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Chapter 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood
Santrock: Essentials of Life-Span Development, 3e IM-7 | 1
© 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any
manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late
Childhood
Learning Goals
Learning Goal 1: Describe physical changes and health in middle and late childhood.
A. Discuss body growth and change.
B. Explain brain development.
C. Describe motor development.
D. Summarize the influence of exercise on health and development.
E. Discuss health, illness, and disease.
Learning Goal 2: Identify children with different types of disabilities and issues in educating
them.
A. Define and describe the scope of disabilities.
B. Discuss educational issues related to children with disabilities.
Learning Goal 3: Explain cognitive changes in middle and late childhood.
A. Describe and discuss Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
B. Discuss the information-processing theory.
C. Describe and define intelligence.
Learning Goal 4: Discuss language development in middle and late childhood.
A. Discuss vocabulary, grammar, and metalinguistic awareness.
B. Explain the development of reading during middle and late childhood.
C. Discuss bilingualism and second-language learning.
Overview of Resources
Chapter Outline Resources You Can Use
Physical Changes and Health Learning Goal 1: Describe physical changes and
health in middle and late childhood.
Body Growth and Change
The Brain
Motor Development
Exercise
Health, Illness, and Disease
Lecture Suggestion 1: The Long-Term
Consequences of Childhood Obesity
Personal Application 1: That’s My Kid!
Research Project 1: Current Exercise Levels
Interactive Exercise: Sensorimotor Neural
Circuits
Children with Disabilities Learning Goal 2: Identify children with
different types of disabilities and issues in

educating them.
The Scope of Disabilities
Educational Issues
Lecture Suggestion 2: ADHD—An Intolerance
for Childhood Playfulness
Research Project 2: Interviewing Parents of
Children with Disabilities
Cognitive Changes Learning Goal 3: Explain cognitive changes in
middle and late childhood.
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Information Processing
Intelligence
Lecture Suggestion 3: Observational Issues in
Identifying Children with ADHD
Lecture Suggestion 4: Is Being a Child Prodigy a
Blessing or a Curse?
Classroom Activity 1: Time to Tell Time?
Classroom Activity 2: Is Psychology Just
Common Sense?
Classroom Activity 3: Test Anxiety: A Visit
with Teachers
Personal Application 2: Remember the Time…
Personal Application 3: Smart Move
Personal Application 4: Exploring Your
Creativity
Research Project 3: Assessment of a
Preoperational and a Concrete Operational Thinker
Language Development Learning Goal 4: Discuss language development
in middle and late childhood.
Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic
Awareness
Reading
Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning
Lecture Suggestion 5: Environmental Influences
on Literacy
Review Classroom Activity 4: Critical-Thinking
Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers
Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Essay
Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students
Resources
Lecture Suggestions
Lecture Suggestion 1: The Long-Term Consequences of Childhood Obesity
The purpose of this lecture is to extend the discussion of the long-term physical and psychological
consequences of childhood obesity. Must et al. (1992) have documented morbidity and mortality rates
related to obesity in adolescence. Obese adolescents are at greater risk for death and adult obesity. These

relationships are stronger for females than males. As Santrock discusses, both males and females suffer
psychological and social consequences of childhood obesity (pulmonary problems, hip problems, high
blood pressure and elevated blood cholesterol, low self-esteem, depression, and exclusion from peer
groups).
• Gortmaker et al. (1993) studied the long-term effects of childhood obesity by assessing young adults
who were obese as adolescents. These individuals had less education, less income, and were less
likely to be married than the individuals who were not obese as adolescents. These effects were
apparent despite the statistical control of initial SES and aptitude scores.
• These results cannot be explained by chronic health problems that interfere with academic or career
success. Gortmaker et al. ingeniously compared a group of individuals with chronic health problems
(diabetes, cerebral palsy) with the individuals who had been obese as adolescents. The individuals
with chronic health problems did not suffer the same consequences.
• What could explain the developmental pattern of obese individuals? The authors speculate that the
negative effects of early obesity are more likely due to stigmatization and discrimination.
Overweight individuals are negatively labeled, which reduces their chances of successful career
progression and mate selection.
• Obesity may be an important factor in determining class and success. This speculation calls into
question the long-held assumption of the unidirectional relationship between SES and obesity.
Being overweight is an increasingly prevalent health problem in children (Schiff , 2013; Summerbell &
others, 2012). Being overweight is defined in terms of body mass index (BMI), which is computed by a
formula that takes into account height and weight—children at or above the 97th percentile are included
in the obesity category, at or above the 95th percentile in the overweight category, and children at or
above the 85th percentile are described as at risk for being overweight (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2012a). Over the last three decades, the percentage of U.S. children who are at risk for being
overweight has doubled from 15 percent in the 1970s to almost 30 percent today, and the percentage of
children who are overweight has tripled during this time frame (Orsi, Hale, & Lynch, 2011). 12.1 percent
of 2- to 5-year-old U.S. children are obese. Th at figure is 50 percent higher for 6- to 11-year-old U.S.
children—in 2009–2010, 18 percent of U.S. 6- to 11-year-olds were classified as obese (Ogden & others,
2012). The levels of child obesity, overweight, and risk for being overweight remain far too high and are
expected to increase in the future (Wardlaw & Smith, 2012).
Sources:
Gortmaker, S. L., Must, A., Perrin, J. M., Sobol, A. M., & Dietz, W. H. (1993). Social and economic consequences
of overweight in adolescence and young adulthood. The New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 1008–1012.
Must, A., Jacques, P. F., Dallal, G. E., Bajema, C. J., & Dietz, W. H. (1992). Long-term morbidity and mortality of
overweight adolescents: A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. The New England Journal of
Medicine, 327, 1350–1355.
Lecture Suggestion 2: ADHD—An Intolerance for Childhood Playfulness
Learning Goal 2: Identify children with different types of disabilities and issues in educating them.
The purpose of this lecture is to examine Panksepp’s (1998) proposal that attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) is overdiagnosed and reflects an intolerance for normal childhood behavior. ADHD is
the most common childhood disorder with approximately 15 percent of American children diagnosed (8
million children). This is an increase from 1 percent of the population in 1902 when this disorder was first
recognized. Given that there is no neurological explanation for this increase, Panksepp speculated that the
increase in standardized educational experiences has led to intolerance for normal playfulness.
Children with ADHD are often given psychostimulants which promote attention and markedly reduce
children’s urge to play, especially rough-and-tumble play (Panksepp & others, 1987). This concerned

Panksepp, as we do not fully understand the impact that play has on the developing brain, and there is the
added concern that we do not understand the long-term neurological consequences of psychostimulant
drugs. Could it be that adults want to reduce children’s rambunctiousness because of inadequate space
and limited opportunities for children to express the natural biological need to play? After all, the
biological need to play intrudes into classroom activities when opportunity and space are limited. Thus,
Panksepp proposed that ADHD needs to be reconceptualized as a symptom of contemporary society and
our attempt to control normal playfulness in children and not as a symptom of neurological imbalance or
a disorder.
Is ADHD a normal variant of human diversity?
Given the research on the heritability of temperament and the concordance of symptoms of ADHD for
siblings, Panksepp argued that symptoms of ADHD are natural variations of child playfulness. The
simple criterion used to diagnose ADHD contributes to the frequency of medicating children. These
children may be normal, highly playful children who have difficulty adjusting to some institutional
expectations. Some of the symptoms can be interpreted in evolutionary terms. Distractibility may be
useful to monitor a changing environment. Difficulty following instructions may reflect independent
thought and judgement. Acting without regard for consequences may reflect risk-taking. Panksepp
argued that we should nurture these characteristics and adjust societal expectations rather than
medicate these children.
What are the neural differences in individuals with ADHD?
The major difference in the brains of individuals with ADHD is a 5 percent reduction in overall size of
the frontal areas. The size difference is accompanied by the lack of right–left symmetries (right is
smaller) (Castellanoes & others, 1996). The frontal lobes are necessary for long-term planning and the
elaboration of complex behavioral strategies. The increased activity level and rough-and-tumble play
demonstrated by children with ADHD is related to damage in these areas. Barkley (1997) theorized
that ADHD is a result of deficient behavioral inhibition, a function that allows better behavioral
flexibility, foresight, and regulation of behavior. Environmental factors, such as play, may improve
frontal lobe functions permanently.
As with learning disabilities, the development of brain-imaging techniques is leading to a better
understanding of ADHD (Almeida Montes & others, 2012; Cubillo & others, 2012; Qui & others,
2011). One study revealed that peak thickness of the cerebral cortex occurred three years later (10.5
years) in children with ADHD than in children without ADHD (peak at 7.5 years) (Shaw & others,
2007). The delay was more prominent in the prefrontal regions of the brain that especially are
important in attention and planning (see Figure 9.5). Another recent study also found delayed
development of the brain’s frontal lobes in children with ADHD, likely due to delayed or decreased
myelination (Nagel & others, 2011). Researchers also are exploring the roles that various
neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, might play in ADHD (Dalley & Roiser, 2012;
Shen, Liao, & Tseng, 2012).
Do psychostimulants promote any long-term benefits or problems?
Psychostimulants promote activity in areas of the brain that control attention and goal-directed
behavior (Pliszka & others, 1996). While these drugs do improve attention and focus temporarily,
long-term benefits have not been found (if medication is terminated, ADHD symptoms return). The
long-term problems outweigh the short-term benefits. Side effects of these psychostimulants have been
found as well. For example, children do not like the way the drugs make them feel, and there is a small

