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Echo of repaired tof

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Raghu Kishore Galla

Echocardiography is useful for following up patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). It can evaluate the right ventricle size and function, tricuspid regurgitation, pulmonary regurgitation, residual right ventricular outflow tract obstruction, and branch pulmonary artery stenosis. Echocardiography is the initial imaging modality of choice due to its availability, lack of radiation exposure, and ability to provide hemodynamic data. However, its diagnostic accuracy is sometimes limited in older patients, requiring complementary imaging with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging.

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ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC FALLOW UP OF A REPAIRED TOF PATIENT Dr G RAGHU KISHORE
Surgical relief of the RVOT obstruction usually involves • infundibulotomy • resection of obstructive muscle bundles, • and the use of a patch to enlarge the pathway from the right ventricle to the PAs. • These procedures result in scar tissue and a non contracting RVOT free wall, which can progress to become an aneurysm.
LATE COMPLICATIONS IN REPAIRED TOF
• Diagnostic information in patients with repaired TOF can be obtained using a variety of diagnostic tools. • The choice of when to perform echocardiography, CMR imaging, CT, nuclear scintigraphy, diagnostic catheterization, or a combination of these diagnostic procedures is dictated by the factors related to the patient, the modality, and the clinical circumstances.
GOALS OF IMAGING In a patient with repaired TOF, the following is a list of data should be essential evaluated for optimal management. • RV size and function • TR (degree and mechanism) • RV pressure • Regional RV wall motion abnormalities • Evaluation of the RVOT for obstruction and/or aneurysm • Assessment of the main and branch PAs • Degree of PR • LV size and function
GOALS OF IMAGING • Size of the aortic root and ascending aorta • Degree of AR • Aortic arch sidedness • Origin and proximal course of the left and right coronary arteries • Presence of systemic-to-pulmonary collateral vessels • Residual intracardiac and extracardiac shunts • Assessment of myocardial viability • Associated anomalies (e.g., anomalies of the systemic or pulmonary veins)
ROLE OF ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY • 2D and Doppler echocardiography allow the evaluation of many of the anatomic and hemodynamic abnormalities in patients with repaired TOF. • 2D imaging allows qualitative and quantitative assessments of the right atrium, right ventricle, RVOT, PAs, tricuspid valve (TV), PV, and atrial and ventricular septa. • Assessment of LV dysfunction, dilatation of the proximal aorta, and AR is integral to the echocardiographic assessment of the patient with repaired TOF. • Doppler echocardiography is particularly important in this population for noninvasive hemodynamic assessment of parameters such as RV and PA pressures.
ROLE OF ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY • 3D echocardiography can further aid in delineating anatomic pathology and biventricular size and function. • Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is useful in certain patients to guide interventional procedures or evaluate valve anatomy when transthoracic imaging is challenging or when infective endocarditis is suspected. • More recently, the role of myocardial deformation imaging for assessment of RV function is a topic of intense investigation in this patient population
STRENGTHS • relatively inexpensive • widely available • portable • not associated with exposure to harmful ionizing radiation • ideally suited for longitudinal follow-up
Limitations • difficulties in visualizing certain parts of the right heart because of restricted acoustic windows and challenges in quantitative assessments of RV size and function and valve regurgitation. • These limitations are usually of lesser concern during the first decade of life because the acoustic windows are not as restricted as in older patients with larger body sizes and because the majority of these patients tend to be clinically well. • Once patients reach adolescence and adulthood, acoustic windows tend to become more challenging, and the importance of accurate quantitative assessment of RV size and function requires the complementary use of echocardiography and other modalities, most often CMR.
Assessment of Repaired TOF with Echocardiography
Echo of repaired tof
RVOT • In young patients with good subcostal windows, the RVOT can be evaluated in the long-axis and short-axis planes and in the inflow-outflow view. • Parasternal long-axis and short-axis views facilitates assessment of the infundibulum and any associated aneurysm, residual PV tissue, and main and branch PAs. • The RVOT dimension at the site of the former PV is important when transcatheter valve implantation is being considered.
Echo of repaired tof
– Presence of RV hypertrophy, which is defined in adults as RV diastolic wall thickness > 5 mm, however in most patients with repaired TOF, the infundibular free wall is composed of a patch, and its thickness might not reflect RV hypertrophy in other parts of the chamber. – When evaluating for residual RVOT obstruction, it is important to identify the site of obstruction using color, pulsed-wave, and continuous-wave Doppler. – In the case of an RV-to-PA conduit, the obstruction can be at any location along the entire length of the conduit, with or without involvement of the origins of the PAs.
• The spectral Doppler flow profile across the RVOT can help differentiate between dynamic obstruction within the RV cavity and residual valvular or supravalvular stenosis. The former has late peaking of the Doppler signal (‘lobster claw’’ shape), whereas the latter has midsystolic peaking. • In patients with normal cardiac output, a peak instantaneous gradient of >4 m/sec (>64 mm Hg) is considered severe stenosis, 3 to 4 m/sec (36–64 mm Hg) is considered moderate stenosis, and <3 m/sec (<36 mm Hg) is considered mild stenosis. • Multiple levels of obstructions in the RVOT and PAs pose a particular challenge to differentiate the contribution at each level, especially when they are in close proximity.
• In older patients or in patients with RV-to-PA conduits, the branch PAs are sometimes difficult to assess for residual stenosis because of the high flow velocity within the conduit. • A high TR jet velocity should prompt a careful search for RVOT or PA obstruction at some level
PAs • The PAs are evaluated using a combination of 2D imaging and color and spectral Doppler. • The suprasternal and high left and right parasternal windows are used to image the mediastinal PAs, although imaging may be challenging in patients with larger body habitus. • The main PA (MPA) is measured at its midpoint during systole. • When supravalvular PA stenosis is present, the smallest diameter is measured as well. The diameters of the branch PAs are measured at the level of the origin, and the smallest dimension of any stenotic segment should be reported.
• The subcostal long-axis, high left parasternal short-axis, suprasternal short-axis, and right parasternal short-axis views are helpful in visualizing the length of the RPA. • The high left parasternal shortaxis and the suprasternal long-axis (near parasagittal plane angled to the left) views are useful in visualizing the length of the LPA. • The distal LPA is more difficult to image than the RPA because of interference from air in the lung and the left bronchus.
