Emerging acquirers

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EMERGING COUNTRY CROSS-BORDER ACQUISITIONS:
CHARACTERISTICS, ACQUIRER RETURNS AND
CROSS-SECTIONAL DETERMINANTS
Sanjai Bhagat, Shavin Malhotra, and PengCheng Zhu
ABSTRACT
What are the important characteristics of cross-border acquisitions (CBAs) by firms from
emerging countries and do these acquisitions create market value for the acquirers? Using a
unique and a manually collected dataset, we identify 698 CBAs made by emerging country firms
during the period January 1991 through December 2008. Targets tend to be small (by U.S.
transaction value measures) – the median ranging between $10 million to $40 million (in 2008
dollars). However, from 2000 to 2008, 24 acquisitions were worth more than a billion dollars
each. Emerging country acquirers experience a positive and a significant market response of
1.09% on the announcement day. Additionally, in the cross-section, acquirer returns are
positively correlated with (better) corporate governance measures in the target country. The
positive announcement return and the cross-sectional relation between these returns and
governance measures are consistent with Martynova and Renneboog’s (2008) and Khanna and
Palepu’s (2004) bootstrapping hypothesis: The acquirer voluntarily bootstraps itself to the higher
governance standards of the target – resulting in a positive valuation impact for the acquirer.
Keywords: Cross border acquisitions, governance, emerging market acquirers, event study
JEL Code: G34

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1. Introduction
“Indian-Style Mergers: Buy a Brand, Leave It Alone,”
Wall Street Journal, March 22, 2008.
“Chinese M&A Goes Global,” Business Week, June 9, 2008.
“Brazil: M&A Deals Heat Up,” Business Week, October 27, 2009.
During this decade the popular financial media has prominently featured cross-border
acquisitions (CBAs) by emerging country acquirers from India, Malaysia, China, Brazil and
others. These articles have provided an interesting and sometimes colorful description of the
transaction and the principals involved. In contrast, very few academic papers focus on the
financial impact on the emerging country companies of these cross-border acquisitions.
The increasing trend towards international acquisitions by firms from emerging
economies and a lack of research in this area creates a need to address whether the extant
conceptual framework and empirical evidence on international acquisitions are relevant for
acquirers outside the developed countries. The generalizability of the existing international
acquisition literature’s findings to the emerging country acquirers remains an open question.
More specifically, the research questions of this study are: (1) what are the important
characteristics of CBAs made by emerging country firms? (2) What is the stock market’s
response to the acquisition announcement? (3) What are the cross-sectional determinants of this
market response? To address these questions, we examine a sample of 698 CBAs made by firms
from eight emerging countries – Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, Russia,
and South Africa – during the period January 1991 through December 2008. These eight
emerging countries are ranked highest in their number of outbound CBAs.

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CBAs are an important strategic corporate initiative that enables firms to extend their
current businesses, leverage their current capabilities, and/or diversify in to related markets. In
addition, CBAs can be an important mechanism for corporate governance convergence in
today’s world. CBAs have increased significantly over the last two decades (Moeller and
Schlingemann, 2004; Seth, Song and Pettit, 2002). The number of CBAs increased from 4,247 in
1995 to 6,244 in 2008, and during the same period, the financial value of these acquisitions
increased from US$186 billion to US$673 billion (United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development, 2009). Furthermore, Brakman, Garretsen and Marrewijk (2006) note that the share
of CBAs towards the overall world FDI is as high as 76%.
Although multinationals from developed countries account for the major share of CBAs,
firms from the emerging countries too have entered this market in a big way. Outbound CBAs by
emerging-country firms have increased from $37 billion in 2004 to $182 billion in 2008 – a
staggering rise of 392%; the value of CBAs at $182 billion (for the year 2008) makes up 66% of
the total FDI outflows from emerging countries (UNCTAD, 2009).
Over the last decade, CBAs have become a major mode-of-entry for developing-country
firms into other countries (Aulakh, 2007). A number of studies by international organizations
provide evidence towards the growth of developing country multinationals. For instance, Boston
Consulting Group (2006) reports that the top 100 companies from developing countries are
expanding globally into diverse industries such as industrial goods, consumer durables,
telecommunications, pharmaceuticals, information technology, among others. They also report
that these expansions are not only through exports, but also include other modes of FDI such as
CBAs. The report finds that 57% of the CBAs made by these 100 firms during 1985 to 2005

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involved target firms in the developed markets. For instance, CBAs by Indian firms in 2006
increased by 121% over the 2004 figures; similarly, the total value of these acquisitions
increased to US $21 billion in 2006, an increase of 2,236% over the 2004 value of US $0.90
billion (SDC Platinum Database, 2007). Apart from India, other developing countries such as
China, Brazil and Russia also show a similar trend. For instance, the value of CBAs by Chinese
firms in 2006 stood at US $12 billion, an increase of 73% over the previous year (SDC Platinum
Database, 2007). Some of the major international acquisitions by emerging country firms in the
recent years include: (1) Brazil-based Cia Vale do Rio Doce’s US $18.2 billion acquisition of
Canada’s Inco, (2) Mexico-based Cemex’s US $ 15.1 billion acquisition of Australia’s Rinker
Group, and (3) India-based Tata Steel’s US $12.5 billion acquisition of the U.K.-based Corus
Group.
This study’s contribution is threefold. First, it contributes important understanding to the
internationalization strategy of firms from emerging countries. Many influencing factors in
international acquisitions by firms from developed countries would be substantially different
from those in the emerging country, such as international experience and exposure, corporate
governance, cultural background, government regulation, and maturity of the domestic capital
market. Till recently, many emerging economies offered poor growth avenues for business firms
due to restrictive regulatory policies (Anandan et al. 1998). For example, until the mid 1990s, the
Indian government placed many restrictions on business firms, such as limits on capacity
extension, stringent licensing requirements to enter new businesses, restriction on foreign entry
and investment, and numerous tariff and non-tariff trade barriers (Ahluwalia and Little 1998,
Ghemawat and Khanna 1998). In such an environment, acquisitions are generally restricted.

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There has been a steady transition in a number of emerging economies as governments try to
liberalize their closed economies. Furthermore, unlike the traditional multinationals from
developed countries, emerging-country firms have defied the convention of incremental
internationalization by expanding globally at a dizzying pace (Guillen & Garcia-Canal, 2009).
Therefore, shareholder expectations and management perspectives may differ for firms in the
developed and emerging economies.
Second, many authors indicate that the strategies of multinationals from emerging
countries differ from those from developed countries (Beausang, 2003; Buckley and Mirza, 1988;
Buckley, 2004). For instance, it is argued that emerging country multinationals are investing
overseas at a relatively earlier stage in their development than their counterparts from developed
countries (WIR 2006). In addition, some studies have shown that emerging country
multinationals adopt a market-seeking overseas investment strategy vis-à-vis resource-seeking
by developed country multinationals. This study will help to strengthen the nascent body of
research on the internationalization of emerging market firms, which as suggested by the OECD
report (2006), is “…mostly based on a few anecdotal evidence, and deduction and inference from
the history of North-South capital flows, rather than a body of systematic research”.
Third, we build on the growing literature on differential investor protection across
countries – as developed by La Porta et al. (1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002). Specifically, we shed
light on Martynova and Renneboog’s (2008) bootstrapping hypothesis; these authors suggest the
possibility of the acquirer voluntarily bootstrapping itself to the higher corporate governance
standards of the target – resulting in a positive valuation impact on the acquirer.