decrease in physical growth. Continued behavior problems in adulthood have been reported. There is
inconsistent evidence regarding the increased likelihood of drug abuse as it is difficult to ascertain
whether these consequences are due to constitutional differences or to the long-term use of
psychostimulants.
Stimulant medication such as Ritalin or Adderall (which has fewer side effects than Ritalin) is
effective in improving the attention of many children with ADHD, but it usually does not improve
their attention to the same level as children who do not have ADHD (Sclar & others, 2012; Wong &
Stevens, 2012). A meta-analysis concluded that behavior management treatments are useful in
reducing the effects of ADHD (Fabiano & others, 2009). Researchers have oft en found that a
combination of medication (such as Ritalin) and behavior management improves the behavior of some
but not all children with ADHD better than medication alone or behavior management alone (Parens &
Johnston, 2009).
What else might we do to address such childhood problems?
While there have been some lasting effects of combined cognitive and behavioral interventions, an
alternative proposed by Panksepp is a rough-and-tumble intervention. The innate desire to engage in
rough-and-tumble play may facilitate the normal maturation of children’s brains. Providing children
with abundant opportunity to play may reduce impulsivity. The logic is as follows. We know that
frontal areas mature with age, that the frequency of play decreases with age, and animals with frontal
area damage tend to be more playful (Panksepp & others, 1995).
The question remains, Does rough-and-tumble play facilitate frontal lobe maturation? Panksepp has tested
this hypothesis. Rats with smaller frontal lobes are hyperactive and playful. After considerable play
opportunities, they exhibit a greater than normal decline in their play behavior as they mature. Panksepp
et al. (1997) argued that playful experiences may regulate the brain’s “play circuits.”
In conclusion, despite 50 years of research, there is not sufficient evidence regarding extreme biological
or psychological deviance in individuals with ADHD to warrant the degree of current medical
intervention. Many children’s behavior has been modified with these drugs and has resulted in control of
classroom behavior, increased attention for academic pursuits, and less peer ostracism of children due to
the controlled behavior. Despite these benefits, Panksepp argued that the reduction in play behaviors may
harm children’s brain development and long-term control of behavior.
Sources:
Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: Guilford Press.
Castellanoes, F. X., Giedd, J. N., March, W. L., Hamburger, S. D., Vaituzis, A. C., Dickerstein, D. P., Sarfatti, S. E.,
Vauss, Y. C., Snell, J. W., Rajapakse, J. C., & Rapoport, J. L. (1996). Quantitative brain magnetic resonance
imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 607–616.
Panksepp, J. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders, psychostimulant, and intolerance of childhood
playfulness: A tragedy in the making? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 91–97.
Panksepp, J., Normalsell, L. A., Cox, J. F., Crepeau, L., & Sacks, D. S. (1987). Psychopharmacology of social play.
In J. Mos (ed.), Ethnopharmocology of social behavior (pp. 132–144). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Duphar.
Panksepp, J., Normalsell, L. A., Cox, J. F., & Siviy, S. (1995). Effects of neonatal decoritication on the social play
of juvenile rats. Physiology & Behavior, 56, 429–443.
Panksepp, J, Burgdorf, J., Turner, C., & Walter, M. (1997). A new animal model for ADHD: Unilateral frontal lobe
damage in neonatal rats. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 23, 691.
Pierce, R. C., & Kalvas, P. (1997). A circuitry model of the expression of behavioral sensitization to amphetamine-
like stimulants. Brain Research Reviews, 25, 192–216.
Pliszka, S. R., McCraken, J. T., & Mass, J. W. (1996). Catecholamines in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder:
Current perspectives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 264–272.

Robinson, T., & Berridge, K. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of
addiction. Brain Research Reviews, 18, 247–291.
Lecture Suggestion 3: Observational Issues in Identifying Children with ADHD
There are several issues concerning the need for systematic observation to accurately diagnose a child
with ADHD and to correctly characterize the syndrome. A discussion of these issues provides additional
lessons about the use of observation in both practical and scientific applications.
First, discuss the reasons that ADHD typically is not identified until children are in the first or second
grade. A basic point is that the normal, everyday behavior of preschool children is so “hyperactive” in its
own right that the behavior does not necessarily draw attention to children who have the disorder.
Another way of stating this is that we do not have a sufficient observational basis for identifying ADHD
early on. Most of the symptoms of ADHD typically become troublesome when children engage in
structured activities. Prior to entering the school system, the impulsivity and attention deficits are not
problematic given that most activities are unstructured. Furthermore, identification of this “abnormality”
depends heavily on careful identification of normal behavioral patterns among children. Most parents do
not have the experience to differentiate typical playfulness in young children from atypical behavior.
Second, consider the possibility that hyperactivity is less a problem of too many behaviors and more a
problem of too much disorganized behavior. In the 1970s, researchers made systematic, comparative
observations of normal children, hyperactive children, and hyperactive children being treated with Ritalin.
They found that those receiving Ritalin did not “slow down,” but rather became more organized in their
play. This finding called into question the notion that Ritalin (a stimulant) has a truly paradoxical effect
(tranquilizing), and gave more support to the idea that the drug acts on brain processes that monitor and
organize behavior (see Lecture Suggestion 2 “ADHD—An Intolerance for Childhood Playfulness”).
Thus, casual observation of ADHD is inadequate to characterize the disorder. Careful descriptions are
needed of both “normal” children and those who have the syndrome, as well as detailed, systematic
observations of the behavior of the children in question. Assessments need to be multidimensional.
Assessment should include parent, teacher, and possibly peer reports, plus observation in naturalistic
settings.
• Parents can observe their child in a variety of settings and note fluctuations in behavior in response
to varying demands in different situations.
• Teachers can use various rating scales to facilitate their observations of the child’s behavior on a
daily basis. These scales also provide a normative comparison relative to other children’s behavior in
the same settings. This normative perspective is important for comparisons of children of the same
age and setting expectations.
• Systematic observations in play and school settings help experts quantify time spent off-task and
provide information on the child’s functioning. These are important observations of current behavior
given that parent and teacher observations may be biased or confounded by past behavior.
• Sociometric assessment can highlight peer popularity, rejection, social loneliness, and social anxiety
which may influence children’s behavior.
Lecture Suggestion 4: Is Being a Child Prodigy a Blessing or a Curse?
Child prodigies lie at one of the extreme ends of intelligence—the high end. Most prodigies would be, by
IQ alone, considered to be “gifted,” meaning they have an IQ score of 130 or higher. In addition,
prodigies have a superior talent in one or more domains—music, math, or art, to name a few.

For prodigies whose level of intelligence is extremely high (i.e. a child who graduates college at age 12),
both gifts and challenges accompany the extreme intelligence.
Studies support the conclusion that gifted people tend to be more mature than others, have fewer
emotional problems than others, and grow up in a positive family climate (Davidson, 2000).
Individuals who are highly gifted are typically not gifted in many domains, and research on giftedness is
increasingly focused on domain-specific developmental trajectories (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012;
Winner, 2009). An increasing number of experts argue that the education of children who are gifted in the
United States requires a significant overhaul (Ambrose, Sternberg, & Sriraman, 2012). Ellen Winner
(1996, 2006) argues that too often children who are gifted are socially isolated and under-challenged in
the classroom.
How does a child of genius fit into the world of his peers or even of his parents?
In March 2005, it was reported that Brandenn Bremmer, a musical and intellectual prodigy, committed
suicide at the age of 14 by shooting himself in the head. Brandenn had completed high school at the age
of 10. Home-schooled by his parents, he completed the 11th
and 12th
grades in seven months. He wanted
to be an anesthesiologist and was taking college courses in Colorado at the time of his death.
Brandenn had taught himself to read at 18 months, and begin playing piano at the age of three.
At the time of his death, he had just completed recording his second musical CD. Though his parents
denied seeing any signs of depression, later reports revealed a series of dark emails between Brandenn
and his older sister who did not live at home. His emails suggested the struggle of trying to “fit in” in the
everyday world.
Is a prodigy the product of nature or nurture? Both, says psychologist David Feldman. He says,
“Prodigies seem to be a combination of timing and talent and the right circumstances, all occurring during
the same moment and sustaining itself for at least ten years. So, a prodigy is a child with unusual talent
who appears in a society that has value for that talent” (“Unexplained Child Prodigies,” 2002).
Brandenn’s talent was valued, that’s for sure. But he was troubled enough to end his promising life, and
society lost a valuable human being, not just a valued talent.
Sources:
Child Prodigy, 14, Commits Suicide. (2005, March 18).
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/03/18/national/main681735.shtml
Lecture Suggestion 5: Environmental Influences on Literacy
The purpose of this lecture is to examine research findings related to environmental influences on
children’s literacy. While basic-skills methods, phonics method, and whole-word methods obviously
factor into children’s learning to read, early experiences also influence this ability. Considerable research
has examined adults’ conversations with children and the influence of parent–child interactions on
literacy and language development (Crain-Thoreson & Dale, 1992; Huttenlocher, 1997; Snow, 1993).
The process of categorizing becomes easier as children increase their vocabulary (Clark, 2012).
Children’s vocabulary increases from an average of about 14,000 words at age 6 to an average of about

40,000 words by age 11. Children make similar advances in grammar (Behrens, 2012). Advances in
vocabulary and grammar during the elementary school years are accompanied by the development of
metalinguistic awareness , which is knowledge about language, such as understanding what a preposition
is or being able to discuss the sounds of a language. Metalinguistic awareness allows children “to think
about their language, understand what words are, and even define them” (Berko Gleason, 2009, p. 4). It
improves considerably during the elementary school years (Pan & Uccelli, 2009). Defining words
becomes a regular part of classroom discourse, and children increase their knowledge of syntax as they
study and talk about the components of sentences such as subjects and verbs (Crain, 2012; Meltzi & Ely,
2009).
Reading development is influenced by early literacy activities such as “reading” picture books and
storytelling. Parents who ask their child to retell a story are facilitating the young child’s ability to read.
Snow found that children’s vocabulary is enhanced by exposure to adults who use relatively uncommon
words in everyday conversations with the child. Family contexts, especially adult–child conversations,
increase the likelihood of the child developing a larger vocabulary and the ability to recognize the words
in print, thus providing a strong foundation for literacy.
The whole-language approach stresses that reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language
learning. In contrast, the phonics approach emphasizes that reading instruction should teach basic rules
for translating written symbols into sounds. Research suggests that children can benefit from both
approaches, but instruction in phonics needs to be emphasized (Tompkins, 2013). An increasing number
of experts in the field of reading now conclude that direct instruction in phonics is a key aspect of
learning to read (Cunningham, 2013; Dow & Baer, 2013; Fox, 2012).
Crain-Thoreson and Dale (1992) found that parental instruction in letter-naming, sounds, and frequency
of storyreading was predictive of reading precocity at age 4 (knowledge of print conventions, invented
spelling, and awareness of phonology).
Huttenlocher (1997) reported that mothers influence children’s vocabulary and grammatical structure as
well. Children of “chatty” mothers averaged 131 more words than children of less talkative mothers by 20
months (by 24 months the difference was 295 words). There are differences in complexity of sentence
structure relative to children’s environments as well. Children who are exposed to their mother’s use of
complex sentences (dependent clauses, such as “when…” or “ because…” ) are much more likely to use
complex sentences. These early experiences have an impact on a child’s ability to read.
Sources:
Crain-Thoreson, C., & Dale, P. S. (1992). Do early talkers become early readers? Linguistic precocity, preschool
language, and emergent literacy. Developmental Psychology, 28, 421–429.
Huttenlocher, J. (1997, spring/summer). In How to build a baby’s brain, by S. Begley. Newsweek, 28–32.
Snow, C. E. (1993). Families as social contexts for literacy development. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & C. Daiute
(Vol. Ed.), New Directions in Child Development: Vol. 61. The development of literacy through social interaction
(pp. 11–25). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Classroom Activities
Classroom Activity 1: Time to Tell Time?
This activity highlights the development of understanding how to tell time. Have students discuss what
they remember about when they learned to read a clock. How did they deal with the time segments in
school? Did they always lose track of time? Do they remember how long car trips seemed to take, or how

