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7-1
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 07
Communication
Fill in the Blank Questions
1. In negotiations, language operates at two levels: the _____________ level (for proposals or
offers) and the _____________ level (for semantics, syntax, and style).
________________________________________
2. The use of _________________________ is defined as when negotiators use positive words
when speaking of their own positions, and negative words when referring to the other party's
position.
________________________________________
3. High levels of _________________________ denote comfort and competence with language,
and low levels denote discomfort, anxiety, or inexperience.
________________________________________
4. Nonverbal communication—done well—may help negotiators achieve better outcomes
through _____________ coordination.
________________________________________

7-2
5. Researchers have been examining the effects of channels in general, and _____________ in
particular, on negotiation processes and outcomes during much of the past decade.
________________________________________
6. _____________ questions cause attention, get information and start thinking.
________________________________________
7. _________________________ involves receiving a message while providing no feedback to the
sender about the accuracy or completeness of reception.
________________________________________
8. _________________________ techniques allow negotiators to understand more completely the
other party's positions by actively arguing these positions until the other party is convinced
that they are understood.
________________________________________
9. Achieving _____________ in negotiation is, in large part, making decisions to accept offers, to
compromise priorities, to trade off across issues with the other party, or some combination of
these elements.
________________________________________
True / False Questions

7-3
10. While the blend of integrative versus distributive communication content varies as a function
of the issues being discussed, it is also clear that the content of communication is only partly
responsible for negotiation outcomes.
True False
11. Researcher Thompson and her colleagues found that winners and losers evaluated their own
outcomes equally when they did not know how well the other party had done, but if they
found out that the other negotiator had done better, or was even pleased with his or her
outcome, then negotiators felt less positive about their own outcome.
True False
12. Mitigating circumstances occur where negotiators explain their positions from a broader
perspective, suggesting that while their current position may appear negative it derives from
positive motives.
True False
13. Sitkin and Bies suggest that negotiators who use multiple explanations are more likely to
have better outcomes and that the negative effects of poor outcomes can be mitigated by
communicating explanations for them.
True False
14. Low verbal immediacy is intended to engage or compel the other party, while high verbal
immediacy is intended to create a sense of distance or aloofness.
True False

7-4
15. High levels of language intensity are used to convey strong feelings in the recipient, while low
intensity conveys weak feelings.
True False
16. A negotiator's choice of words may only signal a position; it may never shape or predict it.
True False
17. Manageable questions cause difficulty, give information, and bring the discussion to a false
conclusion.
True False
Multiple Choice Questions
18. Define exonerating circumstances.
A. Negotiators suggest that they had no choice in taking the positions they did.
B. Negotiators explain their positions from a broader perspective, suggesting that while their
current position may appear negative it derives from positive motives.
C. Outcomes can be explained by changing the context.
D. Negotiators who use multiple explanations are more likely to have better outcomes.
E. None of the above can define exonerating circumstances.

7-5
19. Which of the following is not one of the five linguistic dimensions of making threats?
A. the use of polarized language
B. the conveyance of verbal immediacy
C. the degree of lexical diversity
D. the extent of low-power language style
E. All of the above are elements of the five linguistic dimensions of making threats.
20. Gibbons, Bradac, and Busch suggest that threats can be made more credible and more
compelling by using
A. positively polarized descriptions of the other party.
B. low immediacy.
C. high intensity.
D. low verbal diversity.
E. None of the above can make threats more credible and compelling.
21. What are the most dominant contributors to breakdowns and failures in negotiation?
A. failures and distortions in perception, meaning, and feedback.
B. failures and distortions in perception, feedback, and behaviors.
C. failures and distortions in perception, communication, and framing.
D. failures and distortions in perception, cognition, and communication.
E. None of the above contribute to breakdowns and failures in negotiation.

7-6
22. Questions can be used to
A. manage difficult or stalled negotiations.
B. pry or lever a negotiation out of a breakdown or an apparent dead end.
C. assist or force the other party to face up to the effects or consequences of their behaviors.
D. collect and diagnose information.
E. Questions can be used for all of the above.
23. Which of the following are types of manageable questions?
A. close-out questions that force the other party into seeing things your way
B. leading questions that point toward an answer
C. impulse questions that occur "on the spur of the moment," without planning
D. loaded questions that put the other party on the spot regardless of his/her answer
E. None of the above is types of manageable questions.
24. In passive listening
A. the receivers restate or paraphrase the sender's message in their own language.
B. the receivers interject responses to keep communicators sending messages.
C. the receiver provides no feedback to the sender about the accuracy or completeness of
reception.
D. senders may misinterpret acknowledgments as the receiver's agreement with their
position, rather than that they are simply receiving the message.
E. None of the above occurs in passive listening.
Short Answer Questions

7-7
25. A communication framework for negotiation is based on what assumptions?
26. Having a BATNA changes which things in a negotiation?
27. Define "reframing explanations."

7-8
28. Define the "information is weakness" effect.
29. What are the five linguistic dimensions of making threats?
30. How can using the five linguistic dimensions make threats more credible and compelling?

7-9
31. Some nonverbal acts, called attending behaviors, are particularly important in connecting
with another person during a coordinated interaction like negotiation. Why?
32. Define social bandwidth.
33. What three main techniques are available for improving communication in negotiation?

7-10
34. We know that role reversal can be a useful tool for improving communication and the
accurate understanding and appreciation of the other party's position in negotiation. But
when is it useful?
35. As negotiations come to a close, what are the two key aspects of communication and
negotiation that negotiators must attend to simultaneously?

7-11
Chapter 07 Communication Answer Key
Fill in the Blank Questions
1. In negotiations, language operates at two levels: the _____________ level (for proposals or
offers) and the _____________ level (for semantics, syntax, and style).
logical; pragmatic
2. The use of _________________________ is defined as when negotiators use positive words
when speaking of their own positions, and negative words when referring to the other
party's position.
polarized language
3. High levels of _________________________ denote comfort and competence with language,
and low levels denote discomfort, anxiety, or inexperience.
lexical diversity
4. Nonverbal communication—done well—may help negotiators achieve better outcomes
through _____________ coordination.
mutual
5. Researchers have been examining the effects of channels in general, and _____________ in
particular, on negotiation processes and outcomes during much of the past decade.
e-mail

7-12
6. _____________ questions cause attention, get information and start thinking.
Manageable
7. _________________________ involves receiving a message while providing no feedback to
the sender about the accuracy or completeness of reception.
Passive listening
8. _________________________ techniques allow negotiators to understand more completely
the other party's positions by actively arguing these positions until the other party is
convinced that they are understood.
Role-reversal
9. Achieving _____________ in negotiation is, in large part, making decisions to accept offers,
to compromise priorities, to trade off across issues with the other party, or some
combination of these elements.
closure
True / False Questions
10. While the blend of integrative versus distributive communication content varies as a
function of the issues being discussed, it is also clear that the content of communication
is only partly responsible for negotiation outcomes.
TRUE
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

