs/Active
%20Accretion_Discovery_508.pdf (accessed 27 March 2016)
(7) http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/
nsn11.sci.ess.eiu.solarorigins/origins-of-the-solar-system/ (accessed 27
March 2016)
(8) http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/pdfs/
ActiveAccretion_Dawn.pdf (accessed 27 March 2016

1. Introduce the following learning objectives and important terms
a. Identify the large scale and small scale properties of the solar system;
b. Discuss the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system;
2. Help students recall what they have learned about the solar system by drawing a model on the
board. Ask the students for the correct sequence (from the inner planets to the outer planet).
Figure 1. Layout of the solar system comprising mainly the Sun, planets and their
satellites, asteroids, and icy bodies such as dwarf planets and comets.
(http://www.universetoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/oort-cloud-nasa.jpg)
2
Teacher tip
• The Solar System and its components
have been discussed in Grade 6 and
Grade 8 (astronomy)
• The solar system comprises the Sun,
eight planets, dwarf planets such as
Pluto, satellites, asteroids, comets,
other minor bodies such as those in the
Kuiper belt and interplanetary dust.
• The asteroid belt lies between Mars
and Jupiter. Meteoroids are smaller
asteroids. They are thought of as
remnants of a “failed planet”—one that
did not form due to disturbance from
Jupiter’s gravity.
• The Kuiper belt lies beyond Neptune
(30 to 50 AU, 1 AU = Sun-Earth
distance = 150 million km) and
comprise numerous rocky or icy bodies
a few meters to hundreds of kilometers
in size.
• The Oort cloud marks the outer
boundary of the solar system and is
composed mostly of icy objects

MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
The Earth, the planet we live on, is part of the Solar System. If we want to know how the Earth formed,
we need to understand the origin and evolution of the Solar System.
Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation
Lecture proper (outline)
Show to the class the photos of the Milky Way galaxy and discuss the highlights.
Solar System
A. Overview
• The solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy a huge disc- and spiral-shaped
aggregation of about at least 100 billion stars and other bodies (fig. 2);
• Its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or bulge of many, many stars, at the center of
which lies a supermassive blackhole;
• This galaxy is about 100 million light years across (1 light year = 9.4607 × 1012 km;
• The solar system revolves around the galactic center once in about 240 million years;
• The Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo
supercluster of galaxies;
• Based on on the assumption that they are remnants of the materials from which they were
formed, radioactive dating of meteorites, suggests that the Earth and solar system are 4.6
billion years old.on the assumption that they are remnants of the materials from which they were
formed..
3
Teacher tip
Age of Solar System is at 4.6 billion years
old based on radioactive dating of
meteorites (Solar System is much younger
than the Universe);

Figure 2: The Solar System position with respect to the Milky Way Galaxy.
http://www.basicknowledge101.com/photos/earthinmilkyway.jpg
B. Large Scale Features of the Solar System
• Much of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated at the center (Sun) while angular
momentum is held by the outer planets.
• Orbits of the planets elliptical and are on the same plane.
• All planets revolve around the sun.
• The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the Sun; the
innermost planet moves fastest, the outermost, the slowest;
• All planets are located at regular intervals from the Sun.
4
Teacher tip
• Any hypothesis regarding the origin
of the solar system should conform
to or explain both large scale and
small scale properties of the solar
system. Natural forces created and
shaped the solar system. The same
processes (condensation, accretion,
collision and differentiation) are
ongoing processes .

C. Small scale features of the Solar System
• Most planets rotate prograde
• Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting points such as silicates, iron ,
and nickel. They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents
of volatiles - hydrogen, helium, and noble gases.
• The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called "gas giants" because of
the dominance of gases and their larger size. They rotate faster, have thick atmosphere, lower
densities, and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium and ices (water, ammonia, methane).
D. Element Abundance on Earth, Meteorites, and Universe
Table 1 shows the abundance of elements across bodies in the solar system as compared to
abundance in the universe.
• Except for hydrogen, helium, inert gases, and volatiles, the universe and Earth have similar
abundance especially for rock and metal elements.
5
• The orderly structure of the Solar
System (planets located at regular
intervals) and the uniform age of the
point to single formation event.
• It would help if there is a table to show
these features..comparing and
contrasting the different planets.
• Review the learners on of rotation vs
revolution.
• Prograde - counterclockwise when
viewed from above the Earth's North
Pole.
• Mercury's orbit around the sun does
not conform with the rest of the planets
in the solar system. It does not behave
according to Newton's Laws.
- The precession or rotation of the
orbit is predicted by Newton's
theory as being caused by the pull
of the planets on one another. The
precession of the orbits of all
planets except for Mercury's can,
in fact, be understood using
Newton;s equations. But Mercury
seemed to be an exception.
- As it orbits the Sun, this planet
follows an ellipse, but only
approximately: it is found that the
point of closest approach of
Mercury to the sun does not always
occur at the same place as in other
planets but that it slowly moves
around the sun

6
Teacher can choose to skip this part
(abundance of elements) if pressed for time.
Teacher tip
If teacher decides to discuss this part, he/
she can show th table and solicit
observations from the students as to the
differences/similarities in terms of element
composition (Not necessarily absolute
amounts). Students may also provide
explanations/implications for their
observations.
Expected responses may include:
• a difference between the composition
of the Earth's continental crust and the
Whole Earth (average composition of
the Earth) Þ The Earth differentiated
into compositional layers - crust,
mantle, and the core
• Very similar rock and metal elements
for Universe and Earth Þ easy to make
Earth if most H and He are removed;
sun and large planets have enough
mass and gravity to retain H and He
• Inert gases rare on Earth Þ too light for
Earth’s gravity to hold
• Some volatile elements remain Þ
ingredients from which Earth formed
were “cold” and solid particles; if hot,
would have been lost
• Recall that meteorites are believed to
be remnants of materials from which
the solar system was derived
Table 1: Abundance of Elements.

• The sun and the large planets have enough gravity to retain hydrogen and helium. Rare inert
gases are too light for the Earth’s gravity to retain, thus the low abundance.
• The sun and the large planets have enough gravity to retain hydrogen and helium. Rare inert
gases are too light for the Earth’s gravity to retain, thus the low abundance.
• Retention of volatile elements by the Earth is consistent with the idea that some materials that
formed the Earth and the solar system were “cold” and solid; otherwise, the volatiles would
have been lost. These suggest that the Earth and the solar system could be derived from
materials with composition similar to that of the universe.
• The presence of heavy elements such as lead, silver, and uranium on Earth suggests that it was
derived from remnants of a supernova and that the Sun is a second-generation star made by
recycling materials.
E. Origin of the System
• Any acceptable scientific thought on the origin of the solar system has to be consistent with and
supported by information about it (e.g. large and small scale features, composition). There will
be a need to revise currently accepted ideas should data no longer support them.
F. Rival Theories
• Many theories have been proposed since about four centuries ago. Each has weaknesses in
explaining all characteristics of the solar system. A few are discussed below.
1. Nebular Hypothesis
• In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace
independently thought of a rotating gaseous cloud that cools and contracts in the middle
to form the sun and the rest into a disc that become the planets.
• This nebular theory failed to account for the distribution of angular momentum in the solar
system.
7
Teacher can ask students for what theories/
explanations they know about the origin of
the solar system.
Teacher Tips:
• This is the nature of scientific inquiry. As
n e w d a t a i s g e n e r a t e d f r o m
observations/experimentation, a
hypothesis can be revised or even
replaced by a new one.
• Present the different hypotheses on the
origin of the Solar System in table form.
The first column is a summary of the
hypothesis. Second column - flaws/
drawbacks of the hypothesis.
• Teacher can draw this simple diagram on
the board to explain the Nebular
Hypothesis.

Figure 3. Nebular Hypothesis.
(Source: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/images/nebular_hypothesis.gif)
2. Encounter Hypotheses:
• Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that sent matter to form planet;
• James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star encounter that would have drawn from the sun matter that
would condense to planets,
• T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton’s (1904) planetesimal hypothesis involving a star much
bigger than the Sun passing by the Sun and draws gaseous filaments from both out which
planetisimals were formed;
8
• T h e c o m m o n t h e m e o f t h e s e
hypotheses involves an unlikely
encounter between the Sun and
another celestial body (e.g. comet, star,
protoplanet, interstellar cloud);
• The two major flaws of this type of
hypothesis include: 1) fails to explain
how planets are formed (hot gas from
the sun/star expands and will not form
planets); 2) this type of encounters are
extremely rare

• Ray Lyttleton’s (1940) sun’s companion star colliding with another to form a proto-planet
that breaks up to form Jupiter and Saturn.
Figure 4: Sun - Star Interaction
9
Image Source: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/
~js/images/encounter_hypothesis.gif

• Otto Schmidt’s accretion theory proposed that the Sun passed through a dense interstellar
cloud and emerged with a dusty, gaseous envelope that eventually became the planets.
However, it cannot explain how the planets and satellites were formed. The time required to
form the planets exceeds the age of the solar system.
• M.M. Woolfson’s capture theory (Figure 4) is a variation of James Jeans’ near-collision
hypothesis. In this scenario, the Sun drags from a near proto-star a filament of material which
becomes the planets. Collisions between proto-planets close to the Sun produced the
terrestrial planets; condensations in the filament produced the giant planets and their
satellites. Different ages for the Sun and planets is predicted by this theory.
• Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey’s compositional studies on meteorites in the 1950s and
other scientists’ work on these objects led to the conclusion that meteorite constituents
have changed very little since the solar system’s early history and can give clues about
their formation. The currently accepted theory on the origin of the solar system relies much
on information from meteorites.
3. Protoplanet Hypotheses - Current Hypothesis
• About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the Milky Way galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas
and dust cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to contract due to gravity (fig. 5).
• As most of the mass move to the center to eventually become a proto-Sun, the remaining
materials form a disc that will eventually become the planets and momentum is transferred
outwards.
• Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter begin sticking to each other to form
larger and larger bodies from meter to kilometer in size. These proto-planets are accretions
of frozen water, ammonia, methane, silicon, aluminum, iron, and other metals in rock and
mineral grains enveloped in hydrogen and helium.
• High-speed collisions with large objects destroys much of the mantle of Mercury, puts Venus
in retrograde rotation.
• Collision of the Earth with large object produces the moon. This is supported by the
composition of the moon very similar to the Earth's Mantle
• When the proto-Sun is established as a star, its solar wind blasts hydrogen, helium, and
volatiles from the inner planets to beyond Mars to form the gas giants leaving behind a
system we know today.
10
Teacher Tip
• i m p o r t a n c e o f m e t e o r i t e s i n
determining the age and the origin of
the solar system.
• An improvement of the nebular
h y p o t h e s i s b a s e d o n c u r r e n t
knowledge of fluids and states of
matter.
• remind the learner of the comparison
of the elemental abundance among the
Universe, Meteorites, and the whole
Earth
• accretion and bombardment generate
heat (kinetic energy is transformed to
heat)which was partly retained by the
Earth as internal heat;

Figure 5: . Cartoon showing the origin of the solar system
(Source: https://puserscontentstorage.blob.core.windows.net/userimages/52dd5b0a-2db6-4a81-
bca7-5ee3a4c3c05c/aa8d4f1a-b99d-42ed-8c70-a104ca40ec3eimage6.jpeg)
G. Activity (Optional)
Let’s Volt In.
Activity/game based on Active Accretion NASA's Discovery and New Frontiers Program: http://
dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/pdfs/ActiveAccretion_Dawn.pdf
Download or print from CD.
11
Teacher Tip
The activity/game can be very brief but it
would entail preparation and a lot of space
(ideally and outdoor activity)

ENRICHMENT
Is the Solar System unique or rare? What is the possibility of finding a similar system within the Milky
Way Galaxy? What about an Earth like planet?
12
EVALUATION (PEN AND PAPER ASSIGNMENT)
1. (NOT VISIBLE) 2. (NEEDS
IMPROVEMENT)
3. (MEETS
EXPECTATIONS)
4. (EXCEEDS
EXPECTATIONS)
Name the different
components of the solar
system.
Name the large scale and
small scale features of the
solar system.
Discuss the different
hypotheses regarding the
origin of the solar system
and recognizing their
weaknesses.
Discuss the origin and
evolution of the solar
system based on the most
current hypothesis (Proto
Planet Hypothesis)
Teacher tip
• Recent works are reporting presence of
a solar system in the other part of the
galaxy. Ask students to think about the
questions and do some research. This
can also be used to transition to the
next topic - Earth as habitable planet.
• Criteria for assessment of this task may
include:
- Logical discussion on answering
the questions with supporting
statements based on scientific
concepts.

Earth and Life Science
Lesson 3: Earth Systems
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the subsystems (geosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere) that make up the Earth.
The learners shall be able to make a concept map and use it to explain how
the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere are interconnected.
Learning Competency
The learners explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose
boundaries matter and energy flow (S11ES-Ib-4).
• define the concept of a system; and
• recognize the Earth as a system composed of subsystems.
1
90 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Recall the concept of El Niño 5
Practice Diagram Analysis 20
Enrichment Essay
Evaluation Essay
Materials
Pencil or any drawing material; A4 or letter size paper; clip board or any
flat surface that can be used for drawing
Resources
(1) Carleton College. (n.d.). Earth System Science. Retrieved from http://
serc.carleton.edu/Earthlabs/climate/index.html
(2) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). Teaching
Activity: The Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved from http://
www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/outreach/lesson_plans/The%20Hydrologic
%20Cycle.pdf
(3) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). The Major
Earth Spheres. Retrieved from http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/outreach/
lesson_plans/Teacher%20Background%20Information-%20The
%20Major%20Earth%20Spheres.pdf
(4) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). El Niño, La
Niña, and ENSO. Retrieved from http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/obop/
mlo/educationcenter/students/brochures%20and%20diagrams/noaa
%20publications/El%20Nino%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf

1. Perform either one of the following pre-class activities (30 minutes).
• Option 1 (This option is recommended for schools in a non-urban setting.)
o Using a pencil and a piece of paper, have the learners draw or illustrate the field
area. Take note of the presence of vegetation, soil cover, wildlife, rockout-crops,
and bodies of water. Ask the learners to think how energy and mass are
transferred in the different components of the area.
• Option 2 (This option is recommended for schools in an urban setting.)
o Together with the learners, label the different processes and phases of water
involved in the water cycle.
2
Teacher tip
• Check your immediate surrounding for
an appropriate field area, preferably
with trees or vegetation, and pond,
lake, or stream.
• Before bringing the learners to the field
area, check for potential hazards. If
applicable, the learners should be
properly warned about safety
precautionary measures.
• For schools in urban areas without
open spaces, choose option 2.
Teacher tip
• The concept of ecosystems has been
discussed in pre-SHS biology.
Emphasize the definition of the word
interaction.
• Most of the terms in this lesson have
been introduced in previous science
subjects.
• Help the learners integrate the
concepts that will be introduced.
Figure 1: Hydrologic Cycle (w/o labels)
Image Source:
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_YTb6ZblJu0o/
T P M z p 3 2 R 5 a I / A A A A A A A A A L g /
vnul9ZgWt0M/s1600/WaterCycleArt.jpg

o Use the following terms to complete the cycle:
- condensation
- precipitation
- evaporation
- transpiration
- infiltration
- surface run-off
2. Introduce the following specific learning objectives:
• Define the concept of a system.
• Recognize the Earth as a system composed of subsystems.
3. Ask the learners what they remember about the concept of ecosystems.
MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
1. Ask the learners what they know about or have experienced regarding El Niño.
2. Use the Figure 2, briefly explain the El Niño phenomenon. Emphasize that it starts with the unusual
warming of the central Pacific Ocean accompanied by the weakening of the trade winds. The
warming of the central Pacific Ocean results to an eastward shift of the low pressure area (away from
the Indo Pacific).
3
Teacher tip
• Most of the answers will describe the
atmospheric conditions during El Niño
(e.g. hot and dry, no rain, water crisis,
etc.)
• Emphasize that El Nino is not limited to
atmospheric conditions. It is the result
of hydrosphere (ocean)-atmosphere
interaction.
• T h e s u b s y s t e m s o f t h e E a r t h
(atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
and lithosphere) interact with each
other.

Figure 2. El Niño phenomenon
Source: http://images.listlandcom.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/The-El-
Nino-Phenomenon-explained-in-a-nice-little-graphic.jpg
4
Teacher tip
• Most of the answers will describe the
atmospheric conditions during El Niño
(e.g. hot and dry, no rain, water crisis,
etc.)
• Emphasize that El Nino is not limited to
atmospheric conditions. It is the result
of hydrosphere (ocean)-atmosphere
interaction.
• T h e s u b s y s t e m s o f t h e E a r t h
(atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
and lithosphere) interact with each
other.

3. Explain the origin of the term ‘El Niño’ as a decrease in fish catch off the coast of Peru near
Christmas time. Emphasize that this is a biologic response.
1. Define the term system as a set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a
unified whole.
2. Present this diagram that enumerates the subsystems of the Earth.
Figure 3: The Earth system.
(Source: https://www.earthonlinemedia.com)
5
Teacher tip
• Give the government as an example.
Inquire about the three branches of the
government (executive, judiciary, and
legislative). Explain that these three
branches are independent and have
their respective mandates or functions.
A government can only succeed if all
three branches are able to perform their
respective functions.
• The arrows in the diagram indicate the
interaction among the components.
• A closed system is a system in which
there is only an exchange of heat or
energy and no exchange of matter.

3. Explain that the Earth system is essentially a closed system. It receives energy from the sun and
returns some of this energy to space.
4. Introduce the term atmosphere.
• The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
• The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9%
argon, and trace amount of other gases.
• One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is
redistributed is through atmospheric circulation.
• There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.
5. Introduce the term lithosphere.
• The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer core,
and the solid metallic inner core.
• Briefly discuss the Plate Tectonics as an important process shaping the surface of the Earth.
The primary driving mechanism is the Earth's internal heat, such as that in mantle convection.
6. Introduce the term biosphere.
• The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth.
• It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs,
and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.
• For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic
organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while
oxygen is released as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an
important part of the carbon cycle.
• Sunlight is not necessary for life.
7. Introduce the term hydrosphere.
• About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the
form of ocean water (Figure 3).
• Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining
one-third is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.
• The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange with the atmosphere and
6
• Describe each subsystem of the Earth.
• Warm air converges and rises to form low-
pressure zones. Low-pressure areas are
associated with increased precipitation. By
contrast, cold air descends to form high-
pressure regions (dry regions).
• The concept of Plate Tectonics will be
discussed in detail in the succeeding
lessons (Internal Structure of the Earth)
• The carbon cycle is the process by which
carbon is transferred among the
atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living
organisms.
• Isolated and complex ecosystems thrive in
the deep sea floor at depths beyond the
reach of sunlight. The base of the food
chain for such ecosystems is called
chemosynthetic organisms. Instead of
sunlight, these organisms use energy from
hydrothermal vents or methane seeps
(methane seeping through rocks and
sediments) to produce simple sugars.

indirectly through the weathering of rocks.
• Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth through ocean circulation.
Figure 3: Hypsographic curve
(Source: http://images.slideplayer.com/10/2857469/slides/slide_11.jpg)
7
• The hypsographic curve is a graphical
representation of the proportion of land at
various elevations (meters above or below
sea level)
• Ensure that the learners understand what
the X and Y axes represent. To test their
comprehension, ask the leaners what
proportion of the Earth's surface is about
4000 m below sea level (Answer Key: ~
60%).
• The hydrologic cycle (water cycle) has
been partly discussed in Grade 4 (water in
t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ) a n d G r a d e 8
(Ecosystems).
• Through the process of weathering and
erosion, the hydrologic cycle is another
important process contributing to the
shaping and reshaping of the surface of
the Earth. This is an important link among
the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
lithosphere that the learners should be
able to identify themselves.

PRACTICE (20 MINS)
1. Using either the illustration on Figures 1 or 4, identify how energy and mass is exchanged
among the subsystems. Use different types of lines and boxes to differentiate between matter
or materials and energy.
2. Use arrows to indicate the interaction among components.
Figure 4: Exchange of energy and mass among subsystem (without labels).
ENRICHMENT
1. The impact of man to the environment has become so massive that scientists are proposing the
addition of man or the ‘anthroposphere’ to the Earth system.
8
Teacher tip
• Use the pre-lecture drawing
exercise for schools with open
spaces (option 1); else, use the
hydrologic cycle diagram

2. Write an essay not exceeding 200 words on how man has altered the atmosphere, biosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere, and as a consequence, the Earth System as whole.
9
Teacher tip
Possible responses may include but
are not limited to:
• Changes in land use
• Deforestations lead to erosion,
flooding, decrease in CO2
sequestration (hence increase
in greenhouse gases), and loss
of habitat (extinction).
• I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d
development of technology
may lead to pollution and over
hunting (extinction).
• The use of renewable energy
sources reduces pollution and
greenhouse gases.
EVALUATION
NOT VISIBLE
NEEDS
IMPROVEMENT
MEETS
EXPECTATIONS
EXCEEDS
EXPECTATIONS
Understands the concept
of a system.
Can describe the different
components or
subsystems of the Earth
System.
Can identify and explain
how mass and energy is
exchanged among the
components of a system.
Essay is relevant to the
assigned topic and written
logically and clearly.

