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Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page
Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc.
109
Chapter 9
Foundations of Group Behavior
Chapter Overview
The text thus far has been dealing with individual behavior. Another important component
of OB is group behavior. This chapter and the next will focus on how groups work and how
to create effective teams.
Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Define group and differentiate between types of groups.
2. Identify the five stages of group development.
3. Show how role requirements change in different situations.
4. Demonstrate how norms and status exert influence on an individual’s behavior.
5. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision-making.
Suggested Lecture Outline
I. INTRODUCTION
A. While understanding individual behavior is important, most work takes place in
group settings.
B. It is important for an effective manager to understand how people work in groups,
and how to create effective teams.
II. DEFINING AND CLASSIFYING GROUPS
A. Types of Groups. There are many different types of groups.
Being able to accurately define and classify the groups may
help explain their behavior.
1. Group: two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come
together to achieve particular objectives.
2. The two basic types and their subtypes are:
a. Formal Groups: groups that are defined by the
organization's structure with designated work assignments that establish
tasks.
1) In these groups, acceptable behaviors are stipulated by, and directed
toward, organizational goals.
2) Command Group: determined by the organization chart, composed of
individuals who report directly to a given manager.
3) Task Groups: also organizationally determined, these groups are
comprised of people working together to complete a job task.
a) This group's boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical
superior; it can span multiple functional and command relationship
lines.
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b) All command groups are task groups, but the reverse need not be
true.
b. Informal Groups: alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined.
1) Informal groups are natural formations in the work environment that
appear in response to the need for social contact.
2) Interest Group: people may affiliate to attain in a specific objective of
shared interest.
a) It is the formation of a united body to further its own common
interests.
3) Friendship Groups: groups that form because the individual members
have one or more common characteristics.
a) These social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work
situation, can be based on a similar demographic or sports/hobby
interest.
B. Group Joining Behavior.
1. There is no single reason why individuals join groups.
2. Because people do belong to a number of different groups, it
appears obvious that each group provides different benefits to their members.
3. Exhibit 9-1 provides some of the most popular reasons
people give for joining groups.
III. STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
A. Groups generally pass through a standardized sequence of five developmental
stages in their evolution.
1. While not all groups follow this pattern, it’s a useful
framework for understanding group development.
B. The Five-Stage Model.
1. These progressive steps characterize the growth of groups.
a. Forming. Characterized by a great deal of uncertainty
about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership.
1) Members experiment to determine which behaviors are acceptable.
2) The stage is complete when members think of themselves as part of a
group.
b. Storming. This stage is full of intragroup conflict as members resist the
constraints the group imposes upon them and determine leadership.
1) When complete, the team will have a relatively clear hierarchy of group
leadership.
c. Norming. The group is cohesive and develops close relationships with a
strong sense of group identity and camaraderie.
1) Stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has
assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct
member behavior.
d. Performing. Finally, group energy moves toward performing their assigned
task.
1) The group structure is fully functional and accepted.
e. Adjourning. While permanent groups may not ever make it to this stage,
temporary groups do.
Exhibit 9.1
Exhibit 9.2
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1) In this stage, the group prepares to disband and perhaps join other
groups.
2. Many interpreters of the five-stage model have assumed a
group becomes more effective as it progresses through the
first four stages.
a. Although this may be generally true, what makes a group effective is actually
more complex.
b. Groups proceed through the stages of group development at different rates.
1) Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve high
performance and improve over time.
2) Those with less sense of purpose actually see their performance worsen
over time.
3) Groups that begin with a positive social focus appear to achieve the
“performing” stage more rapidly.
c. Nor do groups always proceed clearly from one stage to the next.
1) Storming and performing can occur simultaneously.
2) Groups even occasionally regress to previous stages.
3. An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines.
a. Temporary groups with deadlines don’t seem to follow the usual five
stage model. Instead, they follow the punctuated-equilibrium model.
b. Their first meeting sets the groups direction, this first phase of group
activity is one of inertia.
c. A transition takes place exactly when the group has used up half its allotted
time. This transition initiates major changes.
d. A second phase of inertia follows the transition and the group’s last meeting
is characterized by markedly accelerated activity.