7-13
11. Researcher Thompson and her colleagues found that winners and losers evaluated their
own outcomes equally when they did not know how well the other party had done, but if
they found out that the other negotiator had done better, or was even pleased with his or
her outcome, then negotiators felt less positive about their own outcome.
TRUE
12. Mitigating circumstances occur where negotiators explain their positions from a broader
perspective, suggesting that while their current position may appear negative it derives
from positive motives.
FALSE
13. Sitkin and Bies suggest that negotiators who use multiple explanations are more likely to
have better outcomes and that the negative effects of poor outcomes can be mitigated by
communicating explanations for them.
TRUE
14. Low verbal immediacy is intended to engage or compel the other party, while high verbal
immediacy is intended to create a sense of distance or aloofness.
FALSE

7-14
15. High levels of language intensity are used to convey strong feelings in the recipient, while
low intensity conveys weak feelings.
TRUE
16. A negotiator's choice of words may only signal a position; it may never shape or predict it.
FALSE
17. Manageable questions cause difficulty, give information, and bring the discussion to a
false conclusion.
FALSE
Multiple Choice Questions

7-15
18. Define exonerating circumstances.
A. Negotiators suggest that they had no choice in taking the positions they did.
B. Negotiators explain their positions from a broader perspective, suggesting that while
their current position may appear negative it derives from positive motives.
C. Outcomes can be explained by changing the context.
D. Negotiators who use multiple explanations are more likely to have better outcomes.
E. None of the above can define exonerating circumstances.
19. Which of the following is not one of the five linguistic dimensions of making threats?
A. the use of polarized language
B. the conveyance of verbal immediacy
C. the degree of lexical diversity
D. the extent of low-power language style
E. All of the above are elements of the five linguistic dimensions of making threats.
20. Gibbons, Bradac, and Busch suggest that threats can be made more credible and more
compelling by using
A. positively polarized descriptions of the other party.
B. low immediacy.
C. high intensity.
D. low verbal diversity.
E. None of the above can make threats more credible and compelling.

7-16
21. What are the most dominant contributors to breakdowns and failures in negotiation?
A. failures and distortions in perception, meaning, and feedback.
B. failures and distortions in perception, feedback, and behaviors.
C. failures and distortions in perception, communication, and framing.
D. failures and distortions in perception, cognition, and communication.
E. None of the above contribute to breakdowns and failures in negotiation.
22. Questions can be used to
A. manage difficult or stalled negotiations.
B. pry or lever a negotiation out of a breakdown or an apparent dead end.
C. assist or force the other party to face up to the effects or consequences of their
behaviors.
D. collect and diagnose information.
E. Questions can be used for all of the above.
23. Which of the following are types of manageable questions?
A. close-out questions that force the other party into seeing things your way
B. leading questions that point toward an answer
C. impulse questions that occur "on the spur of the moment," without planning
D. loaded questions that put the other party on the spot regardless of his/her answer
E. None of the above is types of manageable questions.

7-17
24. In passive listening
A. the receivers restate or paraphrase the sender's message in their own language.
B. the receivers interject responses to keep communicators sending messages.
C. the receiver provides no feedback to the sender about the accuracy or completeness of
reception.
D. senders may misinterpret acknowledgments as the receiver's agreement with their
position, rather than that they are simply receiving the message.
E. None of the above occurs in passive listening.
Short Answer Questions
25. A communication framework for negotiation is based on what assumptions?
(1) The communication of offers is a dynamic process; (2) the offer process is interactive;
and (3) a variety of internal and external factors drive the interaction and motivate a
bargainer to change his or her offer.

7-18
26. Having a BATNA changes which things in a negotiation?
(1) Negotiators with attractive BATNAs set higher reservation prices for themselves; (2)
negotiators whose counterparts had attractive BATNAs set lower reservation points for
themselves; and (3) when both parties were aware of the attractive BATNA that one of the
negotiators had, that negotiator received a more positive negotiation outcome.
27. Define "reframing explanations."
Outcomes can be explained by changing the context (e.g. short-term pain for long term
gain).
28. Define the "information is weakness" effect.
Negotiators who know the complete preferences of both parties will have more difficulty
determining fair outcomes than will negotiators who do not have this information.
29. What are the five linguistic dimensions of making threats?
The use of polarized language, the conveyance of verbal immediacy, the degree of
language intensity, the degree of lexical diversity, the extent of high-power language style.

7-19
30. How can using the five linguistic dimensions make threats more credible and compelling?
Threats can be made more credible and more compelling by negatively polarized
descriptions of the other party and his or her position, high immediacy, high intensity, high
lexical diversity, and a distinctively high-power style.
31. Some nonverbal acts, called attending behaviors, are particularly important in connecting
with another person during a coordinated interaction like negotiation. Why?
Because they let the other know that you are listening and prepare the other party to
receive your message.
32. Define social bandwidth.
The ability of a channel to carry and convey subtle social and relational cues from sender
to receiver that go beyond the literal text of the message itself (see also Short, Williams,
and Christie, 1976, who used the term "social presence"). Greater social bandwidth means
that a channel can convey more cues having social, relational, or symbolic content.
33. What three main techniques are available for improving communication in negotiation?
The use of questions, listening, and role reversal.

7-20
34. We know that role reversal can be a useful tool for improving communication and the
accurate understanding and appreciation of the other party's position in negotiation. But
when is it useful?
This tool may be most useful during the preparation stage of negotiation, or during a team
caucus when things are not going well.
35. As negotiations come to a close, what are the two key aspects of communication and
negotiation that negotiators must attend to simultaneously?
The avoidance of fatal mistakes and the achievement of satisfactory closure in a
constructive manner.

Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content

From time to time the governors of neighboring states could unite
the cadet-corps of different sections and invite the corps from
distant states to send a contingent for a grand manœuvre. Such a
proceeding would tend more to cement the band of brotherhood
among the states than many artificial means. It would at the same
time promote the good morals of the boys, if the governors were to
select the best delegates from their states. Every obdurate,
mischievous individual should be expelled from the ranks, since the
state must not suffer a bad subject to enjoy the honor of serving his
country. What a wonderful change will take place in the disposition
of our youth; when accustomed to the discipline of a soldier, many a
bad habit will disappear entirely. They will become punctual and
orderly in the execution of their duties in general, their step elastic,
their carriage erect, their bodies strong, their chests large, their
cheeks rosy, a joy to their parents and a pride to our people. The lad
who leaves his city or his state, if furnished with a regular certificate
from his drill-master, can enter a company in the place of his future
residence, and be no longer a stranger but a brother-soldier—the
member of a mighty association. He enters the circle of well
educated boys at once, and is thus saved from the danger of
associating with such as might corrupt his good habits. There are
thousands of advantages to him and the country, and not a single
disadvantage. Why shall we not seize upon the subject at once? Let
our small state have the honor to be the first, as we already have
the best regulated system of schools—primary, secondary, and
higher institutions. Forward! forward!
In a subsequent article we shall give a description of a “Swiss
Shooting Festival.” It is an ancient custom with the Alpine people,
but since the system of cadet corps has become perfected, these
festivals have come off with a splendor that had never before been
dreamed of. They unite the men of all sections and have gained
quite a fame in Europe.
We implore all statesmen and teachers to take the system of
military drill and organization in schools into due consideration; not