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The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section we discuss the
growth of CBAs in general and specifically for emerging market firms. In section three, we
review the theory on returns to acquirers; most of this literature focuses on acquirers from
developed countries. Section 4 reviews the cross-sectional determinants of the returns to these
acquirers from developed countries. Section 5 describes our data and sample. Section 6 discusses
our results with concluding remarks in Section 7.
2. Theoretical Background
2.1 Returns to Acquirers in Cross-Border Acquisitions.
Much of the research on CBAs focuses on whether they create value for shareholders.
The empirical evidence on value creation, which is based mainly on U.S. acquiring firms or U.S.
target firms (Chen et al. 2000; Gubbi et al. 2009; Mantecon, 2009), remains inconclusive
(Andrade, Mitchell, & Stafford, 2001; Moeller & Schlingemann, 2005; Seth, Song, & Pettit,
2002). While most of the earlier studies showed that buyers gained positive economic value (e.g.,
Morck & Yeung, 1992; Markides & Ittner, 1994), recent studies have shown that buyers lose
value (e.g., Chatterjee and Aw, 2004; Denis et al., 2002; Eckbo and Thorburn, 2000; Moeller and
Schlingemann, 2005). Appendix 1 summarizes a subset of recent papers that study acquirer
returns in CBAs. Four studies report a significant positive return to the acquirer, two report a
significant negative return, and two report returns insignificantly different from zero. There are
no obvious differences in sample (acquirer/target from developed/ emerging country) or sample
period between the studies that report such qualitatively different returns to acquirers. In these

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studies, while the targets are from developed and emerging countries, the acquirers are largely
from developed countries.
In another study involving buyers from 75 nations during the period from 1985 to 2005,
Mantecon (2009) found that a total of $187 billion of wealth was lost for the shareholders of the
buying firms in the three days around the announcement date. Though this study looked at CBAs
by buyers from 75 nations, less than 1% of the CBAs were from emerging-country firms;
consequently, the results largely show the behaviours of MNEs from developed countries.
In contrast to the valuation results for CBAs by firms from developed countries , a recent
study by Gubbi et al. (2009) on Indian multinationals (only study on CBAs by firms from an
emerging country) shows that international acquisitions by Indian firms earn significantly
positive value for their shareholders. This study is somewhat limited. First, the study only
focuses on Indian firms, thus limiting the generalizability of their results. Second, it does not
consider any corporate governance related cross-sectional determinants of acquirer returns.
Finally, it does not include important controls in their cross-sectional regressions, for example,
idiosyncratic risk, that Moeller, Schlingemann, and Stulz (2007) conclude is an important
determinant of acquirer returns.
The classical theories on the determinants of returns to acquirers in CBAs focused on
diversification, operational efficiency and market power as sources. The neoclassical literature
has focused on the changes in shareholder rights and changes in other corporate governance
features implicit when acquirers and targets are from substantially different governance regimes.
In the next section, we discuss these theories in more detail.

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2.2 Determinants of Returns to Cross-border Acquirers: The Classical Theories
The early literature on the determinants of acquirer returns in CBAs is based on the
corresponding literature for domestic (U.S.) acquisitions. Two broad types of such determinants
have been considered, value creation and wealth transfer.
Value creation is the initial focus of scholars studying shareholder wealth effects in
domestic (U.S.) acquisitions; Jensen and Ruback (1983) and Brickley, Jarrell and Netter (1991)
survey some of this literature. Following are the hypothesized sources of value creation; these
are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive:
Diversification: If the cash flows of the acquirer and target are less than perfectly
correlated, the combined company’s cash flow will have a smaller variance. While the reduction
in variance may not reduce systematic risk, it may lower the cost of debt; acquiring and target
shareholders can ultimately capture this benefit.
Better use of target’s assets: There are two versions of this hypothesis. Under the first
version, target managers are doing as well with the target’s assets as possible given their
understanding of the target’s production and investment possibilities. Acquiring managers have a
different, perhaps “better”, understanding of the target’s production and investment possibilities.
These could include increases, decreases, or different kinds of capital expenditures, R&D
investments, marketing expenditures, and human resource investments. Under the alternate
version of the above hypothesis, target management is maximizing its own welfare at the
expense of shareholder value. For example, target management may increase its expenditures on
a pet project beyond the firm value-maximizing level because management derives psychic or
pecuniary benefits or income from such increased expenditures. Conversely, target management
may decrease its expenditures (in capital items, R&D, marketing, human resources) from the

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value-maximizing level, perhaps because this lessens their effort and stress. After the acquisition,
under either version of the hypothesis, the acquiring management implements a superior
production and investment strategy with the target’s assets.
Synergy between acquirer and target assets: There are possible scale economies if the
acquirer and target are producing very similar products or services. The acquirer (target) can also
leverage its technology and brand name to the target’s (acquirer’s) products or services.
Relative size of target to acquirer: Asquith, Bruner and Mullins (1983) document a
positive relation between acquirer return and relative size of target to acquirer. They suggest this
would be consistent with the argument that a dollar spent on acquisition generates the same
positive return regardless of the size of the acquisition.
Reduction of tax liability: It is possible under certain circumstances for the tax liability of
the combined company to be less than the sum of the tax liabilities of the target and acquirer
operating independently. Corporate taxes can play a role in CBA; see Norback, Persson, and
Vlachos (2009).
Exchange rate effects: Georgopoulos (2009) documents that a depreciation of the home
currency leads to an increase in CBAs.
Some scholars have suggested that wealth effects in acquisitions reflect wealth transfers,
rather than value creation. Such wealth transfers could occur from the exercise of market power
by the acquirer and/or target on their customers and suppliers. To the extent acquirer and/or
target shareholders are benefiting from the exercise of market power, the policy implications for
regulators are quite different than for acquisitions in which value is being created; see Kim and
Singal (1993). Some authors have focused on wealth transfers from target and acquirer

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employees to target and/or acquirer shareholders; for example, see Bhagat, Shleifer and Vishny
(1991).
Up through the 1980s, most studies focus on the acquisitions of publicly-held U.S.
acquirers of publicly-held U.S. targets. The average market response for acquiring shareholders
is a small negative return. Roll (1986) suggests that the negative market response is a result of
acquirers overpaying for targets; in other words, the negative response on acquiring shareholders
is merely a wealth transfer from acquiring to target shareholders.
Several other explanations for the negative returns to acquirers have been noted in the
literature: The classic paper by Myers and Majluf (1984) argues that firms issuing equity signal
to the market that their equity is overvalued. McCardle and Vishwanathan (1994) and Jovanovic
and Braguinsky (2002) suggest that firms first fund their internal projects; if they have no
attractive internal investment opportunities, they look to the outside for growth. Hence, the
acquisition is a signal that internal growth opportunities have been exhausted, and the market
interprets this signal as negative information about the acquirer management’s ability to grow the
company. In all of the above scenarios, the negative market response at the announcement of the
acquisition is not due to the acquisition per se, but to the stand-alone value of the acquirer; see
Bhagat, Dong, Hirshleifer and Noah (2005).
Why are returns to large acquirers particularly negative? Demsetz and Lehn (1985)
suggest that incentives of small firm managers are better aligned with shareholder interests,
perhaps because of greater stock ownership. Following up on Roll’s (1986) hubris hypothesis,
large firm managers may be more prone to hubris, given their past success in growing the
company. Large firms may also have more resources (of both cash and stock) to pay for the
acquisition. Large firms may also be further along in their life cycle; such firms are more likely

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to have exhausted internal growth opportunities. Finally, arbitrageurs are more likely to establish
a short position for a large firm involved in acquisitions, because of the lower cost of
establishing such a position. Moeller et al (2004) provide a more comprehensive discussion and
analysis.
Jensen (1986) suggests that acquisitions reflect empire-building by acquiring managers
who are engaging in acquisitions instead of paying out the free cash flow to their shareholders.
Consistent with Jensen’s empire-building argument, Bayazitova, Kahl, and Valkanov (2009)
document that acquisitions with particularly large transaction values elicit the most negative
market response.
Why are acquirer returns more negative when targets are publicly-held, compared to
acquisitions when targets are privately-held? The Grossman and Hart (1980) type free-rider
problem allows for greater bargaining power for public-company shareholders. Private company
owners may face greater liquidity constraints, hence, might accept a lower price.
2.3 Determinants of Returns to Cross-border Acquirers: The Neo-classical Approach
In a series of influential papers, La Porta et al. (1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002) analyze
the role a country’s legal system has in protecting investor rights. They argue (2000, p.4): “Such
diverse elements of countries’ financial systems as the breadth and depth of their capital markets,
the pace of new security issues, corporate ownership structures, dividend policies, and the
efficiency of investment allocation appear to be explained both conceptually and empirically by
how well the laws in these countries protect outside investors.” La Porta et al. (1998) draw on the
work of David and Brierley (1985) and Zweigert and Kotz (1987) to postulate that the
commercial legal codes of most countries are based on four legal traditions: the English common
law, the French civil law, the German civil law, and the Scandinavian law. They find that

