![between the people of any individual State, and the Representatives it is entitled to; both being
estimated upon the same basis, and determined by the same rule.
2. The distinctive characteristic of our government is, that it is a popular government. Its power is
vested in the people. They elect their rulers, who are the servants of the people, and these rulers are
expected to carry out the people’s wishes. Upon such a system, it is a matter of the first importance, to
distribute this power equally among all the people, and after having fixed upon the ratio between the
whole population and the whole number of Representatives; or, in other words, after having determined
how many members shall compose the lower House of Congress, the next step is to apportion these
members among all the States in the ratio of their population. If one State has twice the number of
inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to twice the number of Representatives in Congress. If
one has ten times the inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to ten times the number of
Representatives, and so on; with this one exception, which is, that by a provision in the Constitution,
every State, without regard to its population, is entitled to one Representative in the lower House.
3. The adjustment of this matter is all provided for in the Constitution, that is, in its general features;
but it devolves upon Congress in every tenth year to re-adjust and re-apportion the Representatives
among the several States, according to the population of each State as shown by the last census, which
is taken every tenth year; and when the apportionment is once made, it remains the same for the next
ten years, when the census is taken again, and a new apportionment is made.
4. Up to the present time (1874,) this has been done nine times. It was done the first time by the
convention which formed the Constitution. That apportionment is found in the Constitution, and is as
follows:
To New Hampshire, 3
Massachusetts, 8
Pennsylvania, 8
Delaware, 1
Rhode Island, 1
Connecticut, 5
New York, 6
New Jersey, 4
Maryland, 6
Virginia, 10
North Carolina, 5
South Carolina, 5
Georgia, 3
By this it will be seen that the first Congress consisted of but 65 members.
The Constitution also provided that Representatives should not exceed one to every 30,000 people.
The next year after the government went into operation, (1790,) the first census was taken, and as
soon as the result was known, a new apportionment was made. This was done in 1792, and was made
upon the ratio of one Representative to every 33,000 of representative[4] population.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/22508-250416111133-94d0de2e/85/Essential-SharePoint-2007-1st-Edition-Scott-Jamison-44-320.jpg)
![[4] The Representative population includes all free persons,
white or black; to which (according to the provisions of the
Constitution), three-fifths of all the slaves were to be added. But
this proviso, now that slavery is abolished, has become a nullity.
5. In 1800, the second census was taken; and when Congress
made the apportionment, which was done in 1803, it did not change
the ratio, but left it at one Representative to every 33,000 of the
representative population.
In 1810, the third census was taken, and in 1811 the ratio was
fixed at one Representative for every 35,000 of the population.
In 1820, the fourth census was taken, and in 1822 Congress fixed
the ratio at one Representative for every 47,000 of the population.
In 1830, the fifth census was taken, and in 1832 the ratio was
fixed at one Representative to every 47,000 of the population.
In 1840, the sixth census was taken, and in 1842 Congress again
declared that the ratio should be one Representative to every 70,000
of the population.
6. In 1850, the seventh census was taken, and in conformity with
the law passed this year, the number of members was for the first
time limited; the limit being 233; and the Secretary of the Interior
was ordered to take the census returns, and divide the whole
representative population by the number 233, and to make the
quotient the ratio between the Representatives and the people.
7. We have never seen the result of the Secretary’s estimate, but,
taking the population of 1850 and dividing it by 233, would produce
a quotient of nearly 94,000; and this we take as the ratio, after the
time when it was done, 1852; that is, one Representative to every
94,000 of the population.
8. The eighth census was taken in 1860, and on it an
apportionment was based, which allowed one Representative for
every 127,000 of the population.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/22508-250416111133-94d0de2e/85/Essential-SharePoint-2007-1st-Edition-Scott-Jamison-45-320.jpg)
Essential SharePoint 2007 1st Edition Scott Jamison
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- 5. Essential SharePoint 2007 1st Edition Scott Jamison Digital Instant Download Author(s): Scott Jamison, Mauro Cardarelli, Susan Hanley, ISBN(s): 9780321421746, 0321421744 Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 8.92 MB Year: 2007 Language: english
- 8. This page intentionally left blank
- 9. ESSENTIAL SHAREPOINT ® 2007 DELIVERING HIGH-IMPACT COLLABORATION Scott Jamison Mauro Cardarelli with Susan Hanley Upper Saddle River, NJ • Boston • Indianapolis • San Francisco New York • Toronto • Montreal • London • Munich • Paris • Madrid Cape Town • Sydney • Tokyo • Singapore • Mexico City
- 10. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the pub- lisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed with initial capital letters or in all capitals. The authors and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of the use of the information or programs contained herein. The publisher offers excellent discounts on this book when ordered in quantity for bulk purchases or special sales, which may include electronic versions and/or custom covers and content particular to your business, training goals, marketing focus, and branding interests. For more information, please contact: U.S. Corporate and Government Sales 800-382-3419 corpsales@pearsontechgroup.com For sales outside the United States please contact: International Sales international@pearsoned.com Editor in Chief Karen Gettman Acquisition Editor Joan Murray Development Editor Sheri Cain Managing Editor Gina Kanouse Project Editor George E. Nedeff Copy Editor Language Logistics Senior Indexer Cheryl Lenser Proofreader Gayle Johnson Editorial Assistant Kim Boedigheimer Composition Gloria Schurick Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Jamison, Scott. Essential SharePoint 2007 : delivering high-impact collaboration solutions / Scott Jamison, Mauro Cardarelli, Susan Hanley p. cm. ISBN 0-321-42174-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Intranets (Computer networks) 2. Web servers. I. Cardarelli, Mauro. II. Hanley, Susan, 1956- III. Title. TK5105.875.I6J35 2007 004.6’8—dc22 2007006429 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission must be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permissions, write to: Pearson Education, Inc. Rights and Contracts Department 75 Arlington Street, Suite 300 Boston, MA 02116 Fax: (617) 848-7047 13-Digit ISBN 978-0-321-42174-6 10-Digit ISBN 0-321-42174-4 Text printed in the United States on recycled paper at R. R. Donnelley & Sons in Crawfordsville, IN. First printing, May 2007
- 11. Scott To my colleagues at Microsoft, who supported me tremendously during the writing of this book. Mauro To my father, Romeo, the man who taught me to work each day as if it were the one upon which I would be judged. Susan To my clients, who have generously shared interesting business challenges that we were able to solve together using the tools and techniques in this book. And to my father, who taught me about the importance of client relationships.
- 12. CONTENTS Chapter 1 Your Collaboration Strategy: Ensuring Success . . . . . . . . .1 Key Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Business Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Measuring Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Content Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Rollout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Chapter 2 Office SharePoint Server 2007: High-Impact Collaboration Across the Extended Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Versions of SharePoint Products and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Business Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Four Cs: Communication, Collaboration, Consolidation, and Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Portal Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Chapter 3 Introduction to the 2007 Office System as a Collaboration and Solutions Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 Microsoft’s Collaboration Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 2007 Microsoft Office System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Windows SharePoint Services 3.0: What’s New? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Comparing WSS 3.0 to Office SharePoint Server 2007 . . . . . . . . . . .69
- 13. SharePoint: The File Share Killer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 SharePoint: Access and Excel Killer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 Chapter 4 SharePoint Architecture Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 Functional Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 Sites, Site Collections, Templates, and Shared Services Providers . . . .102 Understanding SharePoint Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110 Physical Deployment Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 Chapter 5 Planning Your Information Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . .123 Site Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 Page Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128 Metadata Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 Maintaining Your Information Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 Chapter 6 Planning Your Move from SharePoint 2003 to 2007: Upgrade or Rebuild? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 You’re Ready to Deploy MOSS 2007—Now What? . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Planning Your Upgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140 Upgrade and Migration Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146 What Plan Is Best for You? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 Upgrade Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154 Chapter 7 Disaster Recovery Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155 Backup and Restore Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 Using the Backup Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159 Examining the Backup Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 Using the Restore Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166 Scheduling a SharePoint Backup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 What’s Not Covered by a SharePoint Backup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 Contents vii
- 14. Chapter 8 Sites, Blogs, and Wikis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 Getting Started with Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182 Working with Team Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185 Working with Wikis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191 Working with Blogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198 Putting It All Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 Creating a Highly Collaborative Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Chapter 9 Enterprise Content Management: Documents, Records, and Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 Getting Started with ECM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Document Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209 Records Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 Web Content Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245 Chapter 10 Enterprise Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247 Defining What Search Means for Your Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248 How SharePoint Search Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254 Configuring Content Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257 Crawling Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268 Improving Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269 Issuing Effective Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Ongoing Search Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285 Chapter 11 Making Business Processes Work: Workflow and Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287 Getting Started with Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287 Workflow Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289 MOSS 2007: Out-of-the-Box Workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291 Creating Custom Workflows: Office SharePoint Designer 2007 . . . . .301 Using Electronic Forms: InfoPath 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309 MOSS 2007 Enterprise: Creating Web Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328 viii Contents
- 15. Chapter 12 Office 2007: Offline Options for MOSS 2007 . . . . . . . .329 Working Offline with the File System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331 Working Offline with Outlook 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336 Working Offline with Groove 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340 Working Offline with Access 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348 Chapter 13 Providing Business Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349 Dashboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350 Scorecards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351 Key Performance Indicator (KPI) Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352 Excel Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363 Report Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375 Putting It All Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377 Appendix A SharePoint User Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379 Tasks That Require WSS 3.0 (at a Minimum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379 Tasks That Require MOSS 2007 Standard (at a Minimum) . . . . . . . . .380 Tasks That Require MOSS 2007 Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380 1. Create a New Team Site or Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381 2. Create a List or Document Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382 3. Apply Security to a Site or Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383 4. Apply Security to a List or Document Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386 5. Create a View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389 6. Add Web Parts to a Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391 7. Add Files to a Document Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393 8. Save Files Directly from Office to SharePoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396 9. Add Metadata to a Document Library for Better Content Tagging .396 10. Recover a Document from the Recycle Bin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399 11. Build and Contribute to a Blog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401 12. Build and Contribute to a Wiki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402 13. Expose List Data as an RSS Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404 14. Sign in as a Different User . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405 15. Enhance a Site’s Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406 16. Work Offline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408 Contents ix
