![Curriculum (DfEE/QCA, 1999). Occasionally, we have added other items we feel are
appropriate, for example on the environment. Third, each chapter suggests ‘Ways to
teach . . . [the science topic]’. Here you will find a selection of effective explanations,
demonstrations, and approaches from which you can select ones that you feel are
appropriate for your pupils. You will find a range of pupil activities, including sugges-
tions that will enable development of pupils’ investigative skills. We include ideas for
discussions – both whole-class and small-group discussions – which themselves can
lead to questions the pupils can investigate. Where investigative elements are increas-
ingly pupil-led, science can become even more meaningful. It is widely accepted that
pupils who learn science through hands-on investigations learn more effectively and
that learning stays with them longer (Wenham, 1995). Icons in the margins indicate
links within science to other subjects and highlight sections which deal with safety.
The suggested activities do not necessarily constitute lessons but may be part of a
lesson.Each activity includes a learning objective that can be adapted but should be the
focus of your teaching, as this helps pupils understand why they are doing an activity.
These, like the activities, can be rewritten to suit your objectives. Activities are not pre-
sented in a particular order,so you should consider borrowing and adapting ideas from
onesectiontoanotherandfromonekeystagetoanother.Someincludealittlerepetition
so ensure that you actively use and adapt the most useful ones for your learners.
In these sections, boxes are inserted that refer to what Driver (1983) and we
prefer to call ‘alternative understandings’. However, we have adopted the language
used more often in school and these are entitled ‘common misconceptions’. Each
misconception is stated in speech marks, as if a pupil has stated it. This draws atten-
tion to the fact that it may not be correct. After a brief explanation, we have usually
suggested an activity or discussion point to help challenge the misconception. In the
margin of the pages you will find boxes to indicate that the text includes a link to
another part of science, an issue about safety (ASE, 2001) or options that use infor-
mation and communication technology, including the internet. Science education
presents many opportunities for the learning of literacy and numeracy; a selection is
indicated in the margin along with references to other subjects. Science can enhance
learning in these subjects and learning in science can itself be enhanced by more
literate and numerate pupils.
At the end of each chapter you will find a short summary of content and a list of
common misconceptions. These could be used within your development diary
(Appendix 3) to review your learning. Can you see ways to challenge these mis-
conceptions? Are they ones you once held? You might reveal other areas of
uncertainty by utilising the short multi-choice self-test questions at the end of the
chapter. These short self-tests are representative not comprehensive and so are only
indicators of your learning.
Rationale
The natural world is a wonderful place. Almost all of us have stared into a flower or at
the night sky with awe and wonder. As far as we know, we are the first living creatures
Spiritual
to have sought to explain the universe and where we fit into it. Science provides one of
the most effective tools for doing so.
I N T R O D U C T I O N 3](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/86613-250621211922-99b0154a/85/Essential-Primary-Science-1st-Edition-Alan-Cross-19-320.jpg)
![– comparison questions,
– action questions,
– problem-posing questions,
– children’s how and why questions.
Pupils’ questions often provide a potential starting point in science, although you
will often have to help pupils form questions: ‘As we can’t all agree which material will
be the strongest, could we ask a question that would help us to find the answer?’ The
questions posed by pupils at this point often need reworking, for example they might
ask, ‘Which material is best?’ Part of our science teaching is to ensure that pupils learn
to pose questions that can be investigated. Thus, such a pupil question might need to
be adjusted. ‘What do we mean by “best”?’ You might then consider if you can
employ any useful ‘w’ words, such as ‘which’, ‘when’, ‘where’ or ‘why’, as these can
often improve a science question. The most challenging science questions often begin
with the words ‘why’ or ‘how’.
You can further improve your teaching by ensuring that alongside other ques-
tions you pose ‘why’ questions; for example, ‘You predicted that the large parachute
would fall the slowest and that is what happened. Why did that happen?’ This ques-
tion challenges everyone in the classroom to move towards an explanation. The
pupils’ attempts to explain may require rewording so that they become even more
useful.
Pupil #1: ‘It’s because of air.’
Teacher: ‘But what is the air doing?’
Pupil #2: ‘There’s more air hitting it’ [pupil uses hand to demonstrate].
Teacher: ‘That’s right. The bigger parachute canopy hits or catches more air. So
there is more . . .?’
Pupil #2: ‘There is more air resistance’.
Teacher: ‘You’re right, the bigger canopy creates more air resistance’.
Explaining what pupils observe is perhaps the hardest part of science for them. They
may appear to know the background science and the observation they have made
may appear to you to be clearly linked and obvious. However, you may be dismayed
when pupils struggle to link the science to what they have seen. This is perhaps
another example of the difficulty of generalising from an instance. Annual reviews
published in England (QCA, 2004: accessed at http://www.naa.org.uk/
naa_19199.aspx), based on analysis of pupils’ responses to the English national
Standard Assessment Tasks (SATs), repeatedly illustrate the difficulty. For example,
‘To help improve performance pupils need opportunities to explain why some
materials appear shiny’. Such evaluation provides little guidance as to how a teacher
might best provide such opportunities for learning and unfortunately perhaps
reinforces a view that our teaching for learning is motivated by a need to improve
performance on tests.
I N T R O D U C T I O N 9](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/86613-250621211922-99b0154a/85/Essential-Primary-Science-1st-Edition-Alan-Cross-25-320.jpg)
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Essential Primary Science 1st Edition Alan Cross
- 1. Essential Primary Science 1st Edition Alan Cross download pdf https://ebookfinal.com/download/essential-primary-science-1st-edition- alan-cross/ Visit ebookfinal.com today to download the complete set of ebook or textbook!