as a mere experiment, but as something that has proved an
excellent success in a sister republic.
3. TARGET SHOOTING.
Having made military exercises a part of the regular routine of
schools and the education of youths, and identified the vocation of
the soldier with the privileges of citizenship and the safety of the
state, the policy of the Swiss government, both cantonal and federal,
has been directed so as to make the pastimes of neighborhoods and
the national festivals minister to the general culture of a military
spirit, and of the highest individual skill in the use of arms. To these
ends target shooting is encouraged in various ways, and the festivals
of the sharp-shooters are more generally and enthusiastically
attended than any other national anniversary. We give below an
account of a festival of this kind, which was held in Zurich in July,
1859.
A Festival of the Swiss Sharp-shooters.
The Frenchman has his rose festivals; the Italian his barcaroli; the
Spaniard his bull-fights; the Englishman, since his cock-fights and
boxing in the street are prohibited, has nothing left to him, for
horse-racing as well as the Parliament belongs to the aristocracy
only. 4 Germany has its popular festivals, though the potentates have
suppressed even these harmless popular gatherings in several parts
of the country.
In southern Germany and in the north-west you may still find the
old-fashioned popular festivals. But Switzerland is their field; there in
the land of freedom they flourish in the utmost freshness. They
arouse and foster in the people the consciousness that they are a
people—a nation; they awaken and strengthen the national spirit;
they unite all citizens, whether they sit as legislators in the Diet, or
till the ground in some unknown corner of the republic.

The festival begins at 6 o’clock, A.M., with the firing of cannon—
one shot for each of the twenty-two cantons into which Switzerland
is divided. The sharp-shooter festivals are the oldest of the Swiss
popular festivals—the original fruits of a free warlike people. They
are customary in every canton, in every community. But the Swiss
sharp-shooter festival means that in which the whole country unites,
and it has existed now for many, many years, always fresher and
more beautiful, representing not only the united citizens of the Swiss
cantons, but of Switzerland as a political power.
Such a festival takes place every second year. Then, thirty
thousand free, warlike men, the best marksmen from all parts of the
land, the “élite” of Switzerland’s defenders, assemble with their
rifles, which they handle with more skill than any other nation. They
represent in fact the best men of their nation, the bodyguard of law
and order, the rampart against hostile aggressions, and the stay of
popular commotions. In such a noble assembly many a wise word is
spoken, many an idea exchanged and corrected. The actions of the
administration are subjected to a sharp but judicious and just
criticism; you will not hear there ostentatious speeches, nor see
noisy demonstrations. They do not pass resolutions such as we are
wont to see in our country—a small clique of petty politicians
announcing to the people that: The People of the State, . . . .
resolved, etc.; but calmly they reason and reflect on what would be
beneficial to all sections of the country, and after having reconciled
the opposing interests of all, they go home and work each in his
circle for the realization of their ideas. There is a principle—not of
blind opposition to actions, whether good or bad, simply because
they proceed from another party—but the principle of doing justice
to all, of upholding the rights of all, and of reconciling opposing
interests. A people that has been educated in such principles and
acts in accordance with them has reached the perfection of
republicanism, and need not fear either internal or external foes.
Every American patriot may take example from this little Alpine race;
and since every one, man or woman, is by nature an educator,
whether as director of a household, or as a teacher of other men’s

children, let us all unite in educating the growing generation in the
right way, and our beloved country shall never again see brothers in
arms against brothers.
Many a corrupt official has feared the criticism of the assembly of
the Swiss sharp-shooters, and whatever “the men have resolved at
the festival,” is usually adopted by the people and carried through in
a judicious, constitutional way.
At the above-mentioned day Zurich was all in a glee; the city
adorned with flags, triumphal arches and evergreens, the streets
thronging with people in Sunday dress who had come from far and
wide to participate in the popular feast. The shrill sound of an
engine is heard, and soon after the first company of guests from
abroad forms in line at the railroad station. It is the delegation from
the Bremen sharp-shooters, who have come from the far north of
Germany to meet their brethren of the south. They are
enthusiastically received by the crowd, the mayor addresses them
and gives them a cordial welcome to the land of freedom. After one
of their number has replied to the speech, the mayor leads the
guests to a tent and invites them to partake of some refreshments;
the best of native wines from the “Rathskeller” are offered, and
many a toast spices the nectar.
An hour later the flag of the Swiss sharp-shooters is received and
unfolded, while shouts and the roar of cannon rend the air. As we
stated before, the festival of the United Sharp-shooters comes off
once in two years, city and canton taking their turns. Two years
before, in July, 1857, it had been celebrated in Berne, and the flag
had remained there until now, when a deputation from Berne
delivers it to the sharp-shooters of Zurich, to be kept by them for the
next two years; and so on.
As soon as the banner is unfurled the procession is formed, and
the banner and guests are escorted to the City Hall, preceded by
bands of music playing national airs. What a glorious sight! Man and
nature seem to revel together in joy. The bright morning sunshine
gleams from the polished rifles and a thousand flags wave in the

light breeze, while the procession is accompanied by crowds of men
and women, boys and rosy-cheeked girls who, dressed in white and
decked with red ribbons, in the national costume and colors, add an
element of bewitching beauty to the scene.
Meanwhile other companies of riflemen have arrived, and the lake
is still covered with festively-adorned gondolas that are continually
adding to the crowd of guests. At 10 o’clock the procession is again
formed. It leaves the city and moves toward the “Seefeld,” a large
meadow on the shore of the lake, a short distance from the city.
Here an immense hall has been erected. Behind it are arranged the
targets and shooting-stands, and opposite we see a neat structure in
the form of a temple, with many large windows, in which are
exhibited the prizes, disposed in the most attractive manner. These
prizes are of the value of 104,407 francs, and are the contributions
of all parts of the world—every corner where a few Swiss are to be
found, having furnished some small gift in honor of the national
festival.
The procession halts in front of the temple. The Bernese deliver
into the hands of the Zurich delegation the flag of the Swiss Rifle
Corps, and Colonel Kurtz, of Berne, thus briefly addresses them:
“When two years ago this flag was delivered into our safe keeping,
peace reigned all around us; and but just now our country has come
forth victoriously from a crisis in which we have shown, as, we had
never done before, that we are one band of brethren. 5 What we
have hoped for is now realized, and we can carry this flag—the
banner of the largest association in Switzerland—to the beautiful
lake whose blue waters play around our sister town. We of Berne
have held this flag in peace. Who knows whether you will be as
fortunate, or whether you will be forced to plant it on the highest
pinnacle of your good city, as a sign that the fatherland is in danger
and calls upon her sons to defend her. Relentless war rages now on
our borders; 6 we know not whether the storm will pass over, or the
thunderbolt strike in our midst.”