endless sermons were? How did anticipation about holidays affect time? Ask them if all children learn
that time is an important variable. Have students generate methods to teach children how to tell time.
Use the following information to introduce new points and questions:
• Middle-class children are introduced to an organized sense of time early in life—they tend to see
parents go to work at a certain time and return at a certain time, meals are scheduled, bedtime is
regular, and alarm clocks are used to get them up on time for school.
• Children reared in poverty do not see adults going to work at regular times, and they are less likely to
have consistent meal times or bedtimes. As a result, they can be overwhelmed by the school day
being divided into segments. They have difficulty conforming to schedules before they understand
time.
• During middle childhood, children gradually improve their ability to estimate time periods. By
second grade, most can name the days of the week; most third-graders can name the months of the
year; by fifth grade they can start with any day (month) and figure out which day (month) is three
from now; by tenth grade they can start at any day (month) and count backwards.
Logistics:
• Group size: Full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Full-class discussion (20 minutes).
Source:
Friedman, W. (1986). The development of children’s knowledge of temporal structure. Child Development, 57,
1386–1400.
Taylor, E. (1989, February 27). Time is not on their side. Time, 74.
Classroom Activity 2: Is Psychology Just Common Sense?
The goal of this activity is to have students consider whether or not psychology is just common sense.
Present the following research studies, and have students predict the findings. Discuss why students
accurately or inaccurately predicted the findings.
Third-graders were shown two identical glasses filled equally full of colored liquid and asked to predict
what would happen if the contents of one glass were poured into a wider glass. (Get a prediction here.)
• About 90 percent of children predict that the level would be lower in the wider container. However, a
tube was secretly connected to the third container. As water was poured into the wide container,
extra water was added. The wider container actually filled up to a higher level than the narrower
container. How did the third-graders answer the question: “Is there the same amount of water in the
two containers?” (Get predictions and reasons here.) Over half replied that the wider container had
more water. Forty-two percent said that the amount of liquid was the same. Explanations included “a
trick glass that makes things look big.”
In one experiment, 6 year-olds and 9 year-olds were shown a small bit of an animal picture—not enough
for them to predict what the animal was. They were then asked to predict whether another person could
identify the animal from the same amount of information. What did the children say? (Get predictions and
reasons here.)
• Forty-four percent of the 6 year-olds said the other person would be able to identify the animal.
Almost all of the 9 year-olds correctly realized that the other person also would not be able to
identify the animal.
Researchers asked first- and fourth-graders to imagine that they were playing with a friend in the kitchen

(some were told the friend had been at their house before, and some were told the friend had never been
over before), and they were asking the friend to get a particular toy from their bedroom. How well did the
children do in giving toy-finding instructions? (Get predictions and reasons here.)
• Interestingly, both first- and fourth-graders provided more information to the friend who had never
visited the house. Overall, however, fourth-graders gave more precise information about locating the
toy.
Both this example and the one above show the gradual improvements in middle childhood in the ability to
judge how much information other people have and how much they need.
Logistics:
• Group size: Full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Full-class discussion (20 minutes).
Sources:
Olson, D. R., & Astington, J. W. (1987). Seeing and knowing: On the ascription of mental states to young children.
Canadian Journal of Psychology, 41, 399–411.
Sonnenshein, S. (1988). The development of referential communication: Speaking to different listeners. Child
Development, 59, 694–670.
Classroom Activity 3: Test Anxiety: A Visit with Teachers
From Jarvis and Creasey, “Activities for Lifespan Developmental Psychology Courses”
Anxiety about school testing is becoming an increasing concern among students and their parents. This
activity involves inviting several teachers of students in middle to late childhood to class for a discussion
on test anxiety and is very useful for students who are currently experiencing test anxiety themselves
and/or those who have a history of such anxiety.
Demonstration:
Several teachers of middle to late childhood age students will be invited to class to discuss test anxiety.
Time:
We recommend that instructors prepare students ahead of time regarding the issue of standardized tests,
beginning in elementary school and the resulting anxiety some students face about such testing. We also
suggest instructors meet with invited teachers ahead of time and outline some key issues to discuss (the
importance of testing for school funding, evidence of test anxiety in students, suggestions for decreasing
anxiety and increasing test performance, etc.). Then the visit with the teachers should only last about 30
minutes or so. It is important to leave some class time beyond the teachers’ visit for class discussion.
Materials:
Instructors should have students generate some questions about testing and test anxiety to ask the visiting
teachers and organize them around central themes prior to the visit. Instructors should supply teachers
with a list of the themes generated by the class. Prior work with the students and teachers ensures a more
productive interview in class.
Procedures:
1. We recommend that instructors discuss the contexts of schools in middle to late childhood generally
and introduce the concepts of testing and test anxiety specifically before offering this activity.
2. In identifying appropriate teachers to invite to class, instructors should contact local schools by
phone and explicitly state that they seek teachers with knowledge of testing and test anxiety to invite

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to a college class. We recommend that teachers from different grade levels be invited in order to
obtain a developmental perspective on this issue. Visits can be scheduled during a school break time
that is not a break for the college.
3. When teachers visit the class, instructors should introduce them to the class and present the topic of
discussion and encourage the students to ask the teachers questions about testing and test anxiety.
Instructors should guide the discussion toward suggestions for dealing with and reducing anxiety and
improving students’ attitudes toward testing situations generally. We recommend instructors suggest
to teachers and the class that while such standardized tests are necessary, anxiety about them might
be significantly reduced by how teachers communicate information about the tests to students.
Children are concerned about what the tests mean and what it would mean if they did not do well on
them. How these issues are addressed in middle to late childhood has critical importance for older
students approaching testing situations.
4. It is imperative to write a thank-you letter on university letterhead to the teachers and send a copy to
the principal of the relevant schools. Although we teach adolescent development as a psychology
course, many of our students are education majors and benefit from direct opportunities to speak
with teachers on a professional basis such as this activity allows.
5. Instructors should encourage students to discuss what they learned in light of course material.
Instructors might have students write a brief summary of the visit incorporating course material into
their observations.
6. Finally, instructors might consider adding a short essay question about test anxiety to the next exam
as another way to connect this in-class activity to student learning.
Classroom Activity 4: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers
Discuss the critical-thinking multiple-choice questions presented in Handout 1.
Question 1 is similar to the exercises students have done for the previous chapters on cognition. Their task
is to integrate information in the chapter and draw appropriate conclusions about the material. This is
essentially a comprehension exercise, and students will probably do it well.
Question 2 is based on material from the second edition of Santrock’s Children. The main point of this
exercise is to get students to see how the contemporary debate about national differences in mathematics
achievement has been framed entirely in terms of differences in nurture between countries like Japan and
the United States. Commentators have seemingly assumed that there are no differences between Japanese
and U.S. children that could account for the observed performance differences, and they have been
willing to accept causal interpretations about the influence of observed differences in educational
practices. This is particularly interesting in comparison with the willingness of many to entertain seriously
the idea that racial differences in intellectual level and achievement in the U.S. are based on genetic or
motivational differences between classes and races of people. You may want to discuss this irony as
preparation for this exercise. The answers are presented in Handout 2.
Logistics:
• Materials: Handout 1 (Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions) and Handout 2 (Answers).
• Group size: Small groups to discuss the questions, then a full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Small groups (15 minutes), full-class discussion of any questions (15 minutes).
Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Essay Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students

Answer the Essays
Discuss the critical-thinking essay questions presented in Handout 3. The purpose of this activity is
threefold. First, the answering of these questions facilitates students’ understanding of concepts in chapter
7. Second, this type of essay question affords the students an opportunity to apply the concepts to their
own lives which will facilitate their retention of the material. Third, the essay format also will give
students practice expressing themselves in written form. Ideas to help students answer the critical-
thinking essay questions are provided in Handout 4.
Logistics:
• Materials: Handout 3 (Essay Questions) and Handout 4 (Ideas to Help Answer).
• Group size: Individual, then full class.
• Approximate time: Individual (60 minutes), full-class discussion of any questions (30 minutes).
Personal Applications
Personal Application 1: That’s My Kid!
The purpose of this exercise is for students to reflect on their childhood activities. By middle childhood,
children often become involved in various extracurricular activities. There are many benefits to
participation in such activities, but there can be detriments if parents approach their children’s activities
with an improper perspective.
Instructions for Students: Recall the activities of your childhood. What did you participate in? Were these
activities your parents’ idea or yours? Did they simply suggest things and offer you a choice, or were you
enrolled without being consulted? Did they positively support and encourage your interests and
participation? Were they demanding and critical, exerting pressure on you to perform? How did your
early experiences with these endeavors influence your subsequent behavior and attitudes about being
involved in particular activities?
Use in the Classroom: Explore the ways in which parents approach directing their children’s interest in
various activities. What might determine how they respond to their children’s performance, and what
various results might manifest themselves in children’s behavior and attitudes? Which do you think is
better developmentally: children participating in a number of different activities, one at a time; children
participating in a number of different activities simultaneously; or children participating in a single
activity, and developing their skills over an extended period of time? What are the possible benefits and
disadvantages of each?
Personal Application 2: Remember the Time…
The purpose of this exercise is to demonstrate the long-term memory capabilities of middle childhood
through recollection of their own childhood experiences. Memory development continues during middle
and late childhood, enabling children to encode information in such a way as to significantly contribute to
their long-term memory.