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- 5. Essential Primary Science 1st Edition Alan Cross Digital Instant Download Author(s): Alan Cross, Adrian Bowden ISBN(s): 9780335239344, 033523934X Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 7.61 MB Year: 2009 Language: english
- 6. Essential Primary Science Containsover200activitiesreadyforyouto tryoutinyourclassroom! If you are teaching or learning to teach primary science, this is the toolkit to support you! Not only does it cover the essential knowledge and understanding that you need to know, it also offers over 200 great ideas for teaching primary science – so no more late nights thinking up creative new ways to teach key concepts! In addition, this book offers you practical guiding principles which you can apply to every lesson. There are tips on how to ensure each lesson includes both practical and investigative elements and suggestions on how to make your lessons engaging, memorable and inclusive. Each chapter is organized around the following structure: ● What science do you need to know and understand? ● What science do yourpupils need to learn? ● What is the best way to teach these topics in the primary classroom at KS1 and KS2? Sample pupil activities are also included and there is coverage of how to deal with common misconceptions within every chapter. Written in a friendly style, the authors draw on their own teaching experience and understanding of the National Curriculum and QTS standards to provide an essential guide to teaching primary science. Alan Cross is Senior Fellow in the School of Education, University of Manchester, UK. Adrian Bowden (Travelling Science Limited) delivers science shows to primary aged pupils throughout North West England. www.openup.co.uk Cover design Hybert Design • www.hybertdesign.com Whatyou needtoknow ● Greatwaysto teachscience ● InlinewithQTS standards Essential Primary Science Alan Cross & Adrian Bowden Essential Primary Science Cross & Bowden
- 9. Essential Primary Science Alan Cross and Adrian Bowden
- 10. Open University Press McGraw-Hill Education McGraw-Hill House Shoppenhangers Road Maidenhead Berkshire England SL6 2QL email: enquiries@openup.co.uk world wide web: www.openup.co.uk and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121–2289, USA First published 2009 Copyright © Cross and Bowden 2009 All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London, EC1N 8TS. A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library ISBN-13: 978–0–335234–60–8 (hb) 978–0–335234–61–5 (pb) ISBN- 0–335234–60–7 (hb) 0–335234–61–5 (pb) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data CIP data has been applied for Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Printed in the UK by Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
- 11. To Sue and Sara for their support, encouragement, and suggestions
- 13. Contents Acknowledgements ix 1 Introduction 1 2 Life processes – plants 16 3 Life processes – animals 51 4 Variation and diversity 93 5 Environment 110 6 Materials 132 7 Rocks and soils 173 8 Forces 187 9 The Earth in space 217 10 Electricity 245 11 Sound 266 12 Light 284 Appendices 305 Bibliography 308 Index 311
- 15. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the copyright holders of the following material for permission to reproduce artwork in Essential Primary Science. Data Harvest Group Ltd., 1 Eden Court, Leighton Buzzard, Bedforshire LU7 4FY Figure 2.14 Hand-held data logger Figure 3.17 An electronic pulse sensor Millgate House Education Ltd., Unit 1, Zan Industrial Park, Wheelock, Sandbach CW11 4QD Figure 2.11 Concept cartoon The University of Manchester Children’s University, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL Figure 9.8 Page from a website simulation – shadows Sherston Publishing Group, Angel House, Sherston, Malmesbury, Wiltshire SN16 0LH Figure 2.2 A simple drawing of a flowering plant Figure 2.5 A section through a leaf Figure 3.4 The human skeleton Figure 3.5 Structure of the human knee joint Figure 3.6 The human heart Figure 3.8 Components of human blood Figure 3.14 A human tooth Figure 3.15 The digestive system Figure 9.1 Eight planets and Pluto (dwarf planet) orbit our Sun to make up our Solar System TTS Group Ltd., Park Lane Business Park, Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Nottinghamshire NG17 9GU Figure 2.10 Stereo microscope The authors also wish to thank Gary Holmes for redrawing the artwork for all other figures.
- 17. 1 Introduction In this book, we recognise that as a teacher or student teacher you may have to move quickly from a low level of personal knowledge and understanding of science to a much higher level, as well as learn how to teach it to others! The following chapters are based on the three things you need to know: • what science the teacher needs to know and understand; • what science the pupils need to learn; and • effective ways to teach that science in primary classes. In England, this means that pupils have opportunities to learn the science required by the National Curriculum (DfEE/QCA, 1999). For you as a teacher, we take that science further so that the book complies with the TDA (Training and Development Agency for Schools) standards for subject knowledge (TDA, 2007: Q14, 15) and suggests ways to teach science, including many references to science investigations, thus strongly supporting your achievement of TDA standards related to subject teaching (TDA, 2007: Q10, 25). This means that you can approach the teaching of primary science with increasing confidence. In this chapter, we outline basic prin- ciples and ideas about teaching science that will set you on the right path to help you experience early success. The most important contributors to this success will be your own commitment to learn, reflect, and act to further pupil learning. Following an explanation of the structure and background of the book, this chap- ter will summarise several key ideas or principles that you can use to guide your own learning and teaching of science. Teaching includes all those things a teacher does which influence the learning of pupils in classrooms (Stenhouse, 1975). In this book, we focus on the personal knowledge and understanding of science required by pri- mary teachers and the actions planned and taken by teachers in classrooms to provide primary pupils with the opportunities for learning science. Classroom teaching is cyclic in that teachers begin with ideas about what pupils should learn, find out what the pupils already know, understand and can do, design experiences for pupils that will provide opportunities to learn, and then lead the review of that learning before
- 18. considering the next steps. Our intention is to help you to develop a growing com- mand of science education. You will derive much of this from your personal science knowledge and understanding, your ability to provide effective experiences for pupils in science, and your enthusiasm for the subject. If you are a trainee teacher in England, you must ensure that your science teaching reaches the standards set out by the TDA (2007). This includes your personal understanding and knowledge of common misconceptions and of teaching science for learning that is safe at all times for pupils (TDA, 2007: Q10, 14, 15, 17, 25a–d, 30). We have additionally placed extra emphasis on environmental science, including climate change, as we take the view that primary teachers should have a growing knowledge and understanding of the science behind environmental issues. Two important clarifications are required. First, our chapter subheadings include the phrase ‘know and understand’, as we recognise that no book can guarantee com- plete understanding of all these science topics. Each chapter will help to increase your awareness of your personal knowledge and understanding in science. In a similar vein, we recognise that we cannot include all possible teaching methods, but do include examples that previously have worked well in primary classrooms. These will give you a great starting point, although we encourage you to adapt and develop the sugges- tions to suit you, your pupils, and the particular learning that is your objective. Second, although we refer to the investigative element of science and suggest activ- ities, you will need to further strengthen your background knowledge, understanding, and practice of science investigation. We recommend materials such as those available in resources and books, including Making Sense of Primary Science Investigations by Goldsworth and Feasey (1997) and chapter 2 of Peacock (1998) or chapter 3 of Sharp et al. (2000), which are practical and highly readable. Your understanding of the teaching of primary science will be further enhanced by reference to other well- presented and relevant educational research, which is usefully summarised by several authors (Harlen, 1999; Sharp, 2004; Roden, 2005). Organisation of the book Each chapter deals with a significant section of science understanding for both you as teacher and your pupils. The length of the chapters varies depending on the science involved; for example, materials are an important part of science in the National Curriculum (DfEE/QCA, 1999), so this is reflected in the length of Chapter 6. After a short summary of the content, each chapter reviews the essential science background knowledge you require in ‘What the teacher needs to know and understand’. In add- ition to reading the text, please complete the activities provided in these sections and make use of the recommended internet links. We know these will assist your learning greatly and can often be adapted to work with pupils. You might also consider them if you find yourself supporting colleagues. Each chapter then summarises ‘What the pupils need to know’ by the end of either Key Stage 1 (5–7 years) or Key Stage 2 (7–11 years). These short sections are based on the National Curriculum (DfEE/ QCA, 1999) and the QCA (1998) science scheme. The former is quoted verbatim. However, we have only added learning objectives from the QCA (1998) scheme, which we believe include content not referred to specifically by the National 2 E S S E N T I A L P R I M A RY S C I E N C E