Earth and Life Science
Lesson 4: The Universe
and Solar System
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the formation of the universe
and the Solar System.
The learners shall be able to make a concept map and use it to explain how
the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere are interconnected.
Learning Competency
The learners describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support
life (S11ES-Ia-b-3).
• recognize the difference in the physical and chemical properties between the
Earth and its neighboring planes; and
• identify the factors that allow a planet to support life.
1
60 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Puzzle 5
Instruction/
Practice
Lecture and Data Interpretation 45
Enrichment Terraforming Mars (Assignment)
Evaluation Data Interpretation
Materials
Projector; hard copy of figures
Resources
(1) Montana State University. (n.d.). Interstellar Real Estate - Defining the
Habitable Zone. Retrieved from https://btc.montana.edu/ceres/html/
Habitat/habitablezone.htm
(2) National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2015). Planetary Fact
Sheet. Retrieved from http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/
(3) National Science Foundation. (n.d.). Crash Landing! Student Activity
Sheet. Retrieved from http://www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/
sample/lesson5/pdf/5_3_1sas_crashland.pdf
(4) National Science Foundation. (n.d.). Goldilocks and the Three Planets.
Retrieved from http://www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/sample/
lesson5/pdf/goldilocks.pdf
(5) National Science Foundation. (n.d.). Lesson 5: Activity 3: Habitable
Worlds. Retrieved from http://www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/
sample/lesson5/z_act3.htm
(6) https://btc.montana.edu/ceres/html/Habitat/habitablezone.htm
(7) http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/

1. Introduce the following specific learning objectives:
• Recognize the difference in the physical and chemical properties between the Earth and its
neighboring planets
• Identify the factors that allow a planet to support life.
2. Review the previous lessons on the Solar System.
• Origin
• Components
• Terrestrial vs Gas Planets
MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
1. Using the letters provided in Figure 1, ask the learners the four-letter word that describes the
following images.
Answer Key: LIFE
Figure 1. Finding the four-letter word that describes the image above
2
Teacher tip
Teacher can create his or her own 4 Picture
1 Word puzzle. Use images that the learners
can easily relate to.
Image source: whats-theword.com

2. The humanity’s failure to protect the environment and life here on Earth is likely due to the
following:
• Inability to recognize the full consequence of his/her actions
• Lack of appreciation of how truly unique the Earth is
INSTRUCTION/PRACTICE (40 MINS)
Activity 1: Compare and Contrast the Planets
1. Print and cut-out photographs of three terrestrial planets, namely Venus, Earth, and Mars. Place the
photographs side by side.
Figure 2: Venus, Earth, and Mars. Images from NASA
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Terrestrial_planet_sizes.jpg
3
Teacher tip
The concept of the Earth as a system and
the interconnectivity of its components will
be discussed in the succeeding lesson.
Teacher tip
• To save time, prepare the materials
before the class starts.
• Try to print colored photographs in hard
paper so it can be reused several times.
Print the photographs in the correct
scale.
• Alternatively, the teacher may opt to
post on the blackboard the contents of
Table 2, instead of giving out copies to
the learners.
• Possible responses may include:
- The blue coloration of the Earth is
very apparent due to the presence
of water. The size of the planets is
also important to note.
- The size and mass of Venus and
Earth are very similar. Mars is about
half the Earth's size.
- T h e t h r e e p l a n e t s h a v e a
spheroidal shape.
-
Venus Earth Mars

2. Divide the class into groups of three to five. Give each group a copy of Table 1 for reference. Ask
each group to write down on a piece of paper the similarities and differences among the planets.
Give the learners 15 minutes to complete the task.
3. Ask the learners to provide possible explanations for their observations using the information in
Table 2 and their prior knowledge on the planets.
Table 1: Comparison of the features of Venus, Earth, and Mars
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2015)
.
4
Teacher tip
• The rows are color coded according to
their relationship with respect to each
other.
• Escape velocity is the minimum speed
an object needs to escape a planet's
pull of gravity.
• Surface pressure is the atmospheric
pressure at a location on the surface of
the planet. It is proportional to the
mass of air above the location.
• ‘Temperature if no greenhouse gases
are present’ indicates the temperature
of the planet without the warming
effect of greenhouse gases. Note that
the temperature of the Earth would be
a r o u n d 1 8 o
C l o w e r w i t h o u t
greenhouse warming.
• Emphasize that the greenhouse effect
is not necessarily undesirable. It is run-
away greenhouse effect which we
would like to avoid (e.g. Venus).
Ask the students what is the
consequence if greenhouse gases are
not present
• Length of day is a function of
rotational speed.
• The ability of a planet to retain its
internal heat is proportional to its size.
Mars may have lost much of its internal
heat very early in its evolution.
• A planet's temperature is a function of
its distance from the Sun. However, this
factor can be modified by the intensity
of greenhouse warming.
• Water in liquid form is one of the most
important prerequisites for life. There is
recent evidence that liquid water, in the
form of brine (salty water) flows
intermittently on the surface of Mars.

4. After the task, ask a representative from each group to present their observations.
• Venus, Earth, and Mars are part of the inner terrestrial or "rocky" planets. Their composition
and densities are not too different from each other.
• Venus is considered to be the Earth's twin planet. It has a very similar size and mass with the
Earth. Mars is about half the Earth's size.
• Orbital period and velocity are related to the planet's distance from the sun. Among the three
planet, Venus is the nearest and Mars is the farthest from the Sun.
• Rotational speed of Earth and Mars are very similar. Rotational speed of Venus is extremely
slow.
• Abundance of liquid water on Earth, hence the blue color. The Earth is a habitable planet.
Activity 2: Interstellar Crash Landing (National Science Foundation, n.d.,)
(http://www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/sample/lesson5/pdf/5_3_1sas_crashland.pdf)
1. Ask students what factors would a planet habitable. Learners should try to elaborate on their
responses.
2. Provide a copy of Table 2 - "Factors that Make a Planet Habitable" to each of the group (can be the
same grouping as Activity 1). Ask students to read the document carefully and compare their
answers they have given at the start of the activity
Table 2: Factors that make a planet habitable (National Science Foundation, n.d.,)
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/explore/our_place/hab_ref_table.pdf
5
• Water - in the liquid form, turns out to
be one of the most important
prerequisites for life as we know it.
• There is recent evidence that liquid
water, in the form of brine (salty water)
flows intermittently on the surface of
Mars.
• thermophiles - bacteria that can
tolerate extreme temperatures (41 to
122 0
C) commonly associated with hot
springs and deep-sea hydrothermal
vents. Life, in general can tolerate a
wide range of temperature conditions.
The temperature range that allows
water to exist in the liquid state is the
over-riding factor.
• planets should have sufﬁcient size to
hold a signiﬁcant atmosphere. The
composition of the atmosphere,
specifically the amount of green house
gases, influences the planet surface
temperature.
• the amount of solar radiation that a
planet receives is primarily a function of
distance from the sun. Sunlight is
essential for photosynthesis but some
organism are able to extract energy
from other sources (chemosynthetic
organisms).
• a system that will be able to constantly
supply nutrients to organisms is
important to sustain life. On Earth,
nutrients are cycled through the
hydrologic cycle and plate tectonics
(volcanism)
• Internal heat drives plate tectonics. The
ability of a planet to maintain internal
heat is related to size.

6
Factors that
make a
Planet
Habitable
Not Enough of
the Factor
Just Right Too Much of the
Factor
Situation in the Solar
System
Temperature
influences how
quickly atoms
and molecules
move.
Low
temperatures
cause chemicals
to react slowly,
which interferes
with the reactions
necessary for life.
It can also cause
the freezing of
water, making
liquid water
unavailable.
Life seems to be
limited to a
temperature
range of -15oC
to 115oC. In
this range,
liquid water can
still exist under
certain
conditions.
At about 125oC,
protein and
carbohydrate
molecules, and the
genetic material
(e.g., DNA and
RNA) start to break
apart. Also, high
temperatures
cause the quick
evaporation of
water.
Surface: only the
Earth’s surface is in
this temperature
range. Sub-surface:
the interior of the
solid planets and
moons may be in this
temperature range.
Atmosphere Traps heat, shields the surface from harmful radiation, and provides chemicals needed for life, such aSmall planets and
moons have
insufficient
gravity to hold an
atmosphere. The
gas molecules
escape to space,
leaving the
planet or moon
without an
insulating blanket
or a protective
shield.
Earth & Venus
are the right
size to hold a
sufficient-sized
atmosphere.
Earth’s
atmosphere is
about 100 miles
thick. It keeps
the surface
warm & protects
it from radiation
& small- to
medium-sized
meteorites.
Venus’s
atmosphere is 100
times thicker than
Earth’s. It is made
almost entirely of
greenhouse
gasses, making the
surface too hot for
life. The four giant
planets are
completely made
of gas.
Of the solid planets &
moons, only Earth,
Venus, & Titan have
significant
atmospheres. Mars’
atmosphere is about
1/100th that of
Earth’s, too small for
significant insulation
or shielding.
The document/table can be downloaded
from
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/
explore/our_place/hab_ref_table.pdf or
from the accompanying CD.

7
Energy Organisms use light or chemical energy to run their life processes.When there is
too little sunlight
or too few of the
chemicals that
provide energy
to cells, such as
iron or sulfur,
organisms die.
With a steady
input of either
light or
chemical
energy, cells can
run the
chemical
reactions
necessary for
life.
Light energy is a
problem if it makes
a planet too hot or
if there are too
many harmful rays,
such as ultraviolet.
Too many energy-
rich chemicals is
not a problem
Surface: The inner
planets get too much
sunlight for life. The
outer planets get too
little.
Sub-surface: Most
solid planets & moons
have energy-rich
chemicals.
Nutrients
Used to build
and maintain an
organism’s body.
Without
chemicals to
makeproteins &
carbohydrates,
organisms cannot
grow. Planets
without systems
to deliver
nutrients to its
organisms (e.g., a
water cycle or
volcanic activity)
cannot support
life. Also, when
nutrients are
spread so thin
that they are hard
to obtain, such as
on a gas planet,
life cannot exist.
All solid planets
& moons have
the same
general
chemical
makeup, so
nutrients are
present. Those
with a water
cycle or volcanic
activity can
transport and
replenish the
chemicals
required by
living
organisms.
Too many nutrients
are not a problem.
However, too
active a circulation
system, such as the
constant volcanism
on Jupiter’s moon,
Io, or the churning
atmospheres of the
gas planets,
interferes with an
organism’s ability
to get enough
nutrients.
Surface: Earth has a
water cycle, an
atmosphere, and
volcanoes to circulate
nutrients. Venus,
Titan, Io, and Mars
have nutrients and
ways to circulate
them to organisms.
Sub-surface: Any
planet or moon with
sub-surface water or
molten rock can
circulate and
replenish nutrients for
organisms

3. Ask the students to imagine themselves in an interstellar voyage. Their spaceship suffers mechanical
problems and will be forced to land. Fortunately they are passing through the Yanib System , which is
composed of a sun-like star surrounded by seven planets, some of which have moons . The profiles of
planets and moons of the Yanib System are listed on Table 3 (Provide each group a copy of Table 3).
Students are to decide the best place to land their ship.
4. Ask students to write down on a piece of paper their choice of planet or moon . Reasons for their
choice should also be written down. Reasons why they did not choose the other planets should also
be included.
Table 3 Proﬁles of Planets and Moons of Yanib System. Modified from: http://
www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/sample/lesson5/pdf/5_3_1sas_crashland.pdf
8
Planet 1 (closet to the star)
Mass: 1.5 (Earth = 1)
Tectonics: Active volcanoes and
seismic activity detected
Atmosphere: CO2, N, and H20
Ave. Temperature: 651oC
Description: Thick clouds surround
the planet. No surface is visible
through the clouds.
Planet 4
Mass: 1.5
seismic activity detected
Atmosphere: N, O2, and ozone
layer
Average Temperature: 2oC
Description: Cold oceans, covered
with ice along much of the globe,
some open water around equator
Planet 2
Mass: 0.5 
Tectonics: No activity detected 
Atmosphere: Thin CO2
atmosphere 
detected 
Average Temperature: 10oC 
Description: Polar ice caps, dry
riverbeds
Planet 5
Gas Giant with one large moon.
Moon: Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
atmosphere. Many volcanoes and
hot springs on surface.
Temperatures in hot spots can be
up to 600oC. Other spots away
from volcanic heat can get as low
in temperature as 145oC.
Teacher Tip
You may also require the learners to
include a sketch/diagram of how they
think their habitable planet/moon
would look like based on the factors for
habitable planet/moon.

ENRICHMENT
Terraforming Mars
Have the learners write a 200 word report/essay on the following topic: ‘Can man alter Mars environment
to make it more suitable for human habitation? How?’
9
Planet 3
Mass: 1
seismic activity detected.
Atmosphere: CO2, H2O
Temperature: 30 OC
Description: Liquid water oceans
cover much of the surface.
Volcanic island chains make up
most of the dry land.
Planet 6
Gas giant with four large, rocky
satellites (moons).
Moons have no appreciable
atmosphere. Ice detectable on
one.
Planet 7 (furthest from the star)
Gas giant with two large moons.
Moon 1: Thick methane
atmosphere with pressure high
enough to keep a potential
methane ocean liquid underneath.
Temperature: -200 oC
Moon 2: Covered in water ice. Ice
appears cracked and re-frozen in
parts, indicating a potential liquid
ocean underneath.
Surface temperature -100 oC.
Teacher tip
• To terraform means to transform
another planet to resemble the Earth
in several aspects, specifically the
ability to support life.
• Use the following criteria in
assessing this assignment:
- Logic and consistency in the
arguments
- Valid and consistent scientific
concepts to support the answer

EVALUATION
NOT VISIBLE
NEEDS
IMPROVEMENT
MEETS
EXPECTATIONS
EXCEEDS
EXPECTATIONS
Identify similarities
and differences
among the three
planets, namely
Venus, Earth, and
Mars.
Explain the impact
of planet size to
gravity, internal
heat, and
atmosphere of the
planet.
Identify factors
that influence a
planet's
temperature.
Explain factors that
make a planet
habitable.
Explain why the
presence of liquid
water is important
to life
10

Earth Science
Lesson 5: Minerals and Rocks
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the three main categories of
rocks.
The learners shall be able to make a plan that the community may use to
conserve and protect its resources for future generations.
Learning Competency
The learners will be able to identify common rock-forming minerals using their
physical and chemical properties (S11ES-Ib-5).
• demonstrate understanding about physical and chemical properties of
minerals and will be able to identify certain minerals using specific tests;
• identify some common rock-forming minerals; and
• classify minerals based on chemical affinity.
1
60 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Mineral Identification Video 10
Practice Mineral Identification 20
Evaluation Summary Questions
Materials
Mineral Decision Tree; Mineral Identification Charts; manila paper;
markers; media player; internet connection (optional)
Resources
(1) Identifying Minerals by Michael Sammartano https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=32NG9aeZ7_c (8/29/2015).
(2) Laboratory Manual for Physical Geology – Mineral Identification https://
gln.dcccd.edu/Geology_Demo/content/LAB03/LAB_Man_03.pdf
(8/29/2015).
(3) The Mineral Identification Key http://www.minsocam.org/msa/
collectors_corner/id/mineral_id_keyq1.htm (8/29/2015).
(4) Calcite Cleavage by Steven Newton https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bYiT2qgD8zQ&feature=youtu.be (8/30/2015).

1. Introduce the following learning objectives using the suggested protocols (Verbatim, Own Words,
Read-aloud)
a. I can describe how much minerals are part of our daily lives
b. I can describe minerals as a life-long hobby (gemstone collectors)
c. I can describe the importance and use of minerals to human development
d. I can develop a systematic way of identifying minerals
Understanding key concepts
2. Define what a mineral is. Give emphasis to the five requirements for a material to be considered a
mineral (i.e. naturally occurring is not man-made or machine-generated, inorganic is not a by-
product of living things, etc.).
Review
3. Ask the learners: Do you consider water a mineral? How about snowflake or tube ice?
Options: video (for lectures), power point slides (pictures), specimens (if available)
Show a video on minerals (general) with discussions on the different chemical and physical properties of
minerals. This will guide the students on how to identify minerals. Tell the students that the video will
only be played once and that they need to take notes for discussion. (8:33 minutes)
2
Teacher tip
• Cite examples of mineral use in our
daily lives:
1. halite (salt) for cooking
2. graphite (pencil) for writing
3. diamond and gold as jewelry
• Mineral - naturally occurring, inorganic
solid with orderly crystalline structure
and a definite chemical composition.
These are the basic building blocks of
rocks.
• Water is not a mineral since it is not
solid and crystalline. Tube ice is not
because it is not naturally occurring.
Snow flake meets all requirements in
defining a mineral.
Teacher tip
• Make sure that the learners are ready
to watch before playing the video.
• With no available specimen or tangible
sample to describe, the teacher can use
a video.

A. Mineral Properties
Ask the students to identify the different mineral properties described in the video. Encourage class
participation by specifically using table salt or halite in demonstrating these properties. Tabulate the
answers on the board.
Teacher to discuss the different mineral properties.
1. Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral
a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a polished metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), resinous, silky, pearly, dull
(earthy), greasy, etc.
2. Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not specifically surface) to abrasion.
3
Teacher tip
• Give the government as an example.
Inquire about the three branches of the
government (executive, judiciary, and
legislative). Explain that these three
branches are independent and have
their respective mandates or functions.
A government can only succeed if all
three branches are able to perform their
respective functions.
• The arrows in the diagram indicate the
interaction among the components.
Teacher tip
• Explore with the students a
systematic way of identifying
minerals.
Mineral Name HALITE (TABLE SALT)
Chemical Composition NaCl
Luster non-metallic – vitreous; transparent to translucent
Hardness soft (2-2.5)
Color white
Streak white
Crystal Form / Habit cubic
Cleavage perfect cubic
Specific Gravity light (2.2)
Other Properties salty taste; very soluble; produces reddish spark in flame

a. Introduce students to the use of a hardness scale designed by German geologist/mineralogist
Friedrich Mohs in 1812 (Mohs Scale of Hardness). The test compares the resistance of a mineral
relative to the 10 reference minerals with known hardness. It is simply determining the hardness of a
mineral by scratching them with common objects of known hardness (e.g. copper coin -3.0-3.5).
Moh’s scale of Hardness
Source: http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-identify-a-Mineral/step3/Hardness/ (8/30/2015)
4
• Explore with the students a
systematic way of identifying
minerals.
• It is recommended that the
mineral properties be discussed
in the correct sequence :
1 and 2 (in any order): Luster,
Hardness
3: Color and Streak
4. Crystal Form/ Habit
5. Cleavage
6. Fracture
7. Specific Gravity
8. Other Properties
• Common everyday objects that
can be used for hardness test
Object Hardness
Fingernail 2 – 2.5
Copper
coin/wire
3-3.5
Nail 5-5.5
Glass 5.5
Steel knife 6.5 - 7

b. What are the pros and cons in using the Mohs scale of hardness?
3. Color and streak – Color maybe a unique identifying property of certain minerals (e.g. malachite –
green, azurite – blue). There are also lots of minerals that share similar or the same color/s. In
addition, some minerals can exhibit a range of colors. The mineral quartz for example, can be pink
(rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white (colorless quartz) etc. Streak on the other
hand is the color of a mineral in powdered form. Note that the color of a mineral could be different
from the streak. For example, pyrite (FeS2) exhibits golden color (hence the other term of pyrite
which is Fool’s Gold) but has a black or dark gray streak. Streak is a better diagnostic property as
compared to color. Streak is inherent to almost every mineral. Color maybe unreliable for
identification as impurities within the minerals may give the minerals a different color.
Color vs streak of a hematite (Fe2O3). Source: http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-identify-a-
Mineral/step6/Streak/ (8/30/2015)
5
PROS CONS
Easy to do the test The scale is qualitative and not quantitative
Can be done anywhere, anytime as long as the
place is not dark
Cannot be used to test accurate hardness of
industrial materials
Mohs scale is highly relevant for ﬁeld geologists
to roughly identify minerals using scratch kits
Can be done without or few kits – handy
• The different colors and varieties
of Quartz is the result of
impurities within the crystal
structure. The color of some
minerals can also be modified by
weathering.