Instructions for Students: Recall, in as much detail as you can, an event from your childhood. What
enabled you to remember this experience? At the time, did you think that it was something you would
never forget? Are you certain your memory is accurate, or have you “filled in the blanks” over the years?
How much can you remember from this period in your life? Was recalling this event easy or difficult? Do
you have many more recollections from your childhood? If so, is there something similar about them
which may lead to your remembering them? If not, why might that be? For what point in your life do you
begin to have lots of memories?
Use in the Classroom: Have a class discussion on children’s memory encoding.
Personal Application 3: Smart Move
The purpose of this exercise is to prompt students to assess their intellectual strengths from the various
perspectives of multiple kinds of intelligence. Rather than assume that our intellectual functioning can be
summed up in a single number—the score on a traditional IQ test—some theorists believe that we have
particular intellectual strengths and weaknesses. Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
identifies three areas of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. Individuals can be strong in any or
all of the three domains. Howard Gardner theorizes eight different types of intelligence, addressing
everything from verbal functioning to music and interpersonal skills. Both approaches assume an
individual’s intelligence profile will manifest itself in his or her academic and life functioning.
Instructions for Students: Identify your intellectual profile based on both Sternberg’s and Gardner’s
categories. In what areas are you strong? In what areas do you demonstrate weaknesses? How have these
strengths and weaknesses impacted your experiences in school? How have they played a role in your
decision to follow a particular career path? Have they influenced you socially in any way?
Use in the Classroom: Discuss intelligence in general. Can it be measured accurately? Should it be
assessed at all? How might this be problematic to individuals or society as a whole? Is the concept of IQ
as relevant and important as that of the existence of multiple intelligences? What practical use might be
made of Sternberg’s and Gardner’s theories? How early in life should intelligence—in any form—be
assessed? Who should be privy to this information and why? Discuss students’ views on breeding for
intelligence—and what effect this might have on society.
Sources:
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Sternberg, R. J. (1999). Intelligence. In M. A. Runco & S. Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity. San Diego:
Academic Press.
Personal Application 4: Exploring Your Creativity
The purpose of this exercise is to encourage students to think about their own creativity so they can gain a
more complete perspective of its role in life-span development. Some developmental psychologists debate
whether or not creativity is an aspect of intelligence. Regardless of their perspective, psychologists do
agree that creativity is an important aspect of thinking and functioning in life.
Instructions for Students: Describe the ways in which you are creative. Do not limit yourself to thinking
of creativity as only manifesting itself in artistic ability. There are numerous ways in which individuals
can be creative—what are yours? If you do not believe you are creative in any way, describe the efforts

you have made to be creative. What were the results? What might you do to expand your creative
functioning?
Use in the Classroom: Construct a brainstorming activity or present a unique problem to be solved. Have
students who believe they are creative work in small groups with those who say they are not. Afterward,
have groups share their efforts, and have the self-proclaimed “non-creative students” discuss what they
observed and learned from their creative peers. Try another exercise in which the less creative students
can apply what they have learned. What changed in their approach to the situation? How did they think
about it differently? Conclude by pointing out, through studies and their methodologies, that science, and
certainly developmental psychology, is a very creative field!
Research Project Ideas
Research Project 1: Current Exercise Levels
In this exercise, your students will use the questions provided in Handout 5 to interview three people
about their current exercise levels. One subject should be 5 years old, one 10 years old, and one 18 to 20
years old. (If the students are between 18 and 20 years old, they may use themselves as one of the
subjects.) The project will have to be approved by the human subjects review board at your school, and
students will need to get a signed informed consent form from the children’s parents.
Use in the Classroom: Have the students present their data from the research project. Examine the data for
age and sex differences in patterns of exercise. What activities do males and females perform? How do
these differ at different ages? Is amount of exercise a function of age or of sex? What other variables
might account for differences between individuals besides age and sex?
One might expect males to be more active than females and regular exercise for all individuals to increase
with age. The latter trend might be from a conscious decision to exercise. However, it could be that
children are more active than adolescents and therefore exercise more. Individual variation can include
parental models and reinforcement for participating in sports.
Research Project 2: Interviewing Parents of Children with Disabilities
Learning Goal 2: Identify children with different types of disabilities and discuss issues in educating
them.
In this exercise, each student will interview a parent of a child with disabilities (see Handout 6). The
project will have to be approved by the human subjects review board at your school, and the students will
need to get a signed informed consent form from the children’s parents.
Use in the Classroom: Have the students present their data from the research project. Examine common
themes in parents’ responses.
Research Project 3: Assessment of a Preoperational and a Concrete Operational Thinker
The purpose of this exercise is for students to see an example of a preoperational and a concrete
operational thinker. Students should pair up with another class member and test two children, a 4 to 5
year-old child and an 8 to 9 year-old child, using several of Piaget’s tasks. They should administer two
conservation and two classification tasks to each child, and then compare the children’s responses with

each other and attempt to interpret those responses in view of Piaget’s theory. To test the two children,
they will need to clear this through the human subjects review board at your school and get a signed
informed consent form from the children’s parents.
Use in the Classroom: Have the students present data from the research project in class. Pool the data for
the two age groups, and compare mean performance for each age group. What kinds of behaviors were
seen in the 4 to 5 year-olds? What kinds of justifications did they give for their answers? What kinds of
answers did they give? How did the 8 to 9 year-olds differ from them? How do the class data relate to
Piaget’s theory?
The expectation is that the 4 to 5 year-olds will not be able to do either the simple classification task or
the class inclusion task. The 4 to 5 year-olds are also nonconservers for liquid and probably for numbers.
The 8 to 9 year-olds will be able to do all the classification and conservation tasks.
Videos
McGraw-Hill's Visual Assets Database for Life-span Development (VAD 2.0)
(http://www.mhhe.com/vad)
This is an on-line database of videos for use in the developmental psychology classroom created
specifically for instructors. You can customize classroom presentations by downloading the videos to
your computer and showing the videos on their own or inserting them into your course cartridge or
PowerPoint presentations. All of the videos are available with or without captions.
Multimedia Courseware for Child Development
Charlotte J. Patterson, University of Virginia
This video-based two-CD-ROM set (ISBN 0-07-254580-1) covers classic and contemporary experiments
in child development. Respected researcher Charlotte J. Patterson selected the video and wrote modules
that can be assigned to students. The modules also include suggestions for additional projects as well as a
testing component. Multimedia Courseware can be packaged with the text at a discount.
McGraw-Hill also offers other video and multimedia materials; ask your local representative about the
best products to meet your teaching needs.
Feature Films
In this section of the Instructor’s Manual, we suggest films that are widely available on sites like
amazon.com, documentary wire, Hulu, netflix.com, PBS video, etc.
What’s Eating Gilbert Grape? (1993)
Starring Johnny Depp, Leonardo DiCaprio, Juliette Lewis
Directed by Lasse Hallstrom
Gilbert takes care of his retarded brother because his mother is obese and cannot leave the house; she is
physically incapable of doing so. Gilbert has a lot on his plate, caring for the other children and working
to support them. So when he meets someone new, he finds it hard to find time for himself in his difficult
and sometimes suffocating life.
My Left Foot (1989)

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engineers were told to meet the situation with a relief that should be
measurably low in cost.
The result of their work has been to put America foremost with her
railroad terminals. The engineers have worked against great odds in
many cases. The railroads in the beginning took little or no
forethought for their terminals. They neglected rare opportunities to
buy land for these facilities in the beginning, when the cities were
small and the land cheap. They have paid in millions of dollars for
this neglect. In some cases, the early railroads had little money to
expend upon this city real estate; but in few cases did any of their
managers have the gift of prophecy that made them foresee the
great cities of to-day or the great tides of traffic they would be called
upon to move.
Nor has this phase of the situation improved within recent years. A
great railroad rebuilt its passenger terminal in an important city ten
years ago and blindly imagined that the increase in facilities would
carry it a quarter of a century at the least. To-day it is carrying off
the remnants of that station improvement to the scrap-heap and
trying to see far enough into the future to build a station that shall
last it fifty years at least.
There is not an engineer employed by that railroad who will assert
himself as possessed of the absolute belief that the new station will
be adequate for the traffic of a half century hence, if indeed the
great spreading palace of steel and marble be in existence at all at
that time. All that they will tell you is to point to the fact that
another one of America’s greatest passenger carriers has doubled its
traffic within the past ten years.
“How can we gamble with an unknown future of such dimensions?”
they ask you in return.
When the Park Square Station of the Boston & Providence Railroad
in Boston and the Grand Central Station in New York were built, in
the early seventies, they were the first railroad passenger terminals

of size that the country had seen. It was thought that they would
stand a hundred years as monuments to the genius of the men who
designed them. To-day they are both gone, each supplanted by a
station that both together might be packed within.
Do you wonder then that railroad operator and engineer alike stand
appalled at the tremendous terminal problem that our great cities,
growing awesome overnight, are constantly presenting to them?
In the beginning, there were no passenger or freight terminals, nor,
indeed, a traffic that demanded them. The passenger cars were apt
to be hauled by horses from some downtown depot through the
centre of the street to an “outer depot” at the edge of the town
where the locomotive replaced the horses. When the cars became
heavier, the trains longer and more frequent, the railroads were
gradually forced in most cities to remove their rails from the streets
and the use of horses was generally abandoned. Still, passengers
crossing Baltimore, for some years after the war on their way from
the North to Washington, noticed that the trains were broken into
cars and drawn one by one by horses across the city, through
crowded streets, from one outer railroad station to the other. A
venerable white horse was the switching-engine in the Rochester
depot until the beginning of the eighties.
When the passenger traffic on the railroads had become a business
of extent—about the middle of the past century—the construction of
sizable railroad stations began. The Fitchburg Railroad built its stone
fortress at Boston, which still stands and was for many years
regarded as a marvel of its sort. Down in Baltimore, the
Susquehanna Railroad—afterwards the Northern Central—built
Calvert Station, and stanch old Calvert is still a busy passenger
gateway of the Monumental City. A few years later the Baltimore &
Ohio built Camden Station there and Camden Station was regarded
as something rather unusually fine for a number of years.