Echo of repaired tof
PR • PR, occurring as a result of transannular patching, pulmonary valvotomy or valvectomy, or any other procedure that disrupts the valve, is an important factor in the long-term outcomes of patients with repaired TOF. • It is a key initiating element in a pathophysiologic cascade that leads to RV dilatation and dysfunction, which in turn has been linked to secondary TR, decreased exercise capacity, and increased risk for atrial and ventricular arrhythmias, as well as sudden cardiac death. • Therefore, evaluation of PR is an essential component of the echocardiographic examination in these patients.
• PR jets are easily visualized by color Doppler in the RVOT, especially when evaluated in the parasternal long-axis and short-axis planes. • PR jet(s) may be overlooked by color Doppler because the flow is laminar with low velocity. • Predictors of severe PR by Doppler included diastolic flow reversal in the main or branch PAs coupled with a PR jet width on color Doppler > 50% of the pulmonary annulus . • Others parameters ; PR jet width/pulmonary annulus ratio cutoff of >0.7 to identify a CMR PR fraction > 40%.
• Short deceleration time in the PR spectral Doppler signal is usually indicative of severe PR and often leaves a long period of ‘‘no flow’’ or ante grade flow in the latter part of diastole. • This spectral appearance relates to the rapid equilibration of PA and RV diastolic pressures. • The duration of the PR signal in the spectral Doppler trace compared with the total duration of diastole has been called the PR index • A value < 0.77 has been shown to have high sensitivity and specificity for identifying patients with CMR-derived PR fractions > 25%, which can be viewed as ‘‘significant.’’
• A pressure half-time < 100 msec has good sensitivity and specificity for severe PR. • It should be noted that this measurement might not be reliable in the presence of high RV end-diastolic pressure, which contributes to early pressure equilibration between the MPA and the right ventricle.
Echo of repaired tof
Evaluation of PR by Doppler echocardiography showing mild, moderate, and severe degrees. (Top row) Spectral Doppler tracing. Mild regurgitation is characterized by a persistent flow gradient at end-diastole and moderate regurgitation by equilibration of pressures between the MPA and right ventricle only at end-diastole, and severe regurgitation is associated with early diastolic pressure equilibration. (Bottom row) Pulse Doppler interrogation in the LPA showing degrees of diastolic flow reversal.
Echo of repaired tof
TV Morphology and Function • TR is commonly encountered in patients with repaired TOF and may be due to several factors. • One mechanism involves disruption of the integrity of the tricuspid septal-anterior commissure by the VSD patch. This results in a TR jet originating at the junction between the VSD patch and the septal attachment of the TV and extending along the atrial septum. • Other mechanisms include annular dilatation secondary to RV enlargement and basal-lateral displacement of the free wall papillary muscles. The latter also results from RV dilatation and altered chamber geometry that distorts the subvalvar apparatus.
• In addition, TR can result from damage secondary to a transvenous pacemaker or an implantable defibrillator or from bacterial endocarditis .Rarely, TR is due to intrinsic congenital abnormalities of the valve. • The mechanism of TR is determined by a combination of 2D, 3D, and color Doppler flow imaging. • Simultaneous depiction of 2D and color Doppler flow imaging facilitates depiction of the TR jet relative to anatomic structures seen on 2D images. • Three-dimensional imaging with en face views of the valve as seen from the right atrium and from the right ventricle can be particularly helpful when image quality and temporal resolutions are adequate.
• Measurements of the TV tethering height and area have been shown in adult patients with functional TR and with pulmonary hypertension to provide insights into the mechanism of regurgitation. • Unlike mitral regurgitation, there are limited data on TR quantification. • Color Doppler in combination with the profile and intensity of the spectral Doppler signal are used for assessment of TR severity. • The vena contracta width, regurgitant jet diameter, and intensity of the Doppler signal have all been related to the degree of regurgitation.
Apical four-chamber view (systolic frame) showing measurement of TV tethering height
• It is important to note that with TV annular dilatation, the regurgitant jet needs to be assessed from multiple echocardiographic windows to minimize errors from under appreciating the regurgitation. • In practice, the vena contracta width is the most reliable parameter to quantify TR. • Zoghbi et al. defined a vena contracta width > 0.7 cm as indicating severe TR. • Both the proximal isovelocity surface area and vena contracta methods are reported to be more accurate for central jets as opposed to eccentric jets.
• However, a 20% to 30% underestimation of TR severity can occur using the proximal isovelocity surface area or jet area method. • In addition to evaluating the TR jet by color Doppler and measuring the vena contracta width, the size of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and right atrium and hepatic venous flow reversal are used to assess TR severity. • However, these indirect signs are also influenced by other factors, such as RV compliance, RV preload, and atrial tachyarrhythmias.
Echo of repaired tof
Right Ventricle Size • Challenges in determining RV size by echocardiography include its retrosternal position, highly variable geometry that does not conform to standard geometric models, and difficulties in imaging the entire chamber by 3D echocardiography in a significant number of patients. • RV size is determined by 2D echocardiography from multiple acoustic windows. • The normally crescentic shape of the right ventricle is best appreciated in the short-axis view; if the right ventricle’s short- axis anteroposterior (AP) diameter is larger than that of the left ventricle at the level of the papillary muscles, it is considered severely enlarged.
• The right ventricle is measured from an RV-focused apical four-chamber view with both the crux and the apex visible to avoid foreshortening. • RV end-diastolic cross-sectional area < 20 cm2/m2 body surface area (BSA) has been associated with CMR-measured RV end-diastolic volume index < 170 mL/m2. • A diameter > 42 mm at the base and > 35 mm at the mid ventricular level indicate RV dilatation.
Function Although guidelines for assessment of RV size and function in adults are available, only limited information exists on the accuracy, reproducibility, and prognostic value of these echocardiography-derived data in patients with repaired TOF. Nevertheless, a quantitative approach to assessment of RV size and function is preferred to qualitative assessment (the ‘‘eyeball method’’) because the latter has been shown to be inadequate.