4. Crystal Form/Habit –The external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is displayed / observed as
these crystals grow in open spaces. The form reflects the supposedly internal structure (of atoms
and ions) of the crystal (mineral). It is the natural shape of the mineral before the development of
any cleavage or fracture. Examples include prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy, reniform and equant. A
mineral that do not have a crystal structure is described as amorphous.
The crystal form also define the relative growth of the crystal in 3 dimension which are its length,
width and height
Activity: Show the pictures to the learners and try to identify the crystal forms / habits. Provide
more pictures if needed.
Crystal form / habit. Source: http://www.slideshare.net/davidprestidge/earth-lecture-slide-chapter-
five page 46 of 74 (8/30/2015)
Answer: Left picture: blocky/cubic or equant (it has equal growth rate in three dimensions). Middle
picture: bladed habit (it resembles a blade, with varied growth rates in 3 dimensions). Right picture:
needle-like habit (rapid growth of crystals in one dimension while slow in other dimensions).
6
Teacher tip
Use Figure 4 for schools with open
spaces. Otherwise, use Figure 1.

"
5. Cleavage – It is the property of some minerals to break along parallel repetitive planes of weakness
to form smooth, flat surfaces. These planes of weakness are inherent in the bonding of atoms that
makes up the mineral. These planes of weakness are parallel to the atomic planes and appear to
be repeating within the mineral. When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage
is described by the number of cleavage directions and the angle(s) between planes (e.g. cleavage
in 2 directions at 90 degrees to each other).
Mineral cleavage. Left photo shows one cleavage direction (biotite). Middle photo has cleavage in 2
directions at 90° (orthoclase). Right photo has 3 cleavage directions at 74° (calcite). Source: https://
commons.wikimedia.org License: Creative commons (attribution: Rob Lavinsky, iRocks.com – CC-
BY-SA-3.0)
Show a video of a calcite crystal being hit with a hammer (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bYiT2qgD8zQ&feature=youtu.be).
Note how the crystal breaks into smaller pieces and still manifest the same rhombic shape. Where
the crystal breaks (the flat surfaces) are called cleavage planes. For the calcite crystal, there are
three cleavage planes at 120 and 60 degrees.
It is important to clearly differentiate a crystal habit from cleavage. Although both are dictated by
crystal structure, crystal habit forms as the mineral is growing, therefore relies on how the individual
atoms in the crystal come together. Cleavage on the other hand is the weak plane that developed
after the crystal is formed.
7

6. Fracture – Some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular
and non-planar. Quartz for example has an inherent weakness in the crystal structure that is not
planar. Examples of fracture are conchoidal, fibrous, hackly, and uneven among others.
7. Specific Gravity – It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of
water. A bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh 10 times more than a bucket of water (SG 1). It is a
measure to express the density (mass per unit volume) of a mineral. The specific gravity of a
mineral is numerically equal to density.
8. Others – There are certain unique properties of minerals that actually help in their identification
(e.g. magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.). Magnetite is strongly magnetic;
sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in powdered
form.
B. Mineral Groups
In a manner of exploring and discovering systematic ways of identifying minerals, the teacher can ask
the students if they can think of a way to group minerals together.
The teacher can now proceed synthesizing the suggested “systematic ways” by the students.
A more stable and less ambiguous basis for classification of minerals is by chemical composition.
8
Teacher tip
The most likely response would be on the
grouping basis of physical properties.
Although physical properties are useful for
mineral identification, some minerals
however may exhibit wider range of
p r o p e r t i e s t o i n c l u d e c h e m i c a l
compositions.
Element Element
+
SiO4
Element
+
O2
Element
+
SO4
Element
+
S2
Element
+
CO3
Element
+
Halogens
Native Silicate Oxide Sulfate Sulfide Carbonate Halide
Gold Quartz Hematite Gypsum Pyrite Calcite Chlorine
Bismuth Olivine Magnetite Barite Galena Dolomite Fluorine
Diamond Talc Chromite Anhydrite Bornite Malachite Halite

1. Silicates – minerals containing 2 of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust, namely, silicon
and oxygen. When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron - the
fundamental building block of silicate minerals. Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals belong to
this group. Aside from Si (46.6 % by wt.) and O (27.7%), the other most common elements that
make the earth’s crust are Al (8.1), Fe (5.0), Ca (3.6), Mg (3.1), Na (2.8) and K 2.6).
2. Oxides – minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2
-) combined with one or more metal ions
3. Sulfates – minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion (SO4)- combined with other ions
4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur anion (S2)- combined with one or more ions. Some sulfides are
sources of economically important metals such as copper, lead and zinc.
5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)2- combined with other elements
6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual elementsa.
a. Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high thermal and electrical conductivity, typically with
metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead)b.
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower conductivity (arsenic,
bismuth)c.
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)
7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more elements
The teacher to provide a list of the common rock-forming minerals containing NAME and CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION ONLY.
PRACTICE (20 MINS)
Activity 1. For the whole class, try to identify 5 minerals by testing their properties using the mineral
identification charts provided by Mineralogical Society of America (http://www.minsocam.org/msa/
collectors_corner/id/mineral_id_keyq1.htm). Click on “Yes” or “No” to questions regarding Luster,
Hardness and Streak (The “program” narrows down the options by the process of elimination). The
program will direct you to the correct part of the mineral chart if the correct answers are supplied.
9
Teacher tip
• Compounds formed with the silicate
ions and the other common elements
are called silicates which are associated
to be common rock forming minerals
• The other mineral properties are not to
be provided because these will be used
in the Practice portion.
• The first activity can only be done with
an internet connection. If time permits
and if the learners enjoy the activity, the
teacher can continue with the activity
using some other minerals. Otherwise,
proceed to the next activity. If there is
no internet connection, then only the
second activity can be done

Activity 2. Group the students into 3-4 teams. The teacher to print and provide each team a copy of
the Mineral Decision Tree and Mineral Identification Charts (https://gln.dcccd.edu/Geology_Demo/
content/LAB03/LAB_Man_03.pdf). Based on the discussed topics and examples, select ten (10)
different rock-forming minerals (known or unknown to students) and determine the different
properties that can be used to identify them. Write the data in a Manila paper using markers. Include
which chemical family group these minerals belong. The team will then select a leader to present
their output to the class.
ENRICHMENT
Homework to be submitted on next meeting. Think of 5 minerals and their common uses and identify
the specific property/properties that made them for that purpose (e.g. graphite, having a black streak
and hardness of 1-2, is used in pencils due to its ability to leave marks on paper and other objects).
EVALUATION
A. Summary questions related to the lesson (Questions in bold font are difficult questions):
1. What are the characteristics that define a mineral?
Answer: inorganic, naturally occurring, crystalline, solid and must have a consistent chemical
composition
2. Which among the following mineral groups, if any, contain silicon: halides, carbonates or sulfides?
Explain.
Answer: None. The identified mineral groups are non-silicates
10

3. Which is more abundant in the Earth’s crust: silicates or all the other mineral groups combined? Explain.
Answer: Silicates. Silicon and oxygen are the main components of silicates and these are the two
most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust.
4. An unknown opaque mineral has a black streak and has a density of 18g/cm3. Is the mineral
metallic or non-metallic?
Answer: The mineral is more likely to be metallic because it is opaque and metallic minerals are
usually heavy and with dark streaks
5. What is the difference between a mineral's streak and color? Why is streak more reliable for
rock identiﬁcation?
Answer: Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form. It is more reliable because it is inherent
to most minerals. Color is not reliable because mineral can be formed with varieties of color, an
effect of impurities and weathering.
6. Differentiate habit and a cleavage plane.
Answer: Habit is the external shape of a crystal that is developed during the formation of the
mineral. Cleavage plane is a plane of weakness that maybe formed in a crystal after the crystal
formation.
7. Is it possible for a mineral to have a prismatic habit without having any cleavage? Why or
why not? If yes, give an example.
Answer: Yes, the prismatic habit is simultaneously developed while the mineral is growing. During
the process, there is no repetitive plane of weakness being created which makes the mineral break
only by fracturing. An example of this scenario is quartz.
11

B. Practice identifying minerals if samples are available (optional).
NOT VISIBLE NEEDS IMPROVEMENT
MEETS
EXPECTATIONS
EXCEEDS
EXPECTATIONS
A. Summary
Questions
Correctly answered ≤2
easy questions
Correctly answered all
easy questions
easy questions and one
difficult question
questions
B. Mineral
Identification
(optional)
Cannot identify any
mineral
Can identify 1 or 2
minerals
Can identify 3-5 minerals Can identify more than 5
minerals
12

Earth Science
Lesson 6: Minerals and Rocks
Content Standards
1. the three main categories of rocks, and
2. the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks
Learning Competency
The learners will be able to classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic (S11ES-Ic-6).
• identify and describe the three basic rock types;
• establish relationships between rock types and their mode of origin and
environments of deposition/formation; and
• understand the different geologic processes involved in rock formation.
1
120 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Mineral Identification Video 15
Practice Mineral Identification 40
Evaluation Summary Questions
Materials
Manila paper; marker pen; media player; laptop/computer; projector;
Internet connection
Resources
(1) 3 Types of Rocks by Smart Learning for All (Accessed 09/20/2015)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17l2LrjZi9o
(2) The Rock Cycle by Kelly Dunham (Accessed 09/20/2015) https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9lyCYXXIHT0
(3) The Rock Cycle by Annennberg Learner (Accessed 09/18/2015) http://
www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/diagram.html, http://
www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/diagram2.html, http://
www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/testskills.html
(4) Mr. Mulroy’s Earth Science: How do We Idendity Sedimentary Rocks?
(Accessed 09/22/2015) http://peter-mulroy.squarespace.com/how-do-
we-idendity-sedimentary-rocks/
(5) Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa. Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology
11th
ed, 2014
Additional Resources at the end of the lesson.

Read-aloud)
a. I can identify and describe the three basic rock types;
b. I can describe how and define what type of environment each of these rock types are formed;
c. I can describe how rocks are transformed from one rock type to another through the rock cycle;
d. I can identify and describe the different geologic processes that operate within the rock cycle.
Understanding key concepts
The Rock Cycle provides us a comprehensive understanding how the 3 dominant rock types are
formed. Based on their physical and chemical properties, what could be the possible conditions of
formation for each rock type?
Review
• The teacher discusses in review of minerals the 8 elements comprising almost 99% of the minerals
making up the Earth’s crust.
2
Teacher tip
• Igneous rocks –rocks that are formed
from the solidification of molten rock
material. The process of solidification
involves the formation of crystalline
solids called minerals. Molten rock
material can solidify below the surface
of the earth (plutonic igneous rocks) or
solidify at the surface of the Earth
(volcanic igneous rocks)
• Sedimentary rocks – rocks that form
through the accumulation, compaction,
and cementation of sediments.
Sedimentary rocks form at surface or
near surface conditions.
• Metamorphic rocks – are rocks that
form through the transformation of pre-
existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rocks) through the
p r o c e s s o f m e t a m o r p h i s m .
Metamorphism can involve changes in
the physical and chemical properties of
rocks in response to heat, pressure,
and/or chemically active fluids.
Teacher tip
• With no available specimen or tangible
sample to describe, the teacher can use
a video.
Element Symbol
% by wt. of the
Earth’s crust
% atoms
Oxygen O 46.6 62.6
Silicon Si 27.7 21.2
Aluminum Al 8.1 6.5
Iron Fe 5.0 1.9
Calcium Ca 3.6 1.9
Sodium Na 2.8 2.6
Potassium K 2.6 1.4
Magnesium Mg 2.1 1.8
All other elements 1.4 <0.1

(The total abundances do not add up to exactly 100% because of round-off errors)
• Approximately 85% of the Earth's crust is composed of oxygen and silicon. Together they form the
silicon oxygen tetrahedron, which is the basic building block of silicate minerals. Silicates are also
termed as (common) rock forming minerals.
• As a review the teacher can ask the students to recall the definition of a mineral.
- Rocks are an aggregate of minerals. A rock can be composed of a single mineral (e.g.
Quartzite is a metamorphic rock composed predominantly of Quartz) or more commonly
composed of an aggregate of two or more minerals.
- Teacher can ask the students: Can a name of a mineral be also used as a rock name.
1. Show a video of the different rock types. Tell the students that the video will only be played once
and that they need to be attentive for the upcoming discussion (8:05 minutes).
2. After the discussion of the different types of rocks and their properties, show a short video about
the rock cycle, in preparation for the discussions on the rock cycle (2:15 minutes).
A. Rock Classifications
• Show video #1 (under motivation).
• Review: Defining minerals: inorganic, naturally occurring solid with definite internal structure and
chemical composition. These are the building blocks of rocks.
3
• Yes, a rock composed predominantly of
the mineral Gypsum (CaSO4) is called
Gypsum Rock.
Teacher tip

!
Ask the students: How can we classify rocks? Would it be by color, hardness, texture, density or other
physical properties? Is it by chemical composition?
• Enumerate and discuss the three rock types.
1. Discuss Igneous Rocks.
- these are rocks that are derived from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava
- from solidified molten rock materials, usually hard and crystalline
- rate of cooling as one of the most important factors that control crystal size
- solidification can occur along the surface of the earth or beneath the surface of the earth
• Differentiating magma and lava. Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the
earth. Lava is molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through a central vent
(volcano) or as fissure eruption.
• Teacher should be able to describe plutonic or intrusive rocks and be able to discuss the
processes of their formation and observable textures. Give examples.
- from solidified magma underneath the earth
- gradual lowering of temperature is indicated by the movement of magma from depth to surface
causing slow cooling /crystallization
- Phaneritic textures
- Examples: granite, diorite, gabbro
• Teacher should be able to describe volcanic or extrusive rocks and be able to discuss their
processes of formation and their observable textures. Give examples.
- from solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth
- fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge variance in the temperature between Earth’s
surface and underneath
4
Teacher tip
• Generally rocks are classified on the
basis of the mode of formation and that
some of these physical and chemical
properties are inherent on how the
rocks are formed.
• Slow cooling forms large interlocking
crystals, a texture called phaneritic.
• Fast cooling does not promote the
formation of large crystals.

- common textures: aphanitic, porphyritic (define groundmass vs phenocrysts), vesicular
- examples: rhyolite, andesite, basalt
- pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or explosive type of eruption.
Examples tuff and pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrite)
• Igneous rocks are also classified according to silica content and relative amounts of K, Na, Fe,
Mg and Ca. They can be classified as felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic, practically
based on presence of light and dark colored minerals. The relatively dark minerals are olivine,
pyroxene, hornblende and biotite. The relatively light colored minerals are plagioclases, K-
feldspars, quartz and muscovite.
- felsic: granitic: >65% silica, generally light-colored
- intermediate: andesitic: 55-65% silica, generally medium colored (medium gray)
- mafic: basaltic: 45-55% silica, usually dark colored
- ultramafic: <45% silica, generally very dark colored
Table from Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa. Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology 11thed, 2014, p 122
5
• Porphyritic texture: formed through two
stages of crystallization where in magma
partly cooled below the surface of the
earth providing time for the large
crystals to grow (phenocrysts) before it is
extruded to the surface forming the fine-
grained matrix (groundmass).
• Aphanitic texture: fine-grained texture;
minerals not visible to the naked eye;
relatively fast rates of cooling/
solidification prevent the formation of
large crystals.
• Special textures would include:
vesicular, glassy and porphyry
• Vesicular texture: voids created by rapid
cooling which causes air bubbles to be
trapped inside.

!
• Show photos of common intrusive rocks with their extrusive counterparts (TO BE REPLACED
WITH OUR OWN SAMPLES):
2. Discuss sedimentary rocks
- these are rocks that are formed at or near the surface of the Earth
- sedimentary processes include: weathering of rocks, erosion, sediment transport and
deposition (compaction and cementation)
- common sedimentary features: fossil assemblages and stratification
- fossil assemblages: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks
- stratification or layering (strata which is >1cm is called bedding and < 1cm is called lamination):
layering is the result of a change in grain size and composition; each layer represents a distinct
period of deposition
6
• Granite and Rhyolite have the same
chemical composition however Granite
on le exhibits phaneritic texture and
rhyolite on the right has aphanitic and
porphyritic textures.
• Diorite and Andesite have the same
chemical composition but different
textures. Diorite (left) is coarse grained
(phaneritic) and andesite (right) is fine
grained (aphanitic and porphyritic).
• Gabbro and Basalt are of the same
chemical composition but differ in
texture. Gabbro (left) has larger
crystals than basalt (right) which has
finer crystals.
• Temperature and pressure at the Earth’s
surface are low, allowing for the
sedimentary processes to happen
• Sediments: solid fragments of organic
or inorganic materials from weathered
and eroded pre-existing rocks and
living matters

Photo of the Kapurpurawan Formation located at the coastal town of Burgos, Ilocos Norte, courtesy of riderako.com. shows
series of sedimentary strata
Photo from http://riderako.com/2013/07/16/kapurpurawan-rocks-the-most-famous-sedimentary-rock-in-the-philippines/.
• Clastic sedimentary rocks
- grains, matrix and cement are the components of clastic rocks
- clastic rocks are commonly classified based on particle size
- clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g. pyroclastics) and may have undergone some stages in
the sedimentary processes could be classified as sedimentary rock (e.g. volcanoclastic
rocks).
- the presence of variable grain sizes (including matrix and cement) is indicative of
sedimentary differentiation which is actually a function of processes happening in different
sedimentary environments.
7
• Grains: greater than sand-sized
minerals and/or rock fragments.
• Matrix: fine-grained (clay to silt sized)
minerals.
• Cement: minerals precipitated from
solution that binds the grains and
matrix together

- Table below shows the different clastic rocks
• Non-clastic sedimentary rocks
- evaporation and precipitation from solution or lithification of organic matter
- classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum and dolostone), precipitates (limestone) and
bioclastics (coal, coquina)
- chart below summarizes the features of the non-clastic rocks
http://peter-mulroy.squarespace.com/how-do-we-idendity-sedimentary-rocks/; accessed 09/25/2015
8
• Rudaceous Rocks: (rudites) >50% clasts
diameter >2mm made up of primarily
rock fragments
• Arenaceous Rocks: (arenites) >50%
sediments diameter between
0.063-2mm can contain high quartz %.
• Argillaceous Rocks: (argillites) >50%
sediments diameter <0.063mm and
made up mainly of clay minerals and
quartz grains to a much lesser extent
• Evaporites: rocks formed from the
evaporation of water leaving the
dissolved minerals to crystallize
• Precipitates: rocks formed when
minerals from a mineral supersaturated
waters start to crystallize at the bottom
of the solution
• B i o c l a s t i c : r o c k f o r m e d f r o m
compacted organic matter

• Several!photos!of!sedimentary!rocks:!
3. Discuss metamorphic rocks
- formed below the surface of the earth through the process of metamorphism with the
recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to changes in pressure and temperature conditions
- contact and regional metamorphism
• Contact metamorphism
- heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs when a pre-existing rock gets in contact with
magma which is the source of heat and magmatic fluids where metamorphic alterations and
transformations occur around the contact / metamorphic aureole of the intruding magma and
the rock layers. The aureole occurs on different scales depending on the sizes of the intruding
magma and the amount of water in the intruded rocks and the reactive fluids coming from the
magma.
- creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks
- example: hornfels
9
• Conglomerate (left) relatively large and
rounded clasts as compared to the
angular clasts of the breccia on the
right
• Sandstone (left) with visible grains and
prominent layering or; claystone (right)
with several embedded fossils
• Non-clastic sedimentary rocks
limestone (left) and coquina (right)
• Imagine magma forcing its way up
through rock layers under the crust.
The magma will bake the surrounding
rocks due to the differences in
temperature (rock layers are cooler
than the magma) causing them to
metamorphose.
• Deformed rocks exhibit foliation/
lineation/ banding of mineral grains,
brought about by pressure and
recrystallization of minerals while
undergoing regional metamorphism

• Regional metamorphism
- pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone considerable amount of
mechanical deformation and chemical recrystallization during orogenic event which are
commonly associated with mountain belts
- occurs in a regional/large scale
- creates foliated metamorphic rocks
- examples: schist, gneiss
- non-foliated rocks like marble also form through regional metamorphism, where pressure is not
intense, far from the main geologic event
• Below is a table of the different common metamorphic rocks.
10

!
• Some photos of common metamorphic rocks:
B. The Rock Cycle
• The teacher to show the quick video on rock cycle
• rock cycle diagram:
- constant recycling of minerals
- illustrates how geologic processes occurring both underneath and on the Earth’s surface can
change a rock from one type to another..
Source: http://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/diagram.html
11
• Non-foliated rocks: Hornfels (left), a
fine-grained rock that forms through
contact metamorphism of non-
carbonate rocks. Marble (right), a
recrystallized rock that forms from the
metamorphism of limestone or
dolostone
• Foliated rocks: Slate, phyllite, schist and
gneiss from shale as precursor rock.
The stages of transformation are
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f i n c r e a s i n g
metamorphic grade with increasing
pressure

PRACTICE (40 MINS)
1. Concept Mapping – Types of Rocks (20 minutes: 10 minutes ﬁlling up the table, 3 minutes
presentation per team, 1 minute wrap up)
Group the class into three teams, each electing their leader. Provide each team a blank chart similar to
the one below, written in a Manila paper. Each team will fill up portions of the chart which correspond
to the list of words provided to choose from. Group 1 to fill up the left side of the chart (igneous rocks),
Group 2 the middle portion (sedimentary rocks) and Group 3 to fill up the right side of the chart
(metamorphic rocks). When done, the team leaders will present their work to class.
12
Teacher tip
• The teacher will go around checking on
the different teams and check on the
works done and how the learners are
doing.

