![regular cavalry in their light-blue uniforms are relieved by the erratic
evolutions and gay and glittering dresses of the irregulars, who with
loud cries and quivering spears, and their long black locks streaming
behind them, spur backwards and forwards like the wind from mere
exuberance of spirits.... The camp-followers in the meantime present
every possible variety of costume; and among them, and not the least
interesting figures in the various groups, may frequently be seen the
pet lambs of which the sepoys are so fond, dressed in necklaces of
ribbons and white shells, and the tip of their tails, ears, and feet dyed
orange colour. The womenkind of the troops of the Peninsula
(Southern India) usually follow the drum; but the Bengalees have left
their families at home; and the Europeans bidden adieu to their
temporary wives with the air the band strikes up on quitting the
station, “The girl I left behind me.’”[5]
Such, before the great Revolt, were the usual characteristics of an
Anglo-Indian army when on the march; and, considering the
impedimenta, it is not surprising that the daily progress seldom
exceeded ten or twelve miles. The system was very costly, even at the
cheap rate of Indian service; for the camp-followers, one with another,
were ten times as numerous as the troops; and all, in one way or
other, lived upon or by the Company.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3389-250419142531-60f48ff5/85/Electromagnetic-compatibility-principles-and-applications-2nd-ed-rev-and-expanded-Edition-David-A-Weston-22-320.jpg)
![mystery that so many years should have passed away without an
explosion. At last a firebrand was applied to what a single spark
might have ignited; and in the course of a few weeks there was a
general conflagration; but a conflagration which still bears more
marks of accident than of deliberate conspiracy and incendiarism. In
a most unhappy hour—in an hour laden with a concurrence of
adverse circumstances—the incident of the greased cartridges
occurred. It found the Bengal army in a season of profound peace,
and in a state of relaxed discipline. It found the sepoys pondering
over the predictions and the fables which had been so assiduously
circulated in their lines and their bazaars; it found them with
imaginations inflamed and fears excited by strange stories of the
designs of their English masters; it found them, as they fancied, with
their purity of caste threatened, and their religious distinctions
invaded, by the proselytising and annexing Englishmen. Still, there
was no palpable evidence of this. Everything was vague, intangible,
obscure. Credulous and simple-minded as they were, many might
have retained a lingering confidence in the good faith and the good
intentions of the British government: had it not been suddenly
announced to them, just as they were halting between two opinions,
that, in prosecution of his long-cherished design to break down the
religion both of Mohammedan and Hindoo, the Feringhee had
determined to render their military service the means of their
degradation, by compelling them to apply their lips to a cartridge
saturated with animal grease—the fat of the swine being used for
the pollution of the one, and the fat of the cow for the degradation
of the other. If the most astute emissaries of evil who could be
employed for the corruption of the Bengal sepoy had addressed
themselves to the task of inventing a lie for the confirmation and
support of all his fears and superstitions, they could have found
nothing more cunningly devised for their purpose.’[6]
It was on the 7th of February 1857 that the governor-general
communicated to the home government the first account of anything
mysterious or unpleasant in relation to the greased cartridges. He
had to announce that a dissatisfaction had exhibited itself among the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3389-250419142531-60f48ff5/85/Electromagnetic-compatibility-principles-and-applications-2nd-ed-rev-and-expanded-Edition-David-A-Weston-39-320.jpg)
Electromagnetic compatibility principles and applications 2nd ed., rev. and expanded Edition David A Weston
- 1. Electromagnetic compatibility principles and applications 2nd ed., rev. and expanded Edition David A Weston download https://ebookultra.com/download/electromagnetic-compatibility- principles-and-applications-2nd-ed-rev-and-expanded-edition- david-a-weston/ Explore and download more ebooks or textbooks at ebookultra.com
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- 5. Electromagnetic compatibility principles and applications 2nd ed., rev. and expanded Edition David A Weston Digital Instant Download Author(s): David AWeston ISBN(s): 9780824788896, 0824788893 Edition: 2nd ed., rev. and expanded File Details: PDF, 103.21 MB Year: 2001 Language: english
- 8. ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING A Series of Reference Rooks and Tatbook7 FOUNDING EDITOR Marlit!0 . Thrrston Departmentof ElectrlcalEngineering The Ohlo State Unlversity Columbus, Ohlo 1. Rational Fault Analysis,edited by Richard Saeks and S. R. Liberty 2. NonparametricMethodsinCommunications, edited by P.Papantoni- 3. Interactive Pattern Recognition,Yi-tzuu Chien 4. Solid-state Electronics, Lawrence E. Murr 5. Electronic, Magnetic, and Thermal Properties of Solid Materials,Klaus 6. Magnetic-Bubble Memory Technology, Hsu Chang 7. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Colonel Wm. T. 8. Electromagnetics: Classical and Modern Theory and Applications, 9. One-Dimensional Digital Signal Processing,Chi-Tsong Chen Kazakos and Dimitri Kazakos Schroder McLyman Samuel Seely and Alexander D. Poularikas 10. Interconnected Dynamical Systems,Raymond A. DeCarlo and Richard 11. Modern Digital Control Systems,Raymond G. Jacquot 12. Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture,Roydn D. Jones 13.MagneticCoreSelectionforTransformersandInductors:AUser's Guide to Practice and Specification,Colonel Wm. T.McLyman 14. Static and Rotating Electromagnetic Devices, Richard H. Engelmann 15.Energy-EfficientElectricMotors:SelectionandApplication, JohnC. 16. Electromagnetic Compossibility, Heinz M. Schlicke 17. Electronics: Models, Analysis, and Systems,James G. Gottling 18. Digital Filter Design Handbook,Fred J. Taylor 19. Multivariable Control: An Introduction,P. K. Sinha 20. Flexible Circuits: Design and Applications, SteveGurley,withcon- tributionsbyCarlA.Edstrom,Jr.,Ray D. Greenway,andWilliam P. Kelly Saeks Andreas 21. Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, Thomas E. Browne, Jr. 22. Switch Mode Power Conversion: Basic Theory and Design, K. Kit Sum 23. PatternRecognition:Applications to LargeData-SetProblems, Sing- Tze Bow
- 9. 24. Custom-Specific Integrated Circuits: Design and Fabrication, Stanley L. 25. Digital Circuits: Logic and Design, Ronald C. Emery 26. Large-scale Control Systems: Theories and Techniques, Maydi S. 27. Microprocessor Software Project Management, Eli T. Fathi and Cedric 28. Low Frequency Electromagnetic Design, Michael P. ferry 29. Multidimensional Systems: Techniques and Applications, edited by 30.ACMotorsforHigh-PerformanceApplications:AnalysisandControl, 31.CeramicMotorsforElectronics:Processing,Properties,andApplica- 32.MicrocomputerBusStructuresandBusInterfaceDesign, Arthur L. 33. EndUser'sGuidetoInnovativeFlexibleCircuitPackaging, JayJ. 34. Reliability Engineering for Electronic Design,Norman B. Fuqua 35.DesignFundamentalsforLow-VoltageDistributionandControl, Frank 36. Encapsulation of Electronic Devices and Components, Edward R. 37. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, J. Lewis Blackburn 38. Testing Active and Passive Electronic Components, Richard F. Powell 39. Adaptive Control Systems: Techniques and Applications, V. V. Chalam 40.Computer-AidedAnalysisofPowerElectronicSystems, Venkatachan' 41. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability,Eugene R. Hnatek 42. Systolic Signal Processing Systems,edited by Ear/E. Swartzlander,Jr. 43. Adaptive Digital Filters and Signal Analysis, Maurice G.Bellanger 44.ElectronicCeramics:Properties,Configuration,andApplications, edi- 45. Computer Systems Engineering Management, Robert S. Alford 46. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation, edited by Naim A. Kheir 47.Rigid-FlexPrintedWiringDesignforProductionReadiness, Walter S. 48.AnalogMethods for Computer-AidedCircuitAnalysisandDiagnosis, 49.TransformerandInductorDesignHandbook:SecondEdition,Revised 50. Power System Grounding and Transients: An Introduction,A. P. Sakis 51. Signal Processing Handbook, edited by C. H. Chen 52.ElectronicProductDesignforAutomatedManufacturing, H. Richard 53. Dynamic Models and Discrete Event Simulation, William Delaney and 54. FET Technology and Application: An Introduction, Edwin S. Oxner Hurst Mahmoud, MohamedF. Hassan, and MohamedG. Darwish V. W.Armstrong (Sponsoredby Ontario Centrefor Microelectronics) Spyros G. Tzafestas Sakae Yamamura tions, edited by Relva C. Buchanan Dexter Miniet W. Kussy and JackL. Warren Salmon Rajagopalan ted by Lionel M. Levinson Rigling edited by Taka0 Ozawa and Expanded, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman Meliopoulos Stillwell Erminia Vaccan