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common law countries provide the most protection to investors (La Porta et al. 1998), and that
they have the deepest stock markets and most dispersed corporate ownership structures (La Porta
et al., 1997, 1999) . They also document that countries develop substitute mechanisms for poor
investor protection, such as mandatory dividends and greater ownership concentration. In a
follow-up paper, La Porta et al. (2002) find that investor protection is positively correlated with
valuation across countries.
In their most recent work, La Porta et al. (2003) construct two indices measuring the
quality of securities regulation representing the strength of public and private enforcement
mechanisms (the former consists of powers of the national securities regulator, the latter, private
litigation regime features such as the burden of proof), to examine the effect of securities
regulation on stock markets. As in the case of their investor protection measure, which they refer
to as a shareholder rights or anti-director rights index, the public and private enforcement
measures have higher values in nations with common law traditions. La Porta et al. (2003) find
that the private enforcement measure is more significant than either the public enforcement
measure or the shareholder rights index for the development of a stock market.
The overarching theme of the influential and extensive La Porta et al. corpus is that “law
matters.” The cluster of countries associated with the common-law legal tradition, which is
identified with stronger investor protection and securities regulation, have deeper stock markets,
less concentrated ownership of public firms, and in their view, given those nations’ higher level
of financial development, offer better opportunities for economic growth and prosperity. Their
work has generated considerable discussion. Some scholars have disagreed with the construction
of the investor protection measure (e.g., Vagts, 2002; Berglof and von Thadden, 1999). Others
have sought to offer alternative explanations of why common law systems are associated with

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higher financial development. However, this criticism notwithstanding, their work has had a
major impact –international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and World
Bank focus on corporate governance as a key plank in their policy toward emerging market
nations – and their corporate law index captures an important element driving cross-national
differences in financial development, despite nuances of legal regime differences among nations
that are grouped together in their legal categorization (see, e.g., Cheffins, 2001, distinguishing
between the corporate law and institutions of the United States and United Kingdom, which are
grouped together in La Porta et al.’s analysis). Another sign of the influence of La Porta et al.’s
research agenda is the large body of literature that has developed using the La Porta et al.
variables to investigate a variety of other cross-national differences. These studies also provide
evidence that legal rules matter in important ways for national economies; for a review see Denis
and McConnell (2003).
Rossi and Volpin (2004) use the differential investor protection characterization across
countries developed by La Porta et al. to study the volume and characteristics of CBAs. They
find that targets are typically in countries with poorer investor protection than acquirers. They
conclude that CBAs may be partially motivated by enhancement of investor protection in target
firms. To the extent investors value such protection; this would be reflected in positive returns to
the acquirer at the time of the announcement. Martynova and Renneboog (2008) (hereafter
referred to as MR) characterize this as the positive spillover by law hypothesis. Correspondingly,
if the acquirer has less demanding governance standards than the target, this would have a
negative valuation impact on the acquirer; MR note this as the negative spillover by law
hypothesis. However, MR also suggest the possibility of the acquirer voluntarily bootstrapping
itself to the higher governance standards of the target – resulting in a positive valuation impact

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on the acquirer; MR refer to this as the bootstrapping hypothesis. In a careful clinical study of
the Indian software company, Infosys, Khanna and Palepu (2004) (hereafter, KP) provide an
analysis of and evidence supporting the bootstrapping possibility.
In summary, the classical and neo-classical corporate acquisition theories have been
tested predominantly on CBAs made by firms from developed countries. In this exploratory
study we take a comprehensive look at the role of the above theories in CBAs made by emerging
country firms.
3. METHODS
3.1 Data and Sample
It is difficult to obtain data on CBAs made by firms from emerging countries. Thus, for
this study we used a combination of sources to collect the data. We study a comprehensive
sample of CBAs by publicly listed firms from eight emerging countries – Brazil, China, India,
Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, Russia, and South Africa – during the period January 1991
through December 2008. These eight emerging countries are ranked highest (among emerging
countries) in their number of outbound CBAs. We collected the sample from SDC Platinum
database. Given the motivation of this study, we needed stock market data around the
announcement date for these acquiring companies. We collected the stock return data from the
Datastream database. As expected, there were many missing values for acquiring firms from
these eight emerging countries. Therefore, in addition to this database, we also manually
collected the stock returns for acquiring firms from their respective stock exchange websites; for
instance, for Indian and Chinese firms, we collected stock returns from the Bombay Stock
Exchange and the Shanghai stock exchange respectively. We also collected companies’ financial
information from the Datastream database and from their annual reports. Because we restricted

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our sample to acquiring firms that were publicly listed, this resulted in a final sample of 698
acquisitions.
3.2 Research Design
We used the event study methodology to examine the announcement effect of the CBAs.
More specifically, we used the market model to detect the abnormal returns on the acquiring
firms’ stock prices in the announcement period. The abnormal return is calculated as:
)( mtjjjtjt RRAR  
where jtR and mtR are the observed returns for firm stock ‘j’ and the market portfolio (i.e.
Bombay Stock Exchange index return), respectively, in day ‘t’ relative to the CBA
announcement date. The security specific parameters j and j are computed over an
estimation period (120 days to 30 days before the CBA announcement date). We also aggregate
the abnormal returns over several days in the announcement period by calculating
the cumulative abnormal returns (CAR).








 
N
j
jCAR
N
CAR
1
1
,
where 2/1
)/(QARCAR
L
Kt
jtj 





 
K and L represent the start and end dates of the test period which includes CBA announcement
date ‘0’. Q is the number of trading days encompassed by the interval K, L (Q = L-K+1). We
used both the parametric t test and the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed rank test to determine
the statistical significance of the CAR.
3.3 Independent Variables

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We tested the determinants of the cross-sectional variations in the CARs by examining
the following groups of variables based on the above discussed theoretical perspectives:
Acquiring firm’s CAR = f (Classical factors, Governance factors)
3.3.1 Classical Factors
Previous studies have shown that the public listing status of the target firms is an
important determinant of acquirer returns. U.S. evidence suggests that acquirers achieve zero or
negative average announcement period CARs when acquiring publicly listed targets and positive
average CARs when acquiring private targets (Chang, 1998; Fuller, Netter, and Stegemoller,
2002; Hansen and Lott, 1996; and Moeller, Schlingemann, and Stulz, 2004). We include a binary
variable for the private/public status of the target firms.
Prior empirical evidence also suggests that acquirers’ CARs are positively correlated with
acquirers’ Tobin’s Q (Lang, Stulz, and Walkling, 1989 and Servaes, 1991), industry relatedness
of the acquiring and target firms (Morck, Shleifer and Vishny, 1990; Maquieira Megginson and
Nail, 1998; Moeller, Schlingemann, and Stulz, 2004), payment method (Moeller, Schlingemann,
and Stulz, 2004), relative size of target to acquirer ( Asquith, Bruner, and Mullins, 1983, Moeller,
Schlingemann, and Stulz, 2004, and Bhagat, Dong, Hirshleifer and Noah, 2005, and transaction
value (Bayazitova, Kahl, and Valkanov, 2009). In addition to the above variables, we also
included the market capitalization of the acquiring firm (as a proxy for firm size), exchange rate,
corporate tax difference, and idiosyncratic volatility (that is, the residual variance estimated for
each firm based on the market model in the estimation period of the event study). We included
the idiosyncratic volatility of acquirer returns given the evidence in Moeller, Schlingemann and
Stulz (2007) who conclude that there is no difference in cross-sectional acquirer returns