In the sixties, the railroad terminals grew in size, and the old custom
of having separate stations at the far sides of important towns was
disappearing, as the American began to see and to demand the
advantages of through traffic. So Cleveland built at the close of the
war a stone Union Station, of such size that Cleveland folks bragged
of it for many years. The stone Union Station at Cleveland is still in
use, but the folk of that town do not brag of it nowadays. Cleveland
has grown a good deal since they built the Union Station there.
The first real passenger terminals of importance in the country were
the Park Square in Boston, and the Grand Central in New York, to
which reference has already been made. These presented
architectural pretensions such as the railroads of the country had not
before offered to the cities they served. They also served as models
for bigger things that were to follow. In Boston, the Lowell Road
planned and built a large new station, and the era of the passenger
terminal was begun.
When the Pennsylvania Railroad built Broad Street Station, at
Philadelphia, it built a terminal a little finer than anything
accomplished up to that time. Even to-day, with the dignity of years
creeping upon it, Broad Street is still one of the foremost American
stations. The policy of its owners has been to keep it abreast of the
demands of the day, and only recently it has been greatly enlarged
again, its protecting, interlocking, and signal system being made
second to none in the world. To the traveller, the ivory-white waiting-
room, where Philadelphians delight to congregate, is an unending
source of admiration; engineers find interest in the intricate system
of tunnels and bridges by which a number of trunk-line divisions are
brought into the station without crossing at level. Broad Street
Station shows a yearly increase in its passenger traffic of about five
per cent. It has a daily movement of more than 600 loaded trains in
and out, in addition to a heavy switching movement. But because of
the steady increase of its traffic the Pennsylvania has already
planned to relieve it by building a new main for express trains out at
West Philadelphia. When that is done Broad Street will be used

exclusively for suburban traffic. A short distance away stands the
Market Street Station, of the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad, a
terminal rivalling Broad Street in beauty, and only slightly inferior in
capacity. Philadelphia possesses two distinguished city gateways.
But the first big station terminals—in our American sense that a
thing big must be bigger than anything else of the same kind in the
world—were those erected at Boston and at St. Louis. The first of
these handles a traffic far exceeding that of any other terminal ever
built; the second has a train-shed that is gigantic and overwhelming;
and so each of the cities can, in a measure of truth, claim for itself
the largest railroad station ever built. Each has enough of novelty
and interest to make it worthy of attention.
The Boston terminal—South Station—was preceded by a giant
structure erected along the bank of the Charles River to receive a
multitude of through and suburban railroad lines entering from the
north. This terminal—North Station—embraced the structure of the
Boston & Lowell Railroad and superseded those of the Boston &
Maine and Fitchburg railroads. The merging of these and other
interests into the present Boston & Maine made the North Station a
possibility. It is not a structure of particular distinction, from either
an architectural or an engineering standpoint, but it has proved itself
a mighty convenience to a travelling public, using a multiplicity of
busy lines.
The convenience of it made the South Station a possibility. Boston,
like Philadelphia, spreads out well beyond its actual boundaries and
measures itself as a vast community, including many near-by cities
and villages. With the consolidation of a number of railroads in
Southern New England into the New York, New Haven & Hartford
system, and the popularity of the North Station so close at hand, the
South Station came as a matter of course. It replaced the stations of
the New York & New England—whose site forms part of its site—the
Old Colony, the Boston & Albany, and the Park Square Station. To
accommodate the vast traffic of all these railroads, a great terminal
was designed and built, a thing whose bigness is hardly realized by

the passenger coming and going through it and who knows it only
as a thing of some thousands of shuffling feet, giant shadows, and
long distances.
In addition to the 28 sub-tracks in the train-shed, South Station is, in
effect, a through station for electric suburban traffic. This service has
not yet been installed, but the tracks are ready for use upon short
notice, when the facilities of the main train-shed shall become
overtaxed. This through station has been ingeniously devised
underneath the train-shed and waiting-rooms of the terminal. It is
served by two tracks leading from the main entrance tracks to the
station—guarded by separate interlocking and tower controls, and
consists of two extensive loops. For suburban service, with no
baggage to be handled, these loops will some day afford a great
accommodation. Three or four electric trains may be stood upon
each. The time and necessity of reversing the trains is entirely
obviated, and upon the two tracks of this sub-station a short-haul
traffic can be handled almost equal in numbers to that of the train-
shed overhead.
What such a statement means can be better realized by a recourse
to bold statistics. South Station handled 31,831,390 passengers in
1909, who travelled two and fro in some 800 trains daily. It has
handled more than 900 trains in a single day. Its baggage men take
care of more than 2,500,000 trunks in a twelvemonth. The statistics
of a city gate like South Station are, in themselves, sizable.
St. Louis has one passenger station to serve as city gate for the
traffic that comes and goes at that important railroad centre. That
gate is the chief through passenger traffic point of the world. From
its train-shed one may take through trains to every corner of the
United States and a few distant corners of Mexico and Canada. St.
Louis, like most Western cities has no volume of suburban traffic as
New York, Boston, or Philadelphia, but it is a consequential point for
through passengers. The better to serve the needs of the 22
different railroad systems entering that city, the Union Station was
built a dozen years ago. It was thought to be big enough to last St.

Louis many years. Before the World’s Fair of 1904 opened in that city
the Union Station was already judged inadequate, and an elaborate
plan was consummated for its enlargement.
When the Union Station was originally planned, St. Louis demanded
a gate that would be worthy of her size and dignity. No type of
through station would do, the head-house terminal was demanded
and built, even though in actual practice it necessitated backing each
arriving train into the shed. A station of giant size with the largest
train-shed in the world was built and hailed with a glad acclaim by
the Western town.
When the station was found inadequate, the engineers found their
plans for enlarging it would have to be adapted to a very confined
area, proscribed by immovable railroad properties to the south,
highway viaducts to the east and west, and a granite head-house,
costing several million dollars, to the north. Within that confined
area, they were to correct the evils of insufficient capacity—a train-
shed with a single 4-track throat and some standing tracks of but 3
cars’ length, inadequate baggage arrangements, and lesser evils.
Within two years, they had substituted, without increasing the area
of the Union Station property, a 10-car capacity for each of the 32
tracks of the train-shed, a double throat with 6 tracks, increased
concourses and distributing platforms for passengers, and a
complete subway system for the handling of baggage. The
prosecution of that work, while the station was in constant and busy
use, ranks as one of the marvels of latter-day practical engineering.
From the standpoint of the architect, no other station has yet been
built in the United States that can compare with the new Union
Station at Washington. For years, the overcrowded railroad stations
at that city have been but wretched gateways to the national capitol.
Now the city that is fast becoming the Mecca of all Americans has an
entrance worthy of her dignity, and in keeping with the increasing
magnificence of her architectural works.

The Washington Station is in full accord with the wonderful
architectural development of that city, and has a setting in the
creation of a great facing plaza, in which 100,000 troops may be
gathered in review. Some day the plaza is to be surrounded by a
group of public buildings but even in that day the white marble
station, exceeding in size all other Washington buildings save the
Capitol itself, will remain the dominating feature of that facing plaza.
It has been created in simple classic outline, a vaulted train-shed
being purposely omitted, in order that the station should not
overshadow the proportions of the near-by Capitol.
Similarly, the vaulted train-shed has been omitted in the splendid
new white granite terminal which the Chicago and Northwestern
Railway has just completed on the West Side of Chicago. That new
terminal is a real addition to a town which has long boasted two
model stations—one in La Salle Street and the other upon the Lake
Front. The Northwestern terminal is one of the fine architectural
features of Chicago—a structure of classic design, the dominating
feature of which is a colonnaded portico, monumental in type and
towering to a height of 120 feet above the main street entrance.
This new terminal has a possible capacity of a quarter of a million
passengers each day. It has some novel features for the comfort of
passengers. A great many travellers cross Chicago in the course of
twenty-four hours; in many cases this is the single break in a weary
and dirty journey. For these, the new terminal not only provides the
customary lounging rooms and barber shops, but also private baths.
There is a series of rooms where invalids, women with children, or
other persons seeking privacy, may go directly by private elevator
where they may rest while waiting for connecting trains. For women
there are tea-rooms and hospital rooms, with trained nurses in
attendance. That is almost the last note in comfort for the traveller.
There are, in addition to all these, private rooms where the
suburbanite may change into his evening clothes and proceed in his
various social duties, changing back again before he catches his late
train out into the country.

New York City is still in the process of rebuilding and readjusting her
gateways. Two magnificent terminals in her metropolitan district
have already been finished; the third is still under construction. The
first of these terminals is a real water-gate, built for the Lackawanna
Railroad and situated in Hoboken, just across the Hudson River from
the corporate New York. It is a handsome architectural creation in
steel and concrete. Its tall clock-tower dominates the river front by
night and day and those who come and go through its portals find
themselves in a succession of white and vaulted hallways and
concourses that suggest a library or museum more than the mere
commercial structure of a railroad corporation.
An interesting feature of the Hoboken Station is the abandonment of
the high train-shed such as has come to be a distinguishing feature
of some of the world’s great terminals. Engine smoke and gases
work havoc with the structural steel work of such sheds, and the
engineers of the Hoboken Station fashioned a low-lying roof, slotted
to receive the locomotive stacks. The result is a clean train-house,
yet admirably protected from the stress of weather. It is a novel note
in terminal engineering.
The Pennsylvania Station, opened in November, 1910, has already
become one of the notable landmarks of New York. Beneath it
disappeared the biggest hole ever excavated at one time in the
metropolitan city; for the great station is not so famed either for its
architectural beauty or for the completeness of its details (although
it is in the foreguard of the world’s great terminals in both of these
regards), as for the stupendous engineering project that was found
necessary to connect it with the trunk-line railroads that it serves. To
the west, this takes form in two parallel tunnels underneath the city,
the Hudson River, and the Jersey Heights; to the east a still heavier
traffic, composed of empty trains in Pennsylvania service and a great
army of Long Island commuters, is carried under the very heart of
Manhattan Island and under the East River in four parallel tunnels.