- 10. 55. Digital Speech Processing, Synthesis, and Recognition, Sadaoki Furui 56. VLSl RlSC Architecture and Organization, Stephen B. Furber 57. Surface Mount and Related Technologies,Gerald Ginsberg 58. Uninterruptible Power Supplies: Power Conditioners for Critical 59. Polyphase Induction Motors: Analysis, Design, and Application, Paul L. 60. Battery Technology Handbook, edited by H. A. Kiehne 61. Network Modeling, Simulation, and Analysis, edited by Ricardo F. 62.LinearCircuits,Systems,andSignalProcessing:AdvancedTheory 63. High-Voltage Engineering: Theory and Practice, edited by M. Khalifa 64. Large-scale Systems Control and Decision Making, edited by Hiroyuki 65. Industrial Power Distribution and Illuminating Systems,Kao Chen 66. Distributed Computer Control for Industrial Automation, Dobrivoje 67. Computer-Aided Analysis of Active Circuits,Adrian loinovici 68. Designing with Analog Switches,Steve Moore 69. Contamination Effects on Electronic Products,Carl J. Tautscher 70. Computer-Operated Systems Control, Magdi S. Mahmoud 71. Integrated Microwave Circuits,edited by Yoshihiro Konishi 72. Ceramic Materials for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Ap- plications, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Relva C. Buchanan 73.ElectromagneticCompatibility:PrinciplesandApplications, David A. Weston 74. Intelligent Robotic Systems, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas 75. Switching Phenomena in High-Voltage Circuit Breakers, edited by 76.Advances in SpeechSignalProcessing, edited by Sadaoki Furui and 77. Pattern Recognition and Image Preprocessing,Sing-Tze Bow 78. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, Second 79.StochasticLarge-scaleEngineeringSystems, edited by Spyros G. 80. Two-Dimensional Digital Filters,Wu-Sheng Lu and Andreas Antoniou 81.Computer-AidedAnalysisandDesign of Switch-ModePowerSupplies, 82. Placement and Routing of Electronic Modules, edited by Michael Pecht 83. Applied Control: Current Trends and Modern Methodologles, edited by 84. Algorithms for Computer-Aided Design of Multivariable Control 85.SymmetricalComponentsforPowerSystemsEngineering, J. Lewis 86.AdvancedDigitalSignalProcessing:TheoryandApplications, Glenn Equipment,David C. Grifith Cochran Garzia and Mario R. Garzia and Applications,edited by Nobuo Nagai Tamura and Tsuneo Yoshikawa Popovic and Vijay P. Bhatkar Kunio Nakanishi M. Mohan Sondhi Edition,John C.Andreas Tzafestas and Keigo Watanabe Yim-ShuLee Spyros G. Tzafestas Systems,Stanoje Bingulac and Hugh F. VanLandingham Blackburn Zelniker and Fred J. Taylor
- 11. 87. Neural Networks and Simulation Methods, Jian-Kang Wu 88. Power Distribution Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications, 89. Modern Digital Control Systems: Second Edition,Raymond G. Jacquot 90. Adaptive IIR Filtering in Signal Processing and Control, Phillip A. 91. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability: Second Edition, Revised and 92. HandbookofElectricMotors, editedbyRichardH.Engelmannand 93. Power-Switching Converters, Simon S. Ang 94. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation: Second Edition, Naim A. 95. EM1Filter Design,Richard Lee Ozenbaugh 96. Power Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture,Haim Taraseiskey 97. RobustControlSystemDesign:AdvancedStateSpaceTechniques, 98. Spatial Electric Load Forecasting,H. Lee Willis 99. PermanentMagnetMotorTechnology:DesignandApplications, Jacek F. Gieras and Mitchell Wing 100. HighVoltageCircuitBreakers:DesignandApplications, RubenD. Garzon 101. Integrating Electrical Heating Elements in Appliance Design, Thor Hegbom 102. MagneticCoreSelectionforTransformersandInductors:AUser’s Guide to PracticeandSpecification,SecondEdition, ColonelWm. T. McLyman 103. Statistical Methods in Control and Signal Processing, edited by Tohru Katayama and Sueo Sugimoto 104. Radio Receiver Design,Robert C. Dixon 105. Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications, edited by PaulG. 106. HandbookofElectricalEngineeringCalculations, edited by Arun G. 107. Reliability Control for Electronic Systems, Donald J. LaCombe 108. EmbeddedSystemsDesignwith 8051 Microcontrollers: Hardware and Software, ZdravkoKarakehayov,KnudSmedChristensen,andOle Winther James J. Burke Regalia Expanded, Eugene R.Hnatek William H. Middendorf Kheir Chia-Chi Tsui Slade Phadke 109. Pilot Protective Relaying, edited by WalterA. Elmore 1IO. High-Voltage Engineering: Theory and Practice, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Mazen Abdel-Salam, Hussein Anis, Ahdab El- Morshedy, and Roshdy Radwan 111. EM1 FilterDesign:SecondEdition,RevisedandExpanded, Richard Lee Ozenbaugh 112. Electromagnetic Compatibility: Principles and Applications, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, David A. Weston Additional Volwnes in Preparation
- 12. This Page Intentionally Left Blank
- 13. Electromagnetic Compatibility Principles and Applications Second Edition, Revised and Expanded DavidA. Weston EMC Consulting Inc. Merrickville, Ontario, Canada m M A R C E L MARCEL DEKKER, INC. D E K K E R NEW YORK BASEL
- 14. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Weston,DavidA. Electromagneticcompatibility : principlesandapplications I DavidA.Weston.-2nd ed.,rev.andexpanded. p.cm.-(Electricalandcomputerengineering ; 112) Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN0-8247-8889-3(alk.paper) 1. Electromagneticcompatibility.2.Electronicapparatusandappliances-Designand construction. I. Title. 11. Electrical engineering and electronics ; 112. TK7867.2.W46 2000 621.382’24-dc21 00-047591 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Headquarters MarcelDekker,Inc. 270MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016 tel:212-696-9000:fax:212-685-4540 Eastern Hemisphere Distribution MarcelDekker AG Hutgasse 4, Postfach812,CH-4001Basel,Switzerland tel:41-61-261-8482;fax:41-61-261-8896 World Wide Web http:Ilwww.dekker.com The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write toSpecialSalesIProfessionalMarketingattheheadquartersaddressabove. Copyright 02001 by MarcelDekker,Inc. All RightsReserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,includingphotocopying,microfilming,andrecording, or byanyinformationstorageand retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Current printing (last digit): 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