- 19. Curriculum (DfEE/QCA, 1999). Occasionally, we have added other items we feel are appropriate, for example on the environment. Third, each chapter suggests ‘Ways to teach . . . [the science topic]’. Here you will find a selection of effective explanations, demonstrations, and approaches from which you can select ones that you feel are appropriate for your pupils. You will find a range of pupil activities, including sugges- tions that will enable development of pupils’ investigative skills. We include ideas for discussions – both whole-class and small-group discussions – which themselves can lead to questions the pupils can investigate. Where investigative elements are increas- ingly pupil-led, science can become even more meaningful. It is widely accepted that pupils who learn science through hands-on investigations learn more effectively and that learning stays with them longer (Wenham, 1995). Icons in the margins indicate links within science to other subjects and highlight sections which deal with safety. The suggested activities do not necessarily constitute lessons but may be part of a lesson.Each activity includes a learning objective that can be adapted but should be the focus of your teaching, as this helps pupils understand why they are doing an activity. These, like the activities, can be rewritten to suit your objectives. Activities are not pre- sented in a particular order,so you should consider borrowing and adapting ideas from onesectiontoanotherandfromonekeystagetoanother.Someincludealittlerepetition so ensure that you actively use and adapt the most useful ones for your learners. In these sections, boxes are inserted that refer to what Driver (1983) and we prefer to call ‘alternative understandings’. However, we have adopted the language used more often in school and these are entitled ‘common misconceptions’. Each misconception is stated in speech marks, as if a pupil has stated it. This draws atten- tion to the fact that it may not be correct. After a brief explanation, we have usually suggested an activity or discussion point to help challenge the misconception. In the margin of the pages you will find boxes to indicate that the text includes a link to another part of science, an issue about safety (ASE, 2001) or options that use infor- mation and communication technology, including the internet. Science education presents many opportunities for the learning of literacy and numeracy; a selection is indicated in the margin along with references to other subjects. Science can enhance learning in these subjects and learning in science can itself be enhanced by more literate and numerate pupils. At the end of each chapter you will find a short summary of content and a list of common misconceptions. These could be used within your development diary (Appendix 3) to review your learning. Can you see ways to challenge these mis- conceptions? Are they ones you once held? You might reveal other areas of uncertainty by utilising the short multi-choice self-test questions at the end of the chapter. These short self-tests are representative not comprehensive and so are only indicators of your learning. Rationale The natural world is a wonderful place. Almost all of us have stared into a flower or at the night sky with awe and wonder. As far as we know, we are the first living creatures Spiritual to have sought to explain the universe and where we fit into it. Science provides one of the most effective tools for doing so. I N T R O D U C T I O N 3
- 20. This book is founded on the need for all learners to engage with their science learning. Science can be daunting for teacher and pupils. The approach advocated here is to be honest about the challenges and the rewards of learning science. Primary science teaching can utilise learners’ interest in the world, encourage questions in the classroom and an active engagement with each person’s understanding and skill in science. Primary science provides many opportunities for the use of key numeracy Numeracy and literacy and literacy skills, for example presenting the results of an investigation to an audience. It is worth reminding ourselves that as primary teachers our concern is science education and, as part of that, science itself. By this we mean that while in school we and our pupils engage in scientific behaviour; however, the reason we do this is not for science enquiry or discovery alone, but also so that our pupils will learn about science and the world. What you as a teacher understand and know about science and science education is crucial to this learning. An important part of the special knowledge you require as a teacher is pedagogical knowledge. Alexander (2004) summarises peda- gogy as the ‘act and discourse of teaching’. This book will assist you with examples of some of the best ways to teach science. It is our hope that by reflecting on and thinking about your learning and the learning of your pupils, you will engage in a personal discourse about the ways you teach science most effectively. During your training and afterwards, your growing confidence should allow you to gain even more as a teacher through, for example, discussion with others. Part of this knowledge of science is the nature of science. Take a look at Table 1.1 and consider the ways in which you view science and how as a teacher you convey science. Unfortunately, society sometimes encourages a stereotypical or negative view of science (Driver, 1983). As a primary teacher you are in a powerful position to affect the long-term view that pupils take of science. Can you see ways to present a positive view of science to your pupils? Although this book will assist you, it is best to be explicit with pupils about the nature of science from the start. Table 1.1 Views of science? Science is not: Science is: dull interesting closed expanding, creative exclusive inclusive magic real always straightforward sometimes complex always as it seems sometimes counter-intuitive able to solve all problems a way we can tackle problems able to answer all questions a powerful way to seek answers only for one group of people for all 4 E S S E N T I A L P R I M A RY S C I E N C E
- 21. Guiding principles As well as knowing what you understand about science, as a teacher you also need to be clear about what your weaker areas are and the ways that you might take that learning forward. This approach to learning is known as ‘metacognitive’ learning, which can be defined as knowing about knowing (Flavell et al., 1977). Thus a meta- cognitive learner is self-aware, reflective, and pro-active about what they know and understand in science and how they learn. Key indicators of effective adult learners are that they are self-motivated and self-directed. We hope that you will take on these ideas about your own learning and accept that all sources, from internet simulations to concept maps, audits and tests, are useful tools for you as a learner. This book pro- vides many pedagogical ideas (ideas relating to teaching children). We accept that adults and pupils learn in similar but not necessarily identical ways. For example, you are likely to be more experienced at reading diagrams than an average eight-year-old and may therefore gain more from studying them. Alternatively, you may know that you find diagrams less helpful and therefore know that you must seek other sources to learn from effectively. You might also recognise that you need to strengthen your capacity to deal with diagrams. Learning is different for all learners. In science, each learner starts from where they are, thus your first act as a teacher should always be to find out or elicit what the pupils already know and can do. Reference to assessment records and pupils’ science books is essential, as is helping pupils to review their own learning to date. This elicitation can be the first stage in what is referred to as the ‘constructivist approach’, which is based on the idea that pupils construct their own learning. Social constructiv- ists see this as occurring alongside others, including other pupils and adults, in social settings such as classrooms (Vygostky, 1988). After initial orientation of the learner with the aspect of science, and elicitation, the teacher is advised to provide learning experiences that will challenge any misconceptions held and seek to move pupils towards the scientifically accepted view. These ideas have much to offer teachers and to this we add the important notion of pupil engagement. To utilise powerful ideas such as constructivism, the pupils must be engaged in their science and their learning. You, as their teacher, require a growing repertoire of ideas to gain and maintain the attention and involvement of pupils. Vygotsky’s (1988) view was that learners require a ‘knowledgeable other’ to guide them through ideas and experiences so that they have the best opportunity to learn. This occurred, he suggested, in a ‘zone of proximal development’, where learners are guided and supported to a point where that guidance is no longer required. These ideas are linked to those of pupil autonomy, which recognise the need for pupils to become more independent or ‘self-governing’ (Baud, 1987). As teacher you are the ‘knowledgeable other’. Individual pupils require varying amounts of support, which can include, for example, the teacher guiding with questions or modelling science language and behaviour. You might extend metacognitive approaches to your knowledge of teaching, in this case of teaching science. What is your present knowledge and understanding of teaching science? What have you learned about teaching science for learning? What have you learned from experienced practitioners? In which circumstances do I N T R O D U C T I O N 5
- 22. you learn best about teaching science? How do you make best use of your experiences? The teaching ideas provided in each chapter of this book aim to increase your repertoire of options for teaching for learning. These have the potential to turn satis- factory lessons into good or very good lessons. By very good in this context we mean lessons in which all pupils learn well. The book does not, however, provide a complete scheme of work. Rather, it provides high-quality guidance. This guidance includes the following principles, which might underpin your teaching for learning in science: • finding out (eliciting) what children already understand, know, and can do; • making lessons memorable; • including elements to capture and hold pupils’ attention; • making science fun by including both enjoyment and challenge; • ensuring learning in science is based on pupil interaction; • making science questions a key focus; • ensuring teacher and pupils pose and seek to answer ‘why’ questions; • providing a considerable emphasis on language (including scientific) and communication; • ensuring a high level of engagement with science and purposeful practical science activity; • ensuring investigations are increasingly pupil-led – that is, initiated and planned by pupils; • involving pupils in self-review, assessment, and reflection about their learning in science. If, as a teacher, you can gain the full attention of an individual, they can learn from your teaching. Without their attention, you will simply be background noise. The ideas provided in this book have been tried and tested over many years by the authors. What works for one learner will almost certainly not work for all learners. This links to a problem that all science teachers experience, that we often ask pupils to generalise from an instance (McGuigan and Schilling, 1997). That is, we provide an experience, say thermal insulation of warm beakers with different materials, and hope pupils will learn from that experience – that is, to be able to talk about and ideally explain what is happening and apply this learning to other examples of thermal insula- tion. For many learners, that one instance is insufficient to fully cement the learning. Thus, you should consider options to conduct or at least illustrate and discuss other instances of, in this case, thermal insulation. One simple approach that could provide other instances is to utilise your pupils’ senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell). Most science lessons can utilise the first three safely. If you consider the use of sight, sound, and touch when teaching difficult ideas, you can have some confidence that at least one will work for a proportion of children and another with another group in the class. Ensure pupils have time to observe the phenomenon, to see posters or simula- tions, to talk about and hear different ideas and views, and handle the materials. A practical investigation by the pupils might offer all of these opportunities for learning. 6 E S S E N T I A L P R I M A RY S C I E N C E