Words/phrases to choose from:
Answer: The completed chart should look like this:
13
pressure biological matter lava cools quickly
clastic maybe vesicular compacted sediments
extrusive classified by size contains air bubbles
rocks large crystals form small or no crystals forms
heat evaporites magma cools slowly
contact metamorphic classified on how they are
formed
intrusive building blocks of precipitates
mineral non-clastic sedimentary
igneous regional generally forms from the
compaction and cementation of
sedimentsforms from cooling and
solidification of lava or
magma
rocks change due to
temperature and/or
pressure change

2. Interactive quiz for the whole class – Rock Cycle (20 minutes)
Answer the interactive quiz provided by Annenberg Learner in their website http://www.learner.org/
interactives/rockcycle/diagram2.html. The first set, to be completed in five minutes, utilizes the
learners’ knowledge about rock types and geologic processes to map out the rock cycle. When done,
the site will be automatically direct you to the second part of the quiz (http://www.learner.org/
interactives/rockcycle/testskills.html) for 15 additional questions. There is no time limit for the second
part but set a maximum of 1 minute to answer each question to include some class discussions. Correct
answers are automatically provided by the site once the quiz is completed.
ENRICHMENT
Homework to be submitted on next meeting. Each student to research on 3 rocks (one for each rock
type). Include in the discussion the following:
1. history of formation
2. common environment of formation
3. common textures
4. common use of the rock
EVALUATION
A. Summary questions related to the lessons (Questions in regular font are easy questions while the
ones in bold are hard):
1. How does a vesicular texture in a volcanic rock develop?
Answer: As magma rises up to the surface, it is subjected to decreasing pressure, allowing dissolved
gases to come out of the solution forming gas bubbles. When the magma reaches the surface (as
lava) and cools, the rock solidifies around the gas bubbles. The bubbles are then preserved as holes
or vesicles. Also, the texture can also be formed thru the rapid escape of gases.
14

2. Explain why vesicular texture is not associated with peridotites.
Answer: Peridotites are intrusive rocks formed beneath the earth’s surface and the high pressure
conditions prevent gases from forming and escaping.
3. How do clastic rocks differ from non-clastic rocks in terms of process of formation?
Answer: Clastic rocks form from rock fragments transported away from their source by wind, water,
gravity or ice rather than by chemical processes such as precipitation or evaporation.
4. Explain how the physical features of sediments change during transport.
Answer: The farther the sediment is transported, the longer the transport takes, and the smaller,
more rounded and smoother the sediment becomes.
5. Differentiate between a foliated and non-foliated rock.
Answer: Foliated rocks has a texture in which the mineral grains are arranged in bands or grains,
which is absent in a non-foliated rock.
6. What do butterﬂies and metamorphic rocks have in common?
Answer: Butterflies and metamorphic rocks both undergo change from an earlier form (caterpillar
for butterfly, parent rock for metamorphic rock) to a new one.
7. Heat is a major agent in metamorphism and igneous rock formation, but not in sedimentary rocks.
Why?
Answer: Sedimentary processes occur in surface conditions - low temperature and pressure
conditions.
8. Does every rock go through the complete rock cycle, i.e. changing from igneous to
sedimentary rock to metamorphic then back to igneous rocks? Explain.
Answer: No. Rocks can change into any type of rock or even reform as the same kind of rock for
several cycles.
15

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
(1) Rock flowchart by Michael Sammartano (Accessed 09/18/2015) blank template: http://www.hmxearthscience.com/Sammartano/Rocks%20Flow%20Chart.pdf
filled up template by combining data from the following videos:
a. Introduction to Igneous Rocks https://ww.youtube.com/watch?v=aCnAF1Opt8M
b. Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Etu9BWbuDlY
c. Metamorphic Rocks Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oQ1J0w3x0o
NOT VISIBLE
NEEDS
IMPROVEMENT
MEETS
EXPECTATIONS
EXCEEDS
EXPECTATIONS
A. Summary
Questions
Correctly answered ≤2
easy questions
easy questions
easy questions and one
difficult question
questions
16

Earth Science
Lesson 7: Mineral Resources
Content Standard
1. the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks.
Learning Competency
The learners will be able to identify the minerals important to society
(S11ES-Ic-7).
1. understand the importance of the different minerals to the society; and
2. understand the different ways on how the mineral deposits are formed.
1
60 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Video 5
Practice Activity
Materials
Mineral cards (to be prepared by the teacher), masking tape, Ground Rules
film, reference books and/or internet access
Resources
(1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xmXT1YgfoTA. Accessed 11 Nov
2015
(2) https://mining.cat.com/cda/files/2786351/7/GroundRules-
MineralsEverydayLife-15-18.pdf Accessed 10 Nov 2015
(3) http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/minresources.htm.
Accessed 01 Nov 2015
(4) http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/hydrothermal+solution.
Accessed 31 Oct 2015
(5) http://www.britannica.com/science/hydrothermal-solution. Accessed 31
Oct 2015
(6) http://earthsci.org/mineral/mindep/depfile/vei_dep.htm. Accessed 31
Oct 2015
(7) http://geology.com/rocks/pegmatite.shtml. Accessed 01 Nov 2015
(8) Frank, D., Galloway, J., Assmus, K., The Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit
– A Teacher’s Guide for Hands-On Mineral Education Activities, USGS
General Information Product 17, 2005
Additional resources at the end of the lesson.

Read-aloud)
a. I can identify the importance of minerals to the society
b. I can describe how ore minerals are formed.
MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
a. Show the students the short video “Mining and the Modern World” of the Ground Rules film (2
minutes) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xmXT1YgfoTA).
b. The teacher can bring out items from his or her bag such as cell phone, keys, coins, pencil/pen,
make-up, powder, glasses, etc. and identify the minerals involved in the manufacture of each item.
A. Minerals in Everyday Life
The video clip in the Motivation section shows that even the simplest household items are made up of
different minerals. Enumerate a few examples of household items mentioned in the video and discuss
with the class the minerals (and their properties) that make up each of the selected household items.
Perform the Activity “Minerals In My House” (See Practice Section)
B. Mineral Deposits
• Define some significant terms listed in the “Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit – A Teacher’s Guide
for Hands-On Mineral Education Activities”.
Mineral Occurrence – concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical interest
Mineral Deposit – mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable
extraction under the most favorable conditions
Ore Deposit – mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable to
mine.
2
Teacher tip
• An alternative in case the video cannot
be shown in class.
Teacher tip
• List few household items mentioned in
the video except for the ones that will
be in the activity in the Practice section

Aggregate – rock or mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc; generally
used to describe nonmetallic deposits
Ore – naturally-occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be
extracted.
• Most rocks of the Earth's crust contain metals and other elements but at very low
concentrations. For example, the average concentration of Gold in rocks of the Earth's crust is
about 0.005 ppm (parts per million) which is roughly 5 grams of gold for every 1000 tons of
rock. Although valuable, extracting Gold at this concentration is not economic (the cost of
mining will be too high for the expected profit). Fortunately, there are naturally occurring
processes (geologic processes) that can concentrate minerals and elements in rocks of a
particular area.
• Differentiate the types of mineral resources. Discuss with students and give examples.
Types of mineral resources: metallic and nonmetallic
Metallic mineral deposits: gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron
Non-metallic resources: talc, fluorite, sulfur, sand, gravel
• Discuss the occurrence of a mineral resource. Relate it to the rock cycle and plate tectonics
- The geologic processes involved in the rock cycle play major role in the accumulation and
concentration of valuable elements/ minerals.
- Plate tectonics: the Earth’s crust is broken into a dozen or more plates of different sizes that
move relative to one another (lithosphere). These plates are moving slowly on top of a hot
and more mobile material called the asthenosphere. The diagram below shows the different
mineral deposits that usually occur in different tectonic environments.
3
• ppm: a dimensionless value that
represents a part of a whole number in
units of 1/1000000; 1ppm is one part
by weight (or volume) of a solute that is
in a 1 million parts by weight (or
volume) solution

• Enumerate the different mineral resources and discuss their origins. Give examples for each.
- Mineral resources can be classified according to the mechanism responsible for concentrating
the valuable substance.
!
1. Magmatic Ore Deposits
- valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic processes such
as crystal fractionation, partial melting and crystal settling.
- magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contain valuable substances after
accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed and in low concentrations within the
magma.
4

Examples:
• Crystal settling: as magma cools down, heavier minerals tend to crystallize early and settle at
the lower portion of the magma chamber
• From a basaltic magma, chromite (FeCr2O4), magnetite (Fe3O4) and platinum (Pt) can be
concentrated through crystal settling
• Fractional crystallization: the residual melt contains high percentage of water and volatile
substances that are favorable for the formation of pegmatites. Pegmatites are enriched in
Lithium, Gold, Boron, rare elements and some other heavy metals
• Fractional crystallization of granitic magmas can concentrate rare earth elements (such as cesium
and uranium) and heavy metals. This can also form pegmatites (large crystals of quartz, feldspars
and muscovite)which may contain semi-precious gems such as beryl, topaz, and tourmaline
2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
- concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing through fractures
and pore spaces in rocks
- hydrothermal solutions - are hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later stages of magma
crystallization and may contain large amount of dissolved metals. These can also originate from
the ground water circulating at depth that is being heated up by a cooling and solidifying
igneous body or along depths with known geothermal gradient.
- Such hot water can dissolve valuable substances (at low concentrations) from rocks. As the
metal enriched hot waters move into cooler areas in the crust, the dissolved substances may
start to precipitate
- There are numerous hydrothermal mineral deposits as compared to the different types of
deposits
Examples:
• Vein type deposits - A fairly well defined zone of mineralization, usually inclined and discordant
and typically narrow. Most vein deposits occur in fault or fissure openings or in shear zones
within the country rock. Sometimes referred to as (metalliferous) lode deposits, many of the
most productive deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury occur as hydrothermal
5
• Magma chamber – a reservoir or pool
of magma within the upper mantle or
lower crust
• Pegmatite – an igneous rock formed
during the latter stages of magma’s
crystallization that has exceptionally
large crystals (several centimeters or
even a few meters in length). Most
pegmatites are granitic.
• Feldspar - used in production of
ceramics
• Muscovite - used for electrical
insulation and glitter
• Discordant - cuts across existing
structures.

vein deposits
• Disseminated deposits - Deposits in which the ore minerals are distributed as minute masses
(very low concentration) through large volumes of rocks. This occurrence is common for
porphyry copper deposits
• Massive sulfide deposit (at oceanic spreading centers) - Precipitation of metals as sulfide
minerals such as sphalerite (ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) occurs when hot fluids that
circulated above magma chambers at oceanic ridges that may contain sulfur, copper and zinc
come in contact with cold groundwater or seawater as it migrate towards the seafloor.
• Stratabound ore deposits (in lake or oceanic sediment) – This deposit is formed when the
dissolved minerals in a hydrothermal fluid precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated
sediments on the bottom of a lake or ocean. Such minerals may contain economic
concentrations of lead, zinc and copper, usually in sulfide form like galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS)
and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2).
!
Various processes that form ore deposits. Photos taken from Essentials of Geology by Stephen Marshak, 4th
ed., 2013, p377
6
• Porphyritic texture: formed through two
stages of crystallization where in magma
partly cooled below the surface of the
earth providing time for the large
crystals to grow (phenocrysts) before it is
extruded to the surface forming the fine-
grained matrix (groundmass).
• Aphanitic texture: fine-grained texture;
minerals not visible to the naked eye;
relatively fast rates of cooling/
solidification prevent the formation of
large crystals.
• Special textures would include:
vesicular, glassy and porphyry
• Vesicular texture: voids created by rapid
cooling which causes air bubbles to be
trapped inside.

!
Massive sulfide deposit along mid-oceanic ridge. Photo taken from Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck et al,
11th
ed., 2014, p. 804
3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits
- Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or
seawater (http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/minresources.htm)
Examples:
• Evaporite Deposits: This type of deposit typically occurs in a closed marine environment where
evaporation is greater than water inflow. As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved
substances become more concentrated in the residual water and would eventually precipitate.
Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4∙2H20), borax (used in soap) and sylvite (KCl, from which K is
extracted for fertilizers) are examples of minerals deposited through this process.
• Iron Formation: These deposits are made up of repetitive thin layers of iron-rich chert and
several other iron bearing minerals such as hematite and magnetite. Iron formations appear to
be of evaporite type deposits and are mostly formed in basins within continental crust during
the Proterozoic (2 billion years or older).
7

4. Placer Ore Deposits
- Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity separation during
sedimentary processes.
- Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines.
- Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substances, wherein the heavy
minerals are mechanically concentrated by water currents and the less-dense particles remain
suspended and are carried further downstream.
- Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and weathering.
- Common deposits are gold and other heavy minerals such as platinum, diamonds and tin;
- The source rock for a placer deposit may become an important ore body if located.
5. Residual Ore Deposits
- A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical
weathering processes.
- During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by leaching.
- Important factors for the formation of residual deposit include parent rock composition, climate
(tropical and sub-tropical: must be favorable for chemical decay) and relief (must not be high to
allow accumulation)
- Common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites.
- Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum, is derived when aluminum-rich source rocks undergo
intense chemical weathering brought by prolonged rains in the tropics, leaching the common
elements that include silicon, sodium and calcium through leaching.
- Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are residual ore deposits derived from the laterization of
olivine-rich ultramafic rocks such as dunite and peridotite. Like in the formation of bauxite, the
leaching of nickel-rich ultramafic rocks dissolves common elements, leaving the insoluble nickel,
magnesium and iron oxide mixed in the soil.
- Secondary Enrichment Deposits are derived when a certain mineral deposit becomes enriched
due to weathering.
8
• Leaching – the removal of soluble
materials in rocks or ore body through
the percolation of water
• Relief – the configuration of an area
that pertains to the elevation and slope
variations and the irregularities of the
land surface
• Laterization – conditions of weathering
which leads to the removal of alkalis
and silica, resulting in a soil or rock with
high concentrations of iron and
aluminum oxides.

PRACTICE (40 MINS)
“Minerals In My House” (adapted from the activity “Minerals in My House”) 20 minutes https://
mining.cat.com/cda/files/2786351/7/GroundRules-MineralsEverydayLife-15-18.pdf pp 12-14)
The objective of the activity is to determine the mineral content of common household items.
Pre-activity (to be accomplished by the teacher):
1. List 5 common household items on the board.
1. Prepare a set of cards containing the minerals used to make those 5 items. One mineral should be
written on each card.
Activity:
1. Show one mineral card at a time and ask the students to identify which household item they think
contains that mineral. Attach the card with a masking tape beside the household item. Remind the
class that several minerals may be associated in one household item.
2. Repeat the procedure until all the mineral cards are used (except for the joker mineral card).
3. Together with the class, go through and review all the answers. Invite students to explain if they think
the mineral placed beside the household item is incorrect. Also ask the possible use of the joker
mineral.
9
Teacher tip
• Add a joker mineral card (one that is not
used in any of the 5 household items) to
encourage class participation.
• The table on the left is for the use of the
teacher only.

Discussion:
Discuss the importance of minerals in our daily lives. Different minerals are important for different
purposes: from household items, construction, energy sources, communication, travels, recreation, food
processing and even in multivitamins.
With the reference books and/or internet access on hand, group the class into two. Each group has to
select one particular mineral from the activity and prepare answers for the following questions, to be
presented in the class:
1. What properties of that mineral make it important in creating the item?
2. How is this specific mineral formed?
3. Is this a renewable or non-renewable resource?
ENRICHMENT
The following activity for Enrichment is adapted from “What Parts of a Computer are Mined?” of
Ground Rules (https://mining.cat.com/cda/files/2786351/7/GroundRules-
MineralsEverydayLife-15-18.pdf).
1. Divide the class into 5 groups.
2. Assign the following computer parts for each group to work on:
Group 1: computer monitor
Group 2: computer chip
Group 3: computer circuitry
Group 4: computer case
Group 5: electrical cords
3. Have each group prepare a short report about the designated component of the computer. Report
should answer the following:
- Identify the minerals and metals used to build the computer component
- Identify the properties of each mineral/metal that makes it useful to the function of that
computer part.
- Select one specific mineral/metal from the computer part. Discuss how the mineral is
10

formed (what are the ore minerals and the most realistic origin of the ore resource)
- Based on the list, hypothesize what minerals would be useful for another electronic item
(television, media player, mobile phone, etc.)
- Discuss environmental implications of disposing outdated computer equipment. Should it be
landfilled? Why is computer waste one of the biggest waste issues facing the world? Discuss the
global implications of computer waste.
4. Reports to be submitted on the next class meeting.
EVALUATION
Summary questions (Questions in regular font are easy questions while the ones in bold are hard):
1. Differentiate metallic and non-metallic resources. Give examples.
Answer: Metallic resources are those minerals that contain metals in their chemical composition (a
product obtained when the mineral was melted). These usually have bright and metallic luster.
Examples include iron ore, chromite and bauxite. Non-metallic resources such as sand, gravel,
gypsum, halite, talc, are those resources that do not yield new products when melted. These do not
have metallic luster.
11

2. Can a mineral be formed in more than one process? If yes, give example. If no, explain why.
Answer: Yes. (Examples may vary) Gypsum can form as a precipitate from evaporating water, but
also associated with volcanic regions where limestone and sulfur gases from the volcano have
interacted. Copper may commonly be deposited as a disseminated hydrothermal deposit but can
also be formed as a stratabound ore.
3. Other than as a jewelry, why is gold important to society?
Answer: Statistically worldwide, approximately 50% of produced gold is used in jewelry. The
remaining 40% is used for financial investments and the remaining 10% in industry. Due to its
limited supply and high value, gold has been long used as a medium of exchange or money. Many
governments use gold bars or bullion as a financial backing for currencies. A country’s gold bullion
reserve is equated to the wealth of the country.
Several properties of gold including its malleability, good conductivity and general resistance to
corrosion and oxidation made it very important in the electronics industry, primarily as connectors,
switch and relay contacts, soldered joints and connecting strips. These can be found in almost every
sophisticated electronic device such as GPS, cellphones, MP3 players, calculators, laptop
computers and televisions.
4. Discuss the most common origin of chromite ore. How is this ore important to society?
Answer: Chromite ore is formed from a magmatic process called crystal settling. Its relatively high
density makes it settle at the lower portion of the magma chamber and solidifies ahead than most
of the basaltic magma. Chromium is the ore mineral for the element chromite, which is used in
chrome plating and also for alloying stainless steel. Chromium is also used as pigment in many
types of paint inks, dyes and even cosmetics.
5. Discuss the difference between a magmatic ore deposit and a hydrothermal deposit.
Answer: Magmatic ore deposits are formed from different magmatic processes such as crystal
settling or crystal fractionation.
12

6. Explain how mineral veins form.
Answer: Mineral veins form when the hydrothermal solution containing dissolved substances flows
through cracks in rocks. The solutions deposit solid mineral particles and fill in the cracks.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
1. Carlson, D. H., Plummer, C. C., Hammersley L., Physical Geology Earth Revealed 9thed, 2011, pp 560-563
2. Marshak, S., Essentials of Geology, 4th ed., 2013, pp 375-379
3. Tarbuck, E. J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D., Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology, 11thed, 2014, pp 802-806
MEETS
EXPECTATIONS
EXCEEDS
EXPECTATIONS
Enrichment report Report not submitted on
time
Report submitted on time;
identified minerals is less
than 50% and only
managed to answer half of
the questions
Report is submitted on
time; completely answered
all question asked
time and complete with
illustrations; very elaborate
explanation/discussion of
answers especially the last
question of the discussion
part
Summary
questions
Only ≤ 2 easy questions
were correctly answered
Only easy questions were
correctly answered
All easy questions and 1
difficult question were
correctly answered
All easy and difficult
questions were correctly
answered
13

Earth Science
Lesson 8: Mineral Resources
Content Standard
1. the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks.
Learning Competencies
The learners will be able to
1. describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use
(S11ES-Ic-d-8).
2. cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the
exploitation, extraction, and use of mineral resources (S11ES-Id-9).
• understand the life cycle of mineral resources; and
• understand the impact of mining.
90 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Participation/Photo/Video 5
Instruction Lecture/Demonstration 50
Practice Activity 30
Enrichment Assessment
Materials
For Demonstration#1 (Core Sampling)
• Yellow clay representing gold-rich vein, Blue clay representing copper-
rich vein; Blue clay representing copper-rich vein; Brown clay
representing country / host rock, ruler; 1 opaque, wide bowl, colored
chalks (brown, yellow and blue); 3 transparent (colorless), sturdy
drinking straw (i.e. the ones used in milk teas)
For Demonstration#2 (Flotation)
• Dry roasted peanuts; Raisins; Clear soda water; Drinking water; 2 clear
drinking glasses
For Practice (Operating a Mine)
• Sand representing country rock; iron filings representing metallic ore;
salt representing other valuable material; macaroni for other valuable
material; saw dust representing the surface top soil; 1 page old
newspaper; ice bag/plastic; filter paper; magnet, spoon; beakers/
containers; 500ml bowl, water; tweezers
Resources
(1) Carlson, D. H., Plummer, C. C., Hammersley L., Physical Geology Earth
Revealed 9th
ed, 2011, pp564-566
(2) Frank, D., Galloway, J., Assmus, K., The Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit
– A Teacher’s Guide for Hands-On Mineral Education Activities, USGS
General Information Product 17, 2005
(3) Marshak, S., Essentials of Geology, 4th
ed., 2013, pp 379-383

Read-aloud)
a. I can describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use.
b. I can cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the exploitation,
extraction, and use of mineral resources
Review
• Remind the students how minerals are incorporated to our daily lives by citing one or two
examples.
• Review some processes how mineral resources are formed.
MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
Encourage class discussion by asking the questions like: “We already know how mineral resources are
formed, but are we aware of how they end up in the things we use?”
Answers may vary but expected answers must include ideas or concepts about mineral exploration,
mining and metallurgy or milling process
A. Mineral Exploration
- Discuss major stages involved in mineral exploration (https://www.cde.int/sites/default/files/
documents/mineral_exploration_part_1.pdf and part2.pdf)
- The steps enumerated below are used or considered based on how they are needed during
exploration. These steps are written within the context of a general exploration project where some
activities may vary depending on the type of commodity being explored.
Teacher tip
• The teacher may present (if available) a
video on mining and utilization.