- 15. Preface This second, revised and updated, edition of the book contains approximately 65% more infor- mationthan the first edition. This includes a review of computer modelingprograms, a new chapter on PCBlayout,andadditionalcotnmercial and military EM1 test methods. New data on cable radiationandcoupling to cables is included, extending out to 12 GHz, and on EM1 enclosure shielding. All electronic and electricalequipment is a potential sourceof electromagnetic interference (EMI). Similarly, such equipment will not function as designed at some level of electromagnetic ambient. The problems associated with EM1 can range from simple annoyance (e.g., static on telecommunications equipment or increased bit error rates on digital equipment) to catastrophe (e.g., inadvertent detonation of explosive devices). Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) can be achieved by evaluating the electromagnetic environment (often characterized by standards or requirements) to which equipmendsystems is exposed and then designing and building equipmendsystems to function correctly in the opera- tional environment without itself creating EMI. This book is written for the desigdsystems engineer, technologist,technician, or engi- neering manager who designs, maintains, or specifies equipment either to meet an electromag- neticcompatibilityrequirementspecification or to function safely in a givenelectromagnetic environment. Many engineers donot have, or need, radio frequency(RF)experience. However, in opera- tion,digitalcontrol or switching power equipmentfunctions as an RF system. Therefore, an understanding of the high-frequency characteristics of components, simpleradiators, and wave theory is imperative in achieving an understanding of EMC. One aim of the book is to teach EM1 prediction and enable the reader to build EMC into equipment and systems without overdesign. By achieving EMC, the designer averts the program delay and additional cost of fixing EM1 after the equipment is built. With the recognition that EM1 problems exist, we present EM1 diagnostic techniquesandcost effective solutions with practicalimplementation and options. The book discusses typical sources of EM1 and characteristics of the radiated and con- ducted emissions that might be expected in a given electromagnetic environment and reviews ways of decreasing electromagnetic emissions as well as the susceptibility of equipment to EMI. Some books onEMVEMC contain equations that are theoretically sound but may not be useful in practical EMVEMC problems. All equations in this book have been found to be invaluable in EM1 prediction and EMC design. In most instances, theory is substantiated by measured data, and whereanomaliesexistmostprobablereasons are offered. Where the reader may wish to pursue a given subject area further, numerous references are provided. Worked examples of the equations are given in predictions and case studiesthroughout the book. Physical geometry and frequency limitations exist in the application of all wave or circuit theory, including the effect of parasitic components, and these limits are discussed. iii
- 16. iv Preface The apparent anomalies that have given EMC areputation for“blackmagic” are ex- plained. For example, the case where the addition of shielding, a filter, or grounding increases either the level of EM1 emissions orthe susceptibility during EMCtests is examined. The major reason these results are apparently inexplicable is that the underlying theory is not well under- stood. The approachusedinthebook isto provide an understanding of the theorywith an emphasisonits applicabilityinthepracticalrealization of EMC designand EM1 solutions, including implementation and maintenance. The intent is that information contained herein have a practical application or be required for an understanding of the principles of EMC. For example, calculated or published data on attenuation or shielding effectivenessis of little use unless its application is explained. Therefore, it must be used in conjunction with the worst-case levels of radiated or conducted noise that may be expected in a given environment. Any practical limitation on the achievable attenuation or shielding must then be accounted for, after which the noise levels applied to the system or circuitanditsimmunity may bepredicted. The aim has been to avoidtheoverlysimplistic cookbook approachwithitsinherenterrors,and yet to limitthemathematics to that used by the practicing engineer or technician. Simple measurement techniques that are possible with standard electronic measurement equipment are described. These are useful for EM1diagnostic measurements as well as a “quick look” at equipment that must meet EMC requirements such as the commercial FCC, DO-160, VCE, and EN, and the military/aerospace MIL-STD-461. Also, the correct measurement tech- niques and possible errors encounteredusing more sophisticated equipment required for certifi- cation and qualification EMC testing are introduced. The book is based on experience gained in EMC consulting and on the course notes of one- to four-day EMCseminars presented over a12-yearperiod. Manyquestions posed by attendees of the seminars and clients have been answered in this book. I am very grateful to David Viljoen, who madea significant contributionto the preparation of the contents of the first edition of the book (i.e., the layout of the book, drafting the majority of the figures, editing Chapters1to 5, and writingthe computerprograms). Without theattention to detail,hardwork,andhigh-qualityeffort of Mr. Viljoen,thisbook would not have been possible in its present form. I am also indebted to the late Mr. Jabez Whelpton, of Canadian Astronautics Ltd., who was of greatassistance in reading and correctingthecontent of thosechapters that contain information on wave theory and antennas. For the second editionof the book I wish to thank Mr. Chris Ceelen, who made many of theadditional EM1 measurements, andMs.Lianne Boulet, who helpedpreparethe text and figures. Finally, I wish to thank the organizations specifically acknowledged beneath figures and in the text, especially the Canadian Space Agency. David A. Wesron
- 17. Contents Preface 111 ... Chapter 1 Introduction to EM1 and the Electromagnetic Environment 1.1 Introduction to electromagnetic interference (EMI) 1.2 Introduction to electromagnetic interference regulations 1.3 Electromagnetic environment References Chapter 2 Introduction toE and H, Near and Far Fields, Radiators, Receptors, and Antennas 2.1 Static and quasi-static fields 2.2 Electric waves on wires and in freespace 2.3 Radiated power 2.4 Units of measurement 2.5 Receiving properties of an antenna 2.6Simple,easilyconstructedEand H field antennas 2.7 Nonionizing electromagnetic field exposure safety limits 2.8 Computer programs References Chapter 3 Typical Sources and Characteristics of Radiated and Conducted Emissions 3.1 Introduction to noise sources 3.2 Fourier transform methods and computer programs 3.3CaseStudy3.1:Noiselevelsgenerated by dc-to-dcconverters 3.4 Transmitter-generated noise References Chapter 4 Crosstalk and Electromagnetic Coupling Between PCB Tracks, Wires, and Cables 4.1 Introduction to crosstalk and electromagnetic coupling 4.2Capacitivecrosstalkandelectric field couplingbetween wires and cables 4.3Inductivecrosstalkandmagnetic field couplingbetween wires and cables 4.4 Combined inductive and capacitive crosstalk References 1 1 4 5 17 19 20 26 42 45 46 62 75 84 93 95 95 106 107 118 119 121 121 123 131 141 169 V
- 18. vi Contents Chapter 5 Components,EmissionReduction Techniques,and NoiseImmunity 5.1 Components 5.2 Emission reduction techniques 5.3 Noise immunity 5.4 Transient protection Addresses of manufacturers mentioned in this Chapter References Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Shielding 6.1 Reflection, absorption, and shielding effectiveness 6.2 Shielding effectiveness 6.3 New shielding materials: conductive paints and thermoplastics, plastic 6.4 Seams, joints, ventilation, and other apertures 6.5Gasketingtheory,gaskettransferimpedance,gaskettype,andsurface finish 6.6 Practical shielding and limitation on effectiveness 6.7 Compartmentalization 6.8 Shielding effectiveness of buildings 6.9 Computer program for evaluating shielding effectiveness References coatings, and glue Chapter 7 Cable Shielding, Coupling from E and H Fields, and Cable Emissions 7.1 Introduction to cable coupling and emissions 7.2 Cable shielding effectivenesshransfer impedance 7.3 Shield termination effects on transferred voltage 7.4 Coupling from E and H fields 7.5 Shield termination 7.6 Emissions from cables and wires 7.7Reductionin theemissions of E and H fields fromcables 7.8 Shielded connectors, backshells, and other shield termination techniques 7.9Practicallevel of shieldingrequired to meet MIL-STDDO-160C or References commercial radiated emission requirements Chapter 8 GroundingandBonding 8.1 Introduction to grounding 8.2 Safety grounds, earth grounds, and large-system grounding 8.3 Signal ground and power ground 8.4 Guidelines for signal grounding 8.5 Power and grounding diagrams 8.6 Grounding for lightning protection 8.7 Bonding References 171 171 228 232 269 28 1 282 283 283 289 297 304 328 348 349 349 352 354 357 357 357 385 387 398 403 415 415 426 430 433 433 434 443 453 454 454 465 476