- 23. It is also worth considering that different teachers might teach equally success- fully in different ways. Thus you may find that teaching methods that a colleague finds less successful are an overwhelming success for your pupils’ learning. Remem- ber that classes vary considerably. You should therefore see your pupils as the most important variable when considering what approach to take, but also be mindful of other variables, including: the particular science topic; your personal strengths, including your science and pedagogic knowledge and understanding; the need to stress investigations in science; the resources and the time available. When thinking about how to approach a science lesson, consider the following: • How and when will I express the learning objective(s)? • What teaching methods, including pupil activities, should I employ? • How will I introduce and encourage the pupils to use the science language? • Will these lessons engage pupils? • How can I involve pupils more? • How will pupils be able to develop investigative skills? • How will pupils further their understanding of their own learning in science? • To what extent do these pupils need to see, do or hear things? • How can I play to the strengths of my resources and my skills? For pupils to feel part of their own learning in science, you might take comple- mentary approaches. First, give them increased autonomy in Science 1 and, second, share with them ideas such as those of constructivism and metacognition. These approaches support ‘thinking about thinking’, which offers a powerful way to make science learning more personal. This approach fits very well with important emphases in primary education, including personalisation of learning and Assessment for Learning (AfL) (DCSF, 2008). For more information on metacognition, visit: http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/cep564/Metacog.htm We will refer throughout to learning tools such as internet-based and other science simulations, which we believe should complement learning but never take the place of hands-on experience of, say, magnets. Simulations can assist learners and their teachers by representing ideas, utilising language, and review- ing, introducing and challenging ideas, but they cannot replace essential personal experience of, for example, the strength of different magnets. Language/literacy and science It is a basic tenet of primary education that language is central. Language is also very important in science and science education. Some science ideas and concepts can be expressed mathematically, but to a far greater extent the medium of learning science I N T R O D U C T I O N 7
- 24. in classrooms is language. Therefore, as much emphasis as possible should be placed on pupils engaging with and using appropriate language in their science education (Yore et al., 2003). Words are often used very precisely in science, so point out to pupils that they will come across words such as ‘force’ that are used in all sorts of ways, such as air force, storm force, and Parcel Force, but in science its meaning is special, focused, and limited to pushes and pulls. Speaking and listening are major vehicles for learning in science, as are the differ- ent forms of writing and drawing. Pupils’ learning will benefit given very regular opportunities to talk and discuss as well as to write about their science. The idea of do, talk, and record applies well here – that is, pupils doing things, talking about them and what they mean, and then recording what has occurred and their thoughts. Written science can occur on classroom posters, books, text, diagrams, interactive white- boards, internet sites, blogs, and resources published by others as well as those written by pupils. The development of literacy in science presents a wealth of opportunities for pupils to strengthen language and language skills in a very meaningful context. The importance of questions There is a possibly apocryphal story of an apple falling on Isaac Newton’s head, which was the trigger for him to think about why things fall to Earth. Whether or not an apple ever fell on Newton’s head, he was very interested in falling objects as an example of objects moving in relation to one another (in this case, the apple and the Earth). His key word was, of course, ‘why’? Armed with a question that can be investigated, the scientist has made the first, and perhaps the most essential, step towards the answer. Questions are at the heart of science and of science education. The teacher and pupils should together be asking questions and seeking answers. Your understanding of the different questions that can be asked by pupils and teachers and the ways these can be handled will allow you to utilise questions rather than fear them. As a teacher, you should develop the following skills yourself so that you can best enable pupil learning of science. Questioning skills for teachers include: • using questions in all aspects of science (for example: focusing attention, estab- lishing links, making things explicit; utilising predictions, seeking explanations and motivating); • learning to pose questions about the world; • learning to pose questions that can be investigated scientifically; • understanding that pupils often misunderstand our questions; • using the power of questions in your science teaching, including Elstgeet’s (1985): – open and closed questions, – productive questions, – attention-focusing questions, – measuring and counting questions, 8 E S S E N T I A L P R I M A RY S C I E N C E
- 25. – comparison questions, – action questions, – problem-posing questions, – children’s how and why questions. Pupils’ questions often provide a potential starting point in science, although you will often have to help pupils form questions: ‘As we can’t all agree which material will be the strongest, could we ask a question that would help us to find the answer?’ The questions posed by pupils at this point often need reworking, for example they might ask, ‘Which material is best?’ Part of our science teaching is to ensure that pupils learn to pose questions that can be investigated. Thus, such a pupil question might need to be adjusted. ‘What do we mean by “best”?’ You might then consider if you can employ any useful ‘w’ words, such as ‘which’, ‘when’, ‘where’ or ‘why’, as these can often improve a science question. The most challenging science questions often begin with the words ‘why’ or ‘how’. You can further improve your teaching by ensuring that alongside other ques- tions you pose ‘why’ questions; for example, ‘You predicted that the large parachute would fall the slowest and that is what happened. Why did that happen?’ This ques- tion challenges everyone in the classroom to move towards an explanation. The pupils’ attempts to explain may require rewording so that they become even more useful. Pupil #1: ‘It’s because of air.’ Teacher: ‘But what is the air doing?’ Pupil #2: ‘There’s more air hitting it’ [pupil uses hand to demonstrate]. Teacher: ‘That’s right. The bigger parachute canopy hits or catches more air. So there is more . . .?’ Pupil #2: ‘There is more air resistance’. Teacher: ‘You’re right, the bigger canopy creates more air resistance’. Explaining what pupils observe is perhaps the hardest part of science for them. They may appear to know the background science and the observation they have made may appear to you to be clearly linked and obvious. However, you may be dismayed when pupils struggle to link the science to what they have seen. This is perhaps another example of the difficulty of generalising from an instance. Annual reviews published in England (QCA, 2004: accessed at http://www.naa.org.uk/ naa_19199.aspx), based on analysis of pupils’ responses to the English national Standard Assessment Tasks (SATs), repeatedly illustrate the difficulty. For example, ‘To help improve performance pupils need opportunities to explain why some materials appear shiny’. Such evaluation provides little guidance as to how a teacher might best provide such opportunities for learning and unfortunately perhaps reinforces a view that our teaching for learning is motivated by a need to improve performance on tests. I N T R O D U C T I O N 9
- 26. Random documents with unrelated content Scribd suggests to you:
- 29. The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hardware, estimating, and mill design
- 30. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: Hardware, estimating, and mill design Editor: William S. Lowndes Release date: February 8, 2024 [eBook #72897] Language: English Original publication: Scranton, PA: International Textbook Company, 1909 Credits: Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARDWARE, ESTIMATING, AND MILL DESIGN ***
- 31. International Library of Technology 333 Hardware, Estimating, and Mill Design 223 Illustrations Prepared Under Supervision of W. S. LOWNDES, Ph. B. DIRECTOR, SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING CONSTRUCTION INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS BUILDERS’ HARDWARE ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING QUANTITIES MILL DESIGN Published by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY SCRANTON, PA. 1925 Builders’ Hardware: Copyright, 1908, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London. Estimating and Calculating Quantities, Part 1: Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company. Copyright, 1908, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.