• In general, 2D-based measurements correlate only modestly with CMR-derived RV volumes and ejection fraction (EF), and the degree of discrepancy increases as the right ventricle dilates. • Evidence suggests that compared with 2D-based measurements, 3D echocardiography provides more accurate and reproducible quantification of RV volumes. • However, a meta-analysis suggested that 3D echocardiography consistently underestimates RV volumes and EF, a discrepancy that might increase as the right ventricle becomes severely enlarged.
• However, only limited normative data are available to allow routine use of 3D echocardiography in the quantification of RV volumes and EF. • RV dilatation and dysfunction in patients with repaired TOF adversely affect LV geometry and function. • RV volume and pressure overload are associated with flattening or leftward displacement of the intraventricular septum, which results in a D-shaped left ventricle, which can interfere with diastolic filling.
• Ventricular-ventricular interaction is a term that has been used to describe the association between worsening RV dilatation and dysfunction and declining LV systolic function. • Factors contributing to this phenomenon include the above- mentioned geometric remodeling, shared myofibers, and a shared pericardial space. • Furthermore, the pathophysiology of the right ventricle after TOF repair is associated with impaired electromechanical synchrony, which affects global biventricular function
• The percentage RV fractional area change is a measure of RV systolic function and is defined as ([end diastolic area - end systolic area]/end-diastolic area) × 100. • The lower reference value for normal RV systolic function using this method is 35% & this value correlates modestly with CMR measurements in patients with CHD.
• In patients with repaired TOF, studies have shown low to modest correlations between RV fractional area change and CMR-derived RV EF. • Non geometric methods used to evaluate RV function include the rate of pressure rise in the right ventricle (dP/dt) myocardial acceleration during isovolumic contraction, and the Tei index. • However, the clinical utility of these parameters in patients with repaired TOF is unclear.
Echo of repaired tof
Echo of repaired tof
• Another method of measuring longitudinal RV function is the tricuspid annular motion or the tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE). • This parameter measures the excursion distance of the lateral TV annulus during systole from the apical four-chamber window & the measurement can be obtained by M-mode or 2D imaging. • The assumption that underlies this parameter is that it reflects global RV function, which may not be the case in patients with repaired TOF. • Studies in non-CHD patients have reported a modest correlation between TAPSE and CMR-derived RV EF.
• Importantly, in patients with repaired TOF, the correlations between TAPSE and CMR-derived RV EF and RV end-diastolic volume index are weak. • American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) guidelines indicate TAPSE of 16 mm as the lower limit of normal RV systolic function in adult patients.
LATE COMPLICATIONS IN REPAIRED TOF
Echo of repaired tof
• Tissue Doppler allows analysis of the velocity of the longitudinal motion of the tricuspid annulus as well as the RV basal free wall (RV S’ or RV systolic excursion velocity). • The ASE guidelines state that an S’ < 10 cm/sec by pulsed tissue Doppler suggests RV dysfunction. • No specific guideline for color-coded tissue Doppler analysis is available. • A reference range for RV S’ derived from 860 healthy children revealed a mean of 7.2 cm/sec in newborns to 14.3 cm/sec in 18-year-old individuals. • Despite a significant positive correlation with age and BSA, the study reported a low correlation between S’ and TAPSE.
Tissue Doppler of (A) normal (peak S’ velocity, 14 cm/sec) and (B) depressed (peak S’ velocity, 7 cm/sec) RV systolic function
• Echocardiographic assessment of myocardial deformation has attracted substantial interest in recent years. • Parameters such as myocardial strain and strain rate are measured by color-coded tissue Doppler or 2D speckle- tracking. • Because of the lack of an industry standard, it is difficult to assess these technologies across different platforms. • Similar to all Doppler technologies, assessment of myocardial strain by color-coded tissue Doppler requires an optimal Doppler angle, whereas the 2D speckle-tracking technique is less angle dependent
Echo of repaired tof
• Despite the promise of these techniques, further research is required to determine their role in patients with repaired TOF. • Assessment of RV diastolic function by Doppler is susceptible to varying loading conditions and age. • Consequently, standard Doppler indices of TV inflow are not reliable for assessment of RV diastolic function. • Instead, a combination of Doppler profile in the MPA (including late diastolic antegrade flow), right atrial (RA) dilatation, hepatic venous flow reversal, and changes in the caliber of the IVC with the respiratory cycle are used.
• The implications of diastolic dysfunction in patients with repaired TOF are not entirely clear. • Some authors have suggested that restrictive physiology in the right ventricle predicts superior exercise performance, but this finding has not been confirmed by others. • The ASE guidelines recommend that the transtricuspid flow velocities be measured in the apical four-chamber window with the sample volume at the tips of the TV leaflets measured at end-expiration or averaging more than five consecutive beats.
• A tricuspid E/A ratio < 0.8 suggests impaired relaxation, and a tricuspid E/A ratio > 2.1 with a deceleration time < 120 msec suggests restrictive filling (particularly when accompanied by late diastolic forward flow into the MPA). • As noted above, however, similar threshold values have not been ascertained in patients with repaired TOF.
RV Pressure • In adult patients, RA pressure is estimated by RA size and the respiratory variation in the size of the IVC. • RA pressure is assumed to be 3 mm Hg when the IVC diameter measures < 2.1 cm with >50% collapse, whereas with an IVC > 2.1 cm and <50% collapse, a high RA pressure of 15 mm Hg is assumed. • An intermediate value of 8 mm Hg is used when IVC size and respiratory change do not fit the above scheme. • Similarly validated data are not available in infants and children.
• Once the RA pressure has been established, RV or systolic PA pressure (in the absence of a residual RVOT obstruction) can be estimated using the TR jet velocity on the basis of the modified Bernoulli equation: 4v2 + RA pressure. • Using the modified Bernoulli equation, the mean and diastolic PA pressures can be estimated from the peak early and late diastolic velocities of the PR jet. • In many patients with repaired TOF, however, the pressure in the MPA and RV equilibrates in early or mid-diastole because of partial or complete absence of the PV.
When the TR jet velocity indicates RV hypertension without an associated RVOT obstruction or identifiable branch PA stenosis, investigation for peripheral PA stenosis, pulmonary vascular disease, pulmonary vein stenosis, or left heart disease ( cor triatriatum, mitral stenosis, diastolic LV dysfunction) should be carried out.