- 19. Contents vii Chapter 9 EM1 Measurements, Control Requirements, and Test Methods 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Test equipment 9.3 Diagnostic measurements 9.4 Commercial EM1 requirements and measurement 9.5 Shielded rooms, anechoic chambers, transmission lines, and cell antennas 9.6 Military EM1 requirements and measurement techniques 9.7 RTCA/DO- 160 requirements References Chapter 10 Systems EMC and AntennaCoupling 10.1 System-level EMC 10.2 Antenna-coupled EM1 10.3 Ambient site predictions and surveys 10.4 Case Study10.3: Coupling into HV aclinefrom HF phased-arrayradar References Chapter 11 Printed Circuit Boards 11.1 Introduction 11.2Principles of radiationfromprintedcircuitboards 11.3 Low-level radiation PCB layout 11.4 Comparison of logic types 11.5 Circuit-level reduction techniques 11.6 PCB grounding 11.7 Shielding a printed circuit board 11.8PCBradiation,crosstalkprediction,and CAD programs 11.9 PCB layout case studies 11.10Increasedprintedcircuitboardimmunity References Chapter 12 EM1 and EMC Control, Case Studies, EMC Prediction Techniques, and Computational Electromagnetic Modeling 12.1 EMC control 12.2 EM1 investigations 12.3 EMC predictions: general approach 12.4 EMC, computationalelectromagneticmodeling, and field solvercomputer References programs Appendix 1 CharacteristicImpedance of Conductors,Wires,andCables 477 477 478 495 502 567 589 635 638 639 639 648 671 678 68 I 683 683 683 685 705 710 7 l4 724 729 737 746 747 749 749 753 762 786 812 813 Appendix2UnitsandConversionFactors 817
- 20. viii Contents Appendix 3 ElectricFieldStrength to MagneticField to Power Density Conversions Appendix 4 Commonly Used Related Formulas Appendix 5 Data on Bare SolidCopperWire(Dimensions,Weight, and Resistance) 819 821 825 827 Index
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- 22. regular cavalry in their light-blue uniforms are relieved by the erratic evolutions and gay and glittering dresses of the irregulars, who with loud cries and quivering spears, and their long black locks streaming behind them, spur backwards and forwards like the wind from mere exuberance of spirits.... The camp-followers in the meantime present every possible variety of costume; and among them, and not the least interesting figures in the various groups, may frequently be seen the pet lambs of which the sepoys are so fond, dressed in necklaces of ribbons and white shells, and the tip of their tails, ears, and feet dyed orange colour. The womenkind of the troops of the Peninsula (Southern India) usually follow the drum; but the Bengalees have left their families at home; and the Europeans bidden adieu to their temporary wives with the air the band strikes up on quitting the station, “The girl I left behind me.’”[5] Such, before the great Revolt, were the usual characteristics of an Anglo-Indian army when on the march; and, considering the impedimenta, it is not surprising that the daily progress seldom exceeded ten or twelve miles. The system was very costly, even at the cheap rate of Indian service; for the camp-followers, one with another, were ten times as numerous as the troops; and all, in one way or other, lived upon or by the Company.
- 23. Note. A parliamentary paper, issued in 1857 on the motion of Colonel Sykes, affords valuable information on some of the matters treated in this chapter. It is ‘A Return of the Area and Population of each Division of each Presidency of India, from the Latest Inquiries; comprising, also, the Area and Estimated Population of Native States.’ It separates the British states from the native; and it further separates the former into five groups, according to the government under which each is placed. These five, as indicated in the present chapter, are under the administration of ‘the governor- general of India in council’—the ‘lieutenant-governor of Bengal’—the ‘lieutenant- governor of the Northwest Provinces’—the ‘government of Madras’—and the ‘government of Bombay.’ In each case the ‘regulation districts’ are treated distinct from the non-regulation provinces,’ the former having been longer under British power, and brought into a more regular system than the latter. Without going again over the long list of names of places, it will suffice to quote those belonging to the group placed immediately under the governor-general’s control. This group comprises the Punjaub, in the six divisions of Lahore, Jelum, Moultan, Leia, Peshawur, and Jullundur; the Cis-Sutlej states, four in number; the lately annexed kingdom of Oude; the central district of Nagpoor or Berar; the recently acquired region of Pegu; the strip of country on the east of the Bay of Bengal, known as the Tenasserim Provinces; and the ‘Eastern Straits Settlements’ of Singapore, Penang, and Malacca. The whole of British India is divided into nearly a hundred and eighty districts, each, on an average, about the size of Inverness-shire, the largest county, except Yorkshire, in the United Kingdom. The population, however, is eight times us dense, per average square mile, as in this Scottish shire. Keeping clear of details concerning divisions and districts, the following are the areas and population in the five great governments: Area. Population. Square Miles. Governor- general’s } 246,050 23,255,972 Provinces. } Lower Bengal } Regulation, 126,133 37,262,163
- 24. Provinces. } Non- regulation, 95,836 3,590,234 Northwest } Regulation, 72,052 30,271,885 Provinces. } Non- regulation, 33,707 3,383,308 Madras } Regulation, 119,526 20,120,495 Presidency. } Non- regulation, 12,564 2,316,802 Bombay } Regulation, 57,723 9,015,534 Presidency. } Non- regulation, 73,821 2,774,508 ——————— ——————————— Total, 837,412 131,990,901 In some of the five governments, the population is classified more minutely than in others. Thus, in the Punjaub member of the governor-general’s group, Hindoos are separated from non-Hindoos; then, each of these classes is divided into agricultural and non-agricultural; and, lastly, each of these is further separated into male and female. The most instructive feature here is the scarcity of females compared with males, contrary to the experience of Europe; in the Punjaub and Sirhind, among thirteen million souls, there are a million and a half more males than females— shewing, among other things, one of the effects of female infanticide in past years. The ratio appears to be about the same in the Northwest Provinces, around Delhi, Meerut, Rohilcund, Agra, Benares, and Allahabad. Not one place is named, throughout India, in which the females equal the males in number. In the Bombay presidency, besides the difference of sex, the population is tabulated into nine groups—Hindoos, Wild Tribes, Low Castes, Shrawniks or Jains, Lingayets, Mussulmans, Parsees, Jews, Christians. Of the last named there are less than fifty thousand, including military, in a population of twelve millions. The area and population of the native states are given in connection with the presidencies to which those states are geographically and politically related, and present the following numbers: Area. Population. Square Miles.
- 25. In Bengal Presidency, 515,583 38,702,206 In Madras Presidency, 61,802 5,213,071 In Bombay Presidency, 60,575 4,460,370 ——————— —————————— 627,910 48,376,247 The enumeration of these native states is minute and intricate; and it may suffice to shew the complexity arising out of the existence of so many baby-princedoms, that one of the native states of Bundelcund, Kampta by name, figures in the table as occupying an area of one square mile, and as having three hundred inhabitants! Including the British states, the native states, the few settlements held by the French and Portuguese, and the recent acquisitions on the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, the grand totals come out in the following numbers: 1,466,576 Square miles, 180,884,297 Inhabitants, or 124 dwellers per square mile. Of these inhabitants, it is believed—though the returns are not complete in this particular—that there are fifteen Hindoos to one Mohammedan: if so, then India must contain more than a hundred and sixty million worshippers of Hindoo deities—even after allowance is made for Buddhists, Parsees, and a few savage tribes almost without religion. 3. A young native princess was sent to England from this district to be educated as a Christian lady; and Queen Victoria became a sponsor for her at a baptismal ceremony. 4. Our Anglo-Indian Army. 5. Leitch Ritchie. British World in the East.