- 16. 17. Document Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409 18. Target Content by Using an Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412 19. Find Content by Using a Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413 20. Manage “My” Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415 21. Create a List of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) . . . . . . . . . . . .416 22. Make Use of Business Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418 23. Publish an Excel Workbook for Web-Based Rendering . . . . . . . .422 24. Publish an InfoPath Form for Web-Based Rendering . . . . . . . . . . .423 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 *The following Appendix is available for download at www.awprofessional.com/title/0321421744. Appendix B OS/Browser/Office Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . .PDF:425 Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PDF:425 Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PDF:425 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PDF:434 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435 x Contents
- 17. xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First, I’d like to thank Addison-Wesley for giving me another opportunity to write a book, with special thanks to Joan Murray, Elizabeth Peterson, George Nedeff, Sheri Cain, and the rest of the Pearson team for shaping the book into something great. I’d also like to acknowledge Mauro Cardarelli for his insightful contri- butions to this book. His commitment to clients, passion for technology, and understanding of business needs make him a fantastic consultant and contributor to a book like this. Likewise, this book could not have come to fruition without the expert- ise of Sue Hanley. Her experience and perspective are invaluable to proj- ects like this; every project team should be lucky enough to have her. I’d also like to thank our team of early reviewers, including Andy Kawa, Israel Vega, Arpan Shah, Bob German, Robert Holmes, Shelley Norton, and Mart Muller. In particular, I’d like to thank Ken Heft for providing the most insightful feedback I’ve ever seen, and Tom Rizzo for answering numerous questions, lending his team when needed, and writing the fore- word for the book. I’d also like to acknowledge Bob Lincavicks and Jennifer Hefner, who were instrumental in helping me get up to speed on MOSS 2007. Their passion shines through every day and is infectious. Finally, I’d like to extend a special thanks to Joel Oleson for letting us use his blog posting on file shares versus SharePoint for file storage. —Scott Jamison
- 18. FOREWORD Remembering back to the late nineties, I can still recall when we decided to start building a product code-named Tahoe. For those of you who don’t keep up on our code names here at Microsoft, Tahoe was the code name for SharePoint Portal Server 2001. At the time, I was in the Exchange Server group, which supplied the underlying storage technology to the Tahoe team. Many folks, including myself, were nervous about how cus- tomers and partners would accept the new technology, especially since it provided portal, enterprise search and document management functional- ity of which two of the three were completely new categories offered in Microsoft software. Fast forward to 2007, and we’ve just released the latest version of SharePoint: Office SharePoint Server 2007. Three years of development went into this release. We’ve added three new categories to the product: enterprise content management, e-forms and workflow, and business intel- ligence. The product has sold over 85 million licenses in the past 6 years, making it one of the fastest-growing server products in Microsoft’s history; tens of thousands of companies depend on SharePoint technologies every day to achieve business goals. Much of the success of SharePoint has to be attributed to the early adopters who saw the vision we were painting in the 2001 release and volunteered to help shape and mold that vision and the product over time. One of those early adopters is Scott Jamison. I first met Scott ten years ago when he was doing consulting work and I was on the Exchange Server team. Scott was a pro at developing Microsoft Office applications that con- nected to the new set of server technologies Microsoft was introducing. Scott believed in the collaboration vision in which Microsoft was investing, and he saw the potential offered by that vision to help his customers increase their business productivity. In fact, Scott worked with the original WSS (which back then was the Web Storage System) which was the under- lying platform technology for SharePoint Portal Server 2001. xii
- 19. Any reader of this book will benefit from the history, teachings, and best practices that Scott has internalized over his many years working with Microsoft technologies. Scott has also tapped the experienced minds of Mauro Cardarelli and Susan Hanley, both are industry experts who work with customers every day to solve business issues through software. This book will become a mainstay in your SharePoint library. You will find your- self reaching for it whenever you run into a difficult situation or need extra guidance on how to use the new SharePoint product set. As I was reading this book, I was happy to see the breadth of coverage of the new function- ality in SharePoint without sacrificing depth and expertise. When you are done reading this book, you will have a better under- standing of SharePoint and how it can help you achieve new levels of per- sonal and business productivity. I guarantee that you will have earmarked many pages where you learned new skills or ideas that sparked your inter- est for follow-up. Enjoy the book, and enjoy the product. Both are labors of love. Tom Rizzo Director, SharePoint Product Management Redmond, Washington March 2007 Foreword xiii
- 20. xiv ABOUT THE AUTHORS Scott Jamison is a world-renowned expert on collaboration and informa- tion worker technologies, with over 15 years of experience helping cus- tomers solve business problems through technology solutions, most recently at Microsoft as an architect. Scott has held numerous leadership positions at various companies, including Dell, Microsoft, and a number of smaller companies. Scott has worked with Microsoft teams on local, regional, and national levels for years, recently participating as an architect on the Office 2007 developer advisory council, helping design features for Office SharePoint Server 2007. Scott is a recognized thought leader and published author with several books, dozens of magazine articles, and reg- ular speaking engagements at events around the globe. Scott received a masters in computer science from Boston University. Mauro Cardarelli is a recognized technology expert in Knowledge Management and Business Intelligence-based solutions. He has over 18 years of experience in the IT industry, half of which have been spent work- ing as a Microsoft-focused technology consultant. He has worked with a number of Fortune 500 companies, and his solutions have been mentioned in multiple Microsoft case studies. In 2006, he founded Jornata (www.jornata.com), a business and technology services provider that helps companies achieve exceptional performance through the effective use of Microsoft technologies. His primary responsibilities at Jornata include application architecture and development as well as client-focused technology evangelism. Mauro is a frequent speaker and author on Microsoft-related technologies. He received a bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering from Tufts University. Susan Hanley is an independent consultant and president of her own firm, Susan Hanley LLC (www.susanhanley.com), where she specializes in the design and development of portal solutions and knowledge manage- ment consulting. Sue has more than 25 years of experience as a technolo- gy consultant, holding leadership positions at Dell, Plural, and American Management Systems, Inc. (AMS). Sue served as a member of
- 21. Microsoft’s Partner Advisory Council for Portals and Collaboration for more than four years. She is a frequent writer and speaker on the topic of building communities of practice and measuring the value of knowledge management. In September 1997, she was recognized by Consultants News as one of the key “knowledge leaders” at major consulting firms. Sue has given top-rated presentations at many conferences in the United States and Europe. Her byline articles have appeared in Knowledge Management Review, Management Consultant International, DM Review, Information Week, and The Cutter IT Journal. Sue is also a featured author in several books on knowledge management. Sue has an MBA from the University of Maryland at College Park and a BA in psychology from Johns Hopkins University. About the Authors xv
- 22. xvi PREFACE Collaboration. Portals. Knowledge Management. Search. Document Management. These are terms that are thrown around when talking about Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS). But what do they real- ly mean? Most books are designed to address the “how” behind SharePoint, from either an administrative perspective or a programming perspective. This book complements the typical SharePoint book with some of the “what” and “why” of MOSS, provides insight into targeting needs with por- tal and collaboration technologies, and helps you understand how those needs might be addressed using MOSS. What Is This Book About? The Information Worker is central to Microsoft’s strategy to bring produc- tive computing to the enterprise and beyond. Navigating the various client and server products can be confusing and daunting. This book will help you navigate these waters, providing direction and understanding. Specifically, this is a book about Microsoft’s SharePoint platform, with a particular focus on three commonly requested topics: end-user features, proper collaboration strategy, and a business-focused discussion on how to apply SharePoint’s key features. This book was written because collabora- tion, knowledge and content management, and Web accessibility are three of the most sought-after features in a corporate software solution. The key product that is the basis for most Microsoft-based solutions in this area is Office SharePoint Server. Because of this functionality, SharePoint is per- haps one of the most important server products that runs on Windows Server. If you want to deploy SharePoint in your enterprise or upgrade from previous versions, or if you need a concise introduction to collaboration solutions with SharePoint, you’re starting in the right place. This book pro- vides a great user-level guide to Microsoft’s latest version of SharePoint, along with usage strategies and some insight into the technologies involved. This book is intended to be a tutorial as well as a handy reference.
- 23. This book does not cover methodology or process, nor does it provide a one-size-fits-all approach to building applications. A central thrust of this book is a handy introduction to the feature set, deployment, and cus- tomization approaches that are available for SharePoint. But we also get into the why of using SharePoint—what is the business need, and does it get addressed? Because SharePoint supports a number of approaches and techniques, you’ll want to get familiar with the choices (for example, “Do I go with a teamsite, a blog, or a wiki?”) before choosing an approach that fits your specific needs. This book helps you do just that. What You Will Learn from This Book To implement a collaborative system effectively, you’ll likely need to con- sider a number of key questions: ■ Do I need a portal or collaboration strategy? If so, how do I create one? ■ How do users perform the top activities that they’ll need to do? ■ What do I need to consider when I upgrade from previous versions of SharePoint? ■ Where are documents stored currently? Where should documents live? ■ How do users collaborate today? ■ What kind of hardware do I need? How do I deploy the product properly? ■ How does the Web fit into my collaboration needs? What about Office and smart client applications? How about Groove, InfoPath, and Access? ■ Will I share information outside of my organization? Should I? Who Should Read This Book If you’re a developer, you probably already own a SharePoint programming book or MOSS API guide (or are looking for one). This is not a book about SharePoint programming. However, developers will find this book useful when building solutions (in conjunction with an API guide) because there are important business considerations that are critically important to every MOSS-based solution. Who Should Read This Book xvii
- 24. If you’re a project manager, consultant, or business analyst, you’ll find that this book helps with all of the intangibles of a MOSS rollout. For example, “What roles should exist to support MOSS?” or “What should my offline/search/business data strategy be for MOSS?” This book also intro- duces you to some key technical concepts and provides simple walk- throughs of the key features that many businesses need to leverage. How This Book Is Organized This book is organized into four key sections: ■ The first section, chapters 1 and 2, helps you determine what kinds of business needs are addressed by portals, collaboration solutions, and knowledge management systems and how you should think about SharePoint-based solutions within your organization. ■ The second section, chapters 3 and 4, is a great introduction to the MOSS feature set and architecture. ■ The third section, chapters 5–7, helps you evaluate and plan your information architecture, upgrade strategy, and disaster discovery needs. ■ The forth section, chapters 8–13, provides great information on spe- cific MOSS feature sets along with guidance, recommendations, and examples. Appendix A provides a list of the top SharePoint user tasks, while Appendix B is available for download at www.awprofessional.com/title/0321421744 and provides a summary of how SharePoint behaves with various operat- ing systems, browsers, and Office versions. Key Points At each chapter’s conclusion is a section called Key Points, which summa- rizes the key facts, best practices, and other items that were covered in the chapter. Thank You Thank you for reading this book. Our goal was to write the most concise yet useful business-centric guide to Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007. Enjoy! xviii Preface
- 25. 1 C H A P T E R 1 YOUR COLLABORATION STRATEGY: ENSURING SUCCESS You’ve decided to make an investment in Microsoft Office SharePoint Server (MOSS) 2007. Congratulations—you have a powerful software plat- form in your hands, capable of delivering high-impact collaboration solu- tions. Now how do you make it work optimally? MOSS is simple to set up and use but difficult to get right, mainly due to its sheer power. If you’re a developer, you probably already own a SharePoint pro- gramming book or MOSS API guide (or are looking for one). This is not a book about SharePoint programming. However, this book is the ideal com- panion to your development guide. It will give you some of the “why” of MOSS and help you understand your organization’s business needs and how they might be addressed using MOSS. Developers will find this book useful when building solutions (in conjunction with an API guide) because there are important business considerations that are critically important to every MOSS-based solution. If you’re a project manager, consultant, or business analyst, you’ll find that this book helps with all the intangibles of a MOSS rollout. For exam- ple, “What roles should exist to support MOSS?” or “What should my offline/search/business data strategy be for MOSS?” This book also intro- duces you to some key technical concepts and provides simple walk- throughs of the key features that many businesses need to leverage. Specifically, this chapter provides a critical foundation for your MOSS- based solution and lays the groundwork for the rest of the book. It includes a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals of the Office SharePoint Server 2007 architecture; a discussion of strategies for moving from the current version of SharePoint Portal Server (2003) to the new 2007 ver- sion; a review of information architecture best practices; and explanations of how to optimally leverage MOSS’s collaboration, offline, search, busi- ness process, content management, and business intelligence features.