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“…between cash offers for public firms, equity offers for public firms, and equity offers for
private firms…” after controlling for idiosyncratic volatility.
3.3.2 Governance Factors
La Porta et al (2000) define corporate governance as the set of policies and procedures
that provide outside investors with a fair return on their investment. There are two dimensions to
governance, one is country specific, and the other is company specific. Country specific items
include the corruption of government officials in a country, the effectiveness and integrity of the
judiciary system, the access of new and mid-size firms to the country’s capital markets, the
concentration of stock ownership in the country, minority shareholder rights, and whether or not
the country allows shareholders to mail their proxy vote and allows for proportional
representation of minority shareholders on the board. Company specific governance measures
include the anti-takeover provisions in the company’s charter, manager and director
compensation policy, board structure, and board governance policies; Bhagat, Bolton, and
Romano (2008) provide a detailed discussion of company specific governance measures and
their pros and cons.
Ideally we would like to consider data on country specific and company specific
governance measures. However, Doidge, Karolyi and Stulz (2007) suggest that the inter-country
differences are much greater than differences across companies within a country. Hence, we
choose to focus on country specific governance measures; these data are from La Porta et al
(2002). We included four specific governance factors – antidirect, concentration, french origin,
and English origin.
This study also included controls for several variables that might affect the relationship
between CAR and the above determinants. These include geographic distance, cultural distance,

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target country’s’ GDP growth rate, a dummy for USA targets and a year dummy for acquisitions
before and after year 2000. The detailed descriptions of all the above variables are given in Table
1.
INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE
4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Characteristics of Emerging Country CBAs
Table 2 shows the total number and the total transaction values of the completed CBAs in
the sample. Both the transaction numbers and values increase substantially in the sample period.
There is no obvious intertemporal trend in the median transaction size. However, the mean
transaction value appears to have increased substantially recently, especially during the 2006 to
2008 period; this suggests a few large transactions during the most recent three years. During
2000-2008, 24 acquisitions were worth more than a billion dollars each; see Appendix 3. Not
surprisingly, given the small size of most acquisitions, the vast majority (561 of 698 transactions)
of targets are privately-held or subsidiary companies; only 137 targets are publicly-listed
companies.
Table 3 notes the industries and countries of the target companies involved in emerging
country CBAs between 1991 and 2008, and announcement period abnormal returns for emerging
country acquirers (details of returns are noted in Table 4). Indian companies have made the most
CBAs, 341, followed by Malaysia (154), China (68), South Africa (50), Mexico (30), Brazil (21),
Russia (21), and Philippines (13). Most targets of Indian companies are in the U.S. in the

19
business services industry. Most Malaysian and Chinese targets are in Hong Kong in the
financial services industry. South African targets are mostly in U.K. in the business services
industry. Mexican targets tend to be in the U.S. in the telecom industry. Most Russian and
Brazilian targets are in the metals industry in Ukraine and Argentina, respectively. Finally,
Philippines acquirers tend to target U.S. companies in the food industry.
The largest number of targets are from the U.S. (149 targets), followed by U.K. (72
targets), Hongkong (69), Singapore (59), Australia (40), Germany (22) and Canada (21). It is
important to note that majority of the acquisitions by the emerging country firms are carried out
in the developed countries. Since developed countries tend to have higher governance standards
than emerging countries, this is consistent with Martynova and Renneboog’s (2008) and Khanna
and Palepu’s (2004) bootstrapping hypothesis which suggests that the acquirer voluntarily
bootstraps itself to the higher governance standards of the target.
INSERT TABLES 3 ABOUT HERE
4.2 Announcement Period Abnormal Returns
Table 4 (Panels A, B and C) summarizes the announcement period abnormal returns for
emerging country acquirers during 1991-2008. Panel B notes cumulative returns around the
announcement day for our total sample of 698 acquisitions. Panel C notes cumulative returns
around the announcement day for our sub-sample of 377 acquisitions for which we have data for
the cross-sectional analysis (detailed later in Table 6). Day 0 is the announcement day. Emerging
country acquirers experience an average market response of 1.09% on the announcement day.
This return is statistically significant at the 0.01 level considering both the parametric and non-

20
parametric tests.1
Motivated by Khanna and Yafeh (2007) we control for acquisitions made by
the same industry group, for example, Tatas; the results are qualitatively identical.
The above result is consistent with the findings of Chari, Ouimet and Tesar (2004), Burns
and Moya (2006), Cakici, Hessel and Tandon (1997), and MR; these authors also document a
small but significant positive return to acquirers in CBAs; see Appendix 1. However, two
comments are worth noting. First, the acquirers in all of the above four studies are from
developed economies.2
Second, as detailed in Appendix 1, two studies document an insignificant
return and two document a small but significant negative return to acquirers in cross-border
acquisitions; this contrasts with our evidence of a significant positive market response to
emerging country acquirers in cross-border acquisitions.
The positive announcement return is consistent with MR’s and KP’s bootstrapping
hypothesis: The acquirer voluntarily bootstraps itself to the higher governance standards of the
target – resulting in a positive valuation impact on the acquirer. Similarly for U.S. domestic
mergers and acquisitions, Wang and Xie (2009) show that both acquiring and target firms benefit
from corporate governance improvements. The scope of these improvements should increase
considerably for CBAs because, in CBAs the governance standards differ extensively between
the acquiring and the target firm countries; and emerging country firms target predominantly
developed markets.
Furthermore, the positive announcement return is inconsistent with MR’s negative
spillover by law hypothesis which applies to situations when an acquirer has less demanding
1
We also consider the acquirer’s cumulative abnormal return during the three, five, and eleven days around the
acquisition announcement. Additionally, we consider the acquirer’s buy-and-hold return during the three, five, and
eleven days around the acquisition announcement. These cumulative and buy-and-hold returns are all positive and
significant at the .01 level; see Table 4, Panels B and C.

21
governance standards than the target. To further test MR’s bootstrapping hypothesis we consider
the correlation between announcement returns and the difference in governance between the
target and acquirer. As noted above, per Doidge, Karolyi and Stulz (2007), we use differences in
country specific governance measures as proxies for differences in acquirer and target
governance; results are discussed in the next section. The correlations for these variables are
given in Table 5.
INSERT TABLES 4 AND 5 ABOUT HERE
4.3 Cross-sectional Determinants of Acquirer Returns
Table 6 summarizes the regression results for the cross-sectional determinants of returns
to emerging country acquirers. We document a significant positive relation between acquirer
return and relative size of the acquisition in all regression specifications; this result is consistent
with the findings in Moeller et al (2004) and Bhagat et al (2005). Consistent with the literature,
notably Bayazitova et al (2009), we find a significant negative correlation between transaction
value and acquirer return in all regression specifications. The other control variables are not
significant in any of the regression specifications.
In Models 2 through 5, we focus on various target country specific governance variables.
Model 2 indicates a significant positive relation between anti-director rights and acquirer return.
Model 3 indicates a significant negative relation between target country share ownership
concentration and acquirer return. Given that stronger anti-director rights and less concentrated
share ownership are positively correlated with better corporate governance (per La Porta et al,
2000, 2002), the above evidence is consistent with MR’s bootstrapping hypothesis. Model 4
(Model 5) suggests a significant positive (negative) relation between targets in countries with an

22
English (French) legal origin and acquirer return. Since shareholders are treated more favorably
under English legal origin laws than French legal origin laws (per La Porta et al, 2000, 2002),
this evidence is also consistent with MR’s bootstrapping hypothesis: the acquirer return is more
positive when there is greater potential improvement in acquirer governance as a consequence of
better target governance.
5. Conclusion
Our research addresses an important contemporary phenomenon – the
internationalization strategy of acquirers from developing countries. A predominant mode of
internationalization for these firms is through CBAs. Despite a significant rise in the number of
foreign acquisitions made by firms from developing countries, there is no empirical evidence on
the stock market valuation and cross-sectional determinants of the valuation of these acquisitions.
This paper lays the foundations for a new research stream, namely, CBAs of acquirers from
developing countries.
We find that the stock market rewards emerging country acquirers. Additionally, in the
cross-section, acquirer returns are positively correlated with (better) corporate governance
measures in the target country. The positive announcement return and the cross-sectional
relation between these returns and governance measures are consistent with Martynova and
Renneboog’s (2008) and Khanna and Palepu’s (2004) bootstrapping hypothesis: The acquirer
voluntarily bootstraps itself to the higher corporate governance standards of the target – and this
is viewed positively by the market.
5.1 Future research directions