Dr. Dubs replies in a brilliant speech: “We receive this banner and
shall defend it. We are ready now for a joyous feast, and as ready at
any time for the war-dance. Let the trumpet sound and Zurich’s men
will be the first in the field to lead you on to victory or death!” etc.
Thus was the festival opened. A dinner had been prepared in the
hall, to which all marksmen, whether from home or abroad, were
invited. This hall is a wooden structure of large dimensions, open at
the sides, with a wide passage running through the middle,
intersected by several narrow ones. In the middle of the building is a
magnificent fountain. The whole remaining space is filled with tables
and benches of unvarnished pine, at which 6,000 persons may be
conveniently seated and served, A platform hung with Swiss banners
is so placed that the speakers can be heard through the whole hall,
and many a wise word has been thence spoken that met a ready
response from both present and distant brethren. Behind this
platform is raised a lofty gallery for the music. Here the bands play
soul-stirring chorals and national tunes, and when the “Marseillaise,”
or other similar air is heard, a chorus of thousands of voices
accompanies enthusiastically the instruments. It is in fact a feast of
the people; unity, peace and joy reign everywhere. There may be
seen men of different religious and political creeds, embracing each
other in brotherly concord. Men whose language is Italian from the
southern cantons, and men who speak French from the west, and
German from the northern, eastern, and middle cantons, form one
family, though their localities, institutions, and interests may differ
widely. The words which Schiller, in his well-known historical drama,
“Tell,” causes Rösselmann to express—
“By this fair light, which greeteth us before
Those other nations that, beneath us far,
In noisome cities pent, draw painful breath,
Swear we the oath of our confederacy!
We swear to be a nation of true brothers,
Never to part, in danger or in death!
These words have become true in our age.

At 1 o’clock the firing of a cannon announces the commencement
of the target shooting. The marksmen press to the stands, and their
shooting continues from morning till evening, with only an
intermission of an hour for dinner, for an entire week. As we have
before said, the shooting-stands are erected at the end of the hall,
but in a separate building. Ninety-six stands are arranged in one line,
each with its own target, so that nearly a hundred shots may be
fired at once. Behind each stand there is sufficient space for loading
the rifles, and all the necessary apparatus. There are smaller
buildings near by for the repairing of arms, and a regular field-
hospital, completely furnished, to supply medical or surgical aid to
such as may fall suddenly sick or be wounded. The medical fraternity
of Zurich have offered their services in turn, and two physicians of
their number are always present day and night. The shooting is
directed towards the lake and large quantities of firewood are piled
up like a rampart around the grounds, so that an accident is almost
impossible. Navigation on the lake within a certain distance is also
prohibited. The safety of the people is thus secured, and an accident
can happen only at the stands or to a careless target-man. Only two
injuries in all have been reported—a finger-wound received by a
marksman, and the loss of an eye to a target-man by a splinter from
the target.
More than thirty thousand tried their skill during the ten days of
the festival. On the 7th of July 74,000 shots were fired, and about
61,000 on the 11th, though many of the people had already gone
home. The rifles and targets are of various kinds. The Swiss have
rifles for field service, and also target rifles—the latter being much
the heavier. No support whatever is used with either. The distance of
the target is proportioned to the calibre of the rifles, the “field
targets” being over a thousand, and the “stand targets” about six
hundred feet distant. Both the stand and field targets are sub-
divided into “Stich” and “Kehrscheiben;” the former a single fixed
target, the latter made double and turned around after each shot, so
as to be immediately ready for another marksman. The
“Kehrscheiben” are designated by the letters in the order of the

alphabet; the “Stichscheiben” have names attached to each, such as
“the Stand,” “Fatherland,” “Industry,” “Titlis,” “Pilatus,” “Rigi,”
“Gotthard,” “Jungfrau,” “Splügen,” “the Field,” &c. No more than one
shot may be fired by the same marksman at any of the
“Stichscheiben,” with the exception of the “Fatherland,” at which two
are allowed. The number of shots at the “Kehrscheiben” is not
limited, but all must be paid for—the “Kehrscheiben” at the rate of
about thirty centimes, (six cents;) the “Stichscheiben” a little more.
Commutation tickets, however, may be obtained.
The prizes are very various, but the most valuable are
appropriated to the “Stichscheiben.” The first prize this year was a
large silver basin, of exquisite workmanship, together with 2,500
francs ($500) in money, given by the Swiss in Paris, to be won at the
target “Fatherland.” The lowest prize is five francs, and this can be
won only by those who succeed in hitting the bull’s eye, the size of
which varies in the different targets. In the “Stichscheiben” for the
target rifle it measures ten inches in diameter, but in the
“Kehrscheiben” only two and a half, while in the “Kehrscheiben” for
the field rifle it measures six inches. Every six hits in the centre of
the “Kehrscheiben” gains a prize of five francs, to which is added on
the twenty-fifth successful shot, a silver cup or watch. He who hits
the bull’s eye fifty times receives another prize of one hundred
francs. Special prizes are also given to the best marksman of the
day, for the first and last hits of the day, and for the greatest
number of hits during the whole festival, etc. The prizes of the day
may be obtained immediately; the others are distributed publicly at
the close of the festival.
Let us now give a glance at the “Gift Temple.” This neat structure
is made wholly of glass, save the roof, in order that the rich prizes
may be more conspicuously exhibited. Here are gifts and prizes for
the successful shooters, consisting either in articles of value or in
money, that have been contributed by the cantonal governments
and communities, and by individuals at home or abroad. The
government has also had new Swiss five-franc pieces coined for this
purpose, bearing on their face the figure of a rifleman instead of

Helvetia. There is many a piece of fine workmanship among the
gifts, of which we can here only mention the silver basin with the
2,500 francs, the first prize of the “Fatherland,” and a beautiful
drinking horn of massive silver, richly embossed, presented by some
friends in Leipsic. The Bremen sharp-shooters also brought with
them twelve “Römer,” large cups of massive silver, gilt within, which
were admired and coveted by all the disciples of Bacchus. This was
not, however, the only present from the old Hanse-town. The senate
had opened the celebrated “Rathskeller” and sent some of their
Hock of the vintage of 1684, the Nestor of German wines, to their
brothers in Bacchus. The greater part of these gifts consisted in
silver cups, and pitchers, and gold and silver watches.
During the festival the houses of Zurich continued adorned with
flags, transparencies, and evergreens, which were every day
entwined with fresh flowers. Near the festive hall a triumphal arch
had been erected, on which stood a colossal figure of William Tell in
the act of menacing Gesler with the arrow, after having shot the
apple from the head of his boy. Some of the critics would have us
believe that Tell is not Tell, that no such person ever existed, but
that he is a purely mythical character—the creation of Schiller’s
imagination. Yet it matters little to the Swiss whether the hero was,
or was not; all these thousands of marksmen who daily pass that
triumphal arch are possessed by one thought, and many can not
refrain from shouting, “Hurrah for Tell, father of the marksman! The
Swiss of to-day is as skillful an archer, as daring and as free as thou
wast!” Myth or not, Tell is the man of the people, the Washington of
Switzerland—or, rather, Washington is the Tell of America; and these
words of the dying Attinghausen—
“Hold fast together, then—for ever fast.
Let freedom’s haunts be one in heart, in mind!
Set watches on your mountain tops, that league
May answer league, when comes the hour to strike.
Be one—be one—be one”—