Trains run for six miles under the greatest city of the continent, with
its flanking rivers and environs, without ever seeing more than a
momentary flash of daylight. The terminal has no train-shed or other
of the familiar external appearances of the usual railroad station in a
large city.
A model American railroad station—the Union Station of the New York
Central,
Boston & Albany, Delaware & Hudson, and West Shore railroads at Albany

The classic portal of the Pennsylvania’s new station in New York

The beautiful concourse of the new Pennsylvania Station, in New York

“The waiting-room is the monumental and artistic expression of the
station,”—the waiting-room of the Union Depot at Troy, New York
The Pennsylvania terminal also departs radically from the other great
terminals in its track arrangements. The twenty-one parallel station
tracks, with their platforms, are placed in a basement forty feet
below street level. In fact, the great building is divided into three
levels. At the street level are the broad entrances, the chief of these
forming itself into a broad arcade, lined with shops that cater
particularly to the demands of the traveller. On this floor are also the
railroad’s commodious restaurant and lunch-room.
On the intermediate plane, or level, the real business of the
passenger prefatory to his journey is transacted. The concourse, the
great general waiting-room, with its subsidiary rooms for men and
women, the ticket offices, and the telegraph offices are there

gathered. From the roomy concourse, covered in steel and glass
after the fashion of the famous train-sheds in Frankfort and Dresden,
Germany, individual stairs and elevators lead to each of the track
platforms. A sub-concourse, hung directly underneath the main
structure, is reserved for exit purposes only, and serves to separate
the streams of incoming and outgoing passengers. The north side of
the station is separated and reserved for the use of the Long Island
passengers, chiefly commuters.
The theory of operation of the station is simplicity itself. A
Pennsylvania through train from the West, after discharging its
passengers and baggage, will not be backed out of the train-house,
but will continue on through the station, under more tunnels and
another river, to the storage yards just outside of Long Island City.
Similarly, trains made ready for a long trip at the yards will proceed
empty under the East River tunnels to the big station, where they
will receive their outbound load. This is the theory of the station, an
operating theory which makes it in part like a giant way-station and
saves much terminal congestion. The Long Island trains and a few
short-line Pennsylvania express trains will be turned in the station.
These are the exception.
Of interest fully equal to that of the new Pennsylvania Station, is the
construction of a new Grand Central Station upon the site of and
during the use of the old. The Grand Central Station, used by both
the New York Central and the New York, New Haven, & Hartford
Railroads, has been for many years New York’s great gateway to the
east as well as the north and west. It has developed a great
suburban and a great through traffic since the construction of the
first station—away back in 1871. Temporary relief was gained in the
early eighties by the construction of an annex to the east of the
original station. Still further improvement was gained ten years ago
by tearing out a series of ill-arranged public rooms and substituting
for them the single beautiful waiting-room that has proved so great
a delight to travellers. Now that waiting-room is about to be

demolished in the face of plans for the newer and greater Grand
Central.
The building of the new station has offered tremendous problems to
the engineers, for it has demanded a complete reconstruction within
extremely limited area, while not placing hindrances in the way of
the constant operation of one of the world’s greatest terminals.
Coincident with the rebuilding of the new station has come the
substitution of electricity for steam on the terminal lines of its two
tenants, the New York, New Haven, & Hartford, and the New York
Central & Hudson River Railroads. In order to work the three-mile
tunnel through Park Avenue and the sole entrance for trains to the
station at greatest capacity, it was found necessary to extend the
yards of the new station far north of those of the old. This work,
alone, has necessitated the acquisition of whole city blocks of
tremendously valuable real estate and the excavation of several
million cubic yards of rock and earth.
To accomplish the work of reconstruction and still enable the station
to handle its great traffic without serious interruption, serious
forethought and definite plans of action were found necessary. The
plan was developed by constructing a temporary building of brick
and plaster covering a vacant city block in Madison Avenue, at the
west of the station. Into this temporary structure a branch post
office, an important adjunct of the Grand Central, was moved from
the extreme eastern side of the terminal. Excavation for the new
terminal began at its eastern edge and at that edge the first portions
of the new structure have been completed. A waiting-room was then
established in temporary quarters, the last vestiges of the old Grand
Central removed, and the main front and centre of the new station
fabricated. Similarly, as the excavation has progressed from the east
to the west side of the terminal, the great bulk of the traffic has
been gradually shifted from the old high-level to the new low-level.
The new Grand Central complete will have its main train-shed
devoted to through traffic. A second train-shed of similar
arrangement and of slightly smaller dimensions will be constructed

underneath the main shed for suburban traffic, and a single head-
house will serve both floors. The head-house will have as its chief
architectural feature, a concourse of mammoth proportions. The
lesser features of the new Grand Central will contribute to make the
new terminal, built upon the site of the historic old, one of the
world’s greatest gateways. The fact that steam locomotives are
absolutely prohibited from entering either of the two new stations on
Manhattan Island makes these the cleanest railroad terminals yet
built.
So not only have our railroads begun to build great stations; they
are to-day building really beautiful stations. An age in which the
American demands the exquisite and the monumental in his
architecture, palatial homes, palatial shops, palatial hotels, demands
that the railroad station be something more than the mere
expression of a commercial utility. Stone, the sturdy and durable
building material of all the ages, has become the expression of these
buildings from without. Within, they are gay with rare marbles and
mural paintings. There is nothing too fine for the railroad passenger
terminal of to-day in the United States.
When the master fancy of the architect, Richardson, designed the
splendid stations at Worcester and Springfield, as well as a host of
smaller attractive stations along the line of the Boston & Albany
Railroad, the beginnings were made. More recently this rising
American desire for beauty and good taste has shown itself in such
elaborate and artistic structures as the stations at Albany and
Scranton. The last step has come in the designing of the palatial
terminals in Chicago, in Washington, and in New York City. It would
take a bold prophet to anticipate what the next step might be.

A
CHAPTER VII
THE FREIGHT TERMINALS AND THE
YARDS
Convenience of Having Freight Stations at
Several Points in a City—The
Pennsylvania Railroad’s Scheme at New
York as an Example—Coal Handled
Apart from Other Freight—Assorting
the Cars—The Transfer House—
Charges for the Use of Cars not
Promptly Returned to Their Home Roads
—The Hard Work of the Yardmaster.
LL the folk who come and go upon the railroad know the
passenger stations. Few of them know the freight terminals. Yet
it is from this last source that the railroad will derive the greater part
of its revenue. The freight terminals of a large city will be a group of
plants, designed for varying purposes. The railroad handles its
passenger business from a single structure, if possible. It is
comparatively simple to gather all its passengers, even from a broad
territory, within a great city, and so to concentrate this part of its
traffic in a single well-located terminal.
With the freight it is entirely a different question. The problem of
trucking is one of the great problems of each of our large cities, and,
in order to eliminate this as far as possible, the railroad, under the
stimulus of competition, will establish freight stations at each point
where any considerable volume of traffic is likely to originate. These

stations will consist of a freight-house, for handling package-freight
(your traffic expert calls this “LCL,” meaning “less than carload”),
and wagon yards for carload lots. Perhaps there will be two freight-
houses, one for inbound, the other for outbound traffic. The wagon
yards will have to be ample for the accommodation of a host of
trucks and drays as well as for the long rows of freight-cars.
In addition to these stations, each large manufacturing plant is apt
to be a freight station of itself, with a private switch running to its
shipping-rooms and storage sheds; and in even a moderate-sized
American city there may be from 300 to 500 of these sidings in
active daily use. So much for the general commodity freight. Then
there are the special commodities.
Coal, for instance, is a freight business of itself. It is not handled in
the regular stations of the railroad, but in specially designed pockets
and storage sheds, which may be located at from one or two to half
a hundred different accessible points about the city. One begins to
see, after a little while, why the railroads now seize with avidity each
opportunity to gain lines through the hearts of our cities. Each line
gained means some appreciable relief toward the taking up of a
traffic burden that increases yearly.
It is most probable that the freight terminals of the city will have to
accommodate much more traffic than that which originates or
terminates there. Important lines of other railroads may intersect at
that point, and the handling of interchange freight is a busy function
of the terminal scheme. It may be an important point for lake, river,
or ocean traffic; and in such a case, the industries at docks and
docking facilities of every sort form other busy functions. There will
be coal or ore wharves, elevators, and car-floats to enter into the
scheme.
So you see the railroad’s freight terminal in any large city is like the
fingers of its extended hand. The long tendons reach into every
productive centre, gathering and distributing at from a dozen to fifty
points, aside from the private sidings. It is obvious that these must

be caught together somewhere; and generally upon the outskirts of
an important traffic city the railroad creates an interchange yard
where this freight, incoming and outgoing—100 trains a day,
perhaps—is gathered together and sorted with system and
regularity, very much as the post office sorts the letters and the mail
packages.
To examine more closely this working of a modern freight terminal
scheme, let us take a single plant of a single system. The great
operation by which the Pennsylvania Railroad catches up and
delivers its freight in the metropolitan district around New York is
typical, and will illustrate.
The Pennsylvania works with at least 24 freight stations, in addition
to a great number of private sidings from its lines as they pass
through Eastern New Jersey. These stations handle the freight of
Manhattan Island, Brooklyn, Jersey City, Hoboken, Newark, and
smaller centres; but in addition to them there are vast docks at
which foreign steamers berth, lighterage facilities for both foreign
and coasting steamers, and a tremendous freight interchange with
the railroads running to the north and east. The coal business is
there again, a separate institution with many piers and pockets;
there is a group of bulky elevators that rise above the smoky, busy
Jersey shore, the whole going to make a sizable freight terminal.
There are coal pockets, piers, elevators, and a local freight station at
Jersey City (the railroad men know it as Harsemus Cove), and
another much larger plant at Greenville on the west bank of the
upper harbor, almost behind the Statue of Liberty. This last plant is
just now awaiting its greatest development. The Pennsylvania
Railroad, through its ownership control of the Long Island Railroad,
is building an encircling line, 4 and 6 tracks wide, around Brooklyn,
and crossing its passenger terminal yards at Long Island City. This
encircling line—the New York Connecting Railroad it is called—will be
continued by a splendid bridge over the East River to an actual
connection with the New Haven system reaching up into New
England. When this is done, one of the bugaboos of the freightmen

—the slow and ofttimes dangerous movement of barges and car-
floats through the East River, past the entire length of Manhattan
Island—will be ended. Greenville will become the distributing point
for the bulk of New England freight that comes and goes from the
south and the west through New York.
Even at the present time Greenville is a freight point of considerable
magnitude. Go out to Waverley, the great sprawling interchange yard
that reaches from Newark almost to Elizabeth along the edge of the
Jersey meadows, and watch the through trains come from
Greenville. They rank well to-day with the traffic that comes from
Harsemus Cove already; and Harsemus Cove is soon to be as
nothing.
Waverley is more than a mere junction. It was in the first instance
the neck of the bottle where the double-track line from Greenville,
the main line from Jersey City and Harsemus Cove, and the cut-off
freight line that carries through traffic around the heart of great and
growing Newark, united to form the main line of the busy
Pennsylvania Railroad. Being a gateway by natural location the
railroad sought to make it a gateway in reality. A big assorting or
classification yard was built there for outgoing freight, and another
for the incoming. Storage tracks were added and one of the great
transfer houses of the country—but of that, more in a moment.
The business day ends at the many freight-houses along the
waterfront of Manhattan and Brooklyn at four o’clock in the
afternoon. At that hour, the railroad refuses to accept any more
freight for the day, car-doors are closed and sealed with rapidity; in
a short time the long and clumsy floats are being hauled by pert
little tugs toward Harsemus or Greenville. There is not much loafing
at either of those points along about supper-time. Switching crews
show feverish activity in snatching the cars from the floats, and
yardmasters bend themselves nervously toward forming the long
trains that are to go rumbling toward the west throughout the night.