- 26. Discovering Diverse Content Through Random Scribd Documents
- 27. 3. We have dwelt on this point because it is intimately related to the organization and government of the Territories, and to the provision made for the increase of States. It was important that they should be in harmony with the original ones, and there were no means of securing this and providing against the future growth of governments, differing from those of the original States, but by giving the central power a general control over them. The Constitution conferred it on Congress. Ohio, and all the territory north of the Ohio river, was obliged to wait till this point was settled, before it could be opened to the entrance of emigrants. This region was early erected into a separate government, by Congress, called the Northwest Territory. The region south of the river was treated in the same manner a little later. In 1800 the Mississippi Territory was organized; thus covering all the ground originally belonging to the New Republic. These were, as population increased, divided into sections, of convenient size for the purpose of local self government, and states created as fast as the requisite number of citizens had collected within such limits; and the remainder continued under the preliminary territorial rule. 4. In 1802, the vast region west of the Mississippi was bought of the French government. This extended the National Domain from the mouth to the head waters of this river, and westward, north of the Spanish possessions, to the Pacific ocean. Many new States and Territories have been formed from it. The process of multiplication has not yet ceased in this region. In 1819 Florida was purchased; a part of Mexico was obtained in 1848, and again in 1853; and the increase of territory continued by the acquisition of Alaska in 1867. This policy has become, in a manner, traditional, and it is not unlikely that it may be continued to some extent in the future. 5. The government of the territories is established by act of Congress; the President nominates and the Senate confirms the Governor, Secretary, and Judges of the courts; and Congress passes all the general laws for the government of the inhabitants. A Territorial Legislature is elected by the inhabitants, which takes charge of all the local interests of the Territory. All these laws and organizations are temporary, and pass away when a State government is founded. Commonly, an act of Congress authorizes the election of Delegates to a Convention for framing a State Constitution; though the Territorial Government sometimes takes the initiative. This constitution is then submitted to the popular vote of the citizens in the Territory; and if they favor it, presented to Congress for its approval. If it is in harmony with our usages, and republican principles, Congress accepts it, and, if the President does not see cause to veto it, a new State has come into existence. In this manner the number of the States has become nearly three times as numerous as at the beginning. CHAPTER LXIX. THE INDIVIDUAL TERRITORIES. The territories are here arranged in the order of seniority, the one which first received a territorial government taking the lead. The District of Columbia is older than any of them as acknowledged National property, the Louisiana Purchase having been made since it was ceded to the general Government; but it was the last to receive a territorial organization, Congress governing it directly without giving it representation until 1871. It is placed last for that reason. NEW MEXICO Was visited at an early period by Spaniards, who, excited by the success of the followers of Cortez and Pizarro in discovering rich mines of gold and silver, sought the wealth in the dangers and hardships of travel which is more often, if more slowly, found as the reward of patient toil. An expedition from Florida made the formidable overland journey to New Mexico, in 1537; and another from Mexico, after visiting the Gila River, passed eastward beyond the Rio Grande in 1540. In 1581 its mineral wealth became known and a mission was attempted; but no settlement was made until 1600, when formal possession was taken by an adequate army. The missions now became very successful and the mines were worked. Many of the natives were considerably advanced in some of the arts of civilization. In
- 28. 1680 the natives revolted, from the severe servitude to which they were subjected, and drove the Spaniards out of the country. They only recovered it in 1698. It was never very numerously peopled by whites. In 1846 it was conquered by General Kearney, and in 1848 ceded to the United States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The difficulties of transportation and the wild and lawless character of the inhabitants has prevented any extensive emigration to it by Americans. It is an elevated table-land, nearly 7,000 feet above the surface of the sea, crossed by several ranges of mountains sometimes rising 10,000 feet above the general surface of the country. The atmosphere is dry; little rain falls; and agriculture is usually successful only with irrigation. In the valleys, where this is employed, the fertility of the soil is marvelous. Often two crops are raised, on the same land, in the year. Wheat and other grains are raised in great perfection. Cotton is successful in some parts, fruit can be raised in abundance, and the soil is said to be specially favorable to the grape, the wine rivaling that of France. Gold and silver abound, but the mines have never been effectively worked for want of transportation and the requisite capital. Stock raising is a profitable occupation in this Territory. Much of the land unfit for cultivation produces grass which cures in drying during the hot months, and preserves all its nutritious qualities. Sheep and mules are extensively raised. When the Pacific railroad shall open the country to immigration, and order, industry, and capital make the most of its resources, it will be ranked among the favored parts of the Union. It has many natural curiosities, and much wild and beautiful scenery. The length of the Rio Grande, in its windings in the Territory, is about 1200 miles; and its valley from one to twelve miles wide. Its Territorial government was organized in 1850. The population, in 1870, was 91,878. Many tribes of Indians roam over the territory and through Texas, Arizona, and northern Mexico. Most of the people are Roman Catholics. It includes an area of about 100,000 square miles. Every free white male inhabitant living in the territory at the time of its organization had the right of suffrage, that right being regulated in other respects by its legislative Assembly. UTAH Was formerly a part of the Mexican territory of Upper California, and was acquired by the United States in 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. It was too distant, desolate, and dangerous a region for much settlement by Mexicans, and has little known history anterior to the explorations of Fremont between 1843 and 1846. The first American settlement was made by the Mormons, in July, 1847, and was supposed by them to be out of the territory of the United States, and beyond the reach of possible interference. Here, in the depths of the desert, they determined to build up a peculiar religious society embracing customs abhorrent to the views and institutions of modern civilized States. Their success was a surprise to the world, and probably to themselves; the capacity of the depths of the Great American Desert, as it was called, for cultivation, exceeding all previous expectation. But the war with Mexico, then in progress, threw this, before inaccessible, desert into the limits of the American Union; and the discovery of gold in the neighboring territory of California, throwing them almost midway between the old western settlements and the new Eldorado, subjected them to contact with, and interference by, the tide of modern civilization, as it flowed toward the setting sun; and in ten years from their first appearance in the Great Central Basin of the continent, they came again into hostile conflict with the established authorities they thought to have finally escaped. Though their conflict with the United States government, imbued with the habits and prejudices with which they antagonized, was deferred by the troubles which precipitated the Civil War, and their institutions remained substantially intact until that was past; the Pacific Railroad was then built through their territory, and, if they are no longer persecuted, and their peculiarities opposed by deadly force, the moral influence and dissolving power introduced by numbers is more surely wasting away the foundations of their political and religious edifice. Utah was organized as a territory by act of Congress Sept. 9th, 1850. Brigham Young, the head of the Mormon church, became the first governor. In 1854 it was vainly attempted to remove him; and in 1857 an army was sent to enforce Federal authority. A final conflict was avoided by compromise. In 1862 the
- 29. Mormons attempted to get admission into the Union as a State, with their “peculiar institutions,” but failed. A Territorial Government exists, but has little force, or vitality, while the Mormons are large in numbers. According to the habits of our people, conflict is avoided so far as possible, to await the more peaceable and natural solution of the difficulty by moral forces. Utah is unique in one respect; though lying nearly a mile above the surface of the sea, and having a complete system of lakes and rivers, there is no visible connection of these with the ocean. It is a continent embosomed within the depths of a continent. The Great Salt Lake is 100 miles long by 50 broad, and its waters are very salt—three parts of the water producing one of pure salt. No fish can live in it. It receives the contents of many considerable streams. Whether they are kept in subjection by evaporation alone, or have a concealed outlet to the ocean is unknown. The soil, though in its natural state an apparent desert, is extremely fertile when irrigated, and produces wheat and other cereals in great profusion. Its mountains are believed to be rich in silver and gold; but the Mormons have discouraged mining, and very little has been done in that direction. Cotton is highly successful in the southern settlements, and experiments with flax and silk culture have been very favorable. The climate is mild and healthy. Utah is a highly promising section of our national domain. Its population in 1870 was 86,786; its area about 87,500 square miles. WASHINGTON TERRITORY Was organized in 1853, and then contained a much larger area. It was at first a part of Oregon, and its meagre early history was the same. The Straits of San Juan de Fuca were visited and named by a Spanish navigator in 1775. The English government claimed the territory north of the Columbia and for some years there was a joint occupation by both nations by special agreement. The difficulties concerning this boundary came near involving the two nations in war, but it was settled in 1846, giving the United States the territory to the 49th parallel of latitude. Vancouver Island was assigned to Great Britain. Washington is estimated to contain, west of the Columbia river, where it flows down from British America, 22,000 square miles of arable land. There is much that is adapted only to grazing, and vast quantities covered with forests in the wild mountain regions of the eastern part of the territory. It has an almost inexhaustible supply of coal, and more or less of the precious metals. The great distinction of Washington territory is its forests. The warm ocean currents from the Indian ocean, after traversing the eastern coasts of Asia, are thrown across the North Pacific against the western shores of North America, and effect an important modification in the severity and humidity of the temperature of our Pacific slope. The climate is much milder and more equable than in the same latitude east of the mountains, and the moisture is highly favorable to forest growth. It is the best ship building timber in the world. The trees are immense, often reaching a height of 300 feet with a diameter of 8 to 12 feet. The portion of Washington territory lying west of the Cascade mountains is rich farming land, heavily timbered; while east of the Cascades the country is open prairie, well watered, with small and thinly wooded valleys. The land immediately about Puget Sound is sandy, not valuable for farming though producing timber, but a little way back is unrivaled in richness. Corn does not thrive well, but wheat, oats, potatoes, &c., are very prolific. Large quantities of butter, cheese, and wool are produced. There is little snow in the winter and that soon melts away, except far up in the mountains. Washington shares with Oregon the possession and use of the Columbia river. There are fine fisheries on the coast and excellent oysters, and these produce a considerable trade. Immense quantities of lumber are exported to all parts of the Pacific coast of both North and South America, and even to Buenos Ayres on the South Atlantic. The French come here for their best and cheapest masts and spars. Thus we see that this corner of the Republic brings to the common stock of national treasures some of its best and most valuable material of wealth, and is prepared to whiten the Pacific with the sails of the unlimited commerce which is already beginning to grow up between us and
- 30. the Asiatics. Puget Sound can float with ease the navies of the world on its peaceful bosom. The Northern Pacific railroad will originate here, probably, another great commercial emporium. Washington will, in due time, become a great and wealthy State. Its area is about 70,000 square miles; and the population in 1870 was 23,901. DACOTAH. This territory received an organization and government in 1861. It contains 240,000 square miles; and is greater in extent than all New England together with the great and wealthy States of New York and Pennsylvania; and possesses some peculiar advantages. The Missouri River passes from southeast to northwest diagonally through it, navigable for its whole length, a distance of more than a thousand miles; the Red River of the North skirts its eastern line, its valley being unrivalled for its richness, and adaptation to the growth of wheat. Except the extreme northern part it is said to have the dry, pure, and healthy climate of Southern Minnesota, with the soil of Central Illinois. It is free from the damp, raw, and chilly weather prevailing in Iowa and Illinois, and from the embarrassments to agriculture often experienced in these States from excessive spring rains; while, in late spring and early summer, copious showers supply sufficient moisture to promote a rapid vegetable growth. The surface east and north of the Missouri is an undulating prairie, free from marsh, swamp, and slough, traversed by many streams and dotted with innumerable lakes, of various sizes, whose woody and rocky shores and gravel bottoms supply the purest water, and lend the enchantment of extreme beauty to the landscape. It has all the conditions of climate, soil, and transportation, for the most profitable production of the two great staples of American agriculture, wheat and corn. West of the Missouri the country becomes more rolling, then broken and hilly, until the lofty chain of the Rocky Mountains is reached. These mountains cross the southwestern section. A most desirable stock raising region is furnished here, and mining will flourish in the mountains. In 1870 it had a population of 14,181. Yankton is the capital. ARIZONA. The Spaniards visited the valley of the Colorado at an early day; but the distance from Mexico, and the warlike character of the Indians, did not favor settlement beyond what was gathered about the few missions that were constructed so as to answer for fortresses. The part of this territory lying between Sonora, (of which it formed part,) and California was acquired to the United States by the Gadsden treaty, made with Mexico Dec. 30th, 1853. The American government paid $10,000,000 for it. A Territorial government was organized Feb. 24th, 1863, and embraced part of New Mexico, containing, altogether, an area of 121,000 square miles, or 77,440,000 acres. Efforts had been made previously to settle the country and develop its mines; and an overland mail stage route was established. This proved a success; but the fierce hostility of the Apache Indians, and the desperate character of such whites as had gathered there, fleeing from justice in California and Sonora, discouraged the immigration of law-abiding citizens; and the breaking out of the Civil War withdrew the soldiers in garrison there for the protection of the country. After the war the main stream of emigration followed the line of the newly opened Pacific railroad. The development of the mines required capital and machinery and, though they are thought to be the richest in the world, nothing could be extracted from them by individuals without means. So the population has increased slowly, the census of 1870 giving 9,658. It is a strange and somewhat fearful land; in great part a region of desolate mountains and deep canons. There are many sections susceptible of cultivation that would produce immense returns under irrigation, but most of the efforts in this direction have miscarried from the desolating ravages of the