23
Acquisition of a target in a developed country by an emerging country acquiring
company is one way for the acquirer to signal that it is bootstrapping itself to the higher
governance standards of the target. The emerging country acquirer could send a similar signal
via cross-listing its common stock in a developed country. Besides the obvious choice of which
developed country to cross-list in, foreign corporations have a multitude of ways they can cross-
list within a particular developed country. For example, in the U.S. a foreign firm can cross-list
via SEC Rule 144a or in the OTC market; alternatively, it could cross-list on one of the
organized exchanges like the NYSE or NASDAQ. In U.K., cross-listing alternatives include
listing on the Main Market as a Depositary receipt or ordinary issue, listing on the Alternative
Investment Market, or the London Stock Exchange. These cross-listing alternatives differ in their
disclosure and corporate governance implications; for example, see Doidge, Karolyi, Lins, Miller
and Stulz (2009), Goto, Watanabe and Xu (2009), and Fernandes and Ferreira (2008). A
comprehensive theoretical and empirical analysis of the emerging country acquiring firm
bootstrapping itself to the higher governance standards of a developed country via acquisition or
cross-listing in one of the developed countries (and the methods as noted above) would be a
fruitful topic for future research.
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Table 1: Variable Description
Variables Description
Continuous Variables
CAR (-1, +1) Acquirer’s cumulative abnormal return during the three days around the acquisition announcement.
Abnormal return based on the market model.
Acq Mkt Cap Acquiring firm’s log transformed market capitalization (at the latest fiscal year end before
acquisition).
Tobin Q Acquiring firm’s Tobin's Q (at the latest fiscal year end before acquisition).
Sigma Unsystematic risk of acquiring firms' stock (using 120 days daily returns in the estimation period of
the market model).
Relative Size Relative size of transaction (transaction values divided by acquiring firms' market capitalization).
Target Antidirect This index of Anti-director rights is formed by adding one when: (1) the country allows shareholders
to mail their proxy vote; (2) shareholders are not required to deposit their shares prior to the General
Shareholders’ Meeting; (3) cumulative voting or proportional representation of minorities on the
board of directors is allowed; (4) an oppressed minorities mechanism is in place; (5) the minimum
percentage of share capital that entitles a shareholder to call for an Extraordinary Shareholders’
Meeting is less than or equal to ten percent (the sample median); or (6) when shareholders have
preemptive rights that can only be waived by a shareholders meeting. The range for the index is from
zero to six. Source: La Porta et al. (1999).
Concentration Average percentage of common shares not owned by the top three shareholders in the ten largest
non-financial, privately-owned domestic firms in a given country. A firm is considered privately-
owned if the State is not a known shareholder in it. Source: La Porta et al. (1999), African equities
for Kenya, Bloomberg and various annual reports for Ecuador, Jordan, and Uruguay.
Geographic distance Logarithmic of geographic distance (in kilometres) between the capital cities of the target and
acquiring countries.
Exchange rate The percentage change in the acquiring country’s exchange rate against the target country currency
during the acquisition year.
Target GDP Growth Percentage growth rate of the target country’s GDP in the latest fiscal year before the acquisition.
Transaction value Value of the acquisition deal (in million US dollars).
Tax Difference The difference of the average corporate tax rate between the acquiring country and the target
country.
Cultural distance We follow Kogut and Singh’s (1988) method to combine the four dimensions of Hofstede’s (1980)
cultural distance (individualism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity) into one
composite variable.
Binary Variables
Related industry Within 2-digit SIC code of the acquirer (1 is yes, 0 is no).
Private target Private target firms (1 is private firm, 0 for other types).
Pure cash Payment method of the transaction (1 is cash payment, 0 is mixed cash and stock payment).
Post-2000 1 for the acquisitions after year 2000 (including 2000), and 0 for the acquisitions before year 2000.
USA targets 1 if the target firm is in United States, 0 if the target firm is located in other countries.
English Origin 1 if Target Country has English legal origin. Source: La Porta et al. (1998).
French Origin 1 if Target Country has French legal origin. Source: La Porta et al. (1998).

31
Table 2: Cumulative average abnormal returns and transaction values
for emerging country acquirers
CAR (-1, +1) Transaction value in
US $ million (in 2008 $)
Year N Mean Median N Mean Median
2008 41 0.0093 -0.0017 41 832.95 41.00
2007 102 0.0158 0.0016 89 356.45 30.84
2006 118 0.0285 0.0104 92 697.02 29.17
2005 93 0.0082 0.0058 71 104.13 19.75
2004 77 0.0173 0.0049 66 208.33 10.14
2003 55 0.0189 0.0114 45 103.52 18.44
2002 35 0.0068 -0.0035 29 368.03 16.39
2001 32 0.0280 0.0081 30 94.53 22.27
2000 38 0.0363 0.0162 33 163.50 12.45
1999 17 0.0176 -0.0134 12 150.90 40.71
1998 17 0.0278 -0.0031 15 160.51 72.37
1997 17 0.0037 0.0010 16 181.38 10.83
1996 12 -0.0161 -0.0018 12 267.93 18.39
1995 15 -0.0144 -0.0034 15 72.05 32.20
1994 9 0.0003 0.0000 9 46.12 20.11
1993 7 0.0111 -0.0173 7 373.22 16.27
1992 5 0.0103 0.0058 5 142.32 7.62
1991 5 0.0262 0.0300 5 39.69 9.53
CAR (-1, +1) is the acquirer’s cumulative abnormal return during the three days around the acquisition
announcement.

32
Table 3: CAR (-1, +1) For Different Acquiring Countries
CAR (-1,+1)
Country N Mean Median S.D. Top 5 Target Industries Top 5 Target Nations
Brazil 21 -0.004 -0.0014 0.1342 Metal and Metal Products Argentina
Oil and Gas; Petroleum Refining United States
Food and Kindred Products Portugal
Mining Canada
Business Services Peru
China 68 0.0387 0.0026 0.1518 Finance and Investments Hong Kong
Mining United States
Oil and Gas; Petroleum Refining Australia
Business Services Singapore
Electronic and Electrical Equipment Canada
India 341 0.0233 0.0113 0.0623 Business Services United States
Drugs United Kingdom
Prepackaged Software Germany
Chemicals and Allied Products Singapore
Metal and Metal Products France
Malaysia 154 0.0123 0.0005 0.0653 Finance and Investments Hong Kong
Business Services Singapore
Real Estate; Mortgage Bankers and Brokers Australia
Transportation and Shipping (except air) China
Wholesale Trade-Durable Goods Indonesia
Mexico 30 -0.0001 0.0038 0.0371 Telecommunications United States
Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Products Brazil
Food and Kindred Products Argentina
Radio and Television Broadcasting Stations Spain
Business Services Colombia
Philippines 13 -0.012 -0.0061 0.0518 Food and Kindred Products United States
Business Services Hong Kong
Financial and Investment Firm Germany
Wholesale Trade-Nondurable Goods Singapore
Oil and Gas; Petroleum Refining Australia
Russia 21 -0.0078 -0.0066 0.0343 Metal and Metal Products Ukraine
Commercial Banks, Bank Holding Companies United States
Oil and Gas; Petroleum Refining United Kingdom
Telecommunications Germany
Business Services Kazakhstan
South Africa 50 0.0107 0.0036 0.0607 Business Services United Kingdom
Mining Australia
Financial and Investment Firm United States
Prepackaged Software Germany
Wholesale Trade-Durable Goods Canada
Total 698
announcement.