IV. GROUP PROPERTIES: ROLES, NORMS, STATUS, SIZE, AND COHESIVENESS
A. In order to understand workgroups, it is important that we
realize that the behavior of the members is shaped by the
properties of the workgroups.
1. Those workgroup properties allow us to explain and predict a large portion of
individual behavior within the group as well as the performance of the group
itself.
B. Group Property 1: Roles.
1. Roles are the set of expected behavior patterns attributed
to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
a. Typically, people are required to play a number of
diverse roles, both on and off the job, which makes the understanding of role
behavior more difficult.
b. There are different ways to examine roles:
1) Role Perception.
a) The view of how a person is supposed to act in a given situation.
b) The interpretation of how an individual believes he or she is
supposed to behave will determine behavior.
c) Perceptions can be gained through the media, direct experience, or
observation.
2) Role Expectations.
a) How others believe a person should act in a given situation.
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3) Role Conflict.
a) When multiple role expectations are incompatible, individuals
experience conflict.
b) Role conflict exists when an individual finds that compliance with
one role’s requirements makes it more difficult to comply with
another role's requirements.
C. Group Property 2: Norms.
1. Norms are the acceptable standards of behavior as shaped
by the group's members.
2. When accepted by the group's members, norms act as a powerful means of
influencing the behavior of group, especially in the area of performance
(performance norms).
3. The Hawthorne Studies. The importance of norms in
influencing worker behavior grew out of a series of studies
undertaken at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne
Works in Chicago from 1924 through 1932.
a. The initial study determined that increases in productivity were caused by
the fact that the groups were receiving more attention because they were
observed, not by changes in the environmental conditions (lighting).
b. In a follow-on study, dealing with pay-for-performance, researchers
discovered that workers do not maximize individual economic rewards, but
as a group, establish and maintain the norm of a “proper day’s work” level of
output.
1) This also included strongly enforced norms of not creating too much or
too little output or “squealing” to supervisors—enforced by sarcasm or
punches.
4. Conformity. In order to be accepted, an individual will
often change his or her behavior or opinion to conform to
the group.
a. Reference Groups.
1) While an individual cannot conform to the norms of all groups, he or she
is most likely to try to conform to the norms of reference groups.
2) These are groups in which a person is aware of other members; defines
himself or herself as a member, (or would like to be a member); and
feels that the group members are significant to him or her.
b. Asch Studies.
1) In the set of classic studies by Solomon Asch, effects
of conformity were demonstrated.
2) When the subjects of the experiment were shown
lines of unequal length in the presence of a group who claimed that the
lines were of equal length, 75% of the subjects gave at least one answer
that conformed, even though they knew it was wrong. However, these
experiments are 50 years old and culture-bound: the pressures to
conform may not be as strong today as they were then.
5. Deviant Workplace Behavior (also called
Counterproductive Behavior or Employee Withdrawal).
Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational
norms, and in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization or its
members.
Exhibit 9.4
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a. Like norms in general, individual employees’ antisocial actions are shaped
by the group context within which they work.
1) Evidence demonstrates that antisocial behavior exhibited by a work
group is a significant predictor of an individual’s antisocial behavior at
work.
2) In other words, deviant workplace behavior is likely to flourish where
it’s supported by group norms.
b. Workers who socialize either at or outside work with people who are
frequently absent from work are more likely to be absent themselves.
1) What this means for managers is that when deviant workplace norms
surface, employee cooperation, commitment, and motivation are likely
to suffer.
2) This, in turn, can reduce employee productivity and job satisfaction and
increase turnover.
c. Someone who ordinarily wouldn’t engage in deviant behavior might be more
likely to do so when working in a group.
1) A recent study suggests those working in a group were more likely to lie,
cheat, and steal than individuals working alone.
a) As shown in Exhibit 9.5, in this study, no
individual working alone lied, but 22 percent of
those working in groups did.
b) Those working in groups also were more likely to cheat on a task (55
percent versus 23 percent of individuals working alone) and steal
(29 percent compared to 10 percent working alone).
d. Groups provide a shield of anonymity, so someone who might ordinarily be
afraid of getting caught can rely on the fact that other group members had
the same opportunity, creating a false sense of confidence that may result in
more aggressive behavior.
e. Thus, deviant behavior depends on the accepted norms of the group—or
even whether an individual is part of a group.