- 31. Indians. The rainless season reduces the whole country to the semblance of a desert. It is, however, declared to have more arable land in proportion to its surface than New Mexico, or California; and will probably, in time, have a large and prosperous farming community. Cotton is easily cultivated, and sugar cane, in the lower parts, produces abundantly. Grains, vegetables, and melons are produced in the greatest possible perfection, and mature in an incredibly short space of time. When the Apaches are subdued, and society is reduced to order, it will become a favorite resort of the thrifty farmers of the older States, and the diligent German and other foreign immigrants. It contains many traces of a race that has disappeared; some of their dwellings yet remaining in a partially ruinous state. They were probably Aztecs, the race that ruled Mexico before the conquest by Cortez, or are more ancient still. Hideous idols are found, and various indications of a barbarous worship. The completion of the Southern Pacific railway will introduce the hum of industry among its desolate mountains and along its numerous fertile valleys, and the acquisition of the mouth of the Colorado, a large river opening into the head of the Gulf of California, will give it a profitable commerce. Arizona lies south of Utah, to which it is superior in the number and size of its streams, its larger quantity of timber, and the amount of rain-fall in some parts, which is deemed, in some sections, sufficient to dispense with the necessity of irrigation. IDAHO. This territory was organized March 3rd, 1863. It originally embraced a vast territory lying on both sides of the main chain of the Rocky Mountains; but the eastern portion has since been erected into the territory of Montana. It has about 90,000 square miles of territory, and had, in 1870, 14,998 inhabitants. Idaho has very little history prior to the organization of its Territorial government. Its chief attraction to settlers lies in its mines, as yet, and the population is floating, and, in large part, rough and sometimes disorderly. The difficulty of reaching it has prevented its rapid growth. It is exceedingly rich in the precious metals and this will, in time, attract a large population. The eastern and northern parts are very mountainous, abounding in wild and striking scenery and in natural curiosities. The soil in the southern, central, and western parts, is fertile, producing wheat and other small grain, and vegetables very successfully, but is unfavorable for corn from the late frosts of spring and the early cold of autumn. Snow falls to a great depth in the mountains; but the streams are numerous, and there is much choice farming land, which may, ultimately, serve to support its mining population. It runs from the northern boundary of Utah to the south line of British America; Washington Territory and Oregon, lying west. When railroads shall render it accessible, and open the way for its treasures to a market, it will be filled with an industrious and hardy population who will find all the elements of a prosperity as great as any section of the Union enjoys. It has three beautiful lakes—the Coeur d’Aline, the Pen d’Oreille, and the Boatman—of some size, and navigable for steamers. Boisé City is the capital. MONTANA TERRITORY Was organized May 26th, 1864. It lies among the Rocky Mountains, in part on the western slope, but extending into the eastern valleys; and contains the sources of the streams forming the Missouri river; while Idaho lies west among the Blue mountains where the tributaries of the Columbia rise. Montana abounds in mines of gold and silver; and these are said to be much richer than those of California. The average yield of ores in the latter State is $20 per ton, but the average in Montana is stated to be four times that amount. Great as is the yield of gold mines here it is declared that the ease with which silver is separated from its combinations in the ore will make that branch of mining more profitable. Copper also abounds. This territory has several eminent advantages over other mining districts. It is reached by steamboats on the Missouri river, from St. Louis, without transhipment:
- 32. navigation being free to Ft. Benton, in the heart of Montana. The river voyage from St. Louis to Ft. Benton, is made in 28 days. There is a large and constant supply of water, a point of great difficulty in most of the other mining regions; and the country everywhere furnishes easy natural roads, the principal range of the Rocky Mountains not presenting the broken and rugged character of most other ranges. Associated with this point is the important fact of great agricultural capability. It is one of the best grazing regions west of the Mississippi. Small grain and fruit are grown with the greatest ease, as also the more important vegetables. There is abundance of timber for all purposes of home consumption. The area is stated at 153,800 square miles. The population in 1870 was 20,594. ALASKA TERRITORY Was acquired to the United States by treaty with Russia in the year 1867, for $7,200,000. It is a vast region containing 394,000 square miles, with 24,000 inhabitants. It was first explored by command of Peter the Great of Russia in 1728. A government was first established on Kodiak island in 1790. In 1799 the Russian American fur company was chartered by the Emperor Paul. The northern portion is a tolerably compact body of mainly level country about 600 miles square, and a line of coast runs south for a long distance, including many islands. The Aleutian group of islands is included. The principal value of the region to Russia was the fur trade. The annual export of these amounted to only a few hundred thousand dollars. American thrift will probably make much more of it. The country is much warmer than its high latitude would seem to imply—Sitka in the southern part having about the same mean temperature, by the thermometer, as Washington! It is, however, extremely damp. In one year there were counted only 66 entire days without rain or snow. The coast is broken with mountains. The peninsula of Alaska has some very high mountains—Mt. St. Elias and Mt. Fairweather being estimated at 15,000 to 18,000 feet above the sea. The islands of the Aleutian group are volcanic in origin. There are several rivers, the largest, the Yukon, or Kwickpak being 2,000 miles long, and navigable for 1,500 miles. There are vast supplies of timber, much being pine, found nowhere else on the Pacific coast. Vegetables, and some grains, may be raised without difficulty, and the soil, in parts, is rich. Abundant supplies of coal are believed to exist. The precious metals and iron, it is thought, are to be found there, but the country has been very imperfectly explored. In the lively and extensive trade that is likely to grow up with Japan, China, and the East Indies, it will no doubt be found of great value, and its resources contribute to the wealth of our country. WYOMING TERRITORY Was organized by act of Congress July 25th, 1868, and is the youngest of the territories. Its area is stated at 100,500 square miles, and it had a population, in 1870, of 9,118. The Pacific railroad passes through it, to which its settlement is probably mainly due. Montana lies on the north; Dacotah and Nebraska on the east; Colorado and Utah on the south, with the northern part of Utah and Idaho on the west. The main chain of the Rocky Mountains crosses it from northwest to southeast which maintain here the same general characteristic as in Montana, viz.: that of a rolling upland. Its outlying ranges are more broken. Most of the country is good arable, or grazing land, sufficiently fertile to give excellent returns for labor, though, in large part, requiring irrigation. A few regions are remarkably sterile, but they are limited in comparison with the fertile lands. Gold mining has been successful, to a considerable extent; coal is extremely abundant and accessible; the supplies for the Pacific railroad being obtained in this territory. Iron has been found in considerable quantities, together with lead and copper ores. Oil and salt springs promise to be productive.
- 33. Thus without, as yet, developing any eminent specialty, the resources of this Territory seem to promise all the requisites of prosperity to a large population; while the climate is mild and extremely healthy, and the great thoroughfare between the east and the west furnishes all necessary facilities for transporting its supplies to the best markets. More intimate knowledge of its mineral deposits may perhaps give it a higher rank as a mining State. THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. The first Congress convened under the new Constitution in 1789, held its session in New York. The seat of government was then removed to Philadelphia. There was much dissension as to where it should be permanently located. The North and the South, were each equally obstinate in their desire to locate it in their own section, and the quarrel threatened a rupture of the confederacy. The great political question of the time was the debts of the States contracted in carrying on the War of Independence. The South, disliking a strong central-government, opposed giving the charge of the finances of the country into its hands; while the North, strongly approved the plan of clothing it with authority to concentrate the strength of the nation to a reasonable extent, so that it might be able to act with vigor, and make the country formidable to its enemies. The reservation of as much power as possible to the individual States was a vital question with the South, since it wished to maintain Slavery, and it was always foreseen that the north must preponderate, ultimately, in the general government; and the north was unfriendly to slavery. The Constitution could make its way in the South only by compromise as to slavery. The question was a very difficult and delicate one to adjust, but with much tact Jefferson and Hamilton, usually antagonists in politics, united to urge a compromise; the North conceding the location of the national capital, and the South the assumption, by the general government, of the State debts. This was accomplished in 1790, and Washington selected the site on his own Potomac, Virginia and Maryland uniting to give a tract ten miles square, extending to both sides of the river. A new city was laid out, and buildings erected which were occupied for the first time in 1800. This small territory, the government and control of which was lodged wholly in Congress, was called “Columbia.” This possession of its own capital was considered important in order to avoid a possible conflict of Federal and State authority. The capital city was located on the Maryland side, and called Washington. The territory on the Virginia side was, in 1846, re-ceded to Virginia. On Feb. 21st, 1871, the District was made a territory, with a legislature for its internal government, and the right to be represented by one member in the House of Representatives. The population in 1870 was 131,706. Washington is adorned with many immense buildings erected for the various departments of the government, and the capitol itself is one of the largest in the world, and cost $5,000,000. It is worthy of the great nation represented in its halls. CHAPTER LXX. THE ANNEXATION POLICY. 1. The original States of the American Union were all on the Atlantic seaboard. The central States were separated from the fertile valleys and plains of the Mississippi and its tributaries by mountains, while those lying at the northern and southern extreme found, in the vast forests filled with fierce and hostile savages, a still greater barrier against settlement westward. The “Old Thirteen” found their hands and thoughts sufficiently occupied with the establishment of their liberties, and the ultimate western boundaries of the country were left to be settled in future years. Fortunately for us England was too much occupied with the immense debt the useless American war had cost her to make difficulties over the cession of the western regions to us; and, at the peace, we were in possession of
- 34. the whole region from the Atlantic ocean to the Mississippi river. That was enough and more for the present; but the people were enterprising. We offered a home, freedom, and great opportunities to the oppressed and poor of other lands, and that region was soon sufficiently peopled to show what other regions were required to secure the prosperity of all. 2. It soon became clear that the development of the Western States east of the Mississippi required the possession of the lower part of the river and the territory on its western bank. Circumstances were favorable to its acquisition, and Louisiana, extending from the mouth of the river far up toward its head waters, including several hundred thousand square miles of as valuable land as was to be found on the continent, was purchased. It entered into the vindictive policy of Napoleon Bonaparte to injure England by strengthening America, and it was obtained for the comparatively insignificant sum of fifteen million dollars. This annexation was altogether essential to the security and development of the larger part of the original territory. 3. Florida was discovered and settled by the Spaniards, who claimed the coast along the Gulf of Mexico to the Mississippi river. Though it was not commercially or agriculturally important to us, it became in the hands of a power not very friendly, the support and refuge of the barbarous and resolutely hostile Indians of our southern border. It was necessary to nearly exterminate them to obtain peace, but no absolute security could be assured while the Spanish territory protected them in their retreat before our armies. Peace, security against the Indians, and freedom from the intermeddling of a European Power required the acquisition of that peninsula and the Gulf Coast. After twenty years of occasional negotiation it was purchased for five millions of dollars. This was the most convenient way, also, of settling an account for spoliations on our commerce which we held against Spain, and the only means she then possessed of making payment. Thus another annexation was made under the pressure of circumstances. 4. By this time a sufficient degree of expansion and strength had been acquired by the New Nation to inspire in it great confidence in itself and grand views of its future, and the “Monroe Doctrine,” that the United States would refrain from all meddling with the politics of Europe, but would resolutely oppose the meddling of any European power with the politics of this continent, was adopted. This doctrine did not propose any interference with other governments already established here, but America was to be left to its present possessors, and European ambition was to look elsewhere for kingdoms to conquer or found. A tacit protectorate over all America was assumed, in order to prevent the entrance of any other element that might build up a system hostile to our interests and progress. It was a legitimate conclusion from the principles and necessities that had led to the inauguration of the annexation policy. The nation claimed that it had a right to keep the ground clear from obstacles to its natural development. It was a system of growth and protection involving no ideas of conquest by force, and no menace to governments already established. 5. The third addition to our territorial area took place under circumstances which all true Americans will ever regret. If stated by our enemies it would be said that, after encouraging the settlement of the territory of a neighbor by our own citizens, and giving them covert support in withdrawing that territory from its proper owners, we took possession of it, and when they naturally undertook to protect, or recover it, we made a war of invasion on them, employed our superior skill and vigor to disarm their State, and took as much more of their territory as suited our purposes; in short, that we picked a quarrel, and being the strongest bound and robbed them. 6. It cannot be agreeable to lovers of justice and defenders of equal rights, that there should be so much of truth in this statement as to render it impossible to clearly and distinctly prove the contrary. There was, however, an element of the necessary and unavoidable, even in this, that was more in harmony with the previous system of acquisition than appeared on the surface. Texas presented, perhaps, the finest climate and the greatest facilities for money-making on the continent. The Mexicans inherited the religion and hatred of protestants with the haughty, repelling spirit of the Spaniards, and wished to preserve the old Spanish policy of separating themselves from us by a broad barrier of desert and wilderness. They did not wish to settle Texas themselves, nor feel willing that any one else should. It is inevitable that enterprise and strength, impelled by self-interest, will disregard such wishes.