33
Table 4: Announcement period abnormal returns for days -10 through +10 in cross-border
acquisitions by emerging country firms
Panel A. Daily Abnormal Returns (Market Model, N = 698)
Day
Mean Abnormal
Return
Median Abnormal
Return % Positive t test
Wilcoxon
Signed
Rank Test
-10 -0.10% -0.08% 47.56% -0.867 -1.717 *
-9 0.17% -0.04% 48.15% 1.506 0.068
-8 0.11% -0.01% 49.63% 1.078 0.017
-7 0.71% -0.06% 47.71% 1.168 0.723
-6 -0.12% -0.12% 45.94% -0.768 -2.425 **
-5 -0.23% -0.08% 46.23% -1.277 -2.289 **
-4 -0.03% -0.21% 44.02% -0.219 -3.075 ***
-3 0.02% -0.07% 48.01% 0.132 0.461
-2 0.75% -0.01% 49.78% 1.165 0.783
-1 0.27% 0.01% 50.52% 2.317 ** 0.908
0 1.09% 0.27% 56.72% 5.080 *** 5.296 ***
1 0.36% -0.02% 49.19% 1.973 ** 1.011
2 -0.04% -0.13% 45.20% -0.311 -2.386 **
3 -0.19% -0.17% 44.46% -1.377 -3.407 ***
4 0.18% -0.08% 46.09% 0.835 1.781 *
5 -0.01% -0.07% 46.68% -0.065 -1.476
6 -0.27% -0.12% 45.94% -1.415 -2.107 **
7 0.47% 0.01% 50.81% 2.293 ** 0.493
8 0.27% -0.12% 45.49% 1.099 1.626
9 -0.03% -0.03% 49.19% -0.234 -1.269
10 -0.02% -0.05% 48.01% -0.130 -0.731
*** 1% significance, ** 5% significance, * 10% significance.
Panel B. Cumulative Returns (N = 698)
Cumulative
Returns Mean Median % Positive t test
Wilcoxon
Signed
Rank Test
Cumulative abnormal returns (CAR) (market
model):
CAR (-1, +1) 1.72% 0.50% 56.57% 5.870 *** 5.406 ***
CAR (-2, +2) 2.43% 0.82% 56.57% 3.465 *** 5.155 ***
CAR (-5, +5) 2.17% 0.40% 52.58% 2.740 *** 2.523 **
Buy-and-hold (BHR) raw returns:
BHR (-1, +1) 1.96% 0.69% 57.31% 6.222 *** 6.374 ***
BHR (-2, +2) 2.89% 1.09% 59.08% 4.045 *** 6.586 ***

34
BHR (-5, +5) 3.17% 1.27% 57.46% 3.839 *** 4.750 ***
Panel C. Cumulative Returns (N = 377)
Cumulative
Returns Mean Median % Positive t test
Wilcoxon
Signed
Rank Test
Cumulative abnormal returns (market model):
CAR (-1, +1) 1.81% 0.52% 56.37% 5.011 *** 4.276 ***
CAR (-2, +2) 1.74% 1.04% 58.81% 4.048 *** 4.208 ***
CAR (-5, +5) 1.34% 0.73% 54.74% 2.085 ** 2.407 **
Buy-and-hold raw returns:
BHR (-1, +1) 1.91% 0.82% 57.72% 4.693 *** 4.799 ***
BHR (-2, +2) 2.10% 1.45% 62.33% 4.460 *** 5.165 ***
BHR (-5, +5) 1.99% 1.83% 60.43% 2.850 *** 3.627 ***
announcement. Similarly, CAR (-5, +5) is the acquirer’s cumulative abnormal return during the 11 days around the
acquisition announcement.
BHR (-1, +1) is the acquirer’s buy-and-hold return during the three days around the acquisition announcement.
Similarly, BHR (-5, +5) is the acquirer’s buy-and-hold return during the 11 days around the acquisition
announcement.
Panel B notes cumulative returns around the announcement day for the total sample of 698 acquisitions. Panel C
notes cumulative returns around the announcement day for the sub-sample of 377 acquisitions for which we have
data for the cross-sectional analysis.

36
Table 5. Correlation Matrixª
ªn = 377. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Variables are defined in Table 4.
# Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 CAR(-1, +1) 1
2 Related Industry -.05 1
3 Transaction Value -.11** .07 1
4 Private Target .04 -.01 -.23** 1
5 Pure Cash .02 .02 -.11** .00 1
6 Cultural Distance .00 -.06 .08 .03 .09* 1
7 Tobin Q -.04 .14** -.07 .07 .01 .05 1
8 Sigma -.01 -.06 -.12** .14** -.22** .02 .07 1
9 Exchange Rate -.02 .09* .07 -.02 .01 .00 -.02 -.04 1
10 Relative Size .30** .08 .08 -.02 .04 .07 .05 .09* -.02 1
11 Concentration -.09* -.08* -.02 -.06 -.02 -.46** -.16** -.05 -.03 -.15** 1
12 Acq Mkt Cap -.20** .09* .37** -.23** .01 .05 .22** -.30** .06 -.24** .08 1
13 English origin .05 -.11** .03 -.01 -.14** .00 -.02 .11** -.03 -.05 -.38** -.09* 1
14 French origin -.09* .08 -.02 .00 .08 -.13** -.05 -.09* -.01 -.04 .42** .08* -.76** 1
15 Target Antidirect .02 -.16** -.02 -.05 -.07 -.20** -.04 -.06 -.11** -.06 .27** -.03 .29** -.24** 1
16 Post-2000 .06 .18** .05 .10** .09* -.08 .00 .04 -.05 .09* -.07 -.08* -.07 .04 -.085* 1
17 USA Targets .03 .09* .03 .12** -.09* .18** .08 .12** .05 .10* -.62** -.06 .32** -.24** -.50** .07* 1
18 Geographic Distance .02 .14** -.01 .10** .00 .33** .18** .03 .00 .16** -.58** -.03 -.02 -.01 -.40** .12** .43** 1
19 Target GDP growth -.02 .03 -.06 -.05 .08* -.25** -.09* -.06 -.05 -.12** .33** .01 .12** -.04 .13** .02 -.24** -.35** 1
20 Tax Difference .03 .04 -.12** .00 .05 -.27** .06 -.06 -.10* .00 .29** -.03 -.06 -.09 .43** .00 -.31** -.15** .18** 1

38
Table 6. Cross-sectional determinants of acquirer’s announcement returns
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Variables β t β t β t β t β t
Constant .05 1.06 .04 .82 .12 2.27 .05 1.10 .04 .76
Sigma -.02 -.30 -.01 -.25 -.02 -.28 -.02 -.35 -.02 -.38
Tobin Q .01 .17 .00 .06 -.02 -.42 -.01 -.14 .00 -.04
Acq Mkt Cap -.09 -1.39 -.09 -1.37 -.07 -1.12 -.08 -1.26 -.08 -1.22
Transaction Value -0.15** -2.58 -0.16** -2.75 -0.15** -2.72 -0.16** -2.73 -0.16** -2.78
Relative Size 0.32*** 6.17 0.33** 6.21 0.33** 6.16 0.33** 6.12 0.34** 6.25
Related Industry -.08 -1.57 -.06 -1.20 -.07 -1.41 -.06 -1.24 -.06 -1.20
Private Target .03 .63 .04 .75 .04 .85 .04 .79 .04 .80
Pure Cash .00 .02 .01 .19 -.01 -.15 .00 -.01 .00 .06
Geographic Distance -.01 -.08 -.03 -.52 -.07 -1.07 .00 -.01 -.01 -.08
Exchange Rate -.05 -.87 -.04 -.81 -.04 -.86 -.04 -.83 -.04 -.73
Target GDP growth -.02 -.34 -.06 -1.00 -.03 -.47 -.04 -.79 -.05 -.95
Tax Difference .08 1.48 .06 1.07 .08 1.38 .04 .74 .06 1.02
Post-2000 .03 .68 .04 .70 .03 .53 .03 .64 .03 .66
USA Targets .01 .26 -.03 -.56 -.07 -1.05 -.03 -.42 -.03 -.50
Cultural Distance .02 .27 .02 .35 -.03 -.52 -.01 -.09 .01 .23
Target Antidirect .11** 2.07
Concentration -.20** -2.77
French origin -.11** -2.02
English origin .10* 1.84
N 375 364 364 364 364
Adjusted R square .14 .15 .15 .15 .14
F 5.01*** 4.89*** 5.14*** 4.87*** 4.82***
The dependent variable is CAR (-1, +1) in each regression.
announcement.
Other variables are defined in Table 4.
t-statistics are computed using heteroscedascticity-consistent standard errors.
Winsorization was also done at 1% and 5%, the results remain the same.