Right Atrium • Measurements are performed at end-systole from the apical four-chamber view with the major axis obtained from the middle of the bisected TV annulus to the posterior wall of the right atrium and the minor axis taken at 90 to the major axis. • In adult patients, RA area > 18 cm2 indicates RA enlargement. • Normal values in children are not available.
• In a study that compared RA size and function between 50 patients with repaired TOF and 30 normal controls, Hui et al. found that RA size was increased (mean apical four-chamber area, (16.865.5 vs 13.7 6 5.1 cm2; P = .013) and emptying function was decreased (mean active emptying area fraction, (19 6 9.8% vs 26.3 6 10.3%, P = .005) after TOF repair. • Similarly, RA systolic and diastolic strain values were lower in patients with TOF compared with controls.
LV Size and Function • LV systolic dysfunction measured by EF has been shown to be an important prognostic marker for premature death in patients with repaired TOF, its assessment is an essential element of the echocardiographic examination in this population. • The size, global function, and regional wall motion of the left ventricle are determined from multiple views. • Systolic flattening of the ventricular septum suggests RV pressure overload, whereas diastolic septal flattening indicates volume overload.
• Measurements of LV volumes and EF by 3D echocardiography are preferred over 2D measurements. • In patients with marked RV dilatation, the right ventricle is often apex forming, necessitating adjustment of the transducer position in the apical windows to avoid foreshortening of the left ventricle. • In a study of 413 adult patients with repaired TOF, Diller et al. recently showed that non geometric indices of longitudinal LV function are associated with adverse clinical outcomes.
• Specifically, decreased mitral annular plane excursion measured from the apical window (analogous to TAPSE) and LV longitudinal strain were associated with the outcome independent of QRS duration. • Given that most patients with repaired TOF reach adulthood and the average age of this population continues to increase, the risk for development of acquired ischemic heart disease is likely to increase. • Therefore, stress echocardiography may play an increasing role in this population.
Residual Shunts • The integrity of the VSD patch is determined by imaging and color Doppler flow mapping. • Residual VSDs can be located at any part of the ventricular septum but are particularly common at the superior portion of the patch. • These can usually be visualized by color Doppler from multiple imaging planes. • Although a high-velocity systolic jet suggests that RV pressure is low, it should not be used independently to measure RV pressure, as the size of the VSD may vary during the cardiac cycle, and the jet may be eccentric
• Similarly, the atrial septum is examined by color Doppler for the presence of a patent foramen ovale or a secundum atrial septal defect. • Rarely, unrepaired sinus venosus defect, coronary sinus septal defect, or partially anomalous pulmonary venous connections are detected late after TOF repair guidelines in CHD during maximal expansion (mid to late systole)
Echo of repaired tof
Aortic Valve, Root, and Ascending Aorta • Dilatation of the aortic root is common in adults with repaired TOF, particularly those with prior shunts and those with late repair. • Measurements of the aortic root is accomplished from the parasternal long-axis view. • Imaging from the right parasternal window can facilitate depiction and measurements of the proximal and mid ascending aorta.
Other Cardiovascular Issues • Confirmation of aortic arch sidedness is accomplished by imaging from the suprasternal short-axis aortic arch plane using both anterior and posterior tilt of the transducer to display the ascending and descending aorta. • When the aortic arch is right-sided (as it is in about 25% of patients with TOF), the descending aorta may be seen coursing to the right. • Additionally, identification of the innominate artery and its bifurcation into the left subclavian and left common carotid arteries is possible from the suprasternal window.
• Evaluation of the origin and proximal course of the left and right coronary arteries can be clinically relevant in patients with repaired TOF. • Although in many patients, this information is known before or during reparative surgery, previously undetected abnormal coronary anatomy can complicate reoperation or catheter intervention. • The major challenge in echocardiographic delineation of coronary anatomy late after TOF repair relates to suboptimal acoustic windows.
Reporting Elements and Measurements RVOT and MPA • Dimensions • Location and mechanism of obstruction by 2D, color, and spectral Doppler • Presence of an aneurysm • Peak and mean gradients RV-to-PA conduit peak and mean gradients Degree of PR on the basis of (1) regurgitation jet width (2) pressure half-time (3) presence and degree of flow reversal in the branch PAs, and (4) RPA pulsatility (systolic-diastolic diameter ratio)
Branch PAs • Dimensions of the narrowest and maximal segments • Location and severity of obstruction by 2D, color, and spectral Doppler Degree and mechanism of TR • Vena contracta width • Tethering height and area (optional) RV pressure on the basis of • TR jet velocity, • Trans-VSD gradient RV size and volume load • TV annular diameter • Diastolic septal flattening • Measurements of RV size as detailed above
RV function Residual VSDs • Location, Size • direction of flow • peak transseptal gradient Residual atrial septal defects • location, size, and direction of flow Aortic dimensions • annulus, root • ascending aorta at the level of the RPA AR Systemic-to-pulmonary collateral • vessels on the basis of color Doppler interrogation and spectral Doppler evaluation of the abdominal aorta for diastolic runoff LV size and function
Transesophageal and Intracardiac Echo • The primary role of TEE in patients with repaired TOF is for intraoperative assessment in conjunction with late interventions such as PV replacement and TV repair. • Pre–cardiopulmonary bypass TEE may be performed to evaluate the atrial septum for the presence of a patent foramen ovale and the TV for the degree and mechanism of TR.
• TEE may be especially instrumental in the evaluation of the TV and PV as well as RV-to-PA conduits or the implanted PV for the presence of vegetations that were not detected by transthoracic imaging. • After cardiopulmonary bypass, TEE is used to evaluate the repair and for functional assessment of the ventricles and valves. • TEE or intracardiac echocardiography may also be used for guidance of transcatheter PV implantation and device closure of residual atrial septal defects.
Recommendations • The committee recommends comprehensive echocardiographic evaluation for longitudinal follow-up of patients with repaired TOF through the use of a standardized examination protocol. • Given that the management of chronic PR is a subject of intense research with ongoing evolution of therapies such as transcatheter PV implantation, the echocardiographic imaging protocol should be updated periodically as new information emerges. • Integration of echocardiographic data with information from other modalities is imperative for optimal management of these patients, particularly given limitations of acoustic windows and assumptions of RV geometry that may well fail.