- 26. CHAPTER II. SYMPTOMS:—CHUPATTIES AND CARTRIDGES. ittle did the British authorities in India suspect, in the early weeks of 1857, that a mighty CENTENARY was about to be observed—a movement intended to mark the completion of one hundred years of British rule in the East; and to mark it, not by festivities and congratulations, but by rebellion and slaughter. The officers in India remembered and noted the date well; but they did not know how well the Mohammedans and Hindoos, the former especially, had stored it up in their traditions. The name of Robert Clive, the ‘Daring in War,’ was so intimately associated with the date 1757, that the year 1857 naturally brought it into thought, as a time when Christian rule began to overawe Moslem rule in that vast country. True, the East India Company had been connected with India during a period exceeding two hundred years; but it was only at the commencement of the second half of the last century that this connection became politically important. It was remembered that— 1756 having been marked by the atrocities of the Black Hole at Calcutta, and by the utter extinction for a time of the East India Company’s power in Bengal—the year 1757 became a year of retribution. It was remembered, as a matter of history among the British, and of tradition among the natives, how wonderful a part the young officer Clive performed in that exciting drama. It was remembered that he arrived at Calcutta, at that time wholly denuded of Englishmen, on the 2d of January in the last-named year, bringing with him a small body of troops from Madras; that on the 4th of
- 27. February, with two thousand men, he defeated an army ten times as large, belonging to Suraj-u-Dowlah, Nawab of Bengal—the same who had caused the atrocities at the Black Hole, when a hundred and thirty persons died from suffocation in a room only fitted to contain a fourth of the number. It was further remembered how that, on the 9th of February, Clive obtained great concessions from the nawab by treaty; that Suraj broke the treaty, and commenced a course of treachery, in which Clive was not slow to imitate him; that on the 13th of June, Clive, having matured a plan equally bold and crafty, declared renewed hostilities against the nawab; that on the 23d he gained the brilliant battle of Plassey, conquering sixty thousand men with a force of only three thousand; that within a week, Suraj-u-Dowlah, a miserable fugitive, ended his existence; and that from that day British power had ever been supreme in Bengal. This was a series of achievements not likely to be forgotten by Englishmen. Ere yet the news of mutiny and murder reached Europe, steps had been taken to render homage to Clive on the hundredth anniversary of the battle of Plassey; the East India Company had subscribed largely towards a statue of the hero; and a meeting in London had decided that the chief town in Clive’s native county of Shropshire should be selected as the spot wherein the statue should be set up. Judging from the experience afforded by recent events, it is now clear that the Mohammedans in India had thought much of these things, and that the year 1857 had been marked out by them as a centenary to be observed in a special way—by no less an achievement, indeed, than the expulsion of the British, and the revival of Moslem power. In the spring of the year it was ascertained that a paper was in circulation among the natives, purporting to be a prophecy made by a Punjaub fakeer seven hundred years ago—to the effect that, after various dynasties of Mohammedans had ruled for some centuries, the Nazarenes or Christians should hold power in India for one hundred years; that the Christians would then be expelled; and that various events foretold in the Koran would then come to pass, connected with the triumph of Islamism. That this
- 28. mysterious prediction was widely credited, is probable— notwithstanding that the paper itself, if really circulated, must manifestly have been an imposture of recent date; for the English nation was not known even by name to the natives of India seven hundred years ago. Setting aside, at present, all inquiries concerning the first authors of the plot, the degree to which the Company’s annexations had provoked it, the existence of any grievances justifiably to be resisted, the reasons which induced Hindoos to join the Mohammedans against the British, or the extent to which the general population shared the views of the native military—laying aside these inquiries for the present, there is evidence that a great movement was planned for the middle of the year 1857. Of this plan the British government knew nothing, and suspected little. But although no vast plot was suspected, several trifling symptoms had given cause for uneasiness and the English public learned, when too late, that many Indian officers had long predicted the imminency of some outbreak. Insubordination and mutiny, it was found, are not faults of recent growth among the native troops of India. Now that the startling events of 1857 are vividly presented to the public mind, men begin to read again the old story of the outbreak at Vellore, and seek to draw instruction therefrom. A little more than half a century ago—namely, on the 10th of July 1806—the European barracks at Vellore were thrown into a state of great excitement. This town is in the Carnatic, a few miles west of Madras, and in the presidency of the same name. At two o’clock in the morning, the barracks, containing four companies of the 69th regiment, were surrounded by two battalions of sepoys in the Company’s service, who poured in a heavy fire of musketry, at every door and window, upon the soldiers. At the same time the European sentries, the soldiers at the mainguard, and the sick in the hospital, were put to death. The officers’ houses were ransacked, and everybody found in them murdered. Upon the arrival of the 19th Light Dragoons, under Colonel Gillespie, the sepoys were immediately attacked; six hundred were cut down upon the spot, and two hundred taken from their hiding-places to be shot. There perished of the four European
- 29. companies, a hundred and sixty-four, besides officers; and many British officers of the native troops were also murdered. Nothing ever came to light concerning the probable cause of the outrage, but this—that an attempt had been made by the military men at Madras to change the shape of the sepoy turban into something resembling the helmet of the light infantry of Europe, which would prevent the native troops from wearing on their foreheads the marks characteristic of their several castes. The sons of Tippoo Saib, the deposed ruler of Mysore, together with many distinguished Mohammedans deprived of office, were at that time in Vellore; and the supposition is, that these men contributed very materially to excite or inflame the suspicions of the Hindoos, concerning an endeavour to tamper with their religious usages. There was another mutiny some time afterwards at Nundeydroog, in the same presidency; and it was found indispensable to disarm four hundred and fifty Mohammedan sepoys, who had planned a massacre. At Bangalore and other places a similar spirit was exhibited. The governor of Madras deemed it necessary, in very earnest terms, to disclaim any intention of tampering with the native religion. In a proclamation issued on the 3d of December, he said: ‘The right honourable the governor in council having observed that, in some late instances, an extraordinary degree of agitation has prevailed among several corps of the native army of this coast, it has been his lordship’s particular endeavour to ascertain the motives which may have led to conduct so different from that which formerly distinguished the native army. From this inquiry, it has appeared that many persons of evil intention have endeavoured, for malicious purposes, to impress upon the native troops a belief that it is the wish of the British government to convert them by forcible means to Christianity; and his lordship in council has observed with concern that such malicious reports have been believed by many of the native troops. The right honourable the governor in council, therefore, deems it proper, in this public manner, to repeat to the native troops his assurance, that the same respect which has been invariably shewn by the British government for their religion and their customs, will be always continued; and that no interruption will
- 30. be given to any native, whether Hindoo or Mussulman, in the practice of his religious ceremonies.’ Notwithstanding the distinctness of this assurance, and notwithstanding the extensive promulgation of the proclamation in the Tamul, Telinga, and Hindustani languages —the ferment continued a considerable time. Even in March 1807, when some months had elapsed, so universal was the dread of a general revolt among the native troops, that the British officers attached to the Madras army constantly slept with loaded pistols under their pillows. In the interval between 1806 and 1857, nothing so murderous occurred; but, among the Bengal troops, many proofs of insubordination were afforded; for it repeatedly occurred that grievances, real or pretended, led to combinations among the men of different regiments. In 1835, Lord William Bentinck, acting on a principle which had often been advocated in England, abolished flogging in the Indian army; this appears to have raised the self- pride rather than conciliated the good-will of the troops: insubordination ensued, and several regiments had to be disbanded. Again, in 1844, when several Bengal regiments were ordered to march to Sinde, the 34th native infantry refused; whereupon Lord Ellenborough, at that time governor-general, ignominiously disbanded the regiment in presence of the rest of the army. Again, in 1849, Sir Colin Campbell, serving under Sir Charles Napier, reported that the 22d Bengal regiment had mutinied on a question of pay, in which they were clearly in the wrong; but as the Punjaub was at that time in a critical state, Sir Charles did that which was very opposite to his general character—he yielded to an unjust demand, as a measure of prudence. It may have been that the sepoys counted on this probability when they mutinied. No less than forty- two regiments were ascertained to be in secret correspondence on this matter, under Brahminical influence—one of whom went so far as to threaten the commanding officer that they could stop enlistment if they chose. In 1850, Napier was compelled to disband the 66th regiment, for mutiny at Peshawur. In 1852, the 38th regiment was ordered to proceed to Burmah; the men objected to