- 32. Estimating and Calculating Quantities, Part 2: Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company. Copyright, 1909, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London. Mill Design: Copyright, 1907, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London. All rights reserved Printed in U. S. A. Press of International Textbook Company Scranton, Pa.
- 33. PREFACE The volumes of the International Library of Technology are made up of Instruction Papers, or Sections, comprising the various courses of instruction for students of the International Correspondence Schools. The original manuscripts are prepared by persons thoroughly qualified both technically and by experience to write with authority, and in many cases they are regularly employed elsewhere in practical work as experts. The manuscripts are then carefully edited to make them suitable for correspondence instruction. The Instruction Papers are written clearly and in the simplest language possible, so as to make them readily understood by all students. Necessary technical expressions are clearly explained when introduced. The great majority of our students wish to prepare themselves for advancement in their vocations or to qualify for more congenial occupations. Usually they are employed and able to devote only a few hours a day to study. Therefore every effort must be made to give them practical and accurate information in clear and concise form and to make this information include all of the essentials but none of the non-essentials. To make the text clear, illustrations are used freely. These illustrations are especially made by our own Illustrating Department in order to adapt them fully to the requirements of the text. In the table of contents that immediately follows are given the titles of the Sections included in this volume, and under each title are listed the main topics discussed. At the end of the volume will be found a complete index, so that any subject treated can be quickly found. International Textbook Company
- 34. CONTENTS Builders’ Hardware Section Page Staple Hardware 55 1 Cut and Wire Nails 55 2 Wood Screws, Expansion and Special Bolts 55 11 Sash Weights 55 18 Finishing Hardware 55 20 Metals and Their Manipulation 55 20 Hinges, Hinge Butts, and Special Hinges 55 24 Locks and Their Appurtenances 55 55 Window and Sash Hardware 55 77 Door Hardware and its Application 55 102 Shutter Hardware 55 129 Cabinet Trim 55 132 Design and Specification of Hardware for Buildings 55 138 Hardware of Special Design 55 138 Selection, Estimation, and Application of Hardware 55 146 Schedules and Drawings for the Hardware Contractor 55 154 Glass and Glazing 55 157 Estimating and Calculating Quantities Scope of Subject 60 1 Approximate Estimating 60 3 Accurate Estimating Schedule 60 5 Excavation 60 11 Concrete Work 60 18 Masonry 60 24 Brickwork 60 31 Carpentry 60 38 Roofing 60 46 Plastering 60 58
- 35. Joinery 60 61 Structural Steel 60 69 Heating and Ventilating System 60 69 Plumbing and Gas-Fitting 60 70 Painting and Papering 60 72 Glazing 60 78 Example in Estimating 61 1 Excavation 61 2 Stonework 61 4 Brickwork 61 8 Carpentry 61 10 Roofing 61 21 Lathing and Plastering 61 22 Joinery 61 23 Hardware 61 33 Heating and Ventilating System 61 35 Plumbing 61 37 Gas-Fitting 61 40 Wiring 61 41 Painting 61 42 Summary of Cost of Building 61 44 Mill Design Site and Arrangement 64 1 Preliminary Considerations 64 1 Types of Mill Construction 64 13 Girder and Plank-on-Edge Construction 64 13 Standard Slow-Burning Construction 64 18 Factory Buildings of Reinforced Concrete 64 23 Steel-Frame Mill Buildings 64 31 Details of Mill Construction and Design 64 34 The Power Plant 64 41 Chimneys 64 45 Fire-Protection of Mill Buildings 64 50
- 36. INDEX i
- 37. BUILDERS’ HARDWARE STAPLE HARDWARE INTRODUCTION 1. The hardware used in building construction may be classified as staple and finished. Staple hardware may be considered as including such materials as nails and spikes, bolts and screws, sash weights, and other materials of this character, while finished hardware may include such devices and appliances as locks and latches, hinges, door and window trimmings, and the various metallic fixtures used in equipping the different classes of buildings. To this last classification the term builders’ hardware is frequently applied. Strictly speaking, glass cannot be considered as hardware; nevertheless, it is frequently supplied to the builder through hardware supply houses, and it is so closely allied to the hardware of building construction that the subject of glass, its trade terms, and other information relating to its characteristics, will not be out of order in this Section. While little consideration is given to the hardware on the average building, there is no more important part of the construction, nor one to which greater attention should be given. On the quality and the selection of proper hardware depends the avoidance of the petty annoyances often found in buildings where this subject has not received proper consideration. The architect should be well informed regarding this subject, and should be in a position to know the kind and quality of hardware that, when specified, will give the best results. He will find that a thorough knowledge of builders’ hardware will assist him materially in writing comprehensive specifications for this portion of the work. Consequently, the writing of the hardware specifications will receive attention in this Section, and the proper manner of estimating, or “taking off,” hardware will also be considered. CUT AND WIRE NAILS
- 38. 2. Cut Nails.—The primitive nail was made or forged by hand, and this mode of manufacture still exists in certain sections of Europe. These hand- made nails sold at exorbitant prices compared with the machine-made nails of today. The manufacture of cut nails is less automatic and requires more manual labor than is necessary in the making of wire nails. The iron or steel is first rolled into sheets, the thickness of which is equal to the thickness of the nail; it is then cut into strips as wide as the nail is long. This strip of metal is fed into the nail machine and sheared off in tapering strips having the form of the nail, when it is seized by clamps that hold it just long enough for the heading hammer to strike the blow that forms the head. The nail manufactured in this manner is known as the cut nail, and is much superior to the wire nail, which is of more recent production. Not only has the cut nail greater holding power, but it is more durable, especially when used in damp places. 3. Nearly all cut nails used at the present time are made from sheet steel, a small percentage only being manufactured of iron, for which the makers charge a slightly higher price. The steel nail is undoubtedly the best for use in hardwoods, but the iron nail will outlast it where dampness exists, as, for instance, in shingling, etc. As shown in Fig. 1, cut nails are made in many styles and sizes, and for various purposes. They are also known by the same trade term for the various styles. Cut nails are heavier than wire nails, and as they count fewer to the pound, are more expensive at equivalent prices. All nails are sold at base prices per keg of 100 pounds, the “extras” for smaller and special nails being added to the base price. For special work, certain types of nails can be obtained in copper and brass. 