39
Appendix 1: Extant literature on cross-border acquisitions
Paper Sample
period
Sample
size
Bidder from these
countries
Target from
these countries
Bidder
return
Bidder
return Z-
statistic or
(sig. level)
Bidder return positively
related to
Bidder return
negatively related to
Chari-Ouimet-
Tesar (2004)
1988-
2002
346 Developed market Emerging
market
2.43% (.05) Majority control ---
Burns-Moya
(2006)
1988-
2004
1,129 U.S. 26 developed
countries,
20 emerging
countries
.83%
(n=755)
2.41%
(n=153)
4.19
4.44 Private targets
---
Cakici-Hessel-
Tandon (1997)
1983-
1992
195 Developed
countries (UK,
Canada, Germany,
Japan, )
U.S.
.63% 4.69
--- ---
Martynova-
Renneboog
(2008)
1993-
2001
2,419 European countries European
countries
0.47% 2.25 Bidder/target same
language, Bidder/target
common border, Bidder
shareholder rights
improvement, Target
shareholder rights
improvement,
Bidder size, Hostile bid
Benou-Gleason-
Madura (2007)
1985-
2001
503 U.S. 22 developed,
18 less-
developed
countries
.29% .79
Target media visibility,
IB reputation
Cash offers,
Tech bubble period
Mueller-Turtoglu
(2007)
1981-
2002
9,733 Developed
countries
Developed
countries
.006% -- Separate regressions for
positive and negative
acquirer returns.
Separate regressions for
positive and negative
acquirer returns.
Kuipers-Miller-
Patel (2003)
1982-
1991
181 Developed
countries
U.S. -0.92% 5.82 Level of shareholder
rights, and rule of law in
acquirer’s country.
Level of creditor rights
in acquirer’s country.
Bris-Cabolis
(2008)
1989-
2002
506 Developed and
emerging countries
Developed and
emerging
countries
-1.12% (.03) --- ---

41
Appendix 2. Top and Worst Performing Cross-border Acquisitions (CBA)
Panel A. Top 30 Value Creating CBAs by Emerging Country Acquirers
# Year Bidder Nation Bidder Firm Target Nation Target Firm
%
Share
Transaction
Value a
CAR
(-1,+1)
1 1997 China Hartcourt Cos Inc United States Pego Systems Inc 100 2.45 0.808
2 2002 China Discovery Investments Inc United States Cavio Corp 100 7.00 0.634
3 1999 Brazil Hurricane Hydrocarbons Ltd Kazakhstan Shymkentnefteorgsintez 88.36 69.49 0.493
4 2001 Malaysia Sitt Tatt Bhd Singapore PMI Plating Services Pte Ltd 100 41.16 0.442
5 2000 Malaysia IPCO International Ltd Indonesia Prestasi Cipta Pertiwi PT 70 1.40 0.357
6 1998 China First Tractor Co Ltd Hong Kong Ningbo CSI Tractor & Auto 40 3.02 0.331
7 2000 India Rediff.com India Ltd United States ThinkIndia.com Inc 100 3.00 0.314
8 2006 India Suprajit Engineering Ltd United Kingdom CTP Gills Cables Ltd-business 100 3.93 0.288
9 2008 China Aamaxan Transport Group Inc British Virgin Asian Bus Mgmt Grp Ltd 100 41.23 0.274
10 2005 China TriOil Ltd Canada Yangarra Resources Inc 100 6.51 0.260
11 2003 Malaysia Lion Diversified Holdings Bhd Singapore Parkson Venture Pte Ltd 50 122.16 0.240
12 2006 India Tata Coffee Ltd United States Eight O Clock Coffee co 100 220.00 0.238
13 2006 India Aban International Norway AS Norway Sinvest ASA 49.99 657.56 0.233
14 2006 India Subex Systems Ltd United Kingdom Azure Solutions Ltd 100 140.00 0.204
15 2007 India United Spirits Ltd United Kingdom Whyte & Mackay Ltd 100 1176.30 0.199
16 2007 India Eicher Motors Ltd United States Hoff & Associates Inc 100 3.50 0.198
17 2007 India Nirma Ltd United States Searles Valley Minerals Co 100 NA 0.192
18 1993 Malaysia Shapadu Kontena Bhd Singapore Inno-Pacific Holdings Ltd 20.1 2.71 0.189
19 2006 India Welspun India Ltd United Kingdom CHT Holdings Ltd 85 24.54 0.185
20 2007 India Paramount Communications Ltd United Kingdom AEI Cables Ltd 100 26.77 0.183
21 2008 China Kasen Intl Hldgs Ltd Hong Kong Investwise International Ltd 100 34.20 0.181
22 2000 India Max India Ltd United States AltaCast LLC 22 7.00 0.179
23 2003 India Crisil Ltd United Kingdom Economatters Ltd 100 2.65 0.178
24 2007 China Fushi International Inc United States Copperweld Bimetallics LLC 100 22.50 0.177
25 2005 India Helios & Matheson InfoTech Ltd United States vMoksha Technologies Inc USA 100 NA 0.174
26 2001 India Rediff.com India Ltd United States India Abroad Publications Inc 100 10.00 0.161
27 2006 India Spentex Industries Ltd Uzbekistan Tashkent-Toyetpa Tekstil Ltd 100 81.00 0.159
28 2006 India Aban Loyd Chiles Offshore Ltd Norway Sinvest ASA 39.5 512.02 0.148
29 2007 India Quintegra Solutions Ltd United States PA Corp 100 49.00 0.146
30 2008 China China Unicom Ltd Hong Kong China Netcom Grp(HK)Corp Ltd 100 25416.00 0.143
ªTransaction value is in U.S. Million $ (in 2008$). CAR (-1, +1) is the acquirer’s cumulative abnormal return during the three days around the acquisition
announcement.