- 31. the sea-voyage, and refused to depart; and the authorities in this case gave way. Like as, in the ordinary affairs of life, men compare notes after a disaster, to ascertain whether any misgiving had silently occupied their minds concerning causes and symptoms; so did many military officers, observing that the troubles were all or mostly in Bengal, or where Bengal troops operated, come forward to state that they had long been cognizant of a marked difference between the Bengal army on the one hand, and the Bombay and Madras armies on the other. Lord Melville, who, as General Dundas, had held a command during the Punjaub campaign, expressed himself very strongly in the House of Lords shortly after news of the mutiny arrived. He stated that, in the Bengal army, the native officers were in nearly all cases selected by seniority, and not from merit; that they could not rise from the ranks till old age was creeping on them; and that a sort of hopelessness of advancement cankered in the minds of many sepoys in the middle time of life. In the Bombay and Madras armies, on the contrary, the havildars or sergeants were selected for their intelligence and activity, and were recommended for promotion by the commanding officers of the regiments. It might possibly be a theory unsusceptible of proof, that this difference made the one army mutinous and the other two loyal; but Lord Melville proceeded to assert that the Bengal troops were notoriously less fully organised and disciplined, more prone to insubordination, than the troops of the other two presidencies. He stated as an instance, that when he commanded the Bombay army in the Punjaub frontier in 1849, the Bengal regiments were mutinous; while the Bombay troops remained in soldierly subordination. Indeed these latter, which he commanded in person, were credited by his lordship with having exhibited the highest qualities of brave and faithful troops. He detailed an incident which had occurred at the siege of Moultan. A covering-party having been ordered into the trenches, some disturbance soon afterwards arose; and an English officer found that many soldiers of the Bengal army had been endeavouring to prevent the men belonging to one of the Bombay regiments from digging in
- 32. the trenches in discharge of their duty, on the ground that the sepoys’ duty was to fight and not to work. Again: after the assault of Moultan, an officer in command of one of the pickets was requested to post a sergeant and twelve men at one of the gates of the town; this was done; but not long afterwards, three native officers of the Bengal engineers were detected in an endeavour to pass the gate with stores which they were about to plunder or appropriate. Although the views of Lord Melville were combated by a few other officers, there was a pretty general concurrence of opinion that the Bengal native army, through some circumstances known or unknown, had long been less obedient and orderly than those of the other two presidencies. As it is the purpose of the present chapter to treat rather of the facts that preceded the horrors of Meerut and Cawnpore, than of the numerous theories for explaining them, we shall not dwell long in this place on the affairs of Oude, in connection with the Revolt; but so general is the opinion that the annexation of that kingdom was one of the predisposing causes of the late calamities, that it may be right to glance slightly at the subject. Oude—once a nawabship under the great Mogul, then a kingdom, and the last remaining independent Mohammedan state in Northern India—was annexed in the early part of 1856; and although the governor-general sought to give a favourable account, both in its reasons and its results, of that momentous measure, there are not wanting grounds for believing that it made a deep impression on the minds of the natives, unfavourable to the English—among the military, if not among the people at large. The deposed king, with his family and his prime-minister, came to live at Calcutta in April 1856; and in the following month his mother, his brother, and one of his sons, proceeded in great state to England, to protest before Queen Victoria against the conduct of the governor-general and of the East India Company, in having deprived them of their regal position: prepared to prove, as they everywhere announced, that no justifiable grounds had existed for so harsh a step. Whether they sincerely believed this, or whether it was a blind to hide ulterior
- 33. objects, could not at that time be determined. It is one among many opinions on the subject, that the courtiers around the deposed king gradually organised a plot against the British power; that the Queen of Oude’s visit to England was merely intended to mask the proceedings arising out of this plot; that the conspirators brought over to their views the Mogul of Delhi, the shadowy representative of a once mighty despot; that they then sought to win over the Hindoos to side with them; and that, in this proceeding, they adduced any and all facts that had come to their knowledge, in which the British had unwittingly insulted the religious prejudices of the worshippers of Brahma—craftily insinuating that the insult was premeditated. The wisdom or justice of the annexation policy we do not discuss in this place; there is a multiplicity of interpretations concerning it—from that of absolute necessity to that of glaring spoliation; but the point to be borne in mind is, that a new grievance was thereby added to others, real or pretended, already existing. It is especially worthy of note, that any distrust of England, arising out of annexation policy, was likely to be more intense in Oude than anywhere else; for three-fourths of the infantry in the Bengal army had been recruited from the inhabitants of that state; they were energetic men, strongly attached to their native country; and when the change of masters took place, they lost certain of the privileges they had before enjoyed. The Bengalees proper, the natives of the thickly populated region around the lower course of the Ganges, have little to do with the Bengal army; they are feeble, indolent, and cowardly, glad by any excuses to escape from fighting. Let us now—having said a few words concerning the centenary of British rule, and the state of feeling in Oude—attend to the strange episode of the chupatties, as a premonitory symptom of something wrong in the state of public feeling in India. The chupatties—small cakes of unleavened bread, about two inches in diameter, made of Indian corn-meal, and forming part of the sepoys’ regular diet—were regarded in England, as soon as the circumstances of the Revolt became known, as signs or symptoms which the various officers of the Company in India ought sedulously
- 34. to have searched into. Ever since the middle of 1856—ever since, indeed, the final arrangements for the annexation of Oude—these chupatties were known to have been passing from hand to hand. A messenger would come to a village, seek out the headman or village elder, give him six chupatties, and say: ‘These six cakes are sent to you; you will make six others, and send them on to the next village.’ The headman accepted the six cakes, and punctually sent forward other six as he had been directed. It was a mystery of which the early stages were beyond our ken; for no one could say, or no one would say, which was the first village whence the cakes were sent. During many months this process continued: village after village being brought into the chain as successive links, and relays of chupatties being forwarded from place to place. Mr Disraeli, attacking on one occasion in the House of Commons the policy of the Indian government, adverted sarcastically to this chupatty mystery: ‘Suppose the Emperor of Russia, whose territory, in extent and character, has more resemblance to our Eastern possessions than the territory of any other power—suppose the Emperor of Russia were told—“Sire, there is a very remarkable circumstance going on in your territory; from village to village, men are passing who leave the tail of an ermine or a pot of caviare, with a message to some one to perform the same ceremony. Strange to say, this has been going on in some ten thousand villages, and we cannot make head or tail of it.” I think the Emperor of Russia would say: “I do not know whether you can make head or tail of it, but I am quite certain there is something wrong, and that we must take some precautions; because, where the people are not usually indiscreet and troublesome, they do not make a secret communication unless it is opposed to the government. This is a secret communication, and therefore a communication dangerous to the government.”’ The opposition leader did not assert that the government could have penetrated the mystery, but that the mystery ought to have been regarded as significant of something dangerous, worthy of close scrutiny and grave consideration.