4. Size and Gauge of Nails.—Both cut and wire nails are designated by the trade term penny. The term penny as applied to nails is a relic of medieval England. This designation was due, it is said, to the fact that it defined the cost per hundred nails, so that tenpenny nails would mean that 100 of such nails cost ten pence. A more likely interpretation of the term is that it implied the weight and not the cost, and that the term penny is a corruption of the Old English word pun’ (for pound), so that tenpunny or tenpenny implied that 1,000 of such nails weighed 10 pounds. The smallest standard size of nail is known as twopenny or threepenny, while the largest is designated as sixtypenny. These sizes range in length from 1 to 6 inches. In designating the size of the nail in list prices, the symbol “d” (for penny) is used, so that a nail
- 39. about 2 inches long is designated as 6d. The thickness, or diameter, is indicated by the gauge number, the gauge of cut nails being an indication of the thickness of plate from which they are cut, while the gauge of wire nails is the size of the wire from which the nails are formed. The different wire gauges and their decimal equivalents of an inch are given in Table I. The special wire gauge commonly used to indicate the size of the nail is the Birmingham. In Table II is given a list of the stock sizes of standard, common, cut nails. This table, besides giving the thickness of the nail and its length, gives the number of nails to the pound. TABLE I STANDARD WIRE GAUGES AND THEIR DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF AN INCH Number of Wire Gauge American, or, Brown & Sharpe Birming- ham Washburn & Moen Manufacturing Company Trenton Iron Company United States Standard Old English From Brass Manufacturers’ Lists 000000 .4600 .46857 00000 .4300 .4500 .43750 0000 .460000 .454 .3930 .4000 .40625 000 .409640 .425 .3620 .3600 .37500 00 .364800 .380 .3310 .3300 .34375 0 .324950 .340 .3070 .3050 .31250 1 .289300 .300 .2830 .2850 .28125 2 .257630 .284 .2630 .2650 .26563 3 .229420 .259 .2440 .2450 .25000 4 .204310 .238 .2250 .2250 .23438 5 .181940 .220 .2070 .2050 .21875 6 .162020 .203 .1920 .1900 .20313 7 .144280 .180 .1770 .1750 .18750 8 .128490 .165 .1620 .1600 .17188 9 .114430 .148 .1480 .1450 .15625 10 .101890 .134 .1350 .1300 .14063 11 .090742 .120 .1200 .1175 .12500 12 .080808 .109 .1050 .1050 .10938 13 .071961 .095 .0920 .0925 .09375 14 .064084 .083 .0800 .0800 .07813 .08300 15 .057068 .072 .0720 .0700 .07031 .07200 16 .050820 .065 .0630 .0610 .06250 .06500 17 .045257 .058 .0540 .0525 .05625 .05800 18 .040303 .049 .0470 .0450 .05000 .04900 19 .035390 .042 .0410 .0390 .04375 .04000 20 .031961 .035 .0350 .0340 .03750 .03500
- 40. Number of Wire Gauge American, or, Brown & Sharpe Birming- ham Washburn & Moen Manufacturing Company Trenton Iron Company United States Standard Old English From Brass Manufacturers’ Lists 21 .028462 .032 .0320 .0300 .03438 .03150 22 .025347 .028 .0280 .0270 .03125 .02950 23 .022571 .025 .0250 .0240 .02813 .02700 24 .020100 .022 .0230 .0215 .02500 .02500 25 .017900 .020 .0200 .0190 .02188 .02300 26 .015940 .018 .0180 .0180 .01875 .02150 27 .014195 .016 .0170 .0170 .01719 .01875 28 .012641 .014 .0160 .0160 .01563 .01650 29 .011257 .013 .0150 .0150 .01406 .01550 30 .010025 .012 .0140 .0140 .01250 .01375 31 .008928 .010 .0135 .0130 .01094 .01225 32 .007950 .009 .0130 .0120 .01016 .01125 33 .007080 .008 .0110 .0110 .00938 .01025 34 .006304 .007 .0100 .0100 .00853 .00950 35 .005614 .005 .0095 .0090 .00781 .00900 TABLE II SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND OF COMMON CUT NAILS Trade Term Length Inches Gauge Number to Pound 3d fine 1⅛ 16 720 3d flat 1¼ 15 full 430 4d flat 1½ 14 full 275 5d flat 1¾ 13 regular 215 6d common 2 12 regular 150 7d common 2¼ 11 light 120 8d common 2½ 11 regular 96 9d common 2¾ 10 light 72 10d common 3 10 regular 64 12d common 3¼ 9 regular 44 16d common 3½ 8 regular 32 20d common 4 7 regular 28 30d common 4½ 6 regular 18 40d common 5 5 regular 14 50d common 5½ 4 regular 12 60d common 6 3 regular 10
- 41. Fig. 1 5. Wire Nails.—The term wire nail is applied to nails made from drawn wire, or wire rods. Since their introduction some years ago, wire nails have become decidedly popular, and in some localities are used in preference to the old-style cut nails, owing to the fact that there are a greater number to the pound, which makes them cheaper than cut nails at the same price per keg. The size and number of common wire nails to the pound are given in Table III. By comparing the columns in Tables II and III giving the number of nails to the pound for both cut and wire nails, it can be readily seen that the wire nails are greater in number for a given weight than cut nails of the same size. For this reason, the wire nails are used by contractors on cheap work. Wire nails are more liable to rust than cut or wrought nails, and are consequently not so durable in damp situations; they also have less holding power and more must be used to obtain the same strength. TABLE III
- 42. SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND OF COMMON WIRE NAILS Size Length Inches Gauge Number Approximate Number to the Pound Advance Over Base Price per 100 Pounds 2d 1 15 876 $0.70 3d 1¼ 14 568 .45 4d 1½ 12½ 316 .30 5d 1¾ 12½ 271 .30 6d 2 11½ 181 .20 7d 2¼ 11½ 161 .20 8d 2½ 10¼ 106 .10 9d 2¾ 10¼ 96 .10 10d 3 9 69 .05 12d 3¼ 9 63 .05 16d 3½ 8 49 .05 20d 4 6 31 Base 30d 4½ 5 24 Base 40d 5 4 18 Base 50d 5½ 3 14 Base 60d 6 2 11 Base
- 43. Fig. 2 Common wire nails in sizes from twentypenny to sixtypenny are sold at base price, say $2 per keg, the smaller sizes costing an advance over the base price. Thus, an eightpenny common nail would cost 10 cents additional, or $2.10 per hundred pounds, while a twopenny nail would cost $2.70 per hundred pounds, etc. The present advance above the base price on 100- pound kegs for the several sizes is also given in this table. All wire nails can be procured “barbed” at an additional advance of 15 cents above base and extra prices. The relative sizes of the common wire nail are best learned from samples of the same, but Fig. 2, which shows these nails full size, from sixtypenny to twopenny, clearly indicates their proportions.
- 44. Fig. 3 6. Wire Nails for Special Purposes.—Wire nails as well as wrought or cut nails are made in a variety of forms especially suitable for the specific purpose for which they are intended. The several kinds of wire nails in common use are illustrated in Fig. 3. A nail used about buildings for putting the trim, or finishing work, together is illustrated at (a), and from its use is known as a finishing nail. These nails are used almost exclusively for this purpose and are very light. They have a small head, so that when they are set into the wood with a nail set, a very small opening is left for puttying.