THANK YOU

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Echo of repaired tof

  • 1. ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC FALLOW UP OF A REPAIRED TOF PATIENT Dr G RAGHU KISHORE
  • 2. Surgical relief of the RVOT obstruction usually involves • infundibulotomy • resection of obstructive muscle bundles, • and the use of a patch to enlarge the pathway from the right ventricle to the PAs. • These procedures result in scar tissue and a non contracting RVOT free wall, which can progress to become an aneurysm.
  • 3. LATE COMPLICATIONS IN REPAIRED TOF
  • 4. • Diagnostic information in patients with repaired TOF can be obtained using a variety of diagnostic tools. • The choice of when to perform echocardiography, CMR imaging, CT, nuclear scintigraphy, diagnostic catheterization, or a combination of these diagnostic procedures is dictated by the factors related to the patient, the modality, and the clinical circumstances.
  • 5. GOALS OF IMAGING In a patient with repaired TOF, the following is a list of data should be essential evaluated for optimal management. • RV size and function • TR (degree and mechanism) • RV pressure • Regional RV wall motion abnormalities • Evaluation of the RVOT for obstruction and/or aneurysm • Assessment of the main and branch PAs • Degree of PR • LV size and function
  • 6. GOALS OF IMAGING • Size of the aortic root and ascending aorta • Degree of AR • Aortic arch sidedness • Origin and proximal course of the left and right coronary arteries • Presence of systemic-to-pulmonary collateral vessels • Residual intracardiac and extracardiac shunts • Assessment of myocardial viability • Associated anomalies (e.g., anomalies of the systemic or pulmonary veins)
  • 7. ROLE OF ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY • 2D and Doppler echocardiography allow the evaluation of many of the anatomic and hemodynamic abnormalities in patients with repaired TOF. • 2D imaging allows qualitative and quantitative assessments of the right atrium, right ventricle, RVOT, PAs, tricuspid valve (TV), PV, and atrial and ventricular septa. • Assessment of LV dysfunction, dilatation of the proximal aorta, and AR is integral to the echocardiographic assessment of the patient with repaired TOF. • Doppler echocardiography is particularly important in this population for noninvasive hemodynamic assessment of parameters such as RV and PA pressures.
  • 8. ROLE OF ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY • 3D echocardiography can further aid in delineating anatomic pathology and biventricular size and function. • Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is useful in certain patients to guide interventional procedures or evaluate valve anatomy when transthoracic imaging is challenging or when infective endocarditis is suspected. • More recently, the role of myocardial deformation imaging for assessment of RV function is a topic of intense investigation in this patient population
  • 9. STRENGTHS • relatively inexpensive • widely available • portable • not associated with exposure to harmful ionizing radiation • ideally suited for longitudinal follow-up
  • 10. Limitations • difficulties in visualizing certain parts of the right heart because of restricted acoustic windows and challenges in quantitative assessments of RV size and function and valve regurgitation. • These limitations are usually of lesser concern during the first decade of life because the acoustic windows are not as restricted as in older patients with larger body sizes and because the majority of these patients tend to be clinically well. • Once patients reach adolescence and adulthood, acoustic windows tend to become more challenging, and the importance of accurate quantitative assessment of RV size and function requires the complementary use of echocardiography and other modalities, most often CMR.
  • 11. Assessment of Repaired TOF with Echocardiography
  • 13. RVOT • In young patients with good subcostal windows, the RVOT can be evaluated in the long-axis and short-axis planes and in the inflow-outflow view. • Parasternal long-axis and short-axis views facilitates assessment of the infundibulum and any associated aneurysm, residual PV tissue, and main and branch PAs. • The RVOT dimension at the site of the former PV is important when transcatheter valve implantation is being considered.
  • 15. – Presence of RV hypertrophy, which is defined in adults as RV diastolic wall thickness > 5 mm, however in most patients with repaired TOF, the infundibular free wall is composed of a patch, and its thickness might not reflect RV hypertrophy in other parts of the chamber. – When evaluating for residual RVOT obstruction, it is important to identify the site of obstruction using color, pulsed-wave, and continuous-wave Doppler. – In the case of an RV-to-PA conduit, the obstruction can be at any location along the entire length of the conduit, with or without involvement of the origins of the PAs.
  • 16. • The spectral Doppler flow profile across the RVOT can help differentiate between dynamic obstruction within the RV cavity and residual valvular or supravalvular stenosis. The former has late peaking of the Doppler signal (‘lobster claw’’ shape), whereas the latter has midsystolic peaking. • In patients with normal cardiac output, a peak instantaneous gradient of >4 m/sec (>64 mm Hg) is considered severe stenosis, 3 to 4 m/sec (36–64 mm Hg) is considered moderate stenosis, and <3 m/sec (<36 mm Hg) is considered mild stenosis. • Multiple levels of obstructions in the RVOT and PAs pose a particular challenge to differentiate the contribution at each level, especially when they are in close proximity.
  • 17. • In older patients or in patients with RV-to-PA conduits, the branch PAs are sometimes difficult to assess for residual stenosis because of the high flow velocity within the conduit. • A high TR jet velocity should prompt a careful search for RVOT or PA obstruction at some level
  • 18. PAs • The PAs are evaluated using a combination of 2D imaging and color and spectral Doppler. • The suprasternal and high left and right parasternal windows are used to image the mediastinal PAs, although imaging may be challenging in patients with larger body habitus. • The main PA (MPA) is measured at its midpoint during systole. • When supravalvular PA stenosis is present, the smallest diameter is measured as well. The diameters of the branch PAs are measured at the level of the origin, and the smallest dimension of any stenotic segment should be reported.
  • 19. • The subcostal long-axis, high left parasternal short-axis, suprasternal short-axis, and right parasternal short-axis views are helpful in visualizing the length of the RPA. • The high left parasternal shortaxis and the suprasternal long-axis (near parasagittal plane angled to the left) views are useful in visualizing the length of the LPA. • The distal LPA is more difficult to image than the RPA because of interference from air in the lung and the left bronchus.