- 35. The chupatties first appeared in the Northwest Provinces, around Delhi; and subsequent events offered a temptation for rebuking the governor-general and the commander-in-chief, in having failed to strengthen the posts with English troops after the indications of some secret conspiracy had thus been made. In some places it was ascertained that the cakes were to be kept till called for by the messengers, other cakes being sent on instead of them; but what was the meaning of this arrangement, the English officials could not, or at least did not find out. In Scotland, in the clannish days, war- signals were sent from hut to hut and from clan to clan with extraordinary rapidity; and, however little an unleavened cake might appear like a war-signal, military men and politicians ought certainly to have been alive to such strange manifestations as this chupatty movement. From the Sutlej to Patna, throughout a vast range of thickly populated country, was the secret correspondence carried on. One thing at any rate may safely be asserted, that the military stations required close watching at such a time; something was fermenting in the minds of the natives which the English could not understand; but that very fact would have justified—nay, rendered almost imperative—the guarding of the chief posts from sudden surprise. Little or nothing of this precautionary action seems to have been attempted. Throughout nearly the whole of the great trunk- road from Calcutta to the Punjaub, the military stations were left as before, almost wholly in the hands of the sepoys. At Benares there was only a single company of European foot-artillery; the rest of the troops consisting of two regiments of native infantry, and one of the Cis-Sutlej Sikh regiments. At Allahabad, the great supply magazine of the province was left almost wholly to the guard of the sepoys. Lucknow had only one European regiment and one company of artillery; notwithstanding that, as the capital of Oude, it was in the midst of a warlike and excited population; while the native army of the province, capable of soon assembling at the city, comprised no less than fourteen regiments of infantry, six of cavalry, and six companies of artillery. Cawnpore, a very important station with a large medical depôt, contained three regiments of native infantry, one of native cavalry, and two companies of native artillery with
- 36. twelve guns; while the English force was only a company of infantry, and about sixty artillerymen with six guns. The large magazine of Delhi, the great storehouse of ammunition for the military stations all around it, was left to be guarded entirely by sepoys. The late General Anson, at that time commander-in-chief, was among the hills at Simla, relaxing from his duties; and neither at Simla nor at Calcutta did it seem to be felt that, with existing symptoms, more European troops were necessary in the Bengal and Northwest Provinces. The chupatty was not the only symbol of some mystery: the lotus was another. It was a common occurrence for a man to come to a cantonment with a lotus-flower, and give it to the chief native officer of a regiment; the flower was circulated from hand to hand in the regiment; each man took it, looked at it, and passed it on, saying nothing. When the lotus came to the last man in the regiment, he disappeared for a time, and took it to the next military station. This strange process occurred throughout nearly all the military stations where regiments of the Bengal native army were cantoned. Chupatties and lotus-flowers, together with the incendiarism and the cartridge grievances presently to be noticed, unquestionably indicated some widely spread discontent among the natives—military if not general. ‘It is clear,’ in the words of an observant officer, writing from one of the Cis-Sutlej stations, ‘that a certain ferment had been allowed gradually to arise throughout the mass of the Bengal army. In some it was panic, in some excitement, in some a mere general apprehension or expectation, and in some it was no doubt disaffection, or even conspiracy. Governing an alien people and a vast army, we had divested ourselves of all the instruments of foreign domination so familiar to Austria and all other continental powers. We had no political police, no European strongholds, no system of intelligence or espionage, comparatively little real military discipline; and even our own post-office was the channel of free, constant, and unchecked intercourse between all the different regiments. Not a letter even was opened; that would have been too abhorrent to English principles. The sepoy mind had probably
- 37. become prepared to distrust us, as we had begun to distrust them. There were strange new legislative acts, and new post-office rules, and new foreign service enlistments, and new employment of armed races in our army, and other things disagreeable and alarming to the true old sepoy caste. And then it came about that from a small and trifling beginning, one of those ferments to which the native mind is somewhat prone, took possession of the sepoy army.’ One of the strange facts connected with the chupatty movement was, that the cakes were transmitted to the heads of villages who have not been concerned in the mutiny, while many sepoys who broke out in revolt had received no cakes. They appear to have been distributed mostly to the villagers; whereas the lotus passed from hand to hand among the military. The chupatties and the lotus-flowers, however indicative they may have been of the existence of intrigue and conspiracy, were quiet indications; but there were not wanting other proofs of a mutinous spirit, in acts of violence and insubordination—apart from the incendiarisms and the cartridge difficulties. On one evening, early in the year, information was given by a sepoy of the intention of the men to rise against their officers and seize on Fort William, at Calcutta. On another occasion, a fanatic moulvie, a high Mohammedan priest at Oude, was detected preaching war against the infidels; and on his person was found a proclamation exciting the people to rebellion. On a third day, two sepoys were detected in an attempt to sap the fidelity of the guard at the Calcutta mint. An English surgeon in an hospital at Lucknow, by the bedside of a sepoy, put his lips to a bottle of medicine before giving it to his patient; this being regarded as a pollution, a pundit was sent for to break the bottle and exorcise the evil: on that night the doctor’s bungalow was burned down by incendiaries who could not be discovered. A refusal to accept a furlough or leave of absence might not usually be regarded as a symptom of a mutinous spirit; yet in India it conveyed a meaning that could not safely be disregarded. On the 6th of March, the commander-in-chief, with the sanction of the governor-general, notified that the native army would receive, as
- 38. usual, the annual indulgence of furlough from the 1st of April to a certain subsequent date. When this order was read or issued, about fourteen men of the 63d native infantry, stationed at Soorie, and under orders to proceed to Berhampore, evinced a disinclination to avail themselves of the indulgence, on the plea that none of the regiments at Barrackpore intended to take theirs. It certainly appears to have been a circumstance worthy of a searching inquiry by the military authorities, why the troops should have declined to take their furlough at that particular time. We must now pass on to that series of events which, so far as outward manifestations are concerned, was more especially the immediate forerunner of the Revolt—namely, the disturbances connected with the greased cartridges. Let not the reader for a moment regard this as a trivial matter, merely because it would be trivial in England: the sepoys may have been duped, and indeed were unquestionably duped, by designing men; but the subject of suspicion was a serious one to them. The fat of cows and of pigs is regarded in a peculiar light in the East. The pig is as much held in abhorrence by the Mohammedans as the cow is venerated by the Hindoos; to touch the former with the lips, is a defilement to the one religion; to touch the latter, is a sacrilege to the other. The religious feelings are different, but the results in this case are the same. So sacred, indeed, are cattle regarded by the Hindoos, that the Company’s officers have been accustomed to observe much caution in relation to any supply of beef for their own tables; the slaughter of a cow in a Hindoo village would in itself have been a sufficient cause for revolt; in large towns where Europeans are stationed, a high-walled paddock or compound is set apart for the reception of bullocks intended for food; and scrupulous care is taken that the natives shall know as little as possible of the proceedings connected with the slaughtering. The use of cow’s fat in ammunition would therefore be repulsive to the Hindoo sepoy. Many experienced men trace the mutiny to a false report concerning the cartridges, acting on the minds of natives who had already become distrustful by the machinations of agitators and emissaries. ‘It is a marvel and a