- 45. Another nail having practically the same use as the one just described is designated as a casing nail, and is shown at (b). This nail is a trifle lighter in gauge than the finishing nail, and from the fact that it is countersunk under the head, it draws better than the finishing nail. The fivepenny and sixpenny sizes are used for putting on siding. The common wire brad, shown at (c), is used for practically the same purposes as the regular finishing nail, but it is from two to four gauges heavier. This wire brad is useful when a heavy nail with a small head is required, particularly in hardwood, where a light finishing nail will not penetrate without bending. The flooring brad, shown at (d), is a nail used almost exclusively for flooring. This nail is made of heavier gauge wire than other nails of this type, and drives easily, even in hard, maple floor. The construction of the head of this type of nail allows for severe “drawing” without splitting the tongue of the flooring boards. The fine-wire nail, shown at (e), commonly called a lath nail, is made in four sizes and is used for nailing lath to studding. Owing to its smoothness, cleanliness, and easy-driving qualities, this type of nail is extensively used. A short, heavy nail, the whole length of which is barbed to increase its holding qualities, is shown at (f). This nail is known as a barbed roofing nail, and is generally used for nailing tin roofs and ready, or prepared, roofing of every description. It is also used with tin roofing caps. At (g) is shown a slating nail. This type of nail is formed from heavy gauge wire, and has a flat head that is large in proportion to its length. This nail is used only for slating, but is not so durable as the cut nail made for this purpose. Nails of this kind are made in only five sizes. A type of nail used for attaching wooden shingles, and known as the shingle nail, is shown at (h). This nail is seldom carried in stock, however, as threepenny and fourpenny common nails answer the purpose. These shingle nails are clean and easily driven, but are not so durable as cut nails. A very heavy nail of the same character as the common wire nail, but made much heavier, in order to increase the holding qualities and to provide greater durability, is known as the fence nail. This nail is made as shown at (i). At (j) is shown a clinch nail that is manufactured from soft wire or annealed hard wire. This nail answers the same purpose as the old-style wrought, or clinch-cut, nail commonly used in the construction of batten
- 46. doors, etc. The metal being very soft at the end of the nail, allows the point to be bent and driven back into the wood to form the clinch. These nails do not differ from the common wire nail, except in the form of the head and the material from which they are made, as will be seen from Fig. 3 (j) and Fig. 2. There is a form of headless wire nail, known as a barbed dowel-pin, which is made as shown in Fig. 3 (k). This type of nail, or dowel, is used for doweling through the mortises and tenons of sash, blinds, and frames of every description. In the mill, it has displaced the wooden dowel used in former times. The length of pin to be employed is regulated by the thickness of the wood to be secured, as the pins are used ¼ inch shorter than the thickness of the woodwork. Fig. 4 An exceptionally heavy nail, or spike, is made from heavy wire or round bar. These spikes are used for heavy construction work, such as splined flooring, for slow-burning mill construction, and for bridge flooring. They are made with both chisel points, as shown in Fig. 4, and diamond points, and in ordering them, the kind of point, as well as the style of head wanted should be specified. Spikes of this kind are made in all sizes from tenpenny, which is of No. 6 gauge and 3 inches long, to spikes ⅜ inch in diameter and 12 inches long. 7. Galvanized Nails and Spikes.—Nails and spikes, either cut or wire, that have been dipped into molten zinc and become coated with this metal are termed galvanized. By this process they are rendered practically rust- proof. Cut or wire galvanized nails can be obtained in the same sizes and types as ordinary nails, and if dealers do not regularly carry them in stock, they will as a rule have them galvanized to order. In order to secure durability, it is advisable to use galvanized nails in places that are exposed to dampness, as in shingling, in slating, in fence building, or in structures erected near the seashore, as it has been proved by numerous tests that ordinary nails rust through in such places in a few years. The galvanized nails cost from $1.50 to $3 more per keg than the plain cut or wire nails.
- 47. The cheaper grades of galvanized nails are frequently coated only with lead, and will not withstand the government test; that is, dipping them into vitriol. A simple way to test the coating of a galvanized nail is to rub the nail on a piece of white paper. A lead-coated nail will mark the paper the same as a lead pencil and should be rejected, as it is only a sham and has no redeeming qualities. WOOD SCREWS, EXPANSION AND SPECIAL BOLTS 8. Wood Screws.—The ordinary wood screw, which is one of the staple articles of hardware, is very necessary in the application of all builders’ hardware about the building. Except in some lines of cheap or rough, unfinished goods, hardware manufacturers now pack with all hardware, screws that match the finish of the goods. The various types of screws now on the market are illustrated in Fig. 5, and the common types, such as flat-, round-, oval-, and fillister-headed screws are easily procured. Iron screws are made with either flat, round, or oval heads and the following finishes: Bright, blued, japanned, tinned, galvanized, bronze-plated, brass-plated, coppered, silvered, and nickel-plated. Brass and bronze metal screws can also be procured with flat, round, or oval heads, in either natural color or, on special order, finished to match the hardware. Special screws are also manufactured for various purposes, which are sufficiently explained by the illustration, Fig. 5.
- 48. Fig. 5 Screws are always measured for length from the point to the top of the head. The sizes in which screws can be obtained are given in Table IV. The diameter of screws is always measured directly under the head, and is always given in numbers of the screw makers’ gauge. The numbers vary from 0 to 30, going consecutively without skip from 0 to 18 and from then on using only the even numbers. In Table IV are also given the numbers of the screw makers’ gauge and their equivalents in decimals of an inch. TABLE IV SIZE OF WOOD SCREWS
- 49. Length Inches Diameter in Screw Makers’ Gauge ¼ From 0 to 4 inclusive ⅜ From 0 to 9 inclusive ½ From 1 to 12 inclusive ⅝ From 1 to 14 inclusive ¾ From 2 to 16 inclusive ⅞ From 2 to 16 inclusive 1 From 3 to 20 inclusive 1¼ From 3 to 24 inclusive 1½ From 3 to 24 inclusive 1¾ From 5 to 24 inclusive 2 From 5 to 24 inclusive 2¼ From 5 to 24 inclusive 2½ From 5 to 24 inclusive 2¾ From 6 to 24 inclusive 3 From 6 to 26 inclusive 3½ From 8 to 26 inclusive 4 From 8 to 30 inclusive 4½ From 12 to 30 inclusive 5 From 12 to 30 inclusive 6 From 12 to 30 inclusive Screw Makers’ Gauge Number of Screw Gauge Equivalent in Decimals of an Inch 0 .05784 1 .07100 2 .08416 3 .09732 4 .11048 5 .12364 6 .13680 7 .14996 8 .16312 9 .17628 10 .18944 11 .20260 12 .21576
- 50. Number of Screw Gauge Equivalent in Decimals of an Inch 13 .22892 14 .24208 15 .25524 16 .26840 17 .28156 18 .29472 20 .32104 22 .34736 24 .37368 26 .40000 28 .42632 30 .45264 9. Drive Screws.—A screw known as the drive screw is used mostly in the manufacture of various articles where cost is the controlling factor. These screws, shown in Fig. 6, are made somewhat on the order of the wood screw, but without the deep-cut thread and gimlet point. Screws of this type are driven into the wood with a hammer and have slotted heads so that they may be withdrawn by means of a screwdriver. The thread is so constructed that the wood may be penetrated without breaking down its fiber when the screws are driven, and is shaped so as to engage with the wood while resisting a pulling stress. These screws are made with flat, round, or oval heads, as illustrated respectively at (a), (b), and (c), and may be had in sizes from ½ inch to 4 inches in length.