- 35. Americans are neither perfect nor magnanimous enough to stand on ceremony when their interests are concerned. The best that can be said of them is that they are more moderate and self-contained than any other people. The necessities of the institution of slavery required more territory to balance the rapid increase of free States, and this precipitated the movement that was inevitable sooner or later from other causes. Indeed the first patent of territory obtained in Texas, from the Mexican government, was by a native of Connecticut. The rapid growth of commerce in the Pacific ocean, the agreeable climate and fertile soil of California, and the unsettled, wilderness state of that region, caused the commercial nations of Europe to look at it with longing eyes. The Monroe doctrine was in danger of being violated. England had fully prepared to plant a colony there when it was taken possession of by the American forces. 7. Thus the enterprise and energy of the nation, which had still further developed its instinct, or anticipations and plans, of future greatness, required to use the vast resources of the Gulf region, and to extend settlements to the Pacific Slope in order to develop the mineral resources of that region and prepare to build up its commerce with Eastern Asia. The northern parts of Mexico were useless to her, since she had neither population to occupy them, nor strength to subdue the Indians who roamed over them in scattered bands. There is a justice and propriety which has the force of Natural Law in allowing the active and vigorous to take possession of the natural resources that others can not or will not develop. The earth was made for mankind as a whole, and what cannot benefit one race, another, that is able to employ it for its own and the general good, has some show of right in entering upon. That, at least, must be the justification of our ancestors in intruding themselves upon the lands and hunting grounds of the aboriginal inhabitants of America, and our only excuse for making war with the Indians, forcing them to part with their lands, confining them to reservations, and denying to King Philip, Powhattan, and Tecumseh the admiration and esteem we give to the patriotic defenders of our native land and natural rights. 8. It is to be regretted that the vast and valuable territory acquired from Mexico should be the spoil of conquest rather than the fruit of peaceful negotiation; but the eagerness of the speculator, the unreasonable pride and selfishness of the Mexican, and the peculiar requirements of our internal conflict over slavery put to silence, for a time, the voice of moderation and equity, and we annexed near 1,000,000 square miles of territory by force. The payment of $18,500,000, when we might have taken it without, was an indication that our ordinary sense of justice was not altogether quenched. 9. We may reasonably consider that this was exceptional, and that the confusion of judgment and the disorder consequent on the life and death struggle of the institution of slavery, which were in a few years to produce the most terrible civil war known to history, led us into the comparatively moderate aggression and violence that marked this annexation to our territorial area. Our traditional policy is to acquire peaceably, and with a satisfactory remuneration, such territory as the national progress and development demand. It is contrary to the spirit of our institutions to oblige the majority of the inhabitants of any region not within our boundaries to form a part of the Republic. 10. Two annexations have been made since the Mexican war. Arizona was obtained by treaty and purchase from Mexico, in 1854, and Alaska by treaty and purchase from Russia, in 1867. The first is valuable for its mineral treasures. It was useless to Mexico, though we gave $10,000,000 for it. It will ultimately be worth to us hundreds of millions, and its ruins of an ancient people will be replaced by a thriving population of intelligent freemen. Alaska is specially valuable in relation to our future commerce with Asia, and for its fisheries and fur trade. Its internal resources are, as yet, scarcely known. 11. The superior stability of American institutions and the love of law and order of the American people may make annexation desirable and profitable to the more volatile and unsteady Southern States of America, but it is probable that no labored efforts to induce annexation will be tolerated by the mass of the people. We may fairly judge that we have reached our natural boundaries; that the advancement of neighboring governments in order and intelligence will suffice to give protection to the comparatively small numbers who may find a better field for their energies without than within the Union; and that if any future annexations are made it will be by the purchase of uninhabited regions that may be more valuable to us than to their owners; or that, if any inhabited regions are incorporated
- 36. into the Union, it will be at the instance and desire of its own inhabitants rather than of our people. We are the special champions of popular and all other rights, and shall never be likely to forget ourselves again so far as to repeat the Mexican war, however pressing our desires. CHAPTER LXXI. CENSUS STATISTICS. Population of the United States and Territories from 1790 to 1870. Transcriber’s Note: Some of the figures in this table are unreadable and are represented by X. Several copies of the book were checked and all have the same printing error. Later editions use different figures in that column and can’t be relied on to fill in the missing data. States. Where Settled. 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 Alabama Mobile —— —— —— 127901 309527 590756 771623 9 Arkansas Arkansas Post —— —— —— 14255 30388 97574 209897 4 California Monterey —— —— —— —— —— —— 92597 3 Connecticut Windsor 238141 251202 262042 275102 297675 309978 370792 4 Delaware Cape Henlopen 59096 64273 72674 72749 76748 78085 91532 1 Florida St. Augustine —— —— —— —— 34730 54477 87445 1 Georgia Savannah 82548 162101 252433 340983 516823 691392 906185 10 Illinois Kaskaskia —— —— 12282 55102 157445 476183 851470 17 Indiana Vincennes —— 4875 24520 147178 343031 685866 988416 13 Iowa Dubuque —— —— —— —— —— 43112 192214 6 Kansas Fort Leavenworth —— —— —— —— —— —— —— 1 Kentucky Boonesboro 73077 220955 406511 564135 687917 779828 982405 11 Louisiana Iberville —— —— 76556 152923 215739 352411 517762 7 Maine York 96540 151719 228705 98269 399455 501793 583169 6 Maryland St. Marys 319728 341584 380546 407350 447040 470019 583034 6 Massachusetts Plymouth 378718 423245 472040 523159 610408 737699 994514 12 Michigan Detroit —— —— 4762 8765 31639 212267 397654 7 Minnesota Fort Snelling —— —— —— —— —— —— 6077 1 Mississippi Natchez —— 8850 40352 75448 136621 375651 606526 7 Missouri St. Genevieve —— —— 20845 66577 140455 383702 682044 11 Nebraska —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— Nevada —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— New Hampshire Dover 141899 183762 214360 244022 269328 284574 317976 3 New Jersey Bergen 184139 211949 245555 277426 320823 373306 489555 6 New York Albany 340120 586756 959049 1372111 1918608 2428921 3097394 38 North Carolina Roanoke River 393751 478103 555500 638829 737987 753419 869039 9 Ohio Marietta —— 45365 230760 581295 937903 1519467 1980329 23 Oregon Astoria —— —— —— —— —— —— 13294 Pennsylvania Delaware Co. 434373 602361 810091 1047507 1348233 1724033 2311786 29 Rhode Island Providence 69110 69122 77031 83015 97199 108830 147545 1 South Carolina Port Royal 249073 245591 415115 402741 581185 594398 668507 7
- 37. Tennessee Fort Loudon 35791 105602 261727 422761 681904 829210 1002717 11 Texas Matagorda —— —— —— —— —— —— 212592 6 Vermont Brattleboro 85416 154465 217713 235749 280652 291948 314120 3 Virginia Jamestown 748308 880200 974622 1065129 1211405 1239797 1421661 12 West Virginia —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— 3 Wisconsin Pr. du Chien —— —— —— —— —— 30945 305391 7 Territories. Arizona —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— Colorado —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— 3 Dakota —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— Idaho —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— Montana —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— New Mexico —— —— —— —— —— —— —— 61,547 8 Utah —— —— —— —— —— —— —— 11,380 4 Washington —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— 1 Wyoming —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— Dist. of Columbia —— —— 14,093 24,023 33,039 39,834 43,712 51,687 7 Total population in 1790 3,929,827 ” 1800 5,305,937 ” 1810 7,239,814 ” 1820 9,638,131 ” 1830 12,866,020 ” 1840 17,069,453 ” 1850 23,191,876 ” 1860 31,747,514 ” 1870 38,538,180 To which add Indians and others in Indian territory, not included in Census 304,192 Grand total in 1870 38,842,372 Note.—Returns of the colored population of the United States received at the Census Office show a total in all the States and Territories of 4,857,000, being an increase of 9.35-100 per cent. since 1860. The State of Georgia has the largest colored population; Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, North Carolina and Louisiana follow next in order. As shown in the last census (1870), the seven leading States rank, according to population, as follows: (1) New York; (2) Pennsylvania; (3) Ohio; (4) Illinois; (5) Missouri; (6) Indiana; (7) Massachusetts. Thus four out of the seven most populous States are “new States;” that is, they were not included in the original “thirteen.” In 1789, the four States at the head of the list were: (1) Virginia; (2) Pennsylvania; (3) North Carolina; (4) Massachusetts. At present, Virginia (if the State had not been divided) would have ranked in the seventh place, or next after Indiana. In absolute increase of inhabitants, Pennsylvania heads the list of the old States in the last decade: and the total population of said State is about equal to that of the thirteen States of Connecticut, Arkansas, West Virginia, Minnesota, Kansas, Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Florida, Delaware, Nebraska, Oregon and Nevada. The aggregate population of the six New England States of Massachusetts, Maine, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont and Rhode Island falls considerably short of that of Pennsylvania. The States west of the Mississippi, including the Pacific States, have about one-sixth of the whole population of the United States.
- 38. The ratio of increase in population from 1790 to 1800 was 35.02 per cent.; from 1800 to 1810, 36.45 per cent.; from 1810 to 1820, 33.13 per cent.; from 1820 to 1830, 33.49 per cent.; from 1830 to 1840, 32.67 per cent.; from 1840 to 1850, 38.57 per cent.; from 1850 to 1860, 37.75 per cent.; from 1860 to 1870, 22.34 per cent. Supposing the increase during this decade (since 1870) to be 30 per cent. there would be in 1875 nearly 45,000,000 inhabitants. We have reason to suppose it to be at least 35 per cent. This, in 1880, would give 52,437,192.