are never forgotten in these days by the inhabitants of
Switzerland.
Around the hall there has sprung up a village of wood and canvas,
and while the men are engaged with their rifles, the women and
children crowd to see the circus, the menageries, rope-dancers,
puppet-shows, “the giant Kentuckian,” “General Tom Thumb,” &c.,
and while every one amuses himself, there is no rioting, no
impropriety, no beggary, no placards bidding us to “Beware of
Pickpockets;” the people are as sound as their institutions.
At 8 o’clock in the morning the target shooting commences,
closing at 8 in the evening. The target and signal men are promptly
at their stations, and the members of the different committees for
keeping order, arrive one by one. The marksmen are impatiently
awaiting the signal shot. Spectators gather in from all sides. The
signal is given, and in a moment the sharp crack of ninety-six rifles is
heard. The firing is kept up incessantly till noon, when the sound of
the cannon again calls to dinner. At about 10 o’clock the first
steamers have landed their passengers from “beyond the water,” and
the first trains have come in, bringing new guests to supply the
place of those who leave, so that new faces and new acquaintances
greet us every day. Here a fresh company of sharp-shooters from
distant Ticino approaches, marching to the sound of music and
preceded by their flag, and receive their welcome—there another
company from Neufchâtel is escorted to the station and takes its
departure homeward.
One of the most joyous occurrences of the festival—a silvery
gleam in the general sunshine—was the reception of the marksmen
from the four forest towns, Lucerne, Switz, Uri, and Unterwalden.
They numbered full seven hundred men, noble specimens of the
native Swiss, all picked men—“Kernmannen.” They were preceded by
four of their number attired in the ancient national costume, who
carried the very same bugles that for the last five centuries had
called their forefathers to arms. The ancient banners followed. As
they passed under the triumphal arch and beheld their father, Tell,

their shouts, hurrahs, and vivas, knew no bounds. Their ranks were
broken and each threw himself upon the breast of the nearest
stranger—nay, brother. The very men that perhaps were adversaries
in public life, or opposed to each other in political principles, were
here united; the love of fatherland was a common bond of union.
Thus, also, Schiller speaks through the mouth of Meier:
“I know him well. There is a suit between us,
About a piece of ancient heritage;
Herr Reding, we are enemies in court;
Here we are one.”
Thus is it in Switzerland. Will it ever be so with us? Come, ye
educators of the people and of the young, preach this principle from
the pulpit, and make it the corner stone of your instructions in the
school and at the firesides of your homes!
At the signal for the noon intermission the firing immediately
ceases, and in a few minutes 6,000 hungry and thirsty people are
seated at the one hundred and fifty tables in the hall; the rest
disperse to the eating-houses in the neighborhood and in the city.
The dinner is enlivened by toasts which, however, are never of a
personal character. No homage is done to the individual; to the
country, to the fatherland alone, is homage due in a republic. Toasts
are heard in German, in French, in Italian—yet all tongues unite in
the glorification of a common country. Separate tables are set for the
different cantons, but so arranged that the more distant cantons are
usually the nearest together—Ticino near Berne, Geneva near Basle,
Zurich near Vaud. In the middle of the hall are the tables for the
committees and the honorary guests.
On the second day of the festival the delegations of marksmen
hold a general conference, and though they enter the hall with
opposing opinions and feelings, yet before they part all differences
are settled, all contradictions are reconciled, and their resolutions are
usually endorsed by the whole people. There is no tendency to
disunion, no necessity for secession, for each one endeavors to

satisfy the wishes of the other; the public weal is considered, not the
interest or aggrandizement of the individual or of the canton.
On Sunday, the 10th of July, a public service was held on the
meadow. It was a solemn ceremony, attended by all the different
creeds that hold fellowship together. On the next day the members
of the Diet, which was then in session at Berne, visited Zurich. The
banished duchess of Parma, who lives in the neighboring Swiss
town, Pappenschwyl, was also the guest of the citizens. She and her
children sat with them at the rough pine board and partook of the
same viands. After the dinner she said, with tears in her eyes, “The
Swiss do not know how happy they indeed are.”
On Tuesday, July 12th, the last shot was fired, and on the
following day the prizes were distributed. This ceremony took place
on the grounds before the gift temple. President Dubs opened with a
speech, in which he said: “We are distributing now the prizes to
those who have proved themselves the best marksmen. An equal
chance is given to all; let all practice with their weapons and emulate
their lucky companions. I am convinced that all who have hit the
centre of the target will be able to pierce the breast of the enemy,
should war be unavoidable.” The first prize, the silver basin from
Paris, with the 2,500 francs, was won by a manufacturer, Durrer, of
Unterwalden; the second, the silver horn from Leipzig, by a farmer
named Glogg, of Obermeilen; the third, the twelve silver cups from
Bremen, jointly by Professor Dr. Hug, of the University of Zurich, and
Mr. Baer, of Männedorf, the best shot in Switzerland, who had hit the
target four hundred and eighty-seven times during the festival.
The whole was closed with a serenade, given by the marksmen to
President Dubs, the chief magistrate of the confederacy, as well as
president of the festival. The next day the remaining guests
departed, the garlands and banners disappeared, the people
returned to their business, all external show had vanished; but the
feeling that Switzerland’s sons have again renewed the bonds of
their brotherhood still survives in the breasts of that simple, quiet
people—our republican brethren of the Alps.