1. Project Design: This is the initial stage in formulating a project. This involves review of all
available data (geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.), government requirements in
acquiring the project, review of social, environmental, political and economic acceptability of
the project, and budget and organization proposals.
2. Field Exploration: This stage involves physical activities in the selected project area. This can
be subdivided into three phases:
A. Regional Reconnaissance:The main objective is to identify targets or interesting mineralized
zones covering a relatively large area (regional). In general, the activities involve regional
surface investigation and interpretation.
B. Detailed Exploration: This involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities with the
objective of finding and delineating targets or mineralized zones.
C. Prospect Evaluation: The main objective is to assess market profitability by (1) extensive
resource, geotechnical and engineering drilling (2) metallurgical testing and (3)
environmental and societal cost assessment.
3. Pre-production Feasibility Study: The feasibility study determines and validates the accuracy
of all data and information collected from the different stages. The purpose is for independent
assessors to satisfy interested investors to raise funds and bring the project into production.
• Demonstration 1 (core sampling)
- The teacher will demonstrate how geologists delineate mineral deposits beneath the Earth’s
surface (modified from the activity “Cupcake Core Sampling”; source:The Life Cycle of a
Mineral Deposit – A Teacher’s Guide for Hands-On Mineral Education Activities)
Instruction
A. Pre-class preparation (teacher):
Mold the clay into several layers from bottom to top: thick brown, thin blue, thick brown, thin
yellow, thick brown. Differences in thickness with irregularities in the layers are encouraged. Put
the molded clay in abowl so that the students will not be able to see the thicknesses of each
layer (in the same way that a geologist cannot see the interior of the Earth).
• This is a Stop-Go process that controls
risk for the investor and of which is
done by providing geological and
economic considerations in producing a
mine. Each stage has to be evaluated
before the investor can proceed to the
next stage.If not feasible,the project
has to be reviewedagain using other
assessment techniques.

A sample illustration of how the clay is molded in the bowl
B. During Class:
Draw a scaled representation of the bowl on the board.
Bring the student closely to the model.
The teacher can ask the students how they might get information about what is inside the bowl
by just using the straw without removing the clay from the bowl. (Some students may suggest
using the straw to take a core sample).
Demonstrate to students how to rotate and push (in one direction only) a sturdy straw into the
clay and pull it out. The clay accumulated in the straw represents a core sample. The process
represents core drilling, a method done to investigate how the rocks underneath the Earth’s
surface look like.
Get one straw, position it in the middle of the bowl and drill (push in rotating manner)
vertically down the bottom. Pull the straw out. Ask the students to measure the thickness of
each clay layer collected from the straw. In reality, the sample collected in the straw is

comparable to a core sample.Ask another student to include the observations in the drawings
on the board. Make sure to have the drawing representation on scale of each layer similar to the
bowl.
Drill the second and third holes in the left side and right side of the bowl, respectively. Include
the findings in the drawing.
Sample illustration of the location of the three straws drilled into the molded clay.
Ask the students to make correlation of the different layers they discovered from the drill holes
by connecting the layers of the same color.

Sample illustration on how the correlation of the 3 drill holes would look like. Observe how the
layers (or veins) differ from the actual set-up. This would imply that with more drill holes the
correlation would appear more accurate.
Discussion:
Students should be able to answer the following questions after the demonstration:
1. Are the mineral deposits (represented by the yellow clay for gold and blue clay for copper)
evenly distributed in the bowl? Explain its relevance.
Answer: No.This is a representation of the actual mineral deposition -they are not deposited in
an even thickness and concentration.
2.Can the drill cores indicate how deep the mineral deposits are?
Answer: Yes. Cores are representatives of what is in the drilling area. With proper
measurements, the different layers underneath the surface can be identified.
• The questions under the activity can be
given orally or in a short quiz. If given
as a quiz, it is recommended that the
discussions of the answers be done
after the submission of papers.

3.How can additional drillholes affect geological interpretations?
Answer: More drillholes could provide a clearer picture of what is underneath the surface and
makes the interpretation more accurate.
B. Mining Methods
• Identify and explain some of the vital considerations needed to know on the different methods to
mine a mineral deposit.
- For example, upon knowing the geometry of the ore body, there are appropriate safety ways
to mine the minerals and proper assessment of maximizing profit.
• Teacher should be able to identify the 2 main methods of mining.
- Surface and underground mining
Types of mines: (A) Underground, (B) Surface (Open pit), (C) Strip, (D) Placer (being mined by a
floating dredge) (Source: Physical Geology Earth Revealed by Carlson, 2011, p 564)
!

1. Surface Mining
- Utilized to extract ore minerals that are close to Earth’s surface
- Different types include open pit mining, quarrying, placer mining and strip mining.
600m deep open pit diamond mine (Source: CK12 Earth Science)
Limestone Quarry in northern Illinois(source: Physical Geology Earth Revealed by Carlson, 2011)

2. Underground Mining
- Utilized to extract ore minerals from the orebody is that is deep under the Earth’s surface
A 3-D view of an underground mine showing the ore body at subsurface(source: Physical
Geology Earth Revealed by Carlson, 2011 p565)
C. The Milling Process
- Explain to the students that the materials extracted or “mined" are rocks composed of both ore
and waste material (part of the rock which contain very little or no element or mineral of
economic value). The extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral (e.g. metal) separation
and recovery.
- Recovering the minerals from the oreand waste materials can involve one or more processes
where in the separation is usually done in a mill.
- Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size reduction followed by grinding
where the rocks are pulverized
• Discuss some examples of milling or recovery methods or processes
1. Heavy media separation: The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier/denser
minerals sink thus are separated from the lighter minerals. This is commonly used to separate

chalcopyrite from quartz before the refining processes of extracting copper.
2. Magnetic separation: If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the
waste materials using a powerful magnet.
3. Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurrywhere some minerals
and metals based on physical and chemical properties may either sink to the bottom or may stick
to the bubbles and rise to the topthus separating the minerals and metals from the waste.
4. Cyanide heap leaching: This method used for low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is
placed on a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the pile. As the
leach solution percolates down through the rocks, the gold is dissolved into the solution. The
solution is processed further to extract the gold.
The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or sent to a tailings pond, while the
metals are sent for further processing
• Demonstration 2 (Flotation)
Teacher to demonstrate the concept of flotation process (copied from https://
www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/sites/default/files/uploads/molybdenum.pdf, page 7).
Instruction:
Mix ½ cup of dry roasted peanuts with ½ cup raisins. Add ½ of the mixture to each of the 2
drinking glasses. Fill the first drinking glass to 2/3 full with plain water. Observe what happens.
Fill the second drinking glass to 2/3 full with soda water. Observe and compare results to the
first drinking glass.
Discussion:
1. Explain what happens to glass 1.
Answer: Both the raisins and peanuts sink to the bottom of the drinking glass containing
• Bring the students closer to the
demonstration area. Make sure
everybody is attentive before starting
the activity.

plainwater. This is because the densities of these objects are both heavier than water.
2. Explain what happens to glass 2.
Answer: Bubbles from the soda water were notably attached with raisins and peanuts, altering
the densities of the 2 objects.The raisinsthat sink indicated that its density is heavier than the
soda water. On the other hand, the peanuts float implying a lighter density as compared to the
soda water.
Conclusion: Flotation is one method used in the industry for mineral extraction. Frothers are
added to the solution to lower the surface tension of the water. The froth must be strong
enough to support the mineral but weak enough to break down in launders. Common frothers
are alcohols and glycols.
D. Environmental Impacts
• Enumerate the possible environmental impacts of irresponsible mining:
- Improper mining can cause flooding, erosion, subsidence, water and air pollution, damage to
wildlife and habitat.
• Discuss measures to prevent or mitigate the harmful effects of irresponsible mining:
- Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil; reintroduction of flora and fauna; neutralizing
acidic waters; backfilling and sealing of abandoned underground mines; stabilizing the slope
of impacted area to reduce erosion, etc.
• Highlight the role of the government (environmental laws) and other organizations in the
implementation of environmental programs:
- Identify the functions and programs of the Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB),
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), Philippine Mine Safety and Environment
Association (PMSEA), other environmental, non-government organizations that promote
environmental awareness and protection in relation to mining.

PRACTICE (40 MINS)
Operating a Mine (modified combination of two activities, namely, Operating a Mine and Physical
Separation of Minerals. Source: Bringing Earth Science to Life – Using Natural Resources pp15-19 and
31-33 http://www.edgeo.org/images/pdf/bringing-earth-science-to-life/natural-resources.pdf)
Groupings: 5 members per group
Instruction:
1. Each group will prepare their own surface mine model following the procedure below:
a. In the 500ml bowl/container, thoroughly mix 350ml of sand, 50ml salt, 50ml iron filings, 50ml
elbow macaroni.
b. Put a thin layer of sawdust (about 10ml) all over the top of the bowl.
2. Ask the students to draw a picture of their model to have a record of how it looks like before
mining.
3. Have the students mine the model by using a spoon as the mining equipment. In the newspaper,
make 5 mounds of mined materials, placed side by side. Each mound must contain four scoops of
mined material. (Explain to students that in reality, these mounds are called stock piles, which are
collected eventually by trucks and delivered to the mill for processing).
4. Draw a picture of the model after mining.
5. Get one stockpile and extract the minerals in it. In case the extractable materials are not enough,
add another stockpile.
6. Bring out the things to be used in separating the different materials from each other (e.g. magnet,
ice bag/plastic, beaker/container, filter paper, tweezers and water). Promote discussions among
groups on the methods to extract the different materials in the most productive way. Write the

steps in the activity report.
Sample Separation Method:
1. Use tweezers to pick up the elbow macaroni.
2. Wrap a magnet in a plastic bag and pass it through the mixture. When all iron filings have
been collected, turn the bag inside out to contain iron filings.
3. Add water to the mixture. Mix thoroughly to dissolve the salt. Filter the solution to
separate the salt (in liquid form) from the sand and sawdust. Allow the liquid to evaporate
to collect the salt crystal (Note: Due to time constraint, evaporation may not be done. It
can be assumed that salt can be collected as residue after evaporation).
4. Add new water to the sand and sawdust mixture. The sawdust will float and the sand will
sink. Decant off the top part of the liquid containing the sawdust. Filter to collect the
sawdust.
5. Filter the remaining liquid to collect the sand.
7. Have students rehabilitate the surface of the mine by returning all of the country rock materials
minus the valuable minerals (make assumptions that the other stockpiles are already processed
and do not contain minerals anymore) into the pit.
Discussion:
1. From personal experiences and observations in the activity, describe the properties of the
different materials used in the mixture.
Density Solubility Magnetism Other Properties
Sand
Iron ﬁlings
Macaroni
Salt
Sawdust

2. Based on the above properties, design the steps that will separate the mixture.
3. What factors did you consider in selecting where to start mining the rocks?
Possible answers include slope stability, closeness to facility (the place for stockpiling, etc.)
4. How has mining change the land?
Possible answers include, change in elevation and slope, removal of topsoil and vegetation, etc.
5. What have you done to rehabilitate the land after mining?
ENRICHMENT
Special Report to be submitted in 2 weeks (group report, 5 members per group):
Research on a local mine (location, mining history in the area, ore type, mineral product, separation
process, annual production, etc.); include the company’s existing social, environmental and
rehabilitation projects.
Step Substance Separated
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

EVALUATION
Summary questions (Questions in regular font are easy questions while the ones in bold are hard):
1. What is the importance of the different stages of exploration?
Answer: The different stages of mineral exploration allow the investor to systematically evaluate the
potential and marketability of having a mineral project. Knowledge about the project is increased at
every stage, and this knowledge serves as the basis whether to proceed with the project or not.
2. In a newly acquired mineral project for exploration, is it possible to immediately drill in the
area even without any subsurface investigation (e.g. geophysics and trenching)?
Answer: Yes, especially if the property has a good mineralized outcrops or exposure of
mineralization on the surface. However, this is a bit risky for projects without surface manifestations
of mineralization.
3. Describe some methods used in surface mining.
Answer: Open pit creates big hole in the ground from which the ore is mined. Quarry is a type of
open pit mine usually associated with the mining of non-metallic resources such as limestone, sand
and gravel. Ore is removed in strips in a strip mining method. Ore can be extracted in strips as in
strip mining.
4. An open-pit mine may in the future be converted into an underground mine. Why would this
happen?
Answer: When all the minerals at or near the surface have been extracted, and when the lateral
extent of the project area cannot hold the stability of slopes as mining gets deeper, the only way to
mine the deeper extent of the orebody is to go underground.
5. Enumerate several ways to rehabilitate a mined-out area.
Answer: Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil; reintroduction of flora and fauna;
neutralizing acidic waters; backfilling and sealing underground mines; changing the slope of
impacted area to reduce erosion; etc.

6. How is it possible for materials presently considered as waste become economically mineable in the future?
Answer: Economics play a great role in mining and mineral/metal prices are usually dictated by supply and demand. When supply is high
and demand is low, metal prices drop, hence the need to mine only high grade ores. But when demand is high, even the low grade ores are
being mined or are mixed to high grade ores to achieve economically profitable product.
1. Freudenrich C., Benner, J., Bethel, D. et al, Earth Science CK-12, 2009, p 77-80
2. https://www.cde.int/sites/default/files/documents/mineral_exploration_part_1.pdf (Accessed 25 Nov 2015)
3. https://www.cde.int/sites/default/files/documents/mineral_exploration_part_2.pdf(Accessed 25 Nov 2015)
4. http://www.edgeo.org/images/pdf/bringing-earth-science-to-life/natural-resources.pdf (Accessed 24 Nov 2015)
5. https://www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/sites/default/files/uploads/molybdenum.pdf (Accessed 23 Nov 2015)
6. https://www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/sites/default/files/uploads/copper_more_than_a_metal.pdf (Accessed 23 Nov 2015)
MEETS
EXPECTATIONS
EXCEEDS
EXPECTATIONS
Practice Activity Did not complete the
activity and did not
answer any of the
questions
Activity completed on time
and only correctly
answered 1- 2 questions
Activity completed on time
and correctly answered 3-4
questions
Activity completed on
time; correctly answered
all questions
Enrichment Project Did not submit report on
time; report is not
complete
time but is lacking of
substance; report not well
presented
time; report is well-
presented (organized flow
of discussion with few
instances straying from the
topic) authors demonstrate
acceptable understanding
of topic (few corrections
and misconceptions)
Report submitted on time;
report is excellently
presented (highly
organized flow of
discussion); authors
demonstrate excellent
level of understanding of
the topic
Summary questions Only 2 of the easy
questions are correctly
answered
Correctly answered the
easy questions
Correctly answered the
easy questions and 2 hard
questions
questions

Earth Science
Lesson 09: Earth
Materials and Resources
- Energy Resources
Content Standard
1. the various sources of energy (fossil fuels, geothermal, hydroelectric).
1. Make a plan that the community may use to conserve and protect its
resources for future generations.
1. Describe how fossil fuels are formed (S11ES-Ie-f-13).
2. Explain how heat from inside the earth is tapped as a source of energy
(geothermal) for human use (S11ES-Ie-11).
3. Explain how energy (hydroelectric) is harnessed from flowing water
(S11ES-Ie-12).
1. describe how fossil fuels are formed;
2. explain how heat from inside the earth is tapped as a source of energy
(geothermal) for human use;
3. explain how energy (hydroelectric) is harnessed from flowing water; and
4. create individual models explaining how fossil fuels are formed, and how
geothermal and hydroelectric energy are harnessed for human use.
1
280 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Reflection Question 10
Practice Group Activity 60
Enrichment Group Activity 90
Evaluation Group Case Study 80
Materials
Projector; LCD; Computer
Resources
Textbook:
(1) Carlson, D.H., Carlson, Plummer, C.C., and Hammersley, L., 2011.
Physical Geology: Earth Revealed. McGraw-Hill. 645 p.
(2) Desonie, D., 2015. CK-12 Earth Science High School . http://
www.ck12.org/earth-science/
(3) Junine, J.I., 2013. Earth Evolution of a Habitable World. Second
Edition. Cambridge University Press. 304 p.
(4) Kirkland, K. 2010. Earth Science: notable research and discoveries.
Facts on File, Inc., 212 p.
(5) Lutgens, F.K., Tarbuck, E.J. and Tassa, D., 2013. Essentials of Geology.
11th
Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall, 554 p.
(6) Tarbuck, E.J. and Lutgens, F.K., 2008. Earth – An Introduction to
Physical Geology. 9th
Edition Pearson Prentice Hall, 703 p.
Internet resource:
(1) http://www.doe.gov.ph/doe_files/pdf/01_Energy_Situationer/
2012-2030-PEP.pdf
(2) http://www.doe.gov.ph/doe_files/pdf/01_Energy_Situationer/
2012-2030-PEP-Executive-Summary_revised.pdf

Communicating learning objective
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocols (Verbatim, Own
Words, Read-aloud)
a. I can describe how fossil fuels are formed.
b. I can explain how heat from inside the earth is tapped as a source of energy (geothermal) for
human use
c. I can explain how energy (hydroelectric) is harnessed from flowing water
d. I can create a model explaining how fossil fuels are formed, and how geothermal and
hydroelectric energy are harnessed for human use
• State the importance of energy and it’s various sources and uses
• Initiate an opening discussion on the importance of energy to humans.
• Enumerate the different sources of energy, general, and identify which ones we utilize in the
country.
• Cite some examples of highly developed (1st world) countries and relate how critical energy self-
sufficiency is to their development and advancement.
• Enumerate the various energy sources which can be broken down into 2 broad categories: Non-
renewable and Renewable. (Reference: Republic Act 9513 - Renewable Act of 2008)  
Non-Renewable Sources
1. Coal
2. Oil
3. Natural Gas
4. Nuclear
Renewable Energy Sources
1. Solar
2. Wind
3. Hydroelectric
2
Teacher tip
• Display the learning objective/s
prominently on one side of the
classroom and refer to them frequently
during discussions. You may place a
check mark once a lesson is done to
give the learners an idea of their
progress and create a sense of
accomplishment as they progress
through the lessons.
• The initial discussion on the importance
of energy to a developing country like
ours serves to stress the relevance of
the key concepts that they will learn
throughout the lesson.
• Display the charts and run through the
total distribution of the various energy
sources identified by the Philippine
Department of Energy (DOE). Start a
discussion by asking the class what is
the biggest source of energy. Note that
the ideal energy plan is to reduce
reliance on imported energy sources
and increase reliance on indigenous
energy sources.
• Ask the class if they think reliance on
indigenous energy sources is important
for energy self-sufficiency and why.

4. Biomass
5. Geothermal
• The graph below was lifted from the Total Primary Energy Demand Forecast from Phil DOE
Philippine Energy Plan 2012-2030. It shows the total primary energy demand, by fuel type, in MTOE
(million tonnes of oil equivalent).
3
Teacher tip
• NOTE: MTOE (million tonnes of oil
equivalent) or TOE (tonne of oil
equivalent) is a unit of energy defined
as the amount of energy released by
burning one tonne of crude oil. It is
approximately 42 gigajoules, although
as different crude oils have different
calorific values, the exact value is
defined by convention; several slightly
different definitions exist. The toe is
sometimes used for large amounts of
energy.
• Just like the previous activity,
encourage class discussion by making
sense of the graph. The most basic
observation is that energy demand
increases with population (even though
population statistics is not presented).