- 39. PART THIRD. THE PEOPLE AND THE GOVERNMENT. 1. All government is professedly for the good of the people; but in point of fact, nearly every government that has ever been instituted has been in the interest of an individual, a family, or a class. American statesmen, in forming our government, admitted the superior rights of no man or class of men. It was carefully organized to exclude all claims or pretenses of that kind, with a single exception, at first, which afterward disappeared in the tempest of a civil war. The executive, the various members of the government, and the law makers depend on the people for their elevation. At first they possessed only the dignity, privileges, and rights of the people at large, and, their term of office expired, they return to the same level, honored, indeed, if they have been faithful servants; if not, carrying to their dishonored graves the reproaches and contempt of their fellow-citizens, but retaining, in neither case, a vestige of the power and exaltation over others that clothed them when in office, the contrary of which so often makes an unworthy man respectable in a different form of government. 2. That the masses of the people would be able to exercise a true sovereignty without abusing it was always doubted until the trial was made in this country. A very respectable class of statesmen in the early days of the Republic, sympathized in this doubt, and it even crept into the Constitution in the form of electors who were to choose the President; intimating a distrust of the wisdom and sound discretion of the voters in the choice of the Chief Magistrate. The liberty allowed to the Legislatures of the States to determine the manner in which electors should be chosen, while it recognized State authority on one side, on the other implied a hesitation to trust so important a matter directly to the people; and for a long time they were only indirectly consulted as to the choice of a President. 3. It was not, however, caused by a desire to keep power from them, but rather to avoid the unhappy effect of popular heat and rashness, so often observed in popular governments before attempted. This distrustful party first took control of the government, retained it during three presidential terms, and for many years afterwards formed an influential minority whose criticisms were of importance in establishing a traditional policy for the government. This party—the Federalists, headed by Washington and Hamilton—sought to found a strong and stable government that should be able to fully protect the country from foreign interference and domestic discord. Their control over the administration was somewhat abruptly closed by acts considered arbitrary, interfering with full freedom of speech and of the press—the “Sedition Laws” as they were called. Jefferson and the Republican party demanded the largest popular freedom, and had the conduct of the government for twenty-four years, impressing on its habits and policy the respect for the opinions of the people at large that has ever since characterized it. The people gradually gained control of presidential elections and practically set the electors aside, making and enforcing their own choice in general elections. 4. The exercise of popular sovereignty has gradually been enlarged, no qualification but that of age and nativity being now generally required, and the government may fairly be considered to represent the views of a majority of the people, and not only of the native, but also of the foreign born; since the great mass of the latter are, by naturalization, absorbed into the mass of citizens. They come to make a permanent home with us, from a preference, as it is fair to assume, for republican institutions; and it is considered right that they should have a voice in the conduct of them. Nor have the American people seen cause to regret their liberality in this respect. Citizens of foreign birth have usually proved as thoughtful and wise as the rest of the population, and as worthy of citizenship. They bring to us wealth in their labor if not in their purses, and soon become thoroughly American in their habits and sympathies. The government and the people cordially welcome them, and find themselves the stronger and richer by so doing. 5. It must not be forgotten that the strongest fears of popular influence on the government, the stability of our institutions, and the maintenance of the good order necessary to the security of property
- 40. and the general prosperity, were entertained at the first; that the prophecies of the foreseers of evil have been almost uniformly false during its whole course; and that the relation between the people and the general government has constantly grown closer, to the great advantage of both. The first war into which the country was plunged after the Revolution—that of 1812—was comparatively a failure, in its earlier part, for want of this mutual confidence. Later the people and the government have been more closely allied, and the government has been strong while the people have seen their cherished ends gained. There has been continual advance in liberality of administration, in efficiency of organization, and in the completeness of social order. We have no reason to suppose that a tendency, continued through a hundred years and favored by so many circumstances that are common to all nations in our generation to a degree never before known, will be changed. Rather we may confidently expect that with increased intelligence, experience, and prosperity that tendency will be strengthened. CHAPTER I. SUFFRAGE AND CITIZENSHIP. 1. The right pertaining to citizenship, to vote for such officers as are elected by the people, is called suffrage. When that right is acquired with respect to one class of officers it always extends to the whole, from petty town or city officials, to high officers of the State and United States government—all, in short, who obtain office directly from the people. 2. The Constitution defines who shall be regarded as citizens of the United States, and all such are declared by it to be also citizens of the State in which they reside. It declares “all persons, born, or naturalized in the United States, and subject to its jurisdiction” to be citizens. Indian tribes are mostly regarded as foreign nations, and have such rights as treaties give them, but are not taxed and do not vote; therefore they are not regarded as citizens. 3. Yet suffrage does not belong to all citizens. The special regulation of the voting prerogative was not assumed by the Constitution, nor delegated to Congress, and it is generally conceded that it belongs to the State governments. The regulations in the States are not uniform, but in no State do women or minors vote. This cuts off a large part of the citizens, nearly three-fourths belonging to these classes. Minors are supposed, however, to be represented, as to their interests, by their guardians, and females by husbands or brothers. Some of the States make minor restrictions as to length of residence in the State, and require a certain amount of property to constitute a voter, and in some naturalization is not required—so that the range of the right of suffrage varies within small limits, in different States. Whatever rule is adopted by the States has been accepted as the basis of suffrage for that State by the general government, when members of Congress and President and Vice-President are voted for. 4. It seems to be a loose point in the regulations, otherwise so admirable, since it may work a considerable inequality under given circumstances; and, in some cases, might change the policy of the government. It is a question worthy of consideration whether there should not be an amendment to the Constitution establishing uniformity of suffrage in all the States. This point has caused much discussion in the State governments and various changes have been, from time to time, made in many of them. These have been, usually, in the direction of liberality—tending to enlarge the scope of suffrage. The property qualification, quite common in earlier times, is now rare. The fifteenth amendment, recently adopted, has largely increased the number of voters. 5. The experience of the Republic, thus far, has been in favor of the doctrine that it is safe to trust the people with their own interests, and that the responsibilities of self-government, when they are laid on them under the favorable circumstances that exist among us, tend to improvement instead of disorganization. Whether this will always be the case it may not be safe to assume, and a prudent regard to possibilities should not be neglected; but we should not forget that those who founded
- 41. American liberty ran great risks of anarchy in the eyes of their contemporaries. We ought to be able safely to continue a policy of suffrage which they introduced with results so fortunate. 6. Education needs to be encouraged, and this has always received much attention. It is probable that but for the very liberal provision made in this respect, the fate of our government would have been very different. Many foreigners who had no early education, have been naturalized, and the colored people born in the country have been made citizens. If the remainder of the people had not been intelligent, it would no doubt have been extremely dangerous. It has led to some serious local interruptions of order and prosperity, but they have been, so far, temporary; and the general effect has been to awaken ambition for education; the children of new-made citizens have enjoyed the same facilities as others to acquire intelligence necessary to a citizen; and the right of suffrage, when extended to the ignorant and degraded has seemed to produce the general effect of destroying a dangerous class by raising them gradually to intelligence and self-respect and respect for the laws, by making them the political equals of those who are socially and intellectually far above them. 7. As we grow in numbers all influences like this take a wider range, and acquire more power, and sometimes produce different results, when they become extensive, from what was the case when more limited, from the difference of influence in modifying causes; and there has always been fear of trouble from the extension of suffrage to too many ignorant persons. It is well to be cautious; but we ought to venture as far as possible for the sake of improving and elevating all classes of our people. 8. It is also a question worthy of attention if women who own property that is taxed ought not to possess the right of suffrage. The war that made us a Nation was begun because we refused to be taxed unless we could be represented, and have a vote in the body laying the taxes. The principle appears to be precisely the same; and what we fought for then should not be denied now. CHAPTER II. OUR CITIZENS OF FOREIGN BIRTH. Whatever fault we may sometimes find with the conduct of our government; however much self- seeking to the neglect of the public good there may be among officials; however many weaknesses, errors, and violations of law may call for our severest reprobation, and, in moments of depression, lead us to look gloomily and doubtfully toward the future; yet it is not to be denied that the Home of real Freedom is with us. Mismanagement is but temporary, or limited, and easily admits of remedy, with time and care; our advantages are permanent and extensive. In eighty years the population has become nearly twelve times as numerous as at the beginning of that period, and this rapid growth in numbers has been made up largely from the disposition of foreigners to make a permanent home among us. Those who are oppressed, who suffer restraint in their interests or belief, or wish for a wider career for themselves or their families—who want a free field for business enterprise, for mental and moral development, or full play for their abilities to influence their fellow men, come to us. Here they find fair opportunity for what may be lacking elsewhere. They come here by millions; the poor, by industry, become rich; the oppressed leave persecutions and galling burdens behind them; and genius finds full play for its aspirations in whatever direction its energies may be turned. At the time of the last Census there were 5,566,546 persons in the Union, and forming part of our population, of foreign birth. A large part of these have become citizens by Naturalization. The remainder, or their descendants, if they remain here, will become citizens by that process, or by lapse of time. After they have become familiar with our institution, ideas, and habits, they are incorporated with the body of our citizens and are a part of the Nation. The naturalized citizen may become, in time, a State officer, or member of Congress, if he can make himself acceptable to his fellow citizens; or he may possibly live to see his son President of the United States.
- 42. Congress alone has power, under the Constitution, to enact naturalization laws. Suffrage, or the right of voting, is left to the regulation of the States, within certain limits; but every citizen, made such by law of the General Government, is also a citizen of the State in which he resides, and will acquire, within such times as State regulations shall determine, the right to vote. State laws regarding suffrage vary. Some States even admit aliens who are not citizens of the United States to the right of suffrage and to other privileges; and most require any citizen to reside a prescribed length of time in the State before he can vote. A uniform regulation in all the States would be desirable. HOW TO BECOME A CITIZEN. Any alien, having arrived in the United States after the age of eighteen years, may be admitted to the rights of citizenship, after a declaration, upon his part, or oath or affirmation, before the Supreme, Superior, District, or Circuit Court of, or any court of record having common law jurisdiction in, any of the United States, or of the territories thereto belonging, or before a Circuit or District Court of the United States, or the Clerk or Prothonotary of any of the aforesaid courts, two years at least before his admission, that it is his bona fide intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, State or sovereignty whatever, and particularly by name, the prince, potentate, State, or sovereignty, whereof such alien may at any time have been a citizen or subject; if such alien has borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the orders of nobility in the kingdom or State from which he came, he must, moreover, expressly renounce his title or order of nobility, in the court in which his application is made, which renunciation is to be recorded in such county; and the court admitting such alien must also be satisfied that he has continuously resided in the United States for five years, at least, immediately preceding his naturalization, and also within the State or Territory wherein such court is at the time held, at least one year immediately previous to such naturalization; and that during such five years he has been of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same; the oath of at least two citizens of the United States is requisite to prove the fact of such residence; and, at the time of his application to be admitted to citizenship, he must make, upon oath or affirmation, the same declaration of renunciation and abjuration of allegiance to any foreign power, and also make oath or affirmation to support the Constitution of the United States; all of which proceedings are to be recorded by the Clerk or Prothonotary of the proper court. If any alien, having legally filed his declaration of intention to become a citizen and taken the necessary oath or affirmation, die before he is actually naturalized, his widow and children are entitled to all the rights and privileges of citizens, upon taking the required oaths or affirmations. Any alien arriving in the United States under the age of eighteen years, and continuously residing therein until the time of his application for citizenship, may, after reaching the age of twenty-one years, and having been a resident within the United States for five years, including the three years of his minority, be admitted a citizen, without making the formal declaration of intention required in other cases; but at the time of his admission he must make such declaration, and further satisfy the court, upon oath or affirmation, that, for the three years immediately preceding, it had been his bona fide intention to become such citizen, and in all other respects must comply with the naturalization laws of the United States. Severe penalties for counterfeiting any evidence of citizenship, or disposing of a certificate of naturalization to any person other than the one for whom it was issued, are imposed by act of Congress. CHAPTER III. ELECTIONS.