- 51. Fig. 6 10. Expansion Bolts.—The expansion bolt is a device that has proved extremely valuable in the building trades, as it provides a means of bolting to stone, brick, concrete, slate, or other materials of this nature. Expansion bolts are used principally in places where it is not desirable or practicable to drill through the material to which the fastenings are to be made. This type of bolt has also a great advantage over other fastenings in that it can be removed with as much ease and facility as it is applied, and also without injury either to the article fastened or the material to which it is fixed, the bolt likewise sustaining no injury. Many styles of expansion bolts are now manufactured under various patents, and these may be procured in all sizes and made of iron, steel, or brass. In Fig. 7 are shown several makes of expansion bolts. The McCabe expansion bolt, shown at (a), is constructed of a malleable, cylindrical-shaped, slotted case, or shell, a, the aperture of which reduces in size and engages with a bevel-shaped hexagon nut b. By turning the bolt, the nut is drawn toward the head and thus expands the outer case in its passage; this in turn binds against the sides of the hole in the masonry into which the bolt is inserted. The shell, as the outside case a is called, can be procured in any length or diameter, and can be used with any machine bolt having a standard
- 52. thread. The McCabe bolt is suitable for bolting any thickness of material, provided the proper length of bolt is employed. The Brohard expansion bolt shown at (b), performs the same functions as the bolt illustrated at (a). The case, or shell, a, is composed of two or more parts riveted to a wrought circular plate, near the head, as at b. These several parts are expanded by means of the beveled nut, which approaches the head as the bolt is turned. The principal feature of the Brohard expansion bolt is that the beveled nut c cannot be forced from the case on account of the lug d, which is attached to the nut and travels in the slot e when the bolt is turned. Fig. 7 The Steward and Romaine double-expansion bolt is shown at (c). The shell of this bolt is composed of two semicylindrical parts, as at a, a, that are somewhat longer in diameter than the wedge-shaped nut and the sleeve at b and c, respectively. Each half of the shell is held in place by light rubber bands. The wedge-shaped parts are caused to approach each other by the turning of the bolt, and thereby expand the split case at both ends simultaneously. From the fact that this bolt is expanded at both ends, it is called a double-expansion bolt, although it may be made single-expansion by omitting the wedge-shaped sleeve at the head. The Star expansion bolt, shown in Fig. 8 (a), performs exactly the same duty as other expansion bolts, but its construction is radically different. This
- 53. Fig. 8 bolt consists of only two parts, called shields. Each shield is semicircular in form and interlocks at the joints. The exterior of these shields has four rows of corrugated ridges, or star-shaped projections, that prevent the shields from turning in the hole. The interior of the shell is threaded and decreases in size toward the farther end. Thus, by inserting a lag, or coach, screw of any length, so as to engage with the thread, the shields are spread apart at the farther end while the screw is entering the aperture. The Diamond expansion bolt shown at (b) is practically the same as the one just described, as will be observed from the figure. Expansion bolts are also made with all the parts entirely of brass or bronze, with either plain, capped, or fancy heads, or nuts, and in any finish desired. 11. Screw Anchors.—The device known as a screw anchor can be used in place of an expansion bolt for securing light materials. Several kinds of screw anchors are in the market at present. The star anchor, which is made in one piece of composition metal that is slotted about seven-eighths of its length, may be obtained in various diameters and lengths. The exterior has two star-like projections, to prevent the anchor from turning, while the interior is constructed of ridges projecting from the tube, with the hole reduced toward the slotted end. This internal construction permits the star anchor to be used in combination with trade wood or machine screws of any length. The screw used engages with the ridges in the interior, cutting its own thread and expanding the anchor in its passage. These composition anchors are very cheap, the price ranging from 1 to 3 cents, according to the size. They are made in different lengths, from ½ inch to 1½ inches, and for Nos. 6, 10, 14, and 18 wood screws.
- 54. Fig. 9 12. Special Bolts.—In Fig. 9 is shown a toggle bolt. This device is a recent production for fastening materials to surfaces having a hollow interior that will not admit the use of expansion or tap bolts because of its frail character, as, for instance, sheet metal, hollow fireproofing, etc. The toggle bolt shown in the figure is constructed with long, fine-pitch threads cut nearly to the head, so as to allow for securing thin materials. The T-shaped head a is constructed either hollow, as shown in the figure, or of flat strip metal, and is riveted loosely to the end of the bolt, allowing the head to pivot and fold over the bolt, and thus permitting the head to pass through a small opening. The head is then tipped into its proper position, when the bolt is ready for securing in place the work to be fastened. The construction of the bolt is shown in Fig. 9 (a), while the process of affixing it is illustrated at (b) and (c). These toggle bolts are generally made with ³/₁₆-, ¼-, and ⁵/₁₆-inch bolts, from 2½ to 6 inches long, and of either iron, steel, or brass. SASH WEIGHTS 13. Cast-Iron Weights.—The term sash weight is applied to a counterweight used for balancing double-hung, or sliding, sash. These weights are generally very rough, being made from either the poorest iron or waste iron. The stock sizes are usually long and cylindrical in form—from 1⅜ to 2¼ inches in diameter—have an eye cast in the upper end, as shown in Fig. 10, and weigh from 2 to 30 pounds, the weight determining the length of
- 55. the sash weight. In Table V are given the weight, diameter, and length of sash weights as they are generally furnished to the trade, although it is almost impossible to give this data with any degree of accuracy, as the different manufacturers vary the diameters of the weights slightly, and this changes the length measurement. Square weights or special weights can be easily procured at small additional cost. Fig. 10 Fig. 11 14. Lead Weights.—The weight of lead is about 80 per cent. greater than that of cast-iron; hence, lead sash weights must be resorted to where the construction of the pockets is too narrow to permit the use of iron weights, or where heavy plate glass is used. They are also used in cases where the sash are very wide and low, as here a short weight must be used in order to obtain the necessary travel for the sash. Lead weights can be procured in either round or square shapes, and of any diameter or measurement to suit existing conditions, but they are generally made to special order. A wrought- or malleable-iron eye, or fastening, for applying the cord or chain is usually inserted at the top. The cost of lead weights, however, is generally five times as great as that of iron weights. 15. Sectional Sash Weights.—There is a form of sash weight in the market known as the Walda sectional weight, which is illustrated in Fig. 11. This weight, as will be observed, is so arranged that units or sections may be detached or added, as desired, to diminish or to increase the weight. Such a weight can be nicely adjusted to counterbalance any sash, and has the advantage over the cast-iron weight in that each part is interchangeable and no mistake can be made in ordering, as the necessary weight for any sash can be made up on the site.
- 56. TABLE V WEIGHT, DIAMETER, AND LENGTH OF SASH WEIGHTS Weight Pounds Diameter Inches Length Inches Weight Pounds Diameter Inches Length Inches 3 1⅜ 8½ 12 1¾ 20 3½ 1⅜ 9¾ 13 1¾ 21½ 4 1⅜ 11 14 2 18 4½ 1⅜ 12¼ 15 2 19 5 1½ 12 16 2 20¼ 5½ 1½ 12½ 17 2 21½ 6 1½ 14 18 2 22½ 6½ 1½ 15 19 2 23½ 7 1½ 16 20 2 24½ 7½ 1½ 17 21 2⅛ 25 8 1½ 18 22 2¼ 23 8½ 1⅝ 16½ 23 2¼ 24 9 1⅝ 17½ 24 2¼ 25 9½ 1⅝ 18½ 25 2¼ 25½ 10 1⅝ 19½ 26 2¼ 26 10½ 1⅝ 20½ 27 2¼ 27 11 1⅝ 21½ 28 2¼ 28 11½ 1¾ 19 29 2¼ 28½ FINISHING HARDWARE METALS AND THEIR MANIPULATION 16. Historical.—From the days of Tubal-Cain, “an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron,” to the present time, no element in the world’s composition has rendered greater service in advancing man’s development than has the uninviting metal known as iron. Recent discoveries show the very ancient existence of iron in Assyria, and also in Egypt under the Pharaohs. It was found in considerable quantities in Syria, in Canaanite times, and many tools and implements of warfare were made from it. The Chalybes, located near the Black Sea, were in Biblical times
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