• Enumerate the following uses of energy:
1. Agricultural
2. Transportation
3. Residential
4. Commercial
5. Industrial
The graph below was lifted from the Total Primary Energy Demand Forecast from Phil DOE Philippine
Energy Plan 2012-2030. It shows the Total Final Energy Consumption, by sector, in MTOE.
4

• Ask the class this reflection question.
“How important is energy to the advancement of society and how do we ensure self-sufficiency for
the current and future generations (energy independence)?” The aim of this reflection question is
for the learners to think about energy and its role in the advancement of society and come up with
ideas on how energy indepence can be achieved. There are no wrong answers at this point. Note
that this will be discussed in full in the Evaluation section where the Philippine Energy Plan
2012-2030 will be discussed through the case studies project. After about 5-6 minutes of idea
sharing among the group members, ask for group volunteers to share their ideas on the subject.
The important thing to establish after the discussions is the importance of energy in the
advancement of society. All the other points will be discussed during the evaluation section.
• Prior to the lecture proper, have the students recall previous lessons from junior high school on
fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric energy
• Fossil Fuels
Q: What are fossil fuels and what are the different kinds?
- Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried
dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions
of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of
carbon and include coal, petroleum and natural gas. Other more commonly used derivatives
of fossil fuels include kerosene and propane.
Q: What is coal and how is it formed?
- Like oil and natural gas, coal is a fossil fuel. It started forming over 350 million years ago,
through the transformation of organic plant matter.
5
Teacher tip
The class may be divided into small groups
of twos or threes to facilitate idea sharing.  
 
Note that this is a reflection question that
doesn’t need to be answered fully at this
point. Its purpose is to stimulate thinking
among the learners and for them to draw
from what they already know and more
importantly, to give real-life relevance to the
lesson itself.
Teacher tip
Before the lecture proper, ask for volunteers
to share what they recall from their previous
lessons on energy from junior high school.
List on the board key words that will arise
from the discussion. You can add to this
initial list more key words or phrases as you
go through the class lessons. This is quite
useful in showing the students how much
they have learned in class.  
Use of visual aids is strongly encouraged to
enhance understanding of key concepts.

(Source: https://empoweryourknowledgeandhappytrivia.files.wordpress.com/2015/02/
how-coal-was-formed.jpg)
• Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock
strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite
coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated
temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable
quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
• Coalification is the formation of coal from plant material by the processes of diagenesis and
metamorphism. Also known as bituminization or carbonification. It all starts with a swamp on
the edge of a sedimentary basin, such as a lagoon or a lake. Tectonic activity raises sea
levels, covering and killing vegetation. Plant debris accumulates and is buried under layers
of mud and sand in a process known as sedimentation. This protects the debris from the air
and slows down the decomposition process. The vegetation grows back, until the next
flooding. The sedimentary basin gradually sinks under the weight of the sediments, and the
layers of dead plants are subjected to rising temperatures that gradually “cook” them,
leading to their transformation. The different stages of sedimentation turn cellulose, the
main component of wood, from peat to lignite (brown coal), then sub-bituminous coal,
6

followed by bituminous coal and, finally, anthracite. Anthracite has the highest carbon
content.
Geological Time For The Formation of Coal
• The most favorable conditions for the formation of coal occurred 360 million to 290 million
years ago, during the Carboniferous (“coal-bearing”) Period. However, lesser amounts
continued to form in some parts of the Earth during all subsequent periods, in particular the
Permian (290 million to 250 million years ago), and throughout the Mesozoic Era (250 million
to 65 million years ago).
• The accumulated plant matter buried during the Tertiary Era — less than 65 million years
ago — is generally less mature. It is often in the form of lignite, which still contains a high
content of volatile matter (bitumen and decayed wood) and has a lower carbon content.
However, there is also some higher rank coal from the Tertiary Era, coal that matured early,
heated by plate tectonics. Examples of this include Paleocene coal (65 to 55 million years
ago), found in Columbia and Venezuela, and Miocene coal (20 million years ago), found in
Indonesia. In Indonesia, where the geothermal gradient is very high, anthracite lies close to
the surface.
• However, the deposits in the Moscow Basin have never gone beyond the lignite stage as it
is too cold. Finally, recent accumulations (from 10,000 years ago to today) are very rich in
fibrous debris known as peat, in which the shapes of branches and roots can still be
discerned. This material was not buried deep enough to contain elemental carbon.
The Different Types of Coal
• There are several different types of coal. They are ranked according to their carbon and
volatile matter content.
- Anthracite is 86 to 98% pure carbon and 8 to 3% volatile matter. It is an excellent fuel
that is still used to heat homes.
- Bituminous coal contains 70 to 86% carbon and 46 to 31% volatile matter. It is used to
make coke, used in metallurgy.
- Sub-bituminous coal is 70 to 76% carbon and 53 to 42% volatile matter. It is burned in
industrial boilers.
- Lignite is 65 to 70% carbon and 63 to 53% volatile matter. It is a low-grade fuel with a
7

high moisture content that is used in industrial boilers.
- Peat consists of partially decomposed vegetation. Technically speaking, it isn’t coal. It
has a carbon content of less than 60% and is composed entirely of volatile matter. A
poor fuel that was once used throughout Europe in the form of dried briquettes for
heating, today it is used only in a few regions, such as Ireland.
What is petroleum (oil and gas) and how is it formed?
(Source: http://www.openlearningworld.com/World_Geography/imgs/figure_7.3.3.jpg)
How Oil and Gas Deposits are Formed
• Deep in the Earth, oil and natural gas are formed from organic matter from dead plants and
animals. These hydrocarbons take millions of years to form under very specific pressure and
temperature conditions.
• When a living organism dies, it is generally recycled in one of two ways:
- It is eaten by predators, scavengers or bacteria.
8

- Through exposure to ambient air or oxygen-rich water, it oxidizes. That means that the
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus contained in the matter combine
with oxygen atoms present in the air. The organic matter breaks down into water (H2O),
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrates, sulfates and phosphates that nourish new plants.
The Slow Formation of Source Rock
• A tiny proportion of this organic matter — about 0.1% — escapes this fate. Transported by
water, it sometimes sinks to the bottom of the sea or large continental lakes. It is partly
preserved in these poorly oxygenated environments, well away from tidal currents. It mixes
with inorganic matter, such as clay particles and very fine sand, and with dead marine
plankton (microscopic organisms). This mixture is transformed into dark, foul-smelling mud
by anaerobic bacteria.
• Over time, this mud accumulates and hardens. Mud that contains at least 1 to 2% organic
matter may be transformed into source rock, which eventually produces oil and gas
deposits. This percentage may seem low, but that is because one or more specific
requirements are necessary to enable the process to take place:
- A hot climate that is conducive to the growth of large quantities of plankton.
- A location near the mouth of a major river carrying a lot of plant debris.
- No nearby mountains that could limit the volume of inorganic sediment within the rock.
Source Rock Subsidence
• The weight of accumulating sediment very slowly pushes the source rock further under the
Earth's crust, by a few meters to a few hundred meters every million years or so. This
gradual sinking is called subsidence and leads to the formation of sedimentary basins. 
 
As it sinks below ground, the source rock is subjected to increasingly high temperatures, the
organic matter that makes up the rock is crushed by the weight of the accumulating
sediments, and the pressure increases by 25 bar every 100 meters on average. At one
kilometer underground, the temperature is 50°C and pressure is 250 bar. 
Under these physical conditions, the nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus atoms are gradually
9

converted into kerogen, an intermediate material made up of water, carbon dioxide, carbon
and hydrogen, which is then transformed into oil or gas.
How Oil and Gas Forms
• At a depth of 2,000 meters, when the temperature reaches 100°C, kerogen starts to release
hydrocarbons:
• Between 2,000 and 3,800 meters, it turns into oil. This depth interval is known as the oil
window.
• When the source rock sinks further, to between 3,800 and 5,000 meters, production of liquid
hydrocarbons peaks. The liquids produced become increasingly lighter and gradually turn
into methane gas, the lightest hydrocarbon. This depth interval is known as the gas window.
• There are no hydrocarbons below a depth of 8 to 10 kilometers, because they are destroyed
by the high temperature.
• The proportion of liquids and gas generated in this way depends on the type of source rock.
If the organic debris is composed mostly of animal origin, it will produce more oil than gas. If
it is composed mainly of plant debris, the source rock will produce mostly gas.
• With an estimated average sedimentation of 50 meters every million years, it takes 60
million years for dead animals to become liquid hydrocarbons. It is hardly surprising,
therefore, that oil is classified as a non-renewable energy source.
How Oil and Gas Migrate
• Starting out from the source rock where they are formed, hydrocarbon molecules, which are
light, set off on an upward journey to the surface. They accumulate in porous rock and are
blocked by impermeable rock, thereby creating oil and gas deposits.
The Slow Rise to the Surface of Oil and Gas
• In the source rock, hydrocarbons are present in greater volumes under higher pressures than
the initial kerogen. Little by little, they are expelled into the water-containing rocky layers
located adjacent to the source rock. Because hydrocarbons are lighter than water, gas and
10

oil rise upward by circulating between the mineral grains of the rock. This slow, constant
movement away from the source rock is called migration.
• Migration is a complicated process. The rate depends on the permeability of the rocks they
cross and the size of the molecules: gas molecules rise more quickly than oil molecules,
because they are smaller and more mobile. Some hydrocarbon molecules are prevented
from moving upward, either because they dissolve in the water contained in the rock they
encounter (this affects gas much more often than oil) or because they adhere to the grains
that make up the rock. This phenomenon is known as migration loss. These losses can be
significant, especially if the oil and gas have a long way to travel. This is why some source
rock hydrocarbons will never be suitable for development.
The Formation of Deposits in Reservoir Rock, Under Cap Rock
• A hydrocarbon deposit can only form in reservoir rock. Hydrocarbon molecules may
accumulate in large quantities in this porous, permeable rock.
• Sedimentary rock is formed of solid particles deposited in seas, oceans, lakes or lagoons.
The appearance of the rock is different depending on the size of these particles: very large
grains form rock consisting of gravel, small grains bond together to form sand, and the
smallest grains of all form clay or mud.
• There are also empty spaces within the rock that determine its porosity. The higher the
percentage of space within the rock, the more porous the rock, which can contain large
quantities of fluids such as water, oil or gas. Pumice is an example of a porous rock. These
spaces, or pores, may be connected. Their connectivity is known as permeability, which is
what allows fluids to circulate within the rock. Not all rock is both permeable and porous. Oil
exploration engineers look for reservoir rocks — also known as reservoirs — that combine
good porosity (large quantities of hydrocarbons) and good permeability (which makes it
easy to extract these hydrocarbons because they flow unimpeded inside the rock).
• However, a hydrocarbon deposit will only form if the reservoir rock is capped by a layer of
impermeable rock that prevents the oil or gas from rising vertically to the surface and forms
a closed space that prevents the oil or gas from rising laterally. This cap rock forms a barrier
and traps the hydrocarbons. While clay and crystallized salt (evaporite) layers form the best
cap rock, any rock that is sufficiently impermeable — such as highly compact carbonates —
can serve as a cap rock
11

Absence of Cap Rock
• If the hydrocarbon molecules are not prevented from rising, they will move through the
reservoir rock and cannot accumulate.
• Oil or gas that reaches the surface at the end of its migration is exposed to bacteria and
ambient air. This triggers complex chemical reactions that convert them into water and
carbon dioxide. However, when significant quantities of hydrocarbons arrive at the surface
more quickly than the final degradation process, the heaviest molecules may remain in the
ground in the form of viscous, almost solid bitumen, buried at depths of a few meters. But
these bitumen deposits will quickly disappear when the hydrocarbons stop arriving at the
surface to replenish them.
From Traps to Commercial Deposits
• A hydrocarbon deposit can only form in reservoir rock. Hydrocarbon molecules may
accumulate in large quantities in this porous, permeable rock.
• Sedimentary rock is formed of solid particles deposited in seas, oceans, lakes or lagoons.
The appearance of the rock is different depending on the size of these particles: very large
grains form rock consisting of gravel, small grains bond together to form sand, and the
smallest grains of all form clay or mud.
• There are also empty spaces within the rock that determine its porosity. The higher the
percentage of space within the rock, the more porous the rock, which can contain large
quantities of fluids such as water, oil or gas. Pumice is an example of a porous rock. These
spaces, or pores, may be connected. Their connectivity is known as permeability, which is
what allows fluids to circulate within the rock. Not all rock is both permeable and porous. Oil
exploration engineers look for reservoir rocks — also known as reservoirs — that combine
good porosity (large quantities of hydrocarbons) and good permeability (which makes it
easy to extract these hydrocarbons because they flow unimpeded inside the rock).
• However, a hydrocarbon deposit will only form if the reservoir rock is capped by a layer of
impermeable rock that prevents the oil or gas from rising vertically to the surface and forms
a closed space that prevents the oil or gas from rising laterally. This cap rock forms a barrier
and traps the hydrocarbons. While clay and crystallized salt (evaporite) layers form the best
cap rock, any rock that is sufficiently impermeable — such as highly compact carbonates —
can serve as a cap rock.
12

Absence of Cap Rock
• If the hydrocarbon molecules are not prevented from rising, they will move through the
reservoir rock and cannot accumulate.
• Oil or gas that reaches the surface at the end of its migration is exposed to bacteria and
ambient air. This triggers complex chemical reactions that convert them into water and
carbon dioxide. However, when significant quantities of hydrocarbons arrive at the surface
more quickly than the final degradation process, the heaviest molecules may remain in the
ground in the form of viscous, almost solid bitumen, buried at depths of a few meters. But
these bitumen deposits will quickly disappear when the hydrocarbons stop arriving at the
surface to replenish them.
From Traps to Commercial Deposits
• Commercial oil and gas deposits occupy closed spaces created by deformations in
geological layers. These spaces, known as traps, must be large enough to make developing
the deposit economically viable. Reservoir rock, which is both porous and permeable, can
hold a given quantity of hydrocarbons. Cap rock, which seals these reservoirs, stops the
hydrocarbons from migrating upwards to the surface.
• But before a deposit can be formed, these hydrocarbons must also be sealed in a closed
space called a trap.
About Oil and Gas Traps
• There are two main types of trap:
• Structural traps, which are formed by changes in geological layers caused by the movement
of tectonic plates. Reservoir rock is sometimes deformed until it forms a completely sealed
space. These anticlinal traps are dome-shaped and the most common type of structural trap.
• Stratigraphic traps are made up of sedimentary layers that have not undergone tectonic
deformation. In this case, a cap rock completely seals off the reservoir rock. For example,
salt domes can act as cap rocks in this type of trap.
• The trap contains hydrocarbons, but also residual water. Because they are lighter than the
water, the hydrocarbons migrate above the water table.
• Hydrocarbon traps can contain:
13

- Oil, with significant quantities of dissolved gas.
- Gas, with light liquid hydrocarbons known as condensate.
- Both oil and gas. In this case, the gas, which is lighter than the oil, accumulates in the
upper part of the trap.
• If the reserves are developed, the gas dissolved in the crude oil will be turned into liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), used primarily as fuel. Condensate will be refined to produce naphtha,
used as a feedstock in the petrochemical industry, or kerosene, a fuel used in aviation.
Conserving Hydrocarbons
• Once trapped, the hydrocarbons are still at risk of deterioration that could prevent the
formation of a commercial deposit.
• At depths of less than 1,000 meters, the accumulation can be infiltrated by meteoric water
(precipitation). This water contains bacteria and oxygen that come into contact with the gas
and oil, triggering chemical reactions that separate them into water and carbon dioxide.
• Bacteria and oxygen start by attacking light and medium hydrocarbon molecules. After a
period of time, the initial oil is significantly degraded, leaving only viscous, solid
hydrocarbons that are more difficult to extract than non-degraded oil or gas. 
• Below 1,000 meters, the temperature is in most cases higher than 50°C and the bacteria that
cause the degradation cannot survive. Although no longer threatened by bacteria or
oxygen, traps located deep underground can be affected by tectonic activity — some traps
have even been created this way. This can cause fractures and faults in the rock, breaking
the seal and letting the hydrocarbons leak out of the trap. More violent tremors can even
destroy the trap by substantially reducing or destroying the seal.
14

Fossil Fuel Power Generation
• Electrical energy generation using steam turbines involves three energy conversions,
extracting thermal energy from the fuel and using it to raise steam, converting the thermal
energy of the steam into kinetic energy in the turbine and using a rotary generator to
convert the turbine's mechanical energy into electrical energy.
(Source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/fossil_fuel.gif)
15

Geothermal Energy
• As you descend deeper into the Earth's crust, underground rock and water become hotter.
This heat can be recovered using different geothermal technologies depending on the
temperature. But the heat resources in geothermal reservoirs are not inexhaustible.
(Source: https://d30y9cdsu7xlg0.cloudfront.net/png/2070-200.png)
Thermal Gradient
• The adjective geothermal comes from the Greek words ge (earth) and thermos (heat). It
covers all techniques used to recover the heat that is naturally present in the Earth’s
subsurface, particularly in aquifers, the rock reservoirs that contain groundwater. About half
this thermal (or “heat”) energy comes from the residual heat produced when the planet was
formed 4.5 billion years ago and about half from natural radioactivity.
• The temperature of geothermal water increases with depth, depending on the thermal
gradient — the average rate at which the temperature rises with depth — of the region
where it is found. The average value of the gradient worldwide is 3°C per 100 meters of
depth, but it varies between 1°C and 10°C per 100 meters depending on the physical
conditions and geology of the region.
16

The Different Types of Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal technologies differ with the temperature of geothermal water, which determines
what can be done with it:
- At 20°C to 90°C, geothermal heat and water are used for geothermal heating. This is
called low-temperature geothermal energy (see Close-Up – "Low-Temperature
Geothermal Energy: Heating”).
- At 90°C to 160°C, the water is used on the surface in liquid form. It transfers its heat to
another fluid, which vaporizes at low temperature and drives a turbine to generate
power. This is called medium-temperature geothermal energy (see Close-up – "High-
Temperature Geothermal Energy: Power”).
- At temperatures above 160°C, the water turns into steam when it reaches the Earth’s
surface. It drives turbines to generate power. This is called high-temperature geothermal
energy.
• The different temperature ranges are general, and practices may vary according to the
economic conditions of the particular location.
Availability of Geothermal Resources
• This heat varies in different areas. The average geothermal heat flow — the energy available
for any given surface area and period — on the surface is low. It averages 0.06 watts per
square meter per year, or 3,500 times less than the solar energy flow received in a single
year by the same surface area. This is why priority is given to using heat resources in those
areas that are most likely to provide significant amounts of energy. These “geothermal
reservoirs” are found in all the Earth’s sedimentary basins, but high-temperature geothermal
energy is most likely to be found near volcanoes. In volcanic areas, geothermal heat flow
can reach 1 watt per square meter.
• Geothermal reservoirs tend to be depleted with use, some faster than others. Their
replenishment capacity depends on:
- Heat sources within the Earth’s crust, mainly radioactivity and residual heat.
- Energy from outside the reservoir (solar heat) for very low-temperature applications using
heat pumps. Ensuring that these reservoirs will be reheated is especially crucial for
geothermal heat pumps: external factors, such as low winter temperatures, cool the
subsurface, meaning that less heat is available to be harnessed.
- The circulation of groundwater that is reheated on contact with heat sources located
17

away from the reservoir before returning to the reservoir.
• Therefore, these heat resources must be replenished to use a reservoir in a sustainable
manner. This involves capping the amount of heat used and putting a time limit on the
operation of the site.
• In addition, the availability of geothermal energy is geographically limited. Significant losses
occur when heat is transported over long distances. This can cause problems, because
production sites cannot always be located close enough to the place of consumption to
meet energy needs.
How is heat from inside the earth tapped as a source of energy for human use?
• Thermal energy, contained in the earth, can be used directly to supply heat or can be
converted to mechanical or electrical energy.
(Source: http://geo-energy.org/images/basics_clip_image002_0006.jpg)
18
Teacher Tip
The picture shows the Negros (Palinpinon)
Geothermal Power Plant, operated by the
Energy Development Corporation, located
at Valencia, Negros Oriental, Philippines

(Source: https://www.fix.com/assets/content/15694/geothermal-energy.png)
19

High-Temperature Geothermal Energy: Power
• Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy harnesses extremely hot water and steam
from beneath the Earth to generate electricity in dedicated power plants.
(Source: http://www.energy.ca.gov/geothermal/images/geysers_unit_18.jpg)
20