- 43. 1. A pure democracy is a government in which all the people who have the proper qualifications for voting personally take part—or have the right to do so—in the discussion of public measures, and enactment of the laws. This is not practicable unless the State consist of a small number of persons; and a representative democracy is substituted, in which the masses of the people exercise the voting and ruling prerogative by appointing a small number of substitutes to act in their place and represent them. This appointment of representatives is for the most part the only direct way in which the people of this country are able to take part in the government. Though the theory is that the people alone are sovereign, this is the only way in which sovereignty can exert itself. Even if present in a legislative assembly, they cannot discuss or vote unless they are Representatives, duly elected. 2. Elections, then, are of the highest importance. If a citizen would exert his sovereign authority, as one of the depositaries of power, he must take part in them. Representatives elected to make laws are expected to express the will of the majority of the people whom they represent. They are pledged, expressly or tacitly, to do so. If they disobey the will of their constituents, there is no immediate redress. They can be displaced only at the close of the term for which they were elected. There is some inconvenience and danger attending this method; though the fear of the displeasure of their constituents is usually sufficient to secure faithfulness. Where the people are numerous, (there are now more than 135,000 persons to each representative,) it becomes a matter of much interest to know what is their will. It is ascertained by the elections. The people vote for a candidate, or nominee, known to hold certain political principles. As men do not often see or think alike there is generally more than one principle, or system of views, regarding public measures, involved in every election, and therefore more than one candidate. The result of the vote shows the will of the majority. The same question generally occupies the attention of the whole country, and the elections to Congress determine the policy of the government, so far as legislation is concerned. 3. The same remarks apply to the election of the President and the members of the State governments. The choice of men for the State legislatures determines the policy and political principles of the State government, and as the majority in State legislatures appoint the Senators, the character of Congress and its measures are influenced by State elections. The choice of the President is not, in theory, made directly, since Electors are chosen, who afterwards vote for the President; but it is understood that they will vote for a certain man; and it has been so invariably their custom to do so, that the result is considered as settled by the direct vote of the people. Should the Electors do otherwise the people would be very much surprised and displeased, and those Electors would have little prospect of appointment to office again. Very few men in office are willing to seriously offend their constituents, so that practically, the people vote directly for the President and Vice-President they prefer. 4. Of all our elections none is considered of so much importance as the Presidential. These come every four years, because the Constitution provides that the term for which a President is chosen, shall be four years. Our elections, both for the general and State governments, are by ballot, instead of viva voce, (the living voice,) as in some countries. The ballot is a small piece of paper, with the name of the candidate or candidates printed or written upon it, and then folded in such a manner as to hide them, so that no one but the voter can tell what names are on his ballot. A vote by viva voce, is when the voter, in the presence of the inspectors of the election, audibly and clearly calls out the name of the candidate for whom he votes, and thus proclaims in the hearing of all present how he votes. But the ballot enables the voter to vote secretly if he chooses to do so. CHAPTER IV. RATIO OF REPRESENTATION. 1. The ratio of representation simply means the ratio between the whole population of the United States, and the whole number of their Representatives in Congress; and this of course includes the ratio
- 44. between the people of any individual State, and the Representatives it is entitled to; both being estimated upon the same basis, and determined by the same rule. 2. The distinctive characteristic of our government is, that it is a popular government. Its power is vested in the people. They elect their rulers, who are the servants of the people, and these rulers are expected to carry out the people’s wishes. Upon such a system, it is a matter of the first importance, to distribute this power equally among all the people, and after having fixed upon the ratio between the whole population and the whole number of Representatives; or, in other words, after having determined how many members shall compose the lower House of Congress, the next step is to apportion these members among all the States in the ratio of their population. If one State has twice the number of inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to twice the number of Representatives in Congress. If one has ten times the inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to ten times the number of Representatives, and so on; with this one exception, which is, that by a provision in the Constitution, every State, without regard to its population, is entitled to one Representative in the lower House. 3. The adjustment of this matter is all provided for in the Constitution, that is, in its general features; but it devolves upon Congress in every tenth year to re-adjust and re-apportion the Representatives among the several States, according to the population of each State as shown by the last census, which is taken every tenth year; and when the apportionment is once made, it remains the same for the next ten years, when the census is taken again, and a new apportionment is made. 4. Up to the present time (1874,) this has been done nine times. It was done the first time by the convention which formed the Constitution. That apportionment is found in the Constitution, and is as follows: To New Hampshire, 3 Massachusetts, 8 Pennsylvania, 8 Delaware, 1 Rhode Island, 1 Connecticut, 5 New York, 6 New Jersey, 4 Maryland, 6 Virginia, 10 North Carolina, 5 South Carolina, 5 Georgia, 3 By this it will be seen that the first Congress consisted of but 65 members. The Constitution also provided that Representatives should not exceed one to every 30,000 people. The next year after the government went into operation, (1790,) the first census was taken, and as soon as the result was known, a new apportionment was made. This was done in 1792, and was made upon the ratio of one Representative to every 33,000 of representative[4] population.
- 45. [4] The Representative population includes all free persons, white or black; to which (according to the provisions of the Constitution), three-fifths of all the slaves were to be added. But this proviso, now that slavery is abolished, has become a nullity. 5. In 1800, the second census was taken; and when Congress made the apportionment, which was done in 1803, it did not change the ratio, but left it at one Representative to every 33,000 of the representative population. In 1810, the third census was taken, and in 1811 the ratio was fixed at one Representative for every 35,000 of the population. In 1820, the fourth census was taken, and in 1822 Congress fixed the ratio at one Representative for every 47,000 of the population. In 1830, the fifth census was taken, and in 1832 the ratio was fixed at one Representative to every 47,000 of the population. In 1840, the sixth census was taken, and in 1842 Congress again declared that the ratio should be one Representative to every 70,000 of the population. 6. In 1850, the seventh census was taken, and in conformity with the law passed this year, the number of members was for the first time limited; the limit being 233; and the Secretary of the Interior was ordered to take the census returns, and divide the whole representative population by the number 233, and to make the quotient the ratio between the Representatives and the people. 7. We have never seen the result of the Secretary’s estimate, but, taking the population of 1850 and dividing it by 233, would produce a quotient of nearly 94,000; and this we take as the ratio, after the time when it was done, 1852; that is, one Representative to every 94,000 of the population. 8. The eighth census was taken in 1860, and on it an apportionment was based, which allowed one Representative for every 127,000 of the population.
- 46. In 1850 Congress adopted the principle of permanently fixing the number of members of Congress, to save the trouble of doing it as heretofore, every ten years. An act was passed limiting it to 233; but notwithstanding this limitation, it was provided that if any new State came in, it should have its member, which would add to the number. But this increase was to continue no longer than until the next apportionment, when the number was to fall back again to the old figure. In 1862 the law was modified to make the whole number of members consist of 241 after the 3d of March, 1863. In 1870 the ninth census was taken, and in 1872 Congress decided that after March 3d, 1873, the Representatives should comprise 292 members, being one Representative for every 135,239 of the population and apportioned them among the several States as follows: Alabama, 8 Arkansas, 4 California, 4 Connecticut, 4 Delaware, 1 Florida, 2 Georgia, 9 Mississippi, 6 Missouri, 13 Nebraska, 1 Nevada, 1 New Hampshire, 3 New Jersey, 7 New York, 33 North Carolina, 8 Ohio, 20 Illinois, 19 Indiana, 13 Iowa, 9
- 47. Kansas, 3 Kentucky, 10 Louisiana, 6 Maine, 5 Maryland, 6 Massachusetts, 11 Michigan, 9 Minnesota, 3 Oregon, 1 Pennsylvania, 27 Rhode Island, 2 South Carolina, 5 Tennessee, 10 Texas, 6 Vermont, 3 Virginia, 9 West Virginia, 3 Wisconsin, 8 9. But it must be borne in mind that Congress has the power to alter all this, and to enact that Congress shall consist of any other number of members, although it is not probable that this will be done soon. 10. The foregoing statements will show the general plan upon which the House of Representatives is constituted, and how the several States are constantly changing the number of their Representatives, and their relative power and influence in Congress. This can be readily understood by remembering the fact that new States come into the Union every few years, and that the population increases much more rapidly in the Western States than in the Eastern, and that, consequently, the West is rapidly gaining power in Congress, while the Atlantic States are losing it.
- 48. 11. In the apportionment no regard is had to the Territories or to their population. In this adjustment, the States and their population only are regarded, and the number of members is all given to the States. Every Representative from a Territory is an addition to that number, but it must be remembered that a Territorial member has no right to vote on any question, but has only the right to debate; and for this reason he is not, in the fullest sense, a member, and is not counted in adjusting the number of which the House is made to consist. CHAPTER V. OATHS AND BONDS. 1. An oath is an appeal to God, by him who makes it, that what he has said, or what he shall say, is the truth. It is the most solemn form under which one can assert or pronounce anything. To utter a falsehood while under oath is perjury, a crime of the darkest hue. One which God has declared he will punish, and one which is made infamous, and punishable by fine and imprisonment by the laws of the land. 2. The Constitution (Art. 6, Sec. 3) requires that Senators and Representatives, and members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States, and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support the Constitution. Then in the second article, section eight, the form of the oath required of the President before he enters upon his duties, is given in these words: “I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.”