Stand in the switch-tower at Waverley, and you will begin to cultivate
a wholesome respect for the freight traffic that comes out from a
great city at nightfall. A through train from Greenville is billed to
Pittsburgh, and only hesitates long enough at Waverley to take the
switch-points at that busy junction with care. Three minutes behind
it is a through Chicago train from Harsemus Cove, and it goes
stolidly through the gateway yard without pausing. You wonder why
they keep an expert yardmaster and half a dozen switching crews at
Waverley. Within five minutes you wonder no longer. They are
beginning to get the unassorted cars from the terminals, cars that
are bound for more than a score of States. The work of sorting
begins. The night yardmaster is a general, and he has an army of
lesser officers in the field. You can trace them through the night, as,
lanterns in hand, they are running along the trains (these are pulling
in from the waterfront every five minutes now), cutting out cars,
adding cars, vamping and revamping the freight traffic of the night.
This track receives through freight for Philadelphia, the next for
Pittsburgh, the third for Cincinnati, the fourth for Washington and
the points diverging therefrom. So it goes. When the assorting
process has been in progress for more than an hour at one end of
the classification tracks, there are long trains of cars upon them
ready to run solid to some large city or important distributing point.
After that it is a simple enough matter to bring engines and
cabooses and start the trains through. Then the sorting of the cars is
begun again and continues until the freight receiving points and the
freight interchange points in the metropolitan district have been
swept clean for the night.
The transfer-house repeats the assorting process, only upon a
smaller scale, for it handles package freight—“less than carload.” It
is a long structure, stretching its way down the yard and served by 8
to 10 long sidings and unloading sheds. It takes the “LCL” stuff
coming by night from the connecting railroads and from the
metropolitan freight-houses, and a little after midnight its workers

begin the sorting of this great mass of matter, from 200 to 500
carloads a day.
Here is a really great phase of railroad energy. We find our way to a
gaunt freight-house, to whose door no truck has ever backed, and
which is hemmed in by many rows of sidings and of sheds. In this
building one of the busiest functions of the whole transportation
business goes forth by day and by night.
You ship a box—sixty pounds to one hundred pounds—from Wilkes-
Barre, Pa., to Berlin, Wis. Here comes another box from Watertown,
N. Y., to Norfolk, Va. A third is bound from Easthampton, Mass., to
Chillicothe, O.; a fourth from Terre Haute, Ind., to Plainfield, N. J.,
and so on, ad infinitum. You can readily see how in such cases the
railroads have a problem in freight that closely approximates that of
the Government mail service. Ten thousand currents and cross-
currents of merchandise rising here and there and everywhere, and
crossing and recrossing on their way to destination, make a puzzle
that does not cease when the rate-sheet experts have finished their
difficult work.
If all the freight might be expressed in even multiples of cars the
problem would not be quite so appalling. But your box is a hundred
pounds weight, or less, perhaps—“LCL” anyway. From its destination
it goes with other boxes in a car to the nearest transfer point. At the
transfer house the car in which it is placed is drilled quickly into an
infreight track, seals are broken, doors opened, and re-assorting
begins. The transfer-house is roomy and systematic. If it were
anything less it would resemble chaos.
But the chief freight points of that particular system and its
connecting points have regular stands, upon which nightly are
placed cars bound for these points. Each city (in the case of a large
city each freight-house), each transfer point, has a number, and its
through car stands opposite that number. When the infreight arrives
and is unloaded piece by piece, a checker, who is nothing less than
an animated guide-book, gives each its proper number, and it is

promptly trucked off to the waiting car. It is mail-sorting on a Titanic
scale.
Nor is this an absolute order. Certain towns demand an occasional
through car from time to time, and a car must be assigned number
and place at the transfer-house against such emergencies.
Sometimes there is more than enough freight to fill the car allotted
to any given point, and then one of the switching crews must drill
that out and find another empty to replace it. Beyond that, the
yardmaster’s superiors are all the time demanding that he show
judgment in picking the cars to be filled.
When a freight car gets off the system to which it belongs it collects
forfeits from the other lines over which it passes, if they do not
expedite its passage; this the railroaders know as “per diem.” The
great trick in operating is to keep per diem down; and so the
“foreign” cars, so called, must be promptly returned to their home
roads.
“We load out of the transfer-house a through car over the
Northwestern from Chicago every day,” the man who has this yard in
charge explains. “It’s up to me to have a Northwestern empty for
that when I can. When I can’t, I do the best I can.” He scratches his
head. “Perhaps I’ll use a Canadian Pacific, and so get her started
along toward home. If not, something from the Sault; just as I am
going to start that New Haven car over toward Connecticut to-night.
If I were to send that New Haven car out beyond Washington
there’d be trouble, and I’ve got to dig out something empty from the
Boston & Maine to take that stuff over to Lowell. Mos’ generally,
though, when we’ve got a turn of Western stuff, I’ve got my ‘empty’
tracks stuffed full o’ them New England cars.”
We mention something about the transfer-house being a mighty
good thing.
“It’s a necessary evil,” says our guide, correcting us.

He starts to explain. “See here. The X——, over in its Jersey City
transfer-house, got near a carload of that fancy porcelain brick
through from Haverstraw las’ week, and that young whelp of a
college boy that’s hangin’ round there learnin’ the railroad business
gets it into his noodle that it’s somethin’ awful, awful for that stuff to
be goin’ through to Middle Ohio in a Maine Central box, an ‘LCL’ at
that. So out he dumps it into a system car right here an’ now, and
saves his road about one dollar and fifty cents per diem. Of course
they pay about one hundred and thirty-five dollars for damages to
that brick in the transferrin’. But the boy’s all right in the transfer-
house. If he was out on the engine he might blow up the biler.”
Here is another great railroad yard—this almost filling a mighty
crevice between God’s eternal hills. This is within the mountain
country, and the gossip that you get around the roundhouse is all of
grades. You hear how Smith and the 2,999 pulled seven Pullmans
around the Saddleback without a pusher; how some of the big
preference freights take four engines to mount the summit; the tales
of daring are tales of pushers and of trains breaking apart on the
fearful mountain stretches.
Randall is yardmaster here, and Randall is the opposite of the
layman’s picture of a yardmaster—a slovenly, worn, profane sort of
fellow. Randall does not swear; he rarely even gets excited; his
system of administration is so perfectly devised that even in a stress
he rarely has to turn to work with his own hands. With him
railroading is a fine, practical science. He will tell you of the methods
at Collinwood, at Altoona, at Buffalo, at Chicago—wherein they
differ. He is cool, calculating, clever, a capital railroader in addition to
all these.

Something over a million dollars’ worth of passenger cars
are constantly stored in this yard

A scene in the great freight-yards that surround Chicago

The intricacy of tracks and the “throat” of a modern terminal yard:
South Station, Boston, and its approaches
You speak of his yard as being overwhelmingly big. He answers in
his deliberate way:
“We’ve more than 200 miles of track in this yard; something more
than 2,000 switches operate it.”
Then he takes you down from his office, elevated in an abandoned
switch-tower, and looking down upon his domain. He explains with
great care that, his yard being a main-line division point and not a
point with many intersecting branches or “foreign roads,” its
transfer-house is inconsequential. The same process that goes
forward with the package-freight in the transfer-houses, Randall
carries on in this yard with cars. These operations are separated for
east-bound and west-bound freight and each is given an entirely
separate yard, easily reached from the group of roundhouses that
hold the freight motive power of that part of the system. Randall’s,

being an unusually large yard, further divides these activities into
separate yards for loaded and empty cars on the west-bound side.
No east-bound “empties” are handled over his road.
We follow him to the nearest operating point, the west-bound
classification yard for loaded cars. In the old days this was a broad
flat reach of about 20 parallel tracks, terminating at each end in
approaches of lead of “ladder” track. Upon each set of 3 or 4 tracks
a switch-engine is busy in the eternal classification process. In these
more modern days you may see the “hump” or gravity-yard,
although you will still find skilled railroaders who are prejudiced
against its use. In the hump-yard half of the work of the switch-
engines is done by gravity. This new type of railroad facility has an
artificial hill, just above the termination of the parallel tracks where
they cluster together, and upon this hump one switch-engine with a
trained crew does the work of six engines and crews in the old type
of yard.
A preference freight rolls into the receiving yard for the west-bound
classification. Its engine uncouples and steams off for a well-earned
rest in the smoky roundhouse. A switch-engine uncouples the
caboose that has been tacked on behind over the division, and it is
shunted off to the near-by caboose track, where its crew will have
close oversight of it—perhaps sleep in it—until it is ready to
accompany some east-bound freight a few hours hence.
Blue flags (blue lights at night) are fastened at each end of the
dismantled cars, and the inspectors have a quarter of an hour to
make sure if the equipment is in good order. If the car is found with
broken running-gear it is marked, and soon after drilled out from its
fellows, sent to the transfer-house to have its contents removed, to
the shops for repairs, or the “cripple” track for junk, if its case is
well-nigh hopeless.
With the “O. K.” of the car inspectors finally pronounced, the train
that was comes up to the hump, and the expert crew that operates
there makes short work of sorting out the cars—this track for “stuff”

southwest of Pittsburgh, this next for Cleveland and Chicago, the
third for transcontinental; and so it goes. Two lines of cars are drilled
at the same time, for just ahead of the switch-engine is an open-
platform car, known as the “pole-car,” and by means of heavy
timbers the “pole-man” guides two rows of heavy cars down the
slight grades to their resting-places.
The cars do not rest long upon the classification-yard tracks. From
the far end of each of these they are being gathered in solid trains,
one for Pittsburgh, another for Cleveland and Chicago, the third
transcontinental, and so on. Engines of the next division are being
hitched to them, pet “hacks” brought from the caboose tracks, and
the long strings of loaded box-cars are off toward the West in
incredibly short time.
Of course there are some trains that never go upon the
“classification” at Randall’s yard. There are solid coal trains bound in
and out of New York, of Philadelphia, and of Boston, that pass him
empty and filled, and only change engines and cabooses at his
command. There are through freights, bound from one seaboard to
the other, from the Far East to the Far West, that do likewise. But
the majority of the freight movement has the sorting out within his
domain, his four humps are busy day and night with an ordinary run
of traffic, and you shudder to think what must be the condition when
business begins to run at high tide.
“We get it a-humming every once in a while,” he finally confesses.
“We had one day, a little time ago, when we received 121 east-
bound trains in twenty-four hours, more than 3,200 cars all told.
That meant, on an average, a train every 11½ minutes. That same
day we got 78 west-bound freights, with more than 3,600 cars. That
meant nearly 7,000 cars handled on the in-freight in twenty-four
hours, or a train coming in to me every 7½ minutes during day and
night. They don’t do much better than that on some of the subway
and elevated railroads in the big cities; and I haven’t said a word
about the trains and cars we despatched—just about as much again,
of course.”