Global Resources
• Global high-temperature geothermal energy resources used for power generation are found
in a relatively few countries, in areas characterized by volcanic activity. They are mainly
located in Asia, the Pacific islands, the African Great Lakes region, North America, the
Andean countries of South America, Central America and the Caribbean.
• Around 20 countries in the world produce geothermal power, for a total installed capacity of
10.93 GW. It plays an essential role in some countries like the Philippines, where it accounts
for 17% of electricity produced, and Iceland, where it represents 30%. Global installed
capacity is projected to double by 2020.
Medium-Temperature Geothermal Power Plants
• Geothermal water at temperatures of 90 to 160°C can be used in liquid form to generate
power; this is called medium-temperature geothermal energy.
• This technology involves power plants that harness groundwater via geothermal wells. This
type of power plant is built near aquifers located at depths of 2,000 to 4,000 meters. In
volcanic areas (“hotspots”), where the subsurface holds more heat, the water used by the
power plants is sometimes found closer to the surface, at depths of less than 1,000 meters.
• In these plants, water that has been pressurized to stop it boiling circulates through a heat
exchanger. This equipment contains pipes filled with geothermal water that are in contact
with pipes filled with another fluid, generally a hydrocarbon. When it comes into contact
with the water-filled pipes, the fluid heats up, boils and vaporizes. The steam obtained
drives a turbine that generates power. In the process, the steam cools, returning to its liquid
state before being reused in another production cycle.
High-Temperature Geothermal Energy in Volcanic Areas
• If the geothermal water is hotter than 160°C, it can be used directly in the form of steam to
drive turbines and generate power. This is called high-temperature geothermal energy. This
principle was applied as long ago as 1913 in the world’s very first geothermal power plant,
in Larderello, Italy.
• This type of power plant uses water from water tables in volcanic regions, at depths of 1,500
to 3,000 meters. On very rare occasions, the water is present in the reservoir in the form of
21

steam. In 95% of cases, the water is liquid. The drop in pressure experienced by the liquid in
the wells as it flows to the surface causes some of the liquid to become vapor.
• At the surface, the liquid water is separated from the dry steam in a separator. The dry
steam is fed to the turbine, while the liquid water can be vaporized again by reducing its
pressure even further. The residual liquid water is injected back into the reservoir.
• Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy is used in a wide variety of applications.
In industry, for example, geothermal water and steam can be used to wash and dry wool.
They can also be used to manufacture pulp or treat biomass.
(Source: http://water.usgs.gov/edu/graphics/wuhytypicalplant.gif)
Hydropower, the Leading Renewable Energy
• Water energy encompasses both plants installed on land — on rivers and lakes — and ocean
energy, which is still being developed and harnesses the force of waves, tides and currents.
22

Widely used for decades, hydropower plants are the world’s leading renewable energy
source, producing 83% of renewable power.
(Source: http://www.eco-business.com/media/uploads/ebmedia/fileuploads/
shutterstock_168301589_hydro_news_featured.jpg)
• The kinetic energy generated by moving water has been used by humankind for centuries,
to drive watermills that produce mechanical energy. Modern hydropower, sometimes
referred to as “white coal," is harnessed in plants where electricity is generated. Around 40
countries use hydropower to produce more than a fifth of their electricity1. Hydropower
accounts for 16% of electricity worldwide, behind coal and gas, but ahead of nuclear.
From Dams to Plants
• A hydroelectric power plant has three main components:
- A dam that creates a large waterfall and stores enough water to supply the plant at all
times. As well as producing and storing energy, a dam also helps to regulate flooding.
23

- A penstock that channels water from its natural environment (river or lake) to supply the
dam reservoir. It may be an open channel, a tunnel or pipeline.
- A powerhouse that houses the turbines driven by the waterfall and the generator driven
by the turbines.
Types of Hydropower Plant
• The type of plant varies with the site's configuration, the waterway and the intended use.  
Run-of-river plants produce energy using the flow of the river. With dams less than 25 meters
high, these “small hydro” plants generate power continuously to meet daily needs.
• Off-stream plants are modular, meaning that energy can be produced on demand, with
dams used to create reservoirs that can be released as required. On lakes, water falls from a
significant height (over 300 meters); on locks, from between 20 and 300 meters.
• Pumped storage power plants are specifically designed for modular operation. They have
two reservoirs at different heights. When demand requires, water is released from the higher
reservoir to the lower reservoir. When there is excess production — for example, from wind
or solar sources — the surplus electricity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir.
Site Selection and Financing
• First, the right topographical, geological and hydrographical conditions are required. The
biggest hydropower producers are countries crossed by fast-flowing rivers and mountainous
countries. Gorges in rivers are good places for building dams. Similarly, a large flat valley is
ideal for holding water. There must be sufficient rainfall in the catchment area (all upstream
water).
• Large and medium-size dams are very expensive to build. Governments are increasingly
trying to obtain funding from private sources or large international organizations such as the
World Bank for these projects. But because the payback period is seen as too long,
hydropower projects have difficulty attracting investors. The future of hydropower therefore
depends to a large extent on the persuasiveness of states and potential public-private
partnerships.
24

The Advantages of Hydropower
• The water used to generate hydropower is renewable and storable, meaning it can be used
at peak consumption times and then reused. This way of storing potential energy is
particularly efficient as a hydro plant can reach its maximum rated capacity in just a few
minutes. By way of comparison, a thermal energy plant takes around 10 hours to reach full
capacity and a nuclear reactor takes four times longer than that.
• Hydropower is extremely efficient, with 90% of the water’s energy converted into electricity.
In addition, hydropower plants do not generate greenhouse gases and other emissions.
• While construction is a capital intensive, operating and maintenance costs are low. Plants
have an extremely long life and the technology is highly reliable. In France alone, of the 60-
odd large dams still in use, many were built before 1960. The oldest, located in the Nièvre
region, began operating in 1858.
• With all these advantages, developing hydropower can only be beneficial. However, it still
presents difficulties.
PRACTICE (120 MINS)
Group Activity
• Discussion and presentation on current energy situation (Primary Energy Supply, Fuel Input
Mix for Power Generation, Power Generation Mix and Final Energy Consumption).
• Provide the learners with web links to the Phil DOE Philippine Energy Plan 2012-2030
- (http://www.doe.gov.ph/doe_files/pdf/Researchers_Downloable_Files/
EnergyPresentation/PEP_2012-2030_Presentation_(Sec_Petilla).pdf
- http://www.doe.gov.ph/doe_files/pdf/01_Energy_Situationer/2012-2030-PEP.pdf).
• If internet is not available, print outs of the same should be made available.
• The figures below will serve to guide the discussion. These were lifted from the Philippine
Energy Plan 2012-2030.
• This serves as a follow up exercise for the learners after learning the fundamental concepts
on the different types of energy and how they are formed and harnessed for human use. It
also serves as a build up exercise prior to the Evaluation exercise which serves to address
the performance standard of making a plan that the community may use to conserve and
protect its resources for future generations.
25
Teacher Tip
• The Philippine Energy Plan 2012-2030
will serve as the primary resource
material to guide the discussion.
• The 2012-2030 Executive Summary
(Revised) can also be used as a
supplementary material, if necessary.
Link: http://www.doe.gov.ph/doe_files/
pdf/01_Energy_Situationer/2012-2030-
PEP-Executive-Summary_revised.pdf

ENRICHMENT (90 MINS)
• Debrief of the previous class activity. Supplement knowledge gaps (not captured during class
activity). (10 minutes)
• Group Activity - Creating individual models as learning aids to demonstrate how fossil fuels (coal,
oil and natural gas) are formed, how geothermal and hydroelectric energies are tapped for human
use. This could be given as homework so as not to consume classroom time. Each group will be
given 15 minutes to present - for a total of 60 minutes. (60 minutes)
• The models will serve as a learning reinforcement of the knowledge they have acquired during the
lecture. It enhances assimilation. Since each group will only get to work on one model, each group
can always spend time on their own to examine models created by other groups. These models will
be displayed in the classroom for the duration of the quarter and as such may serve as a review aid.
Rubrics for assessing models:
1. Completeness of model (visual aid) in detailing how fossil fuels are formed/how geothermal and
hydroelectric energies are tapped for human use - 40%
2. Conciseness and clarity of presentation/explanation of the model - 30%
3. Creativity and resourcefulness in creating the model - 20%
4. Group’s effective use of the allotted 15 minutes to fully explain the model. - 10%
Total Mark = 100%
• Review session covering learning outcomes (20 minutes)
• Go through the learning outcomes one by one and ask the students if they feel that the learning
activities proved sufficient in achieving each learning outcome. If everyone is satisfied and there are
no further questions, proceed to the Evaluation section. Otherwise, this review session will serve to
fill any knowledge gaps or any questions from the lessons covered so far.
27
Teacher Tip
It is good practice to conduct a debrief
after each class activity. This gives an
opportunity to fill any knowledge gaps in
the discussion, correct misconceptions and
answer any lingering questions.

• Written Assessment covering theory questions to evaluate the learners’ understanding of key
concepts and definitions of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), geothermal and hydroelectric
energy, and the processes by which they are harnessed for human use. This written assessment
serves to check whether the learners' have fully achieved the learning outcomes.  
• Case Study - The objective of the case study is to make the learners fully grasp, not just the “how” -
how are these different sources of energies formed and how they are harnessed/processed for
human use, but also the “why” - the importance of energy to humans and its integral role in the
development of nations. Although the case study may seem disconnected with the learning
outcomes, it actually serves as a concluding activity that is directly tied to the performance standard
- Make a plan that the community may use to conserve and protect its resources for future
generations. Essentially, it synthesizes the theoretical foundation lessons and extends them into
the field of "application", which makes their learning experience a truly real world one.
- The case study should be assigned right after the instruction session covering how the different
energy sources are formed and how they are harnessed for human use.
- Using the previous groupings during the enrichment activity, divide the class into groups and
conduct research on how the Philippines, through the Department of Energy, will ensure energy
self-sufficiency while safeguarding the environment for future generations. This may seem like a
daunting exercise for junior high school students but the goal is to get them to think outside of
the classroom environment and relate what they learn in a classroom environment to the “real
world”. This gives more meaning and importance to what they learn inside the classroom as it
stresses its direct impact to our society. Make sure to assess each group’s progress as early as
two days after the case study has been assigned. This will ensure that they are on track with the
exercise. In the event that they struggle with the exercise, ask them to start their research by
looking up the DOE’s Philippine Energy Plan 2012-2030. Below is an excerpt of the Philippine
DOE’s policy trusts that will guide their conduct of their case studies:
28
Teacher Tip
The case study should be assigned right
after the instruction session covering how
the different energy sources are formed and
how they are harnessed for human use.

• Review the learning outcomes one last time to round up the class session. This will reaffirm to the
students that they have fully learned what they set out to learn.
- Describe how fossil fuels are formed.
- Explain how heat from inside the earth is tapped as a source of energy(geothermal) for human
use
- Explain how energy (hydroelectric) is harnessed from flowing water
- Create individual models explaining how fossil fuels are formed, and how geothermal and
hydroelectric energy are harnessed for human use
29
Teacher Tip
The case study should be assigned right
after the instruction session covering how
the different energy sources are formed and
how they are harnessed for human use.

Earth Science
Lesson 10: Earth
Materials and Resources
- Human Activity and the
Environment
Content Standard
1. waste generation and management
1. Prepare a plan that the community may implement to minimize waste when
people utilize materials and resources
Learning Competency
Cite ways to address the different environmental concerns related to the use of
fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric energies (S11ES-Ie-f-13).
Specific Learning Outcome
1. identify ways to address the different environmental concerns related to the
use of fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric energies.
1
255 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Video 10
Practice Short Quiz and Group Activity 120
Enrichment Group Activity Reflection 30
Evaluation Student-Directed Project 60
Materials
Internet access; computer; LCD or projector
Resources
Textbook:
11th
Internet resource:
(1) http://www.eia.gov/
(2) http://environ.andrew.cmu.edu/m3/s3/11sources.shtml
Video Links
(1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvuzuyEKLd8

Communicating learning objective
1. Introduce the following learning objective:
a. Identify ways to address the different environmental concerns related to the use of fossil fuels,
geothermal and hydroelectric energies
• Deepwater Horizon-BP Oil Spill Video Playback. (Duration: 2 minutes) 
This is the largest marine oil spill in history, caused by an April 20, 2010, explosion on the
Deepwater Horizon oil rig - located in the Gulf of Mexico, approximately 41 miles (66 km) off the
coast of Louisiana—and its subsequent sinking on April 22.!
• Although not a local example, being the worst marine disaster in recent history, it allows them to
connect to a real-life problem that we face in the process of searching for much-needed energy for
development. It sets the tone for the next section that discusses the ways to address different
environmental concerns related to the use of fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric energies.
• Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvuzuyEKLd8
• The teacher may allot 5-8 minutes to elicit any reactions on the video.
• Lecture Proper: Lecture and discussion on ways to address different environmental concerns related
to the use of fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric energies
• All energy production and use has environmental impacts. Fossil fuels and nuclear produce more
solid, liquid and gaseous wastes, while renewables (geothermal and hydroelectric) face challenges
of land and water use, visual and noise pollution. Making energy cleaner is usually more expensive,
and these costs are passed along to the consumer.
2
Teacher tip
Display the learning objective/s prominently
on one side of the classroom and refer to
them frequently during discussions. You
may place a check mark once a lesson is
done to give the learners an idea of their
p r o g r e s s a n d c r e a t e a s e n s e o f
accomplishment as they progress through
the lessons.
Teacher tip
The video link is provided. A copy of the
video is also provided, in case internet
connection is not available.

• The table listed summarizes the various environmental impacts of each of the various sources of
energy.
3
Teacher tip
Age of Solar System is at 4.6 billion years
old based on radioactive dating of
meteorites (Solar System is much younger
than the Universe);
Energy Source Energy production Usage Environmental Impact
Oil, Petroleum Non renewable · 38% of world's consumption
in 2000
Refining and consuming
produce air, water, and solid
waste pollutants
· Easily transported
· Large portion in
transportation industry
Natural Gas Non renewable · 20% of world's consumption
in 2000
Produces fewer pollutants than
oil and coal, and less CO2
· Flexible for use in
industries, transportation,
power generation
Coal Non renewable Primary resource for
electricity
Produces CO2 and other air,
water and solid waste
pollutants
Biomass: Wood
and organic
waste including
societal waste
· Renewable Low energy potential relative
to other resources
· Burning emits CO2 and other
pollutants
· In terms of timber, it is
easily harvested and
abundant in certain areas;
but it takes a long time to
grow a tree.
· Possible toxic byproducts
from societal waste
· Loss of habitat when trees
harvested, unless sustainable
tree farms
Hydro-electric · Renewable Low economic cost, though
high start up costs
Destruction of farmlands,
dislocation of people, loss of
habitat, alteration of stream
flows
· Clean resource with high
efficiency
· Influenced by climate
and geography

4
Solar Power
(photo-voltaics)
· Renewable · Technology is already in
use for remote applications
and non-centralized uses
where it is economically
competitive with alternatives
Large land use
· High economic cost
particularly in terms of
start-up
· Unlimited resource that is
clean, efﬁcient, safe, and
renewable
· Dependent on climate
and geographical location

· Need a storage system
for the energy to ensure
reliability

· Not advanced enough
for global use

Solar Power -
(solar thermal)
· Renewable · Solar energy technology not
advanced enough for global
use

· Central-thermal systems
to convert solar energy
directly to heat
· Many industrial plants use
solar
· More competitive
economically than
photovoltaics

· Dependent on climate
and geographical location

5
Geo-thermal · Extracts heat from
underground masses of
hot rock.
· Consumption is localized Disrupts natural geyser activity
· Technology is still
undeveloped.
· Efﬁcient
· Can be geographically
dependent

Wind Power · Renewable · Economic cost comparable
to current technologies
· Aesthetic issues
· Unlimited resource that
is a very clean process,
no pollutants
· System must be designed
to operate reliably at variable
rotor speeds
· Needs lots of land
· Technology not advanced
enough for global societal us
· Possible impacts on birds and
their migration patterns
· Some noise pollution
Nuclear Fission · Non renewable resource
U-235 (uranium)
Currently accounts for
10-12% of the world's
electricity
· Byproduct is highly
radioactive and highly toxic
· Highly technological
infrastructure necessary
for safe operation
· Produces radioactive wastes
that have a long lifetime
· Production of nuclear
energy has a high cost
due in part to regulations
· Disposal solution complex
technically and politically
· High water usage for
cooling
· Safety issues in terms of
operating a facility with the
potential to release radiation to
the atmosphere
· Public perception problem in
terms of radiation, etc.

Energy Resources and related information
[1] Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 1999, DOE/EIA-0219(99) (Washington, DC, January 2001.)
[2] Energy Information Administration, International Energy Outlook 2001, DOE/EIA-0484(2001) (Washington, DC, March
2001.)
• A successful energy future will depend on managing environmental impacts while keeping energy
affordable. And this can only be achieved by formulating and implementing comprehensive energy
and environmental policies with the cooperation of the international community in the form of
treaties like the Kyoto Protocol.
• The following are considered priority solutions advocated by international communities, led by the
United States of America, that are addressed in these international treaties:
1. Curbing Global Warming
Climate change is the single biggest environmental and humanitarian crisis of our time.
We must act now to spur the adoption of cleaner energy sources at home and abroad. 
 
Climate change is the single biggest environmental and humanitarian crisis of our time.
The Earth's atmosphere is overloaded with heat-trapping carbon dioxide, which threatens large-
scale disruptions in climate with disastrous consequences. We must act now to spur the
adoption of cleaner energy sources at home and abroad.
6
Nuclear Fusion · Technology is not yet
viable and requires
research investment
Possibility high for water
pollution because of radioactive
tritium
· Technology still not
developed enough to
make this a viable source

2. Creating the Clean Energy Future
Dependence on fossil fuels threatens our national security and is a major contributor to
global warming and toxic air pollution. By investing in renewable energy sources such as the
sun, wind and biomass, we can help solve the energy and climate crises. 
 
Our best weapon against global climate change is clean energy. Renewable power,
conservation, energy efficiency in buildings and elsewhere, more efficient vehicles and clean
fuels -- these are the solutions that will reduce the impacts on our climate, revive our economy,
and create jobs.
3. Reviving the World's Oceans
The world's oceans are on the brink of ecological collapse. We can restore marine vitality
by ending overfishing, creating marine protected areas and improving the way we govern our
oceans. 
 
Powerful forces have pushed the world's oceans to the brink of ecological collapse.
Marine vitality can be restored by ending overfishing, creating marine protected areas,
improving oceans governance, and combating emerging threats like ocean acidification. By
focusing on these solutions, we can achieve the broadest, most long-lasting benefits for our
oceans and those who rely on oceans-related jobs.
4. Defending Endangered Wildlife and Wild Places
The destruction of our last remaining wildlands means the loss of vast troves of
biological diversity, critical regulators of global climate, and irreplaceable sanctuaries. 
 
Our government joins forces with NGOs and other environment activists to defend some
of our country's most imperiled species and their habitats.
7
Teacher can ask students for what theories/
explanations they know about the origin of
the solar system.
Teacher Tip
This can be delivered as a straight lecture or
alternatively, the teacher can assign the
learning materials and have the students
present the same as a group. Knowledge
gaps should filled by the teacher and
misconceptions should be corrected after
the group presentations.