  • 21. PR • PR, occurring as a result of transannular patching, pulmonary valvotomy or valvectomy, or any other procedure that disrupts the valve, is an important factor in the long-term outcomes of patients with repaired TOF. • It is a key initiating element in a pathophysiologic cascade that leads to RV dilatation and dysfunction, which in turn has been linked to secondary TR, decreased exercise capacity, and increased risk for atrial and ventricular arrhythmias, as well as sudden cardiac death. • Therefore, evaluation of PR is an essential component of the echocardiographic examination in these patients.
  • 22. • PR jets are easily visualized by color Doppler in the RVOT, especially when evaluated in the parasternal long-axis and short-axis planes. • PR jet(s) may be overlooked by color Doppler because the flow is laminar with low velocity. • Predictors of severe PR by Doppler included diastolic flow reversal in the main or branch PAs coupled with a PR jet width on color Doppler > 50% of the pulmonary annulus . • Others parameters ; PR jet width/pulmonary annulus ratio cutoff of >0.7 to identify a CMR PR fraction > 40%.
  • 23. • Short deceleration time in the PR spectral Doppler signal is usually indicative of severe PR and often leaves a long period of ‘‘no flow’’ or ante grade flow in the latter part of diastole. • This spectral appearance relates to the rapid equilibration of PA and RV diastolic pressures. • The duration of the PR signal in the spectral Doppler trace compared with the total duration of diastole has been called the PR index • A value < 0.77 has been shown to have high sensitivity and specificity for identifying patients with CMR-derived PR fractions > 25%, which can be viewed as ‘‘significant.’’
  • 24. • A pressure half-time < 100 msec has good sensitivity and specificity for severe PR. • It should be noted that this measurement might not be reliable in the presence of high RV end-diastolic pressure, which contributes to early pressure equilibration between the MPA and the right ventricle.
  • 26. Evaluation of PR by Doppler echocardiography showing mild, moderate, and severe degrees. (Top row) Spectral Doppler tracing. Mild regurgitation is characterized by a persistent flow gradient at end-diastole and moderate regurgitation by equilibration of pressures between the MPA and right ventricle only at end-diastole, and severe regurgitation is associated with early diastolic pressure equilibration. (Bottom row) Pulse Doppler interrogation in the LPA showing degrees of diastolic flow reversal.
  • 28. TV Morphology and Function • TR is commonly encountered in patients with repaired TOF and may be due to several factors. • One mechanism involves disruption of the integrity of the tricuspid septal-anterior commissure by the VSD patch. This results in a TR jet originating at the junction between the VSD patch and the septal attachment of the TV and extending along the atrial septum. • Other mechanisms include annular dilatation secondary to RV enlargement and basal-lateral displacement of the free wall papillary muscles. The latter also results from RV dilatation and altered chamber geometry that distorts the subvalvar apparatus.
  • 29. • In addition, TR can result from damage secondary to a transvenous pacemaker or an implantable defibrillator or from bacterial endocarditis .Rarely, TR is due to intrinsic congenital abnormalities of the valve. • The mechanism of TR is determined by a combination of 2D, 3D, and color Doppler flow imaging. • Simultaneous depiction of 2D and color Doppler flow imaging facilitates depiction of the TR jet relative to anatomic structures seen on 2D images. • Three-dimensional imaging with en face views of the valve as seen from the right atrium and from the right ventricle can be particularly helpful when image quality and temporal resolutions are adequate.
  • 30. • Measurements of the TV tethering height and area have been shown in adult patients with functional TR and with pulmonary hypertension to provide insights into the mechanism of regurgitation. • Unlike mitral regurgitation, there are limited data on TR quantification. • Color Doppler in combination with the profile and intensity of the spectral Doppler signal are used for assessment of TR severity. • The vena contracta width, regurgitant jet diameter, and intensity of the Doppler signal have all been related to the degree of regurgitation.
  • 31. Apical four-chamber view (systolic frame) showing measurement of TV tethering height
  • 32. • It is important to note that with TV annular dilatation, the regurgitant jet needs to be assessed from multiple echocardiographic windows to minimize errors from under appreciating the regurgitation. • In practice, the vena contracta width is the most reliable parameter to quantify TR. • Zoghbi et al. defined a vena contracta width > 0.7 cm as indicating severe TR. • Both the proximal isovelocity surface area and vena contracta methods are reported to be more accurate for central jets as opposed to eccentric jets.
  • 33. • However, a 20% to 30% underestimation of TR severity can occur using the proximal isovelocity surface area or jet area method. • In addition to evaluating the TR jet by color Doppler and measuring the vena contracta width, the size of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and right atrium and hepatic venous flow reversal are used to assess TR severity. • However, these indirect signs are also influenced by other factors, such as RV compliance, RV preload, and atrial tachyarrhythmias.
  • 35. Right Ventricle Size • Challenges in determining RV size by echocardiography include its retrosternal position, highly variable geometry that does not conform to standard geometric models, and difficulties in imaging the entire chamber by 3D echocardiography in a significant number of patients. • RV size is determined by 2D echocardiography from multiple acoustic windows. • The normally crescentic shape of the right ventricle is best appreciated in the short-axis view; if the right ventricle’s short- axis anteroposterior (AP) diameter is larger than that of the left ventricle at the level of the papillary muscles, it is considered severely enlarged.
  • 36. • The right ventricle is measured from an RV-focused apical four-chamber view with both the crux and the apex visible to avoid foreshortening. • RV end-diastolic cross-sectional area < 20 cm2/m2 body surface area (BSA) has been associated with CMR-measured RV end-diastolic volume index < 170 mL/m2. • A diameter > 42 mm at the base and > 35 mm at the mid ventricular level indicate RV dilatation.
  • 37. Function Although guidelines for assessment of RV size and function in adults are available, only limited information exists on the accuracy, reproducibility, and prognostic value of these echocardiography-derived data in patients with repaired TOF. Nevertheless, a quantitative approach to assessment of RV size and function is preferred to qualitative assessment (the ‘‘eyeball method’’) because the latter has been shown to be inadequate.
  • 38. • In general, 2D-based measurements correlate only modestly with CMR-derived RV volumes and ejection fraction (EF), and the degree of discrepancy increases as the right ventricle dilates. • Evidence suggests that compared with 2D-based measurements, 3D echocardiography provides more accurate and reproducible quantification of RV volumes. • However, a meta-analysis suggested that 3D echocardiography consistently underestimates RV volumes and EF, a discrepancy that might increase as the right ventricle becomes severely enlarged.