- 49. 3. This is all the Constitution says about oaths; but it is enough to show that no man (unless he commit perjury,) can accept office, either under the United States or any State government, unless he in good faith will support the Constitution. But in the laws enacted by Congress, we find that not only official oaths are required; but in a great variety of other cases, men who transact business with the government are required to verify their accounts and statements with an oath. This is particularly the case with those who do business with the custom house; such as merchants, shipowners, and masters of vessels. Many oaths must be put in the form of affidavits; that is, the oath must be written and signed by the deponent, that the statements made may be preserved. 4. The form of official oaths varies according to the nature of the duties to be performed by the deponent. The oath must be taken before the officer enters upon his duties. Should he neglect or refuse to do this, his acts will be illegal, and he would make himself liable to punishment. After the late civil war broke out, Congress for the purpose of preventing those who had voluntarily taken part in the rebellion, from holding thereafter any office under the government, passed an act requiring every one before he could accept any office, either in the civil, military, or naval departments, to take an oath in the following form: 5. “I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I have never voluntarily borne arms against the United States, since I have been a citizen thereof; that I have voluntarily given no aid, countenance, counsel or encouragement to persons engaged in armed hostility thereto; that I have neither sought, nor accepted, nor attempted to exercise the functions of any office whatever, under any authority or pretended authority in hostility to the United States; that I have not yielded a voluntary support to any pretended government, authority, power or Constitution, within the United States, hostile or inimical thereto. And I do further swear (or affirm) that to the best of my
- 50. knowledge and ability, I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States, against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion, and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God.” So strong and comprehensive an oath as this was never before required from any officer of the government. It answers the requirements of the Constitution, and substantially comprehends all contained in any other forms heretofore used. It is at once an oath of allegiance, an oath of support of the Constitution, and an oath to discharge faithfully the duties of the office taken. This goes by the name of the Test oath, and frequently “The Iron-clad Oath.” 6. The object of the test oath was, during the Civil War, to prevent the entrance into any office of a person who might be secretly unfriendly to the government, and use his position to the advantage of its enemies. So comprehensive and minute an oath would allow no chance of mental evasion to a conscientious person, and would lay the offender under the liability of severe punishment. It is evidently proper to bind all officers of the general and State governments under the strongest and most solemn obligation to a faithful and honest discharge of their duties. 7. Whoever receives an office in the United States, which is connected with the revenue in any way, so that public money passes through his hands, is required to give a bond as security for such money. These bonds give the government a claim on their property if the money is not accounted for according to the directions of the law. They are signed by one or more persons who must show that they have the means to pay the amount for which they become security. The amount of security required depends on the sums of money that are to pass through the hands of the official, or which is likely at any time to accumulate in his possession. The government takes all the care it can that there shall be no risk of loss of the
- 51. public property, and the bond is designed to afford adequate security for all that any officer may have charge of. 8. By this means two important ends are gained. No person can get an office who has no friends and no reputation for uprightness sufficient to induce those that know him to risk their own property on his honesty and faithfulness. It was designed to be a sure means for the government of finding out who were to be trusted. If he has not property himself, so that he can secure his bondsmen to their satisfaction, he must have so high a character for integrity that they are willing to risk their money in his hands, or he cannot obtain an office. Security for public funds, and a high degree of personal worth are both expected to be gained by this requirement. On the whole, this works very well indeed, in both respects, but there seems no security, that is quite infallible, against roguery, unless it be in the extreme care of the people, and their constant watchfulness over all the affairs of the country and all the men who represent them. It is difficult to make a house so strong that a thief cannot get into it by force or stratagem, and rogues who wish to steal from the public funds may band together and help one another to get into office and then divide what spoil they can secure; or unforeseen events may bring more money than was properly secured into an officer’s hands, or those whose duty it is to see that he disburses the funds at the right times may be careless or dishonest. 9. The only sure way is to take care that none but men of proved integrity get into office, and to take all pains to cultivate honesty in the community at large. The money lost by the government is probably much less in proportion than in the private business of the country. Great watchfulness is really exercised, and when such a case occurs it is immediately known through the whole country. Not many men are willing to run so much risk of punishment and public reprobation. Too much care, however, cannot be taken to prevent corruption in public life. It destroys the purity and soundness of
- 52. character on which our institutions are founded. A republic cannot exist without a high standard of virtue. 10. Every official is required to take an oath, or make a solemn affirmation to discharge the duties of his office faithfully. Though we cannot expect to be quite secure against the trickery and insincerity of false and corrupt men, yet we have reason, on the whole, to congratulate ourselves on the general security of public property, and the watchfulness of the people over their servants in places of trust. CHAPTER VI. GOVERNMENT PRISONS. 1. The United States government has always endeavored to continue, as it commenced, to rule with vigor, and to preserve a wholesome respect for its own authority and the rights of all its citizens, while it has, beyond all other governments, probably, that have ever existed sought to avoid arbitrariness and severity; keeping in mind the principle lying at the foundation of its institutions that it exists, not for itself, but for the good of the people. It has assumed that the people generally would not require coercion to submit to its regulations, and has not, therefore, made that ample provision for punishment and intimidation that is usual among governments. In confirmation of this we call attention to the fact that the general government does not own, and has never built, prisons for the confinement of offenders against its laws. Imprisonment, as the mildest form of punishment, has, indeed, very often been inflicted, more often than any other form of punishment. How does this occur when they own no prisons? The answer is that they use the prisons of the States wherever they will allow it. This arrangement between the general and State governments has been made in nearly if not
- 53. all the States; the United States paying for the support of their prisoners. 2. But in case any State should refuse to make such an agreement, the United States marshal of any district where a prisoner is to be confined, is authorized to procure some building where the prisoners may be safely confined in the district where they have been tried and convicted, or where they have been arrested and are held for trial. This is a far more economical plan than it would be for the United States to build prisons all over the country, and then to employ keepers of them. It exemplifies the friendly relations existing between the States and the general government. CHAPTER VII. PROCLAMATIONS. 1. A Proclamation is an official notice published by one high in authority, for the purpose of giving reliable and authoritative information to the people that something has been done, or will soon be done, which is important for them to know, that they may act, or refrain from acting according to the information contained in the proclamation. These proclamations are made known to the country through the most extensive channels of information that can be used for conveying intelligence to everybody in the Republic. In our day, and in our country, the newspapers are the best means that can be used for this purpose. But in ancient times, and before the art of printing was known, swift riders or runners were dispatched to every part of the kingdom or country over which the proclamation was to be made known. These messengers carried it with them, and proclaimed it in the ears of all the people.
- 54. 2. These documents are official acts brought before the people in due form and solemnity. Sometimes they are only recommendations; at others they have all the force of organic law, or the acts of Congress. It has, for some years, been the custom of the Executive to designate some day toward the close of the year as a day of thanksgiving, recommending the day to be observed in a religious manner. Important changes in the commercial affairs between us and some foreign country are made known by the same method. 3. A memorable proclamation was made by President Lincoln, in 1862, by which he made known to the country, and especially to the Southern States, that if they continued their war against the United States for one hundred days after its issuance, he would then, in virtue of his authority as commander-in-chief of the army and navy, liberate the slaves in all the seceded States. At the expiration of the time, which was on the first of January, 1863, he issued another proclamation, in and by which he did emancipate all the slaves in every State which had warred against the United States government. The blockading of our ports at the commencement of the civil war, and the imposition of an embargo upon our shipping, previous to the last war with England, were both subjects which brought out proclamations from the President who then filled the Executive chair. 4. The above examples show the character of the cases which cause proclamations to be issued. In some instances they have the authority of law; in others they are merely recommendations; and in others only communicate important intelligence in regard to our public affairs at home or abroad. CHAPTER VIII. COMMISSIONERS.
- 55. 1. As it is one purpose of this work to give a clear and complete account of the mode of conducting the affairs of the general government, we have thought it best to call attention to the class of officers named at the head of this chapter; and especially since persons acting under this title are assigned to a variety of duties, sometimes permanent and sometimes temporary. In the first place, they act as heads of bureaus in the various departments. These commissioners are permanent officials of the government, established and provided for by law; such are the commissioners of the land office, patent office, pension office, &c. 2. Another class of commissioners can hardly be considered officers, but rather temporary or special agents. In the multifarious duties devolving upon Congress, the President, and all the departments, it not unfrequently happens that it is impracticable for them to do certain things necessary to be done. The business to be transacted may be at a great distance from the capital, even in a foreign country. In these cases commissioners are appointed to do such business. They have been appointed to negotiate a peace, to make treaties of various kinds between us and other powers, and to negotiate with the Indians for the purchase of their lands. The United States courts appoint them to take bail, or to take testimony to be used on trials, and do various other things necessary in trials and proceedings before them. 3. Congress frequently appoints commissioners to obtain information, or to investigate some matter on which they expect to legislate. In all cases they must report their proceedings, either to Congress, to the President, or to the head of the department under whose instruction they act. Permanent commissioners report once a year, or oftener if required, that Congress may know the condition of affairs in their respective bureaus. Special commissioners, after they have performed the work assigned, make their report; after which their duties cease, and their commission comes to an end. 4. The lowest grade of diplomatic agents are called commissioners. We are thus represented at the present time in the
- 56. Republics of Hayti and Liberia. 5. By recent acts of Congress, the powers of commissioners in some cases have been enlarged. They now examine persons charged with crimes against the laws of the United States; hold them to bail, discharge them, or commit them to prison; and do other magisterial acts, preliminary to the trial of the accused. When acting in such cases, they are clothed with some of the powers of a court. CHAPTER IX. OFFICIAL REGISTER. 1. Congress, in 1816, passed an act authorizing and requiring the Secretary of State, once in two years, to print and publish a book called “the official register,” in which he was ordered to register the name of every officer and agent of the government, in the civil, military and naval departments, including cadets and midshipmen, together with the compensation received by each; the names of the State and county where born; and the name of the place where employed, whether at home or abroad. To the list of persons employed in the Navy Department, the Secretary of the Navy is required to subjoin the names, force and condition of all the ships and vessels belonging to the United States, and when and where built. This work has been published and distributed, as the law directs, ever since the passage of the act, and is sometimes denominated “the blue book.” It is a very convenient and useful publication, as it shows in compact form the whole official force of the government in each department, together with the cost of maintaining it. As it contains only names and dates and facts relating to persons, comparatively few would take the pains to read it, and but a small
- 57. number is published. It can be found in the Congressional library at Washington, where twenty-five copies of each edition are deposited. CHAPTER X. THE STARS AND STRIPES. A nation’s Flag represents its sovereignty. It is adopted by its supreme authority as a symbol or sign of itself, and wherever it waves the fact of the substantial control of that authority, at that point, is thereby asserted. If there is a struggle between two powers for control, the presence of the flag proves that the authority it represents still maintains itself, and its subjugation is declared by lowering its flag and by the substitution of another in its place. The flag is, therefore, an expression to the eye of the condition of things; and attracts the sympathies and antipathies, the joys and sorrows, the hopes and fears of those interested in the sovereignty it represents. It is the rallying point of sentiment and of energy. The affection and reverence bestowed on our country will light up into a patriotic flame at sight of its flag. It is associated with all the heroic deeds and achievements that adorn our national history, and with the loss of all those we honored and loved who followed and fought for it, and gave their lives in its defense. Our “Star Spangled Banner” has been a thousand times baptized in blood dearer to us than our own, and the sight of it recalls all these sacrifices so cheerfully made to establish or to preserve our institutions. The flag of the United States may well call forth more enthusiastic affection, pride, and hope than any other in the world; for it symbolizes not only home, country, and associations dear to Americans, but the justice, liberty, and right of self government that are dear to all mankind. Humanity at large has a deep interest in it. Its history is this: Soon after the Declaration of Independence the Continental Congress appointed a committee to confer with Gen.
- 58. Washington and “design a suitable flag for the nation.” After the painful and depressing defeat on Long Island, the retreat through the Jerseys and across the Delaware, when everything seemed lost for the new government, Washington suddenly struck the vigorous blows at Trenton and Princeton that confounded the enemy and drove him back to Staten Island. Congress and the country were cheered with a hope and a resolution that never afterwards failed them; for in the next campaign occurred the capture of Burgoyne, followed by the treaty with France; and the close of the war in our favor was henceforth only a question of time. In the month of May or early June, 1777, following the staggering blow Washington had given the British army in Jersey, the committee referred to above, and Washington, completed the design for a flag. This was accomplished and the first flag made at the house of a Mrs. Ross, in Arch St., Philadelphia. The house is still standing—No. 239. She had a shop where she followed the “upholder” trade, as it was then called—the same as our upholstering. One day the Commander-in-chief, Hon. Geo. Ross, a relative of hers, and certain members of Congress, called on her, with a design for a flag—thirteen red and white stripes, alternate with thirteen six pointed stars—and requested her to make the flag. She consented but suggested that the stars would be more symmetrical and more pleasing to the eye if made with five points, and folded a sheet of paper and produced the pattern by a single cut. This was approved and she finished a flag the next day. Mrs. Ross was given the position of manufacturer of flags for the government, which descended to her children. This was the flag that led our armies to victory during the remainder of the war, waved over the crestfallen soldiers of Burgoyne and Cornwallis, and at the mast head of John Paul Jones on the English coast. In 1794 this flag was changed, though its chief features were retained. Congress then ordered that the flag should consist of fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and fifteen stars, white on a blue field. There were then fifteen States. The stars and stripes were equal, and a stripe and a star were added with the
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