5. Protecting Our Health By Preventing Pollution
We must reduce or eliminate the dangerous chemicals in the products we buy, the food
we eat and the air we breathe. Toxic chemicals in our environment, such as mercury, lead, and
certain manmade chemicals, have been linked to cancer, birth defects and brain impairments.
Reducing or eliminating the load of these dangerous chemicals in the products we buy, the air
we breathe, the food we eat and the water we drink can help reduce the toll of human disease
and suffering.
6. Ensuring Safe and Sufficient Water
Clean and plentiful water is the cornerstone of prosperous communities. Yet as we enter
the 21st century, swelling demand and changing climate patterns are draining rivers and
aquifers and pollution is threatening the quality of what remains. Our government is integrating
our expertise in pollution prevention, water efficiency and climate change to sustain Philippines'
precious water resources, working to advance smart water efficiency policies to ensure that
communities get the water they need while keeping our lakes, rivers, and streams full and
healthy.
7. Fostering Sustainable Communities
The choices we make for where and how we live have enormous impacts on our well-
being, economy, and natural environment. The government develops and advocates
sustainable solutions for our communities.
The Philippines, through the Department of Energy, will work on ensuring the implementation of
the following plans and programs to contribute to the attainment of these broad policy and
program frameworks. These plans and programs are embodied in DOE's Energy Reform Agenda
(ERA).
8

A. Power Sector Development
• The development plans on power systems, transmission highways, distribution facilities and
missionary electrification provide the platform to put in place long-term reliable power
supply, improve the country’s transmission and distribution systems and attain nationwide 
electrification. Specifically, the PEP highlights the implementation of critical power
infrastructures to address possible power outages. Based on the Plan, the government will
concentrate its efforts on the completion of committed power projects, as well as attract
local and foreign investors to venture into indicative and potential power projects to include
electrification projects.
B. Fuelling Sustainable Transport Program
• As one of the biggest user of energy, the energy sector is mainly concerned on other
alternative options to fuel the transport sector. Thus, the PEP will pursue the implementation
of the Fueling Sustainable Transport Program (FSTP) which seeks to convert public and
private vehicles from diesel and gasoline to compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) and electric power. Under the program, CNG buses are envisioned to
ply throughout the country. It also includes the promotion of electric vehicles for public
transport and the increase in biofuels blends to 20.0 percent. With the FSTP, the
government hopes to reduce the carbon footprint from road transport in the Philippines. It
has been estimated that road transportation accounts for around 50.0 percent of the total air
pollutants in the country.
C. Indigenous Energy Development Program
• As energy demand is anticipated to grow significantly over the indicated planning period, it
is incumbent for the energy sector to pursue all means to develop the country’s indigenous
resources. In view of this, the Plan looks into a highly diverse energy mix to fuel the
Philippine!economy within the planning period. Even with the dawning of renewable energy
development, the DOE recognizes the fact that the country will remain dependent on
conventional fuels for many years to come to address its growing energy requirements. The
Plan programs the conduct of energy contracting rounds as an effective strategy to bring in
critical investments for the exploration, development and production of local energy
resources.
9
Teacher Tips
• i m p o r t a n c e o f m e t e o r i t e s i n
determining the age and the origin of
the solar system.
• An improvement of the nebular
h y p o t h e s i s b a s e d o n c u r r e n t
knowledge of fluids and states of
matter.
• remind the learner of the comparison
of the elemental abundance among the
Universe, Meteorites, and the whole
Earth
• accretion and bombardment generate
heat (kinetic energy is transformed to
heat)which was partly retained by the
Earth as internal heat;

D. National Renewable Energy Plan
• With the global trend towards a clean energy future, the Renewable Energy Act was passed
in 2008 to fully harness the country’s renewable!energy potential such as geothermal, hydro,
wind, solar, biomass and ocean. To guide the full implementation of the law, the National
Renewable Energy Program (NREP) was launched on 14 June 2011 by President Aquino.
The PEP includes the targets set under the NREP to strengthen its energy security plan.
Specifically, the NREP seeks to increase the country’s renewable energy-based capacity by
2030.
E. Energy Efficiency and Conservation Program
• With the escalating prices of imported fuels, the call for energy efficiency and conservation
has graduated from merely just a personal virtue to that of a national commitment. The PEP
includes the National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Program (NEECP) as one of the
centerpiece strategies in pursuing energy security of the country and looks into it as a major
solution to the energy challenges of the future. To lay the groundwork for a national energy
efficiency plan, the PEP recognizes the need for an energy conservation law as a critical
measure in managing the country’s energy demand. The proposed legislation aims to
incorporate policies and measures to develop local energy auditors and energy managers,
establish the ESCO industry, encourage the development of energy efficient technologies
and provide incentives for the effective promotion of efficiency initiatives in the energy
market sector.
F. Natural Gas Master plan
• A complementary initiative to ensure the country’s energy security is the review and update
of the Master Plan Study for the Development of the Natural Gas Industry in the Philippines.
Said update includes an evaluation of the natural gas infrastructure requirements in the
Visayas and Mindanao regions in view of the DOE’s plan to implement a Natural Gas
Infrastructure Development Plan in these regions. The Masterplan, with technical assistance
from Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and World Bank, evaluates the
opportunities, critical infrastructures and required investments for the development of the
natural gas industry.
10

PRACTICE (120 MINS)
• Give a short quiz on the topics covered in the previous lecture session to gauge learners'
knowledge retention. (30 minutes) 
 
Name and briefly explain the 6 policy programs embodied in the DOE's Energy Reform Agenda
(ERA). Each correct policy will be given 5 points. Each sufficient explanation will be given 10 points,
for a total of 90 points.
• Group Activity - Divide the class into suitable group size (will depend on the size of the class) and
conduct a research on local environmental disasters or damages related to the use of energy. The
groups will be given 30 minutes to search the internet for local examples and each group will be
given 10 minutes to present (90 minutes - assuming a total of 6 groups).  
 
The presentation will cover 1) what went wrong? 2) could it have been prevented? and 3) if the
answer is yes, what could have been done to prevent the incident from happening? Alternatively,
for very large class sizes, this can be given as a homework to be presented the following class
session.
• Debrief of the previous class activity. Supplement knowledge gaps (not captured during class
activity). (10 minutes)
• Reflection Question - Is there an energy source that is free of some type of environmental impact?
Ask the question to the class and allow them 5 minutes to reflect on the question. Conclude the
reflection by giving the following answer. The answer really is, no energy source is free of some type
of environmental impact. So what do we do address energy security while minimizing the negative
effects of energy production and use to the environment? In the end, we must accept that current
patterns of energy production and use have widespread and widely known negative impacts on the
environment. As President Jimmy Carter once remarked when addressing the US Congress in 1976,
11
Teacher Tips
• Point deductions will be at the
discretion of the teacher. 
Alternatively, the assessment can be
given as a matching type, with the
policy program on one side and the
policy description on the other. This is
preferred if the class is pressed for
time.
• Alternatively, for very large class sizes,
the group activity can be given as
homework to be presented the
following class session
Teacher Tip
It is good practice to conduct a debrief
after each class activity. This gives an
opportunity to fill any knowledge gaps in
the discussion, correct misconceptions and
answer any lingering questions.

to avoid a cycle of energy and climate crises: “We must face the prospect of changing our basic
ways of living. This change will either be made on our own initiative in a planned way or forced on
us with chaos and suffering by the inexorable laws of nature.” It would be far better to implement
carbon taxes, to incorporate the cost of negative environmental consequences into energy prices,
to pass feed-in tariffs, and to harness the powers of energy efficiency now in a proactive way rather
than a few decades from now when forced to by crises. In short, the problem of environmental
impact can only be solved by matter of policy. Environmental care initiatives must be formulated in
conjunction with our nation's energy policy, consistent with international conventions. (20 minutes)
• Written Assessment covering theory questions to evaluate the learners’ understanding of the
different environmental concerns related to the use of fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric
energies. This can be given as an enumeration type or matching type exam. The students will have
to match the environmental impact with the associated energy source. Use the summary table in
the instruction section as answer key. (30 minutes)
• Group Activity - Divide the class into suitable group size (will depend on the size of the class) and
conduct a research on international treaties/conventions on safeguarding the environment that the
Philippines is party to. Discuss amongst the groups, if you feel that the Philippines is doing enough
towards fullfiling the agreements made in these international treaties. The teacher may assign one
treaty per group if time permits. Otherwise, the teacher can assign the Kyoto Protocol that aims to
reduce greenhouse gases emissions, based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b)
man-made CO2 emissions have caused it.
• Since conducting a research requires time, this may be assigned as a take home exercise to be
given as early as practicable.
12
Teacher Tip
This is a student-directed project, and
although this may not be a graded exercise,
that aims to impress upon the students the
gravity of the inherent ill effects of the
production and use of energy, how we
utilize energy in the country not only affects
our own local environment but also
contributes towards global climate change.
Exposing the students to international
treaties impresses upon them the utmost
importance of working alongside
international communities in ensuring care
of our environment not only for our sake but
also for the sake of future generations.

Earth Science
Lesson 11: Water
Resources - Conservation
and Protection
Content Standard
1. the amount of usable water on earth
Make a plan that the community may use to conserve and protect its resources
for future generations.
The learners will be able to
1. describe how water is distributed on earth (S11ES-Ie-f-13)
2. Identify the various water resources on earth (S11ES-If-14)
3. Explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for
human use (S11ES-Ig-16(a))
4. Suggest ways of conserving and protecting water resources
(S11ES-Ig-16(b))
1. describe how water is distributed on earth;
2. identify the various water resources on earth;
3. explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for
human use; and
4. suggest ways of conserving and protecting water resources.
1
145 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Motivation Video 10
Practice Short quiz 10
Enrichment Reflection 30
Evaluation Group research 60
Materials
Internet access; computer; LCD projector; unlabelled hydrologic cycle
illustration
Resources
Textbook
11th

• Communicate learning outcomes and state the importance of water to life on earth. (5 minutes)
• Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocols (Verbatim, Own
Words, Read-aloud)
A. I can describe how water is distributed on earth.
B. I can identify the various water resources on earth
C. I can explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for human use
D. I can suggest ways of conserving and protecting water resources
• Why Care About Water? Video Playback - A National Geographic video that talks about water as a
scarce resource and its vital role in sustaining life on earth. (3 minutes)
• There is the same amount of water on Earth today as there was when the dinosaurs roamed. And
just less than one percent of the planet's water is available to meet the daily drinking water,
sanitation and food needs of nearly 7 billion people and millions of other species. Learn more
about water in all its forms and how you can make a difference.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fvkzjt3b-dU
• The teacher may allot 5-7 minutes to elicit any reactions on the video - how important it is as a
resource. Round up the discussion by telling the class that the lessons that they will be learning will
highlight how important water is as a resource.
Lecture and discussion on distribution of earth's water and the various water resources on earth. (30
minutes)
2
Teacher tip
Display the learning objective/s prominently
on one side of the classroom and refer to
them frequently during discussions. You
may place a check mark once a lesson is
done to give the learners an idea of their
progress and create a sense of
accomplishment as they progress through
the lessons.
The video link is provided. A copy of the
video is also provided, in case internet
connection is not available.

A. Mineral Exploration
Water is a simple compound, made of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen bonded
together. More than any other substance on the Earth, water is important to life and has remarkable
properties. Without water, life could probably not even exist on Earth. When looking at Earth from
space, the abundance of water on Earth becomes obvious — see Figure 1. On land, water is also
common: it swirls and meanders through streams, falls from the sky, freezes into snow flakes, and
even makes up most of you and me. In this section, we’ll look at the distribution of water on Earth,
and also examine some of its unique properties.
B. Distribution of Water on earth
As Figure 1 makes clear, water is the most abundant substance on the Earth’s surface. About
71% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, most of which is found in the oceans. In fact, 97.5%
of Earth's water, nearly all of it, is in the Earth’s oceans. This means that just 2.5% of Earth's water is
fresh water, water with low concentrations of salts. Most freshwater is found as ice in the vast
glaciers of Greenland and the immense ice sheets of Antarctica. That leaves just 0.4% of Earth’s
water that is freshwater that humans can easily use. Most liquid freshwater is found under the Earth’s
surface as groundwater, while the rest is found in lakes, rivers, and streams, and water vapor in the
sky.
3

C. Where and in what forms is water available on Earth?
The world’s water exists naturally in different forms and locations: in the air, on the surface,
below the ground and in the oceans. 
4

! Just 2.5% of the Earth’s water is freshwater, and most is frozen in glaciers and ice sheets. About
96% of all liquid freshwater can be found underground. The remaining small fraction is on the
surface or in the air. 
 
Knowing how water cycles through the environment can help in determining how much water is
available in different parts of the world. The Earth’s water cycle (Figure 2) is the global mechanism
by which water moves from the air to the Earth (precipitation) and eventually back to the
atmosphere (evaporation). 
 
! The principal natural components of this cycle are precipitation, infiltration into the soil, runoff
on the surface, groundwater discharge to surface waters and the oceans, and evapotranspiration
from water bodies, the soil, and plants. 
 
“Blue water”— the water in rivers, lakes, and aquifers— can be distinguished from “green
water” — which feeds plants and crops, and which is subsequently released into the air. This
distinction may help managers focus on those areas which green water feeds and passes through,
such as farms, forests, and wetlands.
5

D. How does water move from the atmosphere to the ground and back?
About 10% of the Earth’s freshwater that is neither frozen nor underground is found in the
atmosphere. Precipitation, in the form of rain or snow, for instance, is an important form of available
freshwater. About 40% of precipitation has previously evaporated from the oceans; the rest from
land. The amount of precipitation varies greatly around the world, from less than 100 mm a year in
desert climates to over 3,400 mm a year in tropical settings. 
 
In temperate climates, about a third of precipitation returns to the atmosphere through
evaporation, a third filters into the ground and replenishes groundwater and the remainder flows
into water bodies. The drier the climate, the higher the proportion of precipitation that returns to
the atmosphere and the lower the proportion that replenishes groundwater.  
 
A large part of the freshwater that returns to the atmosphere passes through soil and plants.
Reliable figures are available only for some regions. Soil moisture is important for plant growth.
Finding out how much moisture soil contains is important for such activities as farming and “river-
flow forecasting”, and for understanding climate and natural and water systems. Satellite data are
increasingly complementing measurements of soil moisture taken on the ground to provide a
broader and more up-to-date picture to decision-makers.
E. How much freshwater is found at the Earth’s surface?
About three-quarters of the world’s freshwater is frozen in ice sheets and glaciers. Most remains
inaccessible, located in the Arctic, Antarctica or Greenland. Land-based glaciers and permanent
snow and ice, however, supply water in many countries, releasing water in amounts that vary
seasonally and over longer time periods. Because of climate change, glaciers are now being more
closely monitored.  
 
Surface waters, including lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers, streams and wetlands hold only a small
volume of the Earth’s total fresh water (0.3%). Still they represent about 80% of the renewable
surface water and groundwater that is available in a given year. These water bodies perform many
6

functions in the environment, and provide people with the prime source of drinking water, energy
and recreation, as well as a means of irrigation and transport. 
 
Lakes and other reservoirs counteract fluctuations in river flow from one season to the next
because they store large amounts of water. Lakes contain by far the largest amount of fresh surface
water. But the hydrology of only about 60% of the largest lakes has been studied in detail, leaving
much to be learned. 
 
River basins are a useful “natural unit” for the management of water resources, though they
often extend across national borders. International river basins have drainage areas covering about
45% of the Earth’s land surface (excluding the polar regions). Some of the largest basins are the
Amazon, which carries 15% of all water returning to the oceans, and the Congo-Zaire Basin, which
carries one-third of all river water in Africa. 
 
! River flows can vary greatly from one season to the next and from one climatic region to
another. In tropical regions, large flows are witnessed year round, whereas in drylands, rivers are
often ephemeral and only flow periodically after a storm. Drylands make up about 40% of the
world’s land area and have only 2% of all water runoff. 
 
! Past data records for river flow and water levels help to predict yearly or seasonal variations,
though it is difficult to make accurate longer-term forecasts. Some records in industrialised countries
go back up 150 to 200 years. By contrast, many developing countries started keeping records only
recently and data quality is often poor.
Wetlands, including swamps, bogs, marshes, and lagoons, cover 6% of the world’s land surface
and play a critical role in the conservation of water resources. Many wetlands were destroyed or
converted to other uses during the last century. Those that remain can play an important role in
supporting ecosystems, preventing floods, and increasing river flows.
F. How much freshwater can be found underground?
Ninety-six percent of liquid fresh water can be found underground. Groundwater feeds springs
and streams, supports wetlands, helps keep land surfaces stable, and is a critical water resource. 
7

About 60% of the water that is taken from the ground is used for farming in arid and semi-arid
climates, and between 25% and 40% of the world’s drinking water comes from underground.
Hundreds of cities around the world, including half of the very largest, make significant use of
groundwater. This water can be especially useful during shortages of surface water. 
 
Groundwater aquifers vary in terms of how much water they hold, their depth, and how quickly
they replenish themselves. The variations also depend on specific geological features. 
 
Much of the water underground is replenished either very slowly or not at all, and is thus termed
“non-renewable”. The largest aquifers of non-renewable water are found in North Africa, the
Middle East, Australia, and Siberia. There is some debate about how and when to use this water.
Many aquifers that contain non-renewable groundwater resources are shared by more than one
country and need to be managed in common for the benefit of all administrative entities
concerned. 
 
If the infiltration of precipitation recharges the aquifer, the groundwater is considered
“renewable” and can be used for irrigation, domestic and other purposes. While most renewable
groundwater is of a high quality and does not require treatment, it should be analysed before it is
used to avoid possible health impacts. However, few countries measure the quality of underground
water or the rate at which it is being withdrawn. Monitoring is being improved in Europe and India,
but remains minimal in many developing countries, and is deteriorating in many industrialised ones.
This makes it hard to manage underground water resources sustainably.
PRACTICE (10 MINS)
Give a short quiz on the topics covered in the previous lecture session to gauge learners'
knowledge retention. (10 minutes)  
 
Fill in the blanks. Handout the water cycle digram and have them write the cycle component
words or phrases on the blank boxes to complete the diagram. 
8
Teacher tip
This will be delivered as a straight lecture.
Teacher tip
• This is formative assessment to monitor
student learning to provide ongoing
feedback that you can use as an
instructor to improve your teaching and
by the students to improve their
learning. It helps students identify their
strengths and weaknesses and target
areas that need work and helps faculty
recognize where students are
struggling and address problems
immediately.

Reflection Activity: Ask the class what and how different activities affect the quality and
availability of water for human use (30 minutes) 
 
As answers come in, write them down on the board. Hopefully, you will end up with a good list.
Regardless, you will have a chance to fill gaps on the list. When the class runs out of answers,
debrief the activity by using this United States Geological Survey publication as reference - Effects
of Human Activities on the Interaction of Groundwater and Surface Water. This may be
9
• This is a low stakes exercise, which
means that they have low or no point
value. This is essentially a concept map
to represent their understanding of the
water cycle
Teacher tip
• Deviate from the teacher-driven lecture
type content delivery and encourage
active learner participation by allowing
them to verbalize their ideas. Ask them
to reflect on day-to-day activities (real-
life experiences) that affect the quality
and availability of water for human use.
Learner-driven exercises yields
optimum satisfaction from the learner.

supplemented by Section D of the 2007 report on the state of water resources in the Philippines by
Greenpeace which discusses the major problems concerning water use and scarcity.
Written Assessment covering theory questions to evaluate the learners’ understanding of the
distribution of water on earth and the various water resources on earth. (30 minutes)
Fill in the blanks. Hand out the diagram below and have them fill in the percentages on the empty
numbered boxes to gauge their knowledge of the global water distribution.
10
water cycle
Teacher tip
• Deviate from the teacher-driven lecture
type content delivery and encourage
active learner participation by allowing
them to verbalize their ideas. Ask them
to reflect on day-to-day activities (real-
life experiences) that affect the quality
and availability of water for human use.
Learner-driven exercises yields
optimum satisfaction from the learner.

Group Activity - Divide the class into suitable group size (will depend on the size of the class) and
ask the groups to conduct a research on ways to conserve and protect water resources.  
 
This is a student-directed research project that aims to solicit answers directly from students,
that they may reflect on their daily activities and ask themselves if they have contributed to the
conservation and protection our water resources.  
 
Although, Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) holistic approach has now been
accepted internationally as the way forward for efficient, equitable and sustainable development
and management of the world's limited water resources and for coping with conflicting demands,
individuals and families can make a huge difference in the state of the world's water resources by
avoiding waste and pollution. Ask the students to reflect on what they can do daily to conserve and
protect water resources. (30 minutes)
Note: Integrated Water Resources Management is a collaborative process which promotes
the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources within
hydrological boundaries, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an
equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.  
 
You may use the list below to check mark their answers.
Here are some simple ways we can help to conserve and protect water sources. 
 
1. Use less water. Turn off the water while you brush your teeth and shave. Take shorter showers.
Run the clothes washer and dishwasher only when they're full. If you wash dishes by hand, fill the
sink or dishpan with water, rather than running the tap continuously as you scrub. Wash your car by
hand, and sweep, rather than hose down, your sidewalk and driveway.  
 
2. Keep harmful substances out of the water. Don't put hazardous materials, pesticides, oil,
prescription drugs, or personal care products down the drain or toilet -- they'll wind up in the bay
and other local waterways. Of course, it's better to use nontoxic products when you can. For
examples of safe substitutes for toxic household products. Animal waste also causes pollution in
stormwater runoff, so it's important to clean up after your pets. Dispose of their waste in the
garbage.  
11
water cycle

3. Keep pipes and appliances in good condition. Fix leaks and drips. Even a small drip can waste
hundreds of gallons a month. Maintain your septic system -- fecal matter from malfunctioning
systems can contaminate beaches or groundwater. Have the septic tank cleaned out every three to
five years.  
 
4. Use water-efficient appliances. If you're stretching the life of an old toilet, you can save more
than a gallon of water per flush if you put a plastic milk jug filled with water or pebbles in the toilet
tank to reduce the amount of water used. And next time you buy a clothes washer, choose a high-
efficiency model, which uses up to 20 gallons less water per load. Quick but effective fixes include
low-flow shower heads (showers account for 32 percent of home water use) and flow restrictor
aerators, which can save three to four gallons per minute when you turn on the tap (but still keep
the water pressure feeling strong).  
 
5. Use water efficiently outdoors. Landscape your yard with native and drought-tolerant plants.
And direct water runoff from your roof to strategic spots of your lawn or garden.
6. Drive less. Yes, even driving affects water quality. That's because exhaust eventually settles out
of the air, often into waterways. By choosing alternatives to driving (public transit, biking, walking,
carpooling) and bundling your errands, you'll reduce vehicle emissions and help protect our waters.
Keeping your car in good shape helps too: a well-maintained vehicle is more efficient. And
remember: Never pour used motor oil down the drain -- that's a huge source of water pollution.
Internet Resources
http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1139/pdf/part2.pdf
http://www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/396246/
Video Links
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fvkzjt3b-dU
12
Teacher tip
The list provided is just a guide. The class
could very well come up with a longer, more
exhaustive list. Hence, the list may be
expanded as you hold more classes.

EARTH SCIENCE TEACHING GUIDE

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