  • 39. • However, only limited normative data are available to allow routine use of 3D echocardiography in the quantification of RV volumes and EF. • RV dilatation and dysfunction in patients with repaired TOF adversely affect LV geometry and function. • RV volume and pressure overload are associated with flattening or leftward displacement of the intraventricular septum, which results in a D-shaped left ventricle, which can interfere with diastolic filling.
  • 40. • Ventricular-ventricular interaction is a term that has been used to describe the association between worsening RV dilatation and dysfunction and declining LV systolic function. • Factors contributing to this phenomenon include the above- mentioned geometric remodeling, shared myofibers, and a shared pericardial space. • Furthermore, the pathophysiology of the right ventricle after TOF repair is associated with impaired electromechanical synchrony, which affects global biventricular function
  • 41. • The percentage RV fractional area change is a measure of RV systolic function and is defined as ([end diastolic area - end systolic area]/end-diastolic area) × 100. • The lower reference value for normal RV systolic function using this method is 35% & this value correlates modestly with CMR measurements in patients with CHD.
  • 42. • In patients with repaired TOF, studies have shown low to modest correlations between RV fractional area change and CMR-derived RV EF. • Non geometric methods used to evaluate RV function include the rate of pressure rise in the right ventricle (dP/dt) myocardial acceleration during isovolumic contraction, and the Tei index. • However, the clinical utility of these parameters in patients with repaired TOF is unclear.
  • 45. • Another method of measuring longitudinal RV function is the tricuspid annular motion or the tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE). • This parameter measures the excursion distance of the lateral TV annulus during systole from the apical four-chamber window & the measurement can be obtained by M-mode or 2D imaging. • The assumption that underlies this parameter is that it reflects global RV function, which may not be the case in patients with repaired TOF. • Studies in non-CHD patients have reported a modest correlation between TAPSE and CMR-derived RV EF.
  • 46. • Importantly, in patients with repaired TOF, the correlations between TAPSE and CMR-derived RV EF and RV end-diastolic volume index are weak. • American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) guidelines indicate TAPSE of 16 mm as the lower limit of normal RV systolic function in adult patients.
  • 47. LATE COMPLICATIONS IN REPAIRED TOF
  • 49. • Tissue Doppler allows analysis of the velocity of the longitudinal motion of the tricuspid annulus as well as the RV basal free wall (RV S’ or RV systolic excursion velocity). • The ASE guidelines state that an S’ < 10 cm/sec by pulsed tissue Doppler suggests RV dysfunction. • No specific guideline for color-coded tissue Doppler analysis is available. • A reference range for RV S’ derived from 860 healthy children revealed a mean of 7.2 cm/sec in newborns to 14.3 cm/sec in 18-year-old individuals. • Despite a significant positive correlation with age and BSA, the study reported a low correlation between S’ and TAPSE.
  • 50. Tissue Doppler of (A) normal (peak S’ velocity, 14 cm/sec) and (B) depressed (peak S’ velocity, 7 cm/sec) RV systolic function
  • 51. • Echocardiographic assessment of myocardial deformation has attracted substantial interest in recent years. • Parameters such as myocardial strain and strain rate are measured by color-coded tissue Doppler or 2D speckle- tracking. • Because of the lack of an industry standard, it is difficult to assess these technologies across different platforms. • Similar to all Doppler technologies, assessment of myocardial strain by color-coded tissue Doppler requires an optimal Doppler angle, whereas the 2D speckle-tracking technique is less angle dependent
  • 53. • Despite the promise of these techniques, further research is required to determine their role in patients with repaired TOF. • Assessment of RV diastolic function by Doppler is susceptible to varying loading conditions and age. • Consequently, standard Doppler indices of TV inflow are not reliable for assessment of RV diastolic function. • Instead, a combination of Doppler profile in the MPA (including late diastolic antegrade flow), right atrial (RA) dilatation, hepatic venous flow reversal, and changes in the caliber of the IVC with the respiratory cycle are used.
  • 54. • The implications of diastolic dysfunction in patients with repaired TOF are not entirely clear. • Some authors have suggested that restrictive physiology in the right ventricle predicts superior exercise performance, but this finding has not been confirmed by others. • The ASE guidelines recommend that the transtricuspid flow velocities be measured in the apical four-chamber window with the sample volume at the tips of the TV leaflets measured at end-expiration or averaging more than five consecutive beats.
  • 55. • A tricuspid E/A ratio < 0.8 suggests impaired relaxation, and a tricuspid E/A ratio > 2.1 with a deceleration time < 120 msec suggests restrictive filling (particularly when accompanied by late diastolic forward flow into the MPA). • As noted above, however, similar threshold values have not been ascertained in patients with repaired TOF.
  • 56. RV Pressure • In adult patients, RA pressure is estimated by RA size and the respiratory variation in the size of the IVC. • RA pressure is assumed to be 3 mm Hg when the IVC diameter measures < 2.1 cm with >50% collapse, whereas with an IVC > 2.1 cm and <50% collapse, a high RA pressure of 15 mm Hg is assumed. • An intermediate value of 8 mm Hg is used when IVC size and respiratory change do not fit the above scheme. • Similarly validated data are not available in infants and children.
  • 57. • Once the RA pressure has been established, RV or systolic PA pressure (in the absence of a residual RVOT obstruction) can be estimated using the TR jet velocity on the basis of the modified Bernoulli equation: 4v2 + RA pressure. • Using the modified Bernoulli equation, the mean and diastolic PA pressures can be estimated from the peak early and late diastolic velocities of the PR jet. • In many patients with repaired TOF, however, the pressure in the MPA and RV equilibrates in early or mid-diastole because of partial or complete absence of the PV.
  • 58. When the TR jet velocity indicates RV hypertension without an associated RVOT obstruction or identifiable branch PA stenosis, investigation for peripheral PA stenosis, pulmonary vascular disease, pulmonary vein stenosis, or left heart disease ( cor triatriatum, mitral stenosis, diastolic LV dysfunction) should be carried out.
  • 59. Right Atrium • Measurements are performed at end-systole from the apical four-chamber view with the major axis obtained from the middle of the bisected TV annulus to the posterior wall of the right atrium and the minor axis taken at 90 to the major axis. • In adult patients, RA area > 18 cm2 indicates RA enlargement. • Normal values in children are not available.