- 39. mystery that so many years should have passed away without an explosion. At last a firebrand was applied to what a single spark might have ignited; and in the course of a few weeks there was a general conflagration; but a conflagration which still bears more marks of accident than of deliberate conspiracy and incendiarism. In a most unhappy hour—in an hour laden with a concurrence of adverse circumstances—the incident of the greased cartridges occurred. It found the Bengal army in a season of profound peace, and in a state of relaxed discipline. It found the sepoys pondering over the predictions and the fables which had been so assiduously circulated in their lines and their bazaars; it found them with imaginations inflamed and fears excited by strange stories of the designs of their English masters; it found them, as they fancied, with their purity of caste threatened, and their religious distinctions invaded, by the proselytising and annexing Englishmen. Still, there was no palpable evidence of this. Everything was vague, intangible, obscure. Credulous and simple-minded as they were, many might have retained a lingering confidence in the good faith and the good intentions of the British government: had it not been suddenly announced to them, just as they were halting between two opinions, that, in prosecution of his long-cherished design to break down the religion both of Mohammedan and Hindoo, the Feringhee had determined to render their military service the means of their degradation, by compelling them to apply their lips to a cartridge saturated with animal grease—the fat of the swine being used for the pollution of the one, and the fat of the cow for the degradation of the other. If the most astute emissaries of evil who could be employed for the corruption of the Bengal sepoy had addressed themselves to the task of inventing a lie for the confirmation and support of all his fears and superstitions, they could have found nothing more cunningly devised for their purpose.’[6] It was on the 7th of February 1857 that the governor-general communicated to the home government the first account of anything mysterious or unpleasant in relation to the greased cartridges. He had to announce that a dissatisfaction had exhibited itself among the
- 40. native troops attached to the musketry-depôt at Dumdum. There are two Dumdums, two Dumdumas, one Dumdumma, and one Dumdumineah in India; but the place indicated is in Bengal, a few miles out of Calcutta, and about half-way between that city and Barrackpore. It was formerly the head-quarters of artillery for the presidency of Bengal; and near it is an excellent cannon-foundry, with casting-rooms, boring-rooms, and all the appliances for making brass guns. It is a sort of Woolwich on a humble scale, connected with ordnance and firearms. The sepoys at Dumdum had heard rumours which induced them to believe that the grease used for preparing the cartridges for the recently introduced Enfield rifles was composed of the fat of pigs and cows—substances which their religion teaches them to regard in a light altogether strange to Europeans. It was not the first time by three or four years that the cartridge-question had excited attention in India, although in England the public knew absolutely nothing concerning it. From documents brought to light during the earlier months of the mutiny, it appears that in 1853 the commander-in- chief of the forces in India directed the adjutant-general of the Bengal army to call the attention of the governor-general to the subject of cartridges as connected with the prejudices of the natives. For what reason grease of any kind is employed on or with cartridges, may be soon explained. A cartridge, as most persons are aware, is a contrivance for quickly loading firearms. Instead of inserting the powder and bullet separately into the musket, rifle, or pistol, as was the earlier wont, the soldier is provided with a supply of small cartridge-paper tubes, each containing a bullet and the proper proportion of powder; and by the employment of these cartridges much time and attention are saved under circumstances where both are especially valuable. The missiles are called ball or blank cartridges, according as they do or do not each contain a bullet. Now the Enfield rifle, an English improvement on the celebrated Minié rifle invented and used by the French, was largely manufactured by machinery in a government establishment at Enfield, for use in the British and Indian armies; and in firing from
- 41. this or other rifles it was necessary that the ball-end of the cartridge should have an external application of some greasy substance, to facilitate its movement through the barrel. In the year above named, the East India Company informed the Calcutta government, that a supply of new-greased cartridges had been sent, which the Board of Ordnance wished should be subjected to the test of climate. It was concerning these cartridges that the commander-in-chief recommended caution; on the ground that ‘unless it be known that the grease employed in these cartridges is not of a nature to offend or interfere with the prejudices of caste, it will be expedient not to issue them for test to native corps, but to Europeans only, to be carried in pouch.’ It was not until June 1854 that the cartridges were received in India; and during the next twelve months they were subjected to various tests, at Calcutta, at Cawnpore, and at Rangoon. The cartridges had been greased in four ways—with common grease, with laboratory grease, with Belgian grease, and with Hoffman’s grease, in each case with an admixture of creosote and tobacco; one set was tested by being placed in the ordnance magazines, a second by being kept in wagons, and a third by being tied up in pouch-bundles. The result of these tests was communicated to the directors in the autumn of 1855; and as a consequence, a modification was effected in the cartridges afterwards sent from England for service with the Enfield rifles in India. To return now to the affair at Dumdum. When the complaints and suspicions of the sepoys were made known, inquiries were sent to England for exact particulars relating to the obnoxious missiles. It was ascertained that the new cartridges were made at the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich; and that Captain Boxer, the superintendent of that department, was accustomed to use for lubrication a composition formed of five parts tallow, five parts stearine, and one part wax—containing, therefore, ox or cow’s fat, but none from pigs. He had no prejudices in the matter to contend against in England, and used therefore just such a composition as appeared to him most suitable for the purpose. The cartridges were not sent out to India
- 42. ready greased for use; as, in a hot country, the grease would soon be absorbed by the paper: there was, therefore, a part of the process left to be accomplished when the cartridges reached their destination. It appears to have been in the latter part of January that the first open manifestation was made at Dumdum of a disinclination to use the cartridges; and immediately a correspondence among the authorities commenced concerning it. When the complaint had been made, the men were seemingly appeased on being assured that the matter would be duly represented; and as a means of conciliation, cartridges without grease were issued, the men being allowed to apply any lubricating substance they chose. It was further determined that no more ready-made cartridges should be obtained from England, but that bullets and paper should be sent separately, to be put together in India; that experiments should be made at Woolwich, to produce some lubricating substance free from any of the obnoxious ingredients; and that other experiments should meanwhile be made by the 60th Rifles—at that time stationed at Meerut—having the same object in view. During the inquiry into the manifestation and alleged motives of this insubordination, one fact was elicited, which, if correct, seems to point to a date when the conspirators—whoever they may have been —began to act upon the dupes. On the 22d of January, a low-caste Hindoo asked a sepoy of the 2d Bengal Grenadiers to give him a little water from his lota or bottle; the other, being a Brahmin, refused, on the ground that the applicant would defile the vessel by his touch—a magnificence of class-superiority to which only the Hindoo theory could afford place. This refusal was met by a retort, that the Brahmin need not pride himself on his caste, for he would soon lose it, as he would ere long be required to bite off the ends of cartridges covered with the fat of pigs and cows. The Brahmin, alarmed, spread the report; and the native troops, as is alleged, were afraid that when they went home their friends would refuse to eat with them. When this became known to the English officers, the native troops were drawn up on parade, and encouraged to state the
- 43. grounds of their dissatisfaction. All the native sergeants and corporals, and two-thirds of all the privates, at once stepped forward, expressed their abhorrence of having to touch anything containing the fat of cows or pigs, and suggested the employment of wax or oil for lubricating the cartridges. It was then that the conciliatory measures, noticed above, were adopted. Still were there troubles and suspicious circumstances; but the scene is now transferred from Dumdum to Barrackpore. This town, sixteen miles from Calcutta, is worthy of note chiefly for its connection with the supreme government of India. The governor-general has a sort of suburban residence there, handsome, commodious, and situated in the midst of a very beautiful park. There are numerous bungalows or villas inhabited by European families, drawn to the spot by the salubrity of the air, by the beauty of the Hoogly branch of the Ganges, at this place three-quarters of a mile in width, and by the garden and promenade attached to the governor-general’s villa. In military matters, before the Revolt, there was a ‘presidency division of the army,’ of which some of the troops were in Calcutta, some at Barrackpore, and a small force of artillery at Dumdum, nearly midway between the two places; the whole commanded by a general officer at Barrackpore, under whom was a brigadier to command that station only. The station is convenient for military operations in the eastern part of Bengal, and for any sudden emergencies at Calcutta. Six regiments of native infantry were usually cantoned at Barrackpore, with a full complement of officers: the men hutted in commodious lines, and the officers accommodated in bungalows or lodges. It was at this place that the discontent next shewed itself, much to the vexation of the government, who had hoped that the Dumdum affair had been satisfactorily settled, and who had explained to the native regiments at Barrackpore what had been done to remove the alleged cause of complaint. The sepoys at this place, however, made an objection to bite off the ends of the cartridges—a necessary preliminary to the loading of a rifle—on account of the animal fat contained, or supposed to be contained, in the grease with which
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