42
Panel B. Top 30 Value Destroying CBAs by Emerging Country Acquirers
# Year Bidder Nation Bidder Firm Target Nation Target Firm % Share
Transaction
Valuea
CAR
(-1,+1)
1 2008 Malaysia Maybank Singapore Sorak Finl Holdings Pte Ltd 100 1255.60 -0.075
2 1996 Malaysia Malex Industries Bhd New Zealand Brierley Investments Ltd 20.01 1393.70 -0.074
3 2004 India Sona Koyo Steering Systems France Fuji Autotech France SAS 15 6.15 -0.072
4 1994 Mexico Grupo Radio Centro SA de CV United States Heftel Broadcasting Corp 38.39 13.50 -0.072
5 2003 South Africa Harmony Gold Mining Co Ltd Australia Abelle Ltd 69.42 83.40 -0.071
6 1999 India Videocon International Ltd Italy Mecne SpA 35 NA -0.071
7 2008 Malaysia Grand-Flo Solution Bhd Hong Kong CL Solutions(China)Ltd 100 5.28 -0.070
8 1999 India HDFC Brazil hpG 5 NA -0.069
9 2000 India Satyam Infoway Ltd United States IndiaPlaza.com Inc 100 8.16 -0.068
10 2000 India Aptech Ltd United States Specsoft Consulting Inc 100 10.00 -0.067
11 2008 Malaysia Malaysian Bulk Carriers Bhd Singapore PACC Offshore Svcs Hldg Pte 22.08 221.00 -0.066
12 1999 India HCL Infosystems Ltd Singapore FEC Singapore Pte Ltd 100 1.56 -0.065
13 1996 Malaysia Hai Ming Holdings Bhd China Hubei Huali Paper Mills Co Ltd 60 3.76 -0.064
14 2000 Philippines Omico Corp United States Iemagine Inc 20 3.90 -0.064
15 2001 India HCL Technologies Ltd United States Systech Inc 100 NA -0.064
16 2006 India UTV Software Commun Ltd United Kingdom Ignition Entertainment Ltd 70 13.44 -0.064
17 2003 India Tata Motors Ltd South Korea Daewoo Commercial Vehicle Co 100 101.30 -0.062
18 2005 India i-flex Solutions Ltd Canada Castek Software Inc 51 NA -0.061
19 2002 India United Phosphorus Ltd United States Midland Fumigant Inc 25 NA -0.059
20 2002 Brazil Petroleo Brasileiro SA Argentina Petrolera Perez Companc SA 39.67 49.66 -0.059
21 2002 Brazil Petroleo Brasileiro SA Argentina Perez Companc SA 58.6 1027.50 -0.059
22 2007 India Educomp Solutions Ltd Canada Savicca Inc 70.05 NA -0.058
23 2007 India Faze Three Exports Ltd Germany Pana Textil GmbH 76 8.43 -0.058
24 1995 Malaysia JCG Holdings Ltd Hong Kong Winton Holdings(Bermuda)Ltd 61.35 63.33 -0.057
25 2008 South Africa AngloGold Ashanti Ltd Brazil Sao Bento Gold Ltd 100 70.22 -0.057
26 1993 Mexico Consorcio G Grupo Dina'l'ads United States Motor Coach Industries Intl 100 334.64 -0.055
27 2001 India Pentamedia Graphics Ltd United States Improvision Corp 100 15.98 -0.055
28 2004 Malaysia MTD Capital Bhd Chile El Principal SA 49 4.00 -0.054
29 2008 Russian Fed OAO Pharmstandard Cyprus Dipaka Trading Ltd 19.88 10.00 -0.052
30 2005 Malaysia SapuraCrest Petroleum Bhd Australia Total Marine Technology Pty 80 8.54 -0.051

43
ªTransaction value is in U.S. Million $ (in 2008$). CAR (-1, +1) is the acquirer’s cumulative abnormal return during the three days around the acquisition
announcement.

44
Appendix 3
Top 50 CBAs by Transaction Valueª
# Acquirer name Target name
Acquiring
nation Target nation Year
Transaction
value
Acquirer
CAR (-1,+1)
1 China Unicom Ltd China Netcom Grp(HK)Corp Ltd China Hong Kong 2008 25,416.00 0.143
2 Cia Vale do Rio Doce SA Inco Ltd Brazil Canada 2006 18,194.37 -0.036
3 Cemex SAB de CV Rinker Group Ltd Mexico Australia 2006 15,114.59 -0.031
4 Tata Steel UK Ltd Corus Group PLC India United Kingdom 2006 12,509.02 -0.009
5 Ambev John Labatt Ltd Brazil Canada 2004 8,740.04 -0.147
6 OAO GMK Norilsk Nickel LionOre Mining Intl Ltd Russian Fed Canada 2007 6,463.04 0.056
7 AV Aluminum Inc Novelis Inc India United States 2007 5,951.09 -0.147
8 MTN Group Ltd Investcom LLC South Africa Lebanon 2006 5,832.81 0.064
9 Coca-Cola FEMSA SA CV Panamerican Beverages Inc Mexico United States 2002 4,323.10 -0.114
10 Gerdau Ameristeel Corp Chaparral Steel Co Brazil United States 2007 4,253.86 -0.114
11 CEMEX SA DE CV Southdown Inc Mexico United States 2000 3,542.27 -0.011
12 CNOOC Ltd NNPC-OML 130 China Nigeria 2006 2,855.93 -0.001
13 America Movil SA de CV Telecom Americas Ltd Mexico Brazil 2002 2,653.34 -0.001
14 OAO Gazprom Beltransgaz Russian Fed Belarus 2007 2,570.00 -0.009
15 YTL Power International Bhd PowerSeraya Ltd Malaysia Singapore 2008 2,357.00 0.019
16 CITIC Pacific Ltd HK Telecomm China Hong Kong 1993 1,986.82 -0.005
17 Malex Industries Bhd Brierley Investments Ltd Malaysia New Zealand 1996 1,898.31 -0.074
18 Gerdau SA Quanex Corp Brazil United States 2007 1,797.97 -0.001
19 Sappi Ltd KNP Leykam(KNP BT) South Africa Austria 1997 1,735.93 -0.010
20 San Miguel Corp National Foods Ltd Philippines Australia 2004 1,636.93 0.002
21 China Unicom Ltd Unicom New World(BVI)Ltd China Hong Kong 2003 1,576.61 -0.021
22 OAO Mechel Oriel Resources PLC Russian Fed United Kingdom 2008 1,524.00 0.042
23 Nueva Grupo Mexico SA de CV ASARCO Inc Mexico United States 1999 1,364.89 -0.013
24 Tata Power Co Ltd Kaltim Prima Coal PT India Indonesia 2007 1,336.40 0.002
25 Vitro SA de CV Anchor Glass Container Corp Mexico United States 1989 1,292.58 0.047
26 Malaysia Intl Shipping Corp American Eagle Tankers Inc Malaysia Singapore 2003 1,267.75 -0.017
27 Maybank Sorak Finl Holdings Pte Ltd Malaysia Singapore 2008 1,256.00 -0.075
28 United Spirits Ltd Whyte & Mackay Ltd India United Kingdom 2007 1,208.93 0.199
29 Petroleo Brasileiro SA Perez Companc SA Brazil Argentina 2002 1,203.72 -0.059
30 America Movil SA de CV Puerto Rico Telephone Mexico Puerto Rico 2006 996.18 0.002
31 JSW Steel Ltd Jindal United Steel Corp India United States 2007 966.32 -0.080
32 Investec Holdings Ltd Hambros PLC South Africa United Kingdom 1998 924.05 -0.009
33 ONGC Greater Nile Petroleum India Sudan 2002 899.28 0.033
34 Cia Vale do Rio Doce SA Canico Resource Corp Brazil Canada 2005 815.05 0.049
35 Guangzhou Investment Co Ltd Guangzhou Constr,Super Gain China Hong Kong 2001 765.57 0.100
36 OAO SeverStal Esmark Inc Russian Fed United States 2008 761.00 -0.040
37 OAO SeverStal Lucchini SpA Russian Fed Italy 2006 742.63 -0.039
38 Metcash Trading Ltd Foodland Associated Ltd South Africa Australia 2004 737.91 0.134
39 Aban International Norway AS Sinvest ASA India Norway 2006 698.07 0.233
40 Maybank MCB Bank Ltd Malaysia Pakistan 2008 673.00 -0.037
41 China Resources Entrp Ltd Hong Kong Intl Terminal Ltd China Hong Kong 1996 649.57 -0.006
42 CITIC Ka Wah Bank Ltd HKCB(CH Resources(Hldgs)Ltd) China Hong Kong 2001 647.60 -0.002
43 OAO SeverStal Lucchini SpA Russian Fed Italy 2005 635.14 -0.004
44 Bank Niaga Tbk PT Lippo Bank Tbk PT Malaysia Indonesia 2007 628.11 0.023
45 ICBC Seng Heng Bank China Macau 2007 609.60 -0.035
46 Dr Reddys Laboratories Ltd Betapharm Arzneimittel GmbH India Germany 2006 605.77 0.107
47 AE-Rotor Techniek BV Eve Holding NV India Belgium 2006 601.53 -0.019
48 CITIC Pacific Ltd Hang Chong Investment Co China Hong Kong 1992 591.22 -0.011
49 Suzlon Windenergie GmbH REpower Systems AG India Germany 2007 568.48 -0.096
50 Guoco Group Ltd BIL International Ltd Malaysia Singapore 2005 563.84 0.001
ªTransaction value is in U.S. Million $ (in 2008$). CAR (-1, +1) is the acquirer’s cumulative abnormal return during the
three days around the acquisition announcement.

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