SCHOOLS OF INSTRUCTION FOR OFFICERS.
The Federal system of Military Instruction for officers, in 1871,
embraced—
I. A Central Military School at Thun, to which all officers appointed
to the General Staff repair to be instructed in their duties.
II. A School of Officers at Thun, in which all officers appointed to
their respective regiments are instructed in their duties.
III. A School of Cantonal Instruction, held in Basle, to which the
infantry instructors resort from every canton to learn their duties,
undergo inspection, and preserve a common rule.
IV. A School of Young Officers, held at Solothurn and at St. Gallen,
turn by turn, to which the several Cantons send their young officers
who have just received their commissions, and to which all
candidates for commissions repair for examinations.
V. Comissariat School, to which is joined a Medical and Ambulance
School generally, at Thun.
VI. A Shooting School, for officers who give instruction to the
Cadet Corps and other organizations in the several Cantons.
To these school organizations with their practical exercises must
be added the opportunities afforded by the Cantonal reviews and
field manœuvres, to which the young Swiss officer brings much
valuable experience in his previous school and cadet drill.
The events of the late French-Prussian war tested the efficiency of
the Swiss military organization and instruction. The French
declaration was announced in Paris in the afternoon of Friday, July
15, 1870, and responded to by a counter declaration from Berlin on
Tuesday, the 19th. But the Federal Council of Switzerland (which lay
between the combatants, and might become the first theatre of
belligerent operations), was summoned by President Dubs to
consider the situation; and within an hour, the Cantons had been
regularly summoned to complete their regiments with men, arms,
horses, guns, and all stores and tools required for actual service, and

five divisions of the Elite (the first, second, sixth, seventh, and
ninth), were ordered to assemble in their several Cantons. The first
division, under Colonel Egtoff, was to secure the bridge at Basle and
occupy the two banks of the Rhine. The first news which the men of
Aargau had of the impending war was late on Friday night. By noon
on Saturday squads of men were falling into the ranks in front of the
town-hall of the cantonal capital—companies were formed—guns
were got out—sappers, engineers, and guards were in readiness—
officers were at their posts. In the afternoon the first Swiss troops
were in march for Basle, and by midnight the first regiment of
Aargau were on the bridge; and by Sunday night the first division,
under Col, Egtoff, with 8,296 men, and 692 horses, besides the staff
and guides; and the second division, under Colonel Salis, with 8,319
men, and 632 men at the same hour had assembled at Basle and
held the roads and streams which led to Bonn. By Tuesday night,
before the Prussian manifest was known in Bonn, the five divisions
of the first Swiss army, with their eleven batteries of artillery
mounting 96 field pieces, and a total force of 37,423 men, and 3,541
horses and 104 staff and guides, were under arms and at their
respective rendezvous; and the President was authorized by the
Council to announce to all concerned, “that any troops belonging to
belligerent states, whether regulars or volunteers, who violate the
territory of the Swiss nation, will be repelled by force.”
Out of the officers whose men were first in the field, the Federal
Council placed Colonel Herzog, of the Aargau detachment of the
Federal army, in chief command, and by Saturday night the General’s
head-quarters were established at Alton (the center of the Swiss
railways), where he organized his staff, issued his instructions to
organize two hospitals, one for wounded men, and the other for
horses, and at the same time ordered magazines of stores and
clothes to be established in his rear, and the forces to be moved up
to the front. All railway companies were ordered to report their stock
of engines, carriages, and open wagons, and telegraphic
communication was established for night as well as day service, and
engineers were sent out to study every pass and point by which an

enemy in any strength was likely to enter the territory of
Switzerland. When all danger to the Cantons had passed away in the
victories of the German arms, Gen. Herzog was directed to raise his
camps, and send to their several Cantons their respective troops.
Later in the war, when it was authentically known that Bourbaki was
moving an army of 150,000 strong, to sweep across the Rhine; and
still later, that the Germans meant to push the French, in either
whole or part, across the Swiss frontier, and put them out of service
for the rest of the war—General Herzog satisfied the President and
the Council, and the Minister of War, of the impending danger, and
on Thursday, Jan. 19th, the third, fourth, and fifth divisions, with
two batteries of mountain guns, well prepared for winter service in a
district lying under snow, were ordered out; and in one week from
that date, these forces were distributed through the various passes
in the Jura, from Basle to Geneva, with orders to repel, or receive—
to fight, or feed and lodge, according to the spirit in which the
broken detachments of the French army should present themselves.
For the enormous number (83,301), who laid down their arms, food
and beds were distributed in the Swiss Cantons, by less than 20,000
citizen troops, without the forfeit of a single life. And when their
work was done, these citizen soldiers laid aside their arms and
uniforms and returned to their shops and industries of various kinds,
to earn their daily bread, without forgetting for a moment their civic
rights and household duties.
If the occasion had required it, as it did in the war of Secession in
1856, each Canton would have contributed 30 men from every 1,000
inhabitants, to the Elite, and 15 men to every 1,000 to the Reserve;
and in case of danger to the Union, every male Switzer, from the age
of nineteen to forty-five, not included in either of the above forces,
would have obeyed the summons of the national authority for the
Landwehr, adding 97,934 to the ranks, besides volunteering above
and below the military age, to the number of 100,000 men, who, in
case of a defensive war, could have been relied on,—all familiar with
military tactics, and accustomed to obey as soldiers, as well as to
the use of arms.

According to recent official statistics the strength of the several
armies of Switzerland is as follows:
Elite. Reserve. Landwehr.
1. Engineers, 900 630 . .
2. Artillery, 6,513 4,254 . .
3. Cavalry, 1,937 932 . .
4. Carabineers, 4,600 2,460 . .
5. Infantry, 55,994 26,448 . .
6. Sanitary Service, 144 78 . .
Armorers, 30 . .
Total, 70,088 34,832 97,934
The system of recruiting, drilling and brigading, is local—which
brings neighbors and friends into camp and field companionship, and
inspires a sense of trust and coöperation.
The cost of the reliable military force is as follows:
Cantonal expense, 4,508,901 frs.
Federal expense, 5,486,396
9,995,297
Contrasted with the cost of education the figures stand thus:
Communal expenses, 5,000,000 frs.
Cantonal expenses, 5,157,756
Federal Polytechnic, 287,611
10,445,367
And for this sum Switzerland makes a near approach to universal
education in schools of different grades, adapted to all classes.
Footnotes for Part IX: Switzerland
1 Infantry, including Rifles, 89,366; Artillery, 10,366; Cavalry, 2,869;
Engineers, 1,530.

2 The officers, non-commissioned officers, and corporals, constitute
what is called the “cadre.”
3 Federal and cantonal.
4 The rifle shooting, cricket matches, and other popular sports of
England seems to be overlooked by Professor Simonson.
5 He alludes here to the Neufchatel difficulty. This canton had been
heretofore under the sovereignty of Prussia, and a handful of royalists
made the attempt to sever it from all connection with the confederacy.
The people defeated them and voted themselves independent.
Switzerland assisted them and Prussia gave up whatever rights she might
have had.
6 The Italian.
Errata for Part IX (Switzerland):
200,000 men well provided with artillery.
final . invisible
The drill lasts four days for the “cadre”
closing ” missing
to take the system of military drill and organization
text has “mili-/itary” at line break
Never to part, in danger or in death!
expected close quote missing
“Gotthard,” “Jungfrau,” “Splügen,”
“Gotthard,” Jungfrau,” “Splügen,”

PART VIII.
MILITARY SYSTEM AND
SCHOOLS
IN GREAT BRITAIN.
X. MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION
IN ENGLAND.
I. MILITARY SYSTEM.