Through yards such as these there are incoming streams of
merchandise, equal at least to the outgoing, passing through
classification yards in carload lots and the great transfer-houses in
“LCL.” These streams must be kept separate and from clogging one
another or themselves. Cars must carry loads whenever they are
moved—“empties” are the bogy-men of the superintendents of
transportation—and cars from “foreign” systems must be quickly
returned to their home roads. The yardmaster at a busy freight point
has his own worries. His puzzle is unending. To it he must bend the
bigness of a big mind, he must be prepared to handle the unequal
volumes of traffic that pass through his domain with an equal skill:
in dull times he must seek to keep his plant working under
conditions of rare economy; when the freight rises to flood tide, he
must fight in harness to prevent the freight from congesting. The
word “failure” has been stricken out of his vocabulary by his
superiors.
It takes a high grade of railroader to serve as yardmaster.

F
CHAPTER VIII
THE LOCOMOTIVES AND THE CARS
Honor Required in the Building of a
Locomotive—Some of the Early
Locomotives—Some Notable Locomotive-
builders—Increase of the Size of
Engines—Stephenson’s Air-brake—The
Workshops—The Various Parts of the
Engine—Cars of the Old-time—
Improvements by Winans and Others—
Steel Cars for Freight.
ROM out of the fiery womb of steel comes the locomotive. We
have already told of the honor that is forged in the building of the
bridge; honor of no less degree has gone into the forging of the
most vital and most human thing upon the railroad, outside of man
himself. That man has ever been able to create and build the
locomotive, a giant creature of some 200 tons, perhaps, built
together with infinite care of some 5,000 to 7,000 parts, and these
parts acting with the delicacy of the hair-spring of a watch, almost
passes ordinary belief. The wonder becomes even greater when it is
realized that this monster creature, set upon two slender rails, is
capable of pulling a 4,000 ton train, through every stress of weather
and over considerable grades.
To tell in detail of the locomotive in one chapter is short allowance to
a subject that fairly demands for itself a whole book, a technical
mind for the telling, and at least a fairly technical mind for the
understanding; a subject that in its history goes hand in hand with

that of the railroad itself. Yet the limitations of this book forbid a
more lengthy description.
We have already told of a very few of the earliest and most famous
American locomotives; the Stourbridge Lion, which Horatio Allen
brought to the Delaware & Hudson Company; the Best Friend, which
was built in New York City, and which went to Charleston, South
Carolina, to be the first American locomotive to run in the United
States, the De Witt Clinton, which awoke the echoes of the Hudson
and Mohawk valleys in a single day; and the Tom Thumb, built by
Peter Cooper, which induced the directors of the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad to change their motive power from horses to steam, and so
opened a great new development for their property.
A little while after Cooper’s Tom Thumb had achieved the astounding
feat of beating a team of horses in hauling a railroad coach, the
directors of the B. & O. offered a prize of $4,000 “for the most
approved engine that shall be delivered for trial upon the road on or
before June 1, 1831; and $3,500 for the engine which shall be
adjudged the next best.” It was determined in this prospectus that
“the engine, when in operation must not exceed three and one-half
tons weight and must, on a level road, be capable of drawing day by
day fifteen tons, inclusive of the weight of wagons, fifteen miles an
hour.”
Three locomotives answered this generous offer. Of them but one,
the York, oftener called the Arabian, built at York, Pa., by Davis &
Gartner, and hauled to Baltimore by horses over the turnpikes, was
of practical service. Phineas Davis was a watch and clock maker, but
he succeeded in devising a locomotive that was the forerunner of
the famous Grasshopper upon the Baltimore & Ohio. Better name
was never given to a locomotive, the rude and ungainly angles
formed by rods and levers giving a distinct resemblance to the long-
legged bugs. Yet the Grasshoppers served their purpose. In the late
eighties, the Arabian was still in service in the Mount Clare yards at
Baltimore. With a single exception, it never had an accident or even
left the rails. That exception was just before the completion of the

Washington branch, and Davis was a passenger upon the engine. It
was going at a fair rate of speed when suddenly it rolled over upon
its side in the ditch. No one was hurt, save Davis, who was instantly
killed. It seemed a strange caprice of Fate, for although careful
examination was immediately made, both of the engine and of the
track, no reason could ever be assigned for the accident.
In that same year, 1831, the John Bull, which was built by George &
Robert Stephenson & Company, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, in England,
was received in Philadelphia for the Camden & Amboy Railroad. As
long as the locomotive continues to serve the railroad the name of
George Stephenson, its inventor, must be indissolubly linked with it.
The John Bull was easily the most famous Stephenson engine ever
sent to the United States. It has been shown at all our great
expositions, and now occupies a position of honor in the great
Smithsonian institution at Washington. Of these early engines, which
it was found necessary to bring from England, a volume once issued
by the Rogers Locomotive Works, of Paterson, N. J., has said:
“These locomotives ... furnished the types and patterns
from which those which were afterwards built here were
fashioned. But American designs soon began to depart
from their British prototypes, and a process of adaption to
the existing conditions of the railroads in this country
followed, which afterwards differentiated the American
locomotives more and more from those built in Great
Britain. A marked feature of difference between American
and English locomotives has been the use of a forward
truck under the former.”
As a matter of fact, the English engines, built for use on long
straight stretches of line would never have served on the early roads
in this country with their steep and curving routes through the
mountains. So, in the latter part of the year 1831, John B. Jervis
invented what he called “a new plan of frame, with a bearing-
carriage for a locomotive engine” for the use of the Mohawk &
Hudson Railroad, in which he introduced the forward truck which is

to-day a distinctive feature of American engines. Its effectiveness
was at once recognized, and its almost general adoption immediately
followed. Five years later, Henry R. Campbell, of Philadelphia, had
patented his system of two driving-wheels and a truck, and the
distinctive type of American locomotive was born.
In the development of that peculiarly successful type, great names
have been written into the history of American locomotive-building—
the names of such men as Rogers and Winans and Hinckley and
Mason and Brooks and Matthias Baldwin and William Norris; the last
two both of Philadelphia. Norris, after some interesting smaller
engines, built the George Washington in 1835. This engine was not
one whit less than a triumph. It ascended the steep plane of the
Columbia Railroad in Philadelphia, a grade of 7½ per cent, carrying
two passenger cars in which were seated 53 persons. It came to a
stop on that grade and started up again by its own efforts. After
reaching the summit, the engine was turned around and came
down, stopping once in its descent.
That was the only time that a locomotive ever essayed the Columbia
plane, and the performance of the George Washington has not been
attempted in all these years save in the case of Latrobe’s temporary
line at Kingwood Tunnel. The English newspapers of that day
ridiculed the experiment, pronounced it a Baron Munchausen story,
yet in 1839 Norris sent an engine overseas that successfully climbed
the then famous Lickey plane, in England. After that he was
besieged by foreign orders, sending 16 American locomotives to
Great Britain in 1840, and, during the next few years, 170 others to
France, Germany, Prussia, Austria, Belgium, Italy, and Saxony.
William Norris did his full part in giving Europe a measure of respect
for the growing nation across the Atlantic.
Matthias Baldwin, like Phineas Davis, of York, was a watch maker in
the beginning of his life. He lived long enough to lay the foundation
of one of the greatest of American single industries, to give his name
to a firm that has carried the fame of American locomotives around
the world and kept it alive in every nation of the earth. Baldwin’s

first locomotive was built in 1832 for the Philadelphia, Germantown,
and Norristown Railroad; and that it was a good locomotive is
proved by the fact that it performed twenty years of faithful service
upon that line. His second engine, built two years later, went south
to that famous old Charleston & Hamburg Company. After that his
works were regularly established, their head to give his patience and
untiring genius to the perfecting of the locomotive. The history of
Baldwin locomotives is, in an important sense, the history of the
industry in the United States.
It was not long before the pioneer engines were considered too
small for much practical value, and Mr. Baldwin was building a much
bigger locomotive for the Vermont Central Railroad. This engine,
named the Governor Paine for a famous executive of that State, was
delivered in 1848, and for it was paid the unprecedented price of
$10,000. It had a pair of driving-wheels, six and one-half feet in
diameter placed just back of the fire-box, a slightly smaller pair
being placed forward. Baldwin must have given full value, for it is
related that the engine could be started from a state of rest and run
a mile in forty-three seconds. The Pennsylvania Railroad ordered
three of the same sort, and one of these once hauled a special train
carrying President Zachary Taylor at sixty miles an hour. In weight,
the locomotive was steadily increasing. In the beginning, these
engines weighed from four to seven tons each; by the late forties
engines of twenty-five tons each were being built for the Reading
Road, and these were regarded as monsters.
Year by year the locomotive was being perfected in all its details.
The cab made its appearance and was first opposed by the
engineers, who imagined that they would be badly penned in, in
case of accident. The Erie contributed the bell-rope signal from the
train; we have already heard of that first whistle on the locomotive
of the Sandusky and Mad River Railroad. The Boston & Worcester
devised the headlight, so that time might be saved by handling
freight at night. More important than these were the experiments by
Ross Winans and by S. M. Felton that led to the substitution of coal

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