  • 60. • In a study that compared RA size and function between 50 patients with repaired TOF and 30 normal controls, Hui et al. found that RA size was increased (mean apical four-chamber area, (16.865.5 vs 13.7 6 5.1 cm2; P = .013) and emptying function was decreased (mean active emptying area fraction, (19 6 9.8% vs 26.3 6 10.3%, P = .005) after TOF repair. • Similarly, RA systolic and diastolic strain values were lower in patients with TOF compared with controls.
  • 61. LV Size and Function • LV systolic dysfunction measured by EF has been shown to be an important prognostic marker for premature death in patients with repaired TOF, its assessment is an essential element of the echocardiographic examination in this population. • The size, global function, and regional wall motion of the left ventricle are determined from multiple views. • Systolic flattening of the ventricular septum suggests RV pressure overload, whereas diastolic septal flattening indicates volume overload.
  • 62. • Measurements of LV volumes and EF by 3D echocardiography are preferred over 2D measurements. • In patients with marked RV dilatation, the right ventricle is often apex forming, necessitating adjustment of the transducer position in the apical windows to avoid foreshortening of the left ventricle. • In a study of 413 adult patients with repaired TOF, Diller et al. recently showed that non geometric indices of longitudinal LV function are associated with adverse clinical outcomes.
  • 63. • Specifically, decreased mitral annular plane excursion measured from the apical window (analogous to TAPSE) and LV longitudinal strain were associated with the outcome independent of QRS duration. • Given that most patients with repaired TOF reach adulthood and the average age of this population continues to increase, the risk for development of acquired ischemic heart disease is likely to increase. • Therefore, stress echocardiography may play an increasing role in this population.
  • 64. Residual Shunts • The integrity of the VSD patch is determined by imaging and color Doppler flow mapping. • Residual VSDs can be located at any part of the ventricular septum but are particularly common at the superior portion of the patch. • These can usually be visualized by color Doppler from multiple imaging planes. • Although a high-velocity systolic jet suggests that RV pressure is low, it should not be used independently to measure RV pressure, as the size of the VSD may vary during the cardiac cycle, and the jet may be eccentric
  • 65. • Similarly, the atrial septum is examined by color Doppler for the presence of a patent foramen ovale or a secundum atrial septal defect. • Rarely, unrepaired sinus venosus defect, coronary sinus septal defect, or partially anomalous pulmonary venous connections are detected late after TOF repair guidelines in CHD during maximal expansion (mid to late systole)
  • 67. Aortic Valve, Root, and Ascending Aorta • Dilatation of the aortic root is common in adults with repaired TOF, particularly those with prior shunts and those with late repair. • Measurements of the aortic root is accomplished from the parasternal long-axis view. • Imaging from the right parasternal window can facilitate depiction and measurements of the proximal and mid ascending aorta.
  • 68. Other Cardiovascular Issues • Confirmation of aortic arch sidedness is accomplished by imaging from the suprasternal short-axis aortic arch plane using both anterior and posterior tilt of the transducer to display the ascending and descending aorta. • When the aortic arch is right-sided (as it is in about 25% of patients with TOF), the descending aorta may be seen coursing to the right. • Additionally, identification of the innominate artery and its bifurcation into the left subclavian and left common carotid arteries is possible from the suprasternal window.
  • 69. • Evaluation of the origin and proximal course of the left and right coronary arteries can be clinically relevant in patients with repaired TOF. • Although in many patients, this information is known before or during reparative surgery, previously undetected abnormal coronary anatomy can complicate reoperation or catheter intervention. • The major challenge in echocardiographic delineation of coronary anatomy late after TOF repair relates to suboptimal acoustic windows.
  • 70. Reporting Elements and Measurements RVOT and MPA • Dimensions • Location and mechanism of obstruction by 2D, color, and spectral Doppler • Presence of an aneurysm • Peak and mean gradients RV-to-PA conduit peak and mean gradients Degree of PR on the basis of (1) regurgitation jet width (2) pressure half-time (3) presence and degree of flow reversal in the branch PAs, and (4) RPA pulsatility (systolic-diastolic diameter ratio)
  • 71. Branch PAs • Dimensions of the narrowest and maximal segments • Location and severity of obstruction by 2D, color, and spectral Doppler Degree and mechanism of TR • Vena contracta width • Tethering height and area (optional) RV pressure on the basis of • TR jet velocity, • Trans-VSD gradient RV size and volume load • TV annular diameter • Diastolic septal flattening • Measurements of RV size as detailed above
  • 72. RV function Residual VSDs • Location, Size • direction of flow • peak transseptal gradient Residual atrial septal defects • location, size, and direction of flow Aortic dimensions • annulus, root • ascending aorta at the level of the RPA AR Systemic-to-pulmonary collateral • vessels on the basis of color Doppler interrogation and spectral Doppler evaluation of the abdominal aorta for diastolic runoff LV size and function
  • 73. Transesophageal and Intracardiac Echo • The primary role of TEE in patients with repaired TOF is for intraoperative assessment in conjunction with late interventions such as PV replacement and TV repair. • Pre–cardiopulmonary bypass TEE may be performed to evaluate the atrial septum for the presence of a patent foramen ovale and the TV for the degree and mechanism of TR.
  • 74. • TEE may be especially instrumental in the evaluation of the TV and PV as well as RV-to-PA conduits or the implanted PV for the presence of vegetations that were not detected by transthoracic imaging. • After cardiopulmonary bypass, TEE is used to evaluate the repair and for functional assessment of the ventricles and valves. • TEE or intracardiac echocardiography may also be used for guidance of transcatheter PV implantation and device closure of residual atrial septal defects.
  • 75. Recommendations • The committee recommends comprehensive echocardiographic evaluation for longitudinal follow-up of patients with repaired TOF through the use of a standardized examination protocol. • Given that the management of chronic PR is a subject of intense research with ongoing evolution of therapies such as transcatheter PV implantation, the echocardiographic imaging protocol should be updated periodically as new information emerges. • Integration of echocardiographic data with information from other modalities is imperative for optimal management of these patients, particularly given limitations of acoustic windows and assumptions of RV geometry that may well fail.