The British army originated in the feudal system, by which the
great barons were bound to furnish a contingent to the army of the
State; and their vassals were bound to attend them in person, and
to furnish each the contributions in men, horses, arms, and other
materials of war, for which he was liable by the tenure on which he
held his lands. When regal power absorbed the privileges of the
great feudatories, the people were expected to provide themselves
with arms, and, in case of invasion, to respond to the summons
issued through officers commissioned by the sovereign to array the
fittest men for service in each county. In the time of Henry VIII,
lord-lieutenants and deputy-lieutenants of counties were first
appointed as standing officers for assembling and mustering the
military forces. For a time, contracts were made with “captains,” who
undertook to provide, clothe, and feed a certain number of fighting
men for a given money allowance. In the reign of Charles I, the
important question arose, whether the King of England did or did not
possess the right to maintain a military force without the express
consent of Parliament. Charles II, was compelled to abandon all
control of the army, except a body guard of 5,000 men, sanctioned
by Parliament. These regiments still exist, and are proud of their
genealogy. They are the First Foot Guards, Coldstream Guards, Life
Guard, Oxford Blues, the Royal Scots, and the Second Queen’s
Royals. 1 The Declaration of Rights, in the time of William and Mary,
settled in positive terms “that the raising and keeping of a standing
army in time of peace, without consent of Parliament, is contrary to
law.” The first Mustering Act was passed in 1689, to last for six
months; but it has been annually renewed ever since, except in
three particular years; and it constitutes the only warrant on which
the whole military system of England is exercised by the sovereign
with the consent of Parliament. For 172 years, with only three
interruptions, the ministers of the crown have annually applied to
Parliament for permission to raise a military force and for money to
defray expenses. The sovereign can make war and bestow military
employment and honors; but the House of Commons can refuse
supplies.

Military service in England is voluntary, except in rare cases, and
then only in the militia. As the chances of promotion from the ranks
are small, the recruits are drawn from the most necessitous classes
of the community, or the least fitted for industrial pursuits. The
system of recruiting, with the bounty and machinery of deception is
the most characteristic feature of the British army as compared with
those of Europe, and makes the distinction between officers and
men more broad than in any other service.
The British army, in its completeness, is theoretically commanded
by the sovereign, assisted by the secretary of state for war in some
matters, and by the commander-in-chief in others. The component
parts are the household troops, the infantry of the line, the ordnance
corps, comprising artillery and engineers, and the marines. There
are also certain corps, raised and belonging to the principal colonies;
the troops in India; the yeomanry cavalry; the dockyard battalions;
the volunteer artillery and rifles; the enrolled pensioners, etc. In
1814, the regular army reached 200,000, and at the close of the
war, 10,000 officers were retained on half pay. In 1860-61, in the
army estimates, provision was made for the following force, viz.:
Home and
Colonies.
India. Total.
Cavalry 11,667 7,243 18,910
Infantry 103,169 66,345 169,514
Artillery 22,675 5,482 28,157
Engineers 4,730 —— 4,730
Staff & Depot 1,121 13,420 14,541
Total 143,362 92,490 235,852
Under the column “India” are included only troops sent to India,
and paid for out of the Indian revenues. Of the total 235,852 forces,
10,459 are officers, 17,670 non-commissioned officers, and 207,723
rank and file. For the use of this army, 24,342 horses are provided.
The total expenditure sanctioned by Parliament in 1860 was
£14,800,000, viz.:
Military Pay and Allowances, £5,500,000;

Civil Salaries and Wages, £1,800,000;
Stores and Works of every kind, £5,400,000;
Pensions, Retired Pay, &c., £2,100,000.
The military force of various kinds within the United Kingdom,
excluding the troops in East India, on the 1st of June, 1860, was
323,259, viz.:
Regulars (service companies,) 68,778;
Regulars (depot companies,) 33,302,
Embodied Militia, 15,911;
Disembodied Militia—Effectives, 52,899;
Yeomanry Cavalry—Effectives, 15,002;
Enrolled Pensioners—Effectives, 15,000;
Volunteer Rifles and Artillery, 122,867.
The total force of the United Kingdom in 1870-71, was as follows:
Total.
Officers on the General and Departmental Staff, 1,239
Regiments. Officers.
Non-com.,
&c.
Rank
and file.
Royal Horse Artillery, 78 138 1,834 2,050
Life-Guards and Horse-Guards, 81 192 1,029 1,302
Cavalry of the Line, 465 969 7,733 9,267
Royal Artillery, 661 1,550 12,866 15,087
Riding Establishment, 7 13 205 225
Royal Engineers, 539 564 3,879 4,836
Army Service Corps, 8 386 1,801 2,195
Foot-Guards, 237 453 5,220 5,910
Infantry of the Line, 2,934 6,468 51,990 61,392
Army hospital corps, 1 165 694 860
West India Regiments, 104 150 1,680 1,834
Colonial corps, 58 149 1,632 1,839
Total, 6,276 11,197 90,593 108,066
Depots of Indian Regiments.
Cavalry, 27 54 513 594
Infantry, 200 600 5,000 5,800

Total, 227 654 5,513 6,394
Recruiting and Teaching Estab’ts.
Cavalry Riding School, 2 2 — 4
Infantry Depots, 5 9 — 14
Recruiting Establishments, 6 17 — 23
Inst. in Gunnery and Engin’ing, 10 57 62 129
Total, 23 85 62 170
Training Schools and Factories.
Cadet Company, Woolwich, 10 20 9 39
Royal Mil. College, Sandhurst, 17 30 1 48
Regi’al Schools and Factories, 32 281 7 320
Total, 58 331 17 407
The total force of officers and men was 115,037, viz.
General and Department Staff, 239
Regiments, 066
Depots of Indian Regiments 394
Recruiting and Teaching Establishments, 170
Training Schools and Factories, 407
The British forces in India, exclusive of depots at home, comprised
the following troops, in 1870-71:
Officers.
Non-
Com.
Men. Total.
Royal Horse Artillery, 200 253 2,680 3,133
Cavalry of the Line, 225 424 3,672 4,321
Royal Artillery and
Engineers,
1,016 795 7,936 9,747
Infantry of the Line, 1,500 3,262 41,000 45,762
Total, 2,941 4,734 55,288 63,963
In addition to the troops above mentioned the army estimates
include appropriations for four classes of reserved or auxiliary forces,

viz.:
1. Disembodied Militia, 128,971 officers and men.
2. Yeomanry Cavalry, 15,435 “ “
3. Volunteers, 25,688 “ “
4. Enrolled pensioners, 31,102 “ “
Total enrolled number, 201,196 “ “
In England and Wales the Militia Establishment comprises 42
regiments, with 5,066 officers; in Scotland, 16 regiments and 670
officers; in Ireland, 48 regiments, with 3,463 officers.
By Act of 1870, in case of invasion, rebellion, or insurrection, or of
imminent danger thereof, the Militia, in pursuance of an order of Her
Majesty in council, can be called out (the whole or any part) and
embodied for actual service; but when so called out, her
proclamation must be communicated to Parliament within ten days.
By recent Royal Warrant, a lieutenant of the Militia is made eligible
to appointment of sub-lieutenant in the Regular Army, and in the
localization of the military force of the United Kingdom, the Militia,
Yeomanry and Volunteers, are to be brought into closer connection
with the Regular Army.
The total cost of the British army, voted by Parliament in 1870-71,
was £13,093,500, besides a supplementary vote of £2,000,000
towards defraying the expenses of the military and naval services of
the kingdom. Of the regular expenses, it appears from official
statements that £893,200 were for the Militia and Inspection service;
£81,900 for the Yeomanry; £412,400 for volunteers; and £76,000 for
enrolled pensioners and army reserve force.
educational establishments for the army.
The sum of £140,700 was devoted to military education, in the
estimates for 1871, when the educational establishments provided
for the army were as follows:

Royal Military College at Sandhurst, preparatory for Infantry and Cavalry
Officers.
Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, for service in the Artillery and
Engineers.
Royal School of Military Engineering at Chatham.
Staff College at Woolwich.
Advanced Class of Artillery Officers at Woolwich.
School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness.
Survey Classes at Aldershot.
School of Musketry at Hythe.
Army Medical School at Netley.
Royal Hibernian Military School at Dublin.
Regimental Schools for Children of Soldiers.
Garrison Schools and Libraries for Adults.
Schools and Asylums for Orphan Children of Soldiers at Dublin and
Chelsea.
Training School for Army Schoolmasters in Chelsea Military Asylum.
Military School of Music at Kneller Hall.
II. ROYAL NAVY.
The administration of the Navy of the United Kingdom is vested in
the Board of Admiralty, composed of five members, who are styled
“Lord Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral,”
which was formerly charged with all naval matters. The First Lord
Commissioner is a member of the Cabinet, and dispenser of
patronage, and, with his associates, goes out with the Premier.
The effective strength of the Navy in February 1, 1869, was:
Classes of Ships. Steam. Sailing. Total.
afloat. building. afloat.
Iron. Wood. Iron.
Armor-
plated
ships,
1st Class, 1 — 1 . . 3
“ “ 2nd “ 3 — 3 . . 6
“ “ 3d “ 5 4 — . . 9

“ “ 4th “ 3 5 — . . 8
“ “ 5th “ 4 — — . . 4
“ “ 6th “ — 2 — . . 2
“ “ Sloops and
gun-boats,
3 2 — . . 5
“ “ Special, with
turrets,
5 1 5 . . 1
“ “ Floating
batteries,
3 1 — 1 5
27 15 9
Total iron-clads, 42 9 1 52
Ships of the line (screw), 43 2 2 47
Frigates (screw), 29 — — 29
Frigates (paddle), 3 — 1 4
Block ships (screw), 1 — 2 3
Corvettes (screw), 24 — — 24
Sloops (screw), 33 — 1 34
Sloops (paddle), 7 — 1 8
Small vessels (paddle), 8 — — 8
Dispatch vessels (paddle), 4 — — 4
Gun vessels (screw and double
screw),
50 1 — 51
Gun-boats (screw), 58 1 9 68
Tenders, tugs, &c., (screw), 4 — — 14
Tenders, tugs, &c., (paddle), 8 — — 38
Mortar ships (screw), — — 2 2
Troop and store ships (screw), 1 — — 11
Troop and store ships (paddle), 1 — — 1
Transports for India reliefs
(screw),
5 — — 5
Yachts (paddle), 4 1 — 5
Total screw, 0 14 — 324
“ paddle, 5 1 — 66
Grand total, 375 15 18 408

Not included in the above list are several ships for the defense of
the colonies. The total naval force, August 30, 1870, was:
In Commission—238 ships, of 57,205 horse-power, 1,984 guns and
314,449 tonnage. In Reserve, &c., 318 ships, 64,286 horsepower,
3,610 guns, and 318,845 tonnage. The total number of officers,
seamen, boys and marines, in 1870-71, was 55,430, besides 4,300
in the coast-guard and 1,270 in the Indian service. Among the
officers were 143 flag officers; 29 superintending dockyards, and
3,193 other commissioned officers on service.
III. MERCANTILE MARINE.
The Mercantile Marine of the United Kingdom in number of
vessels, their registered tonnage, and men employed, together with
the value of property and number of passengers transported in
them, exceeds that of any other country. The total number of
vessels in the home and foreign trade, registered in 1869, was
21,881, with a tonnage of 5,575,303, employing 202,477 men, and
freighted with imports and exports to the total value of
532,475,266l.
All matters relating to merchant ships and seamen, and the
mercantile marine generally, are committed to the general
superintendence of the Board of Trade, which, as constituted in
1786, is composed of certain high officers, (members of the Privy
Council), and its President is a Cabinet officer. To this Board all
consular officers, all officers of customs abroad, and all local marine
boards and shipping masters must make reports in matter and form
as required. Inspectors, duly appointed by this Board, may visit any
ship, examine any registry, machinery, boats, equipments, &c., to
ascertain if they are conformable to law. In every seaport a Shipping
Master is appointed by the Local Marine Board, who must keep
register of names and character of seamen, facilitate their
engagement and discharge, as well as the apprenticeship of boys to
sea-service. The Local Board must provide for the examination of
persons who intend to become masters or mates according to rules

laid down by the Board of Trade. And to such as pass a satisfactory
examination as to sobriety, experience, ability, and general good
conduct on board ship, shall be given a certificate of competency;
and to those who have served as masters or mates, under certain
conditions, a certificate of service with specifications must be given.
Shipping Masters must assist, when applied to by parents or
guardians, or masters of ships, in apprenticing boys to the sea-
service. No person can be employed as master or mate, who does
not hold a certificate of competency, and under certain conditions, of
service. Opportunities of preparing for these examinations are now
provided in all the large seaports, in Navigation Schools; and the
Government, through the Department of Science and Arts,
encourages the study of astronomy, navigation, steam and steam
machinery, and other branches, which are serviceable to officers in
command of vessels, whether propelled by sails or engines, by
making appropriations of money to schools according to the number
of pupils who pass satisfactory examinations in these studies.
MILITARY EDUCATION.
The following account of the institutions for military education in
England is abridged from an article in Blackwood’s Magazine for
November, 1858:
There exist in this country three military seminaries—the Royal Military
Academy at Woolwich, where youths are educated for service in the
Artillery and Engineers; the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, where
cadets are prepared for the Infantry and Cavalry; and the Honorable East
India Company’s Military School at Addiscombe, which educates
simultaneously for the Artillery, Engineers, and Infantry services of the
three Presidencies. Supplementary to these are the School of Practical
Instruction at Chatham, where passed cadets from Woolwich and
Addiscombe learn practical engineering; and the senior department at
Sandhurst, supposed to be a Staff school, into which officers of infantry and
cavalry are, under certain restrictions, admitted.
I. The Military Academy at Woolwich came into existence in the year
1741. It was created by George II., to supply a want under which the
English army then suffered, by giving some instructions in matters
connected with their respective arts to officers and men who served in the

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