D. Group Property 3:
1. Status.
a. Status is a socially defined position or rank given to
groups or group members by others.
1) Even the smallest group will develop roles, rights, and rituals to
differentiate its members.
2) Status is a significant motivator and has major behavioral consequences
when individuals perceive a disparity between what they believe their
status to be and what others perceive it to be.
2. What Determines Status?
a. According to this theory, status develops into a hierarchy, and tends to be
derived from one of three sources:
1) Power: the power of person wields over others. The more power
(control of resources) that an individual has, the higher his or her status.
2) Ability: a person's ability to contribute to a group’s goals. People whose
contributions are critical to the group success also tend to have high
status.
Exhibit 9.5
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3) Characteristics: an individual's personal traits. When a group positively
values certain personal characteristics, people who carry those traits
receive high status.
3. Status and Norms.
a. High status members of groups often have more
freedom to deviate from norms than do low status
members.
b. High status members are also better able to resist conformity pressures, as
they are less likely to be motivated by the need for social rewards.
4. Status and Group Interaction.
a. The interactions among members of a group are influenced by status.
b. High status people tend to be more assertive, while lower status members
are more likely to be less active participants in discussions.
c. The situation may result in a lower diversity of ideas and creativity.
E. Group Property 4: Size.
1. Group size does affect the group's overall behavior, but it is
contingent upon which dependent variables are being
examined.
2. Smaller groups complete tasks faster and their individuals perform better, but
larger groups consistently do better in problem solving.
3. Group size affects:
a. Social Loafing: the tendency for individuals to expend
less effort when working collectively than when
working individually.
1) As demonstrated by Max Ringlemann, a group’s effort is not equal to the
sum of the efforts of individuals within that group.
2) Group performance does increase with group size, but the addition of
new members of the group has diminishing returns on productivity.
3) Causes of Social Loafing.
a) There are a number of possible causes of social loafing.
b) Equity theory would indicate that when an individual and the group
believes that he or she is working harder than the other group
members, that individual will reduce effort to match that of the
group.
c) Another explanation may be the dispersion of responsibility:
because the results of a group cannot be attributed to any single
individual, the relationship between an individual's input and the
group's output is clouded and difficult to measure.
4) Social loafing appears to have a Western bias. It is consistent with
individualistic cultures, and not prevalent in collective societies in which
individuals are motivated by in-group goals.
5) Preventing Social Loafing. While there is no magic bullet, these four
suggestions will help minimize its effect:
a) Set group goals so that the group had a common purpose.
b) Increase intergroup competition (increases focus on shared
outcomes).
c) Engage in peer evaluation.
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d) Select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in
groups.
e) Distribute group rewards by partially basing them on each member’s
unique contributions.
F. Group Property 5: Cohesiveness.
1. Cohesiveness is the degree to which members are attracted
to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.
2. Cohesiveness is important because it is been found to be related to the group's
productivity.
3. Groups may become more cohesive when they spend a lot of time together, the
group size is small, or the group has experienced external threats.
4. Cohesiveness and Productivity.
a. Performance-related norms established by the group are the key
moderating variable between cohesiveness and productivity.
b. If performance-related norms are high and the group is cohesive, they will
be more productive than a less cohesive group.
c. However, a cohesive group with low performance norms will experience low
productivity.
5. Encouraging Cohesiveness.
a. The following methods may increase group
cohesiveness:
1) Decrease the size of the group.
2) Encourage group members to agree with the group's goals.
3) Increase the time members spend together.
4) Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of obtaining
membership in that group.
5) Stimulate competition with other groups.
6) Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members.
7) Physically isolate the group.
G. Group Property 6: Diversity.
1. Diversity is the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or
different from, one another.
2. A great deal of research is being done on how diversity influences group
performance. Some looks at cultural diversity and some at racial, gender, and
other differences. Studies identify both costs and benefits from group diversity.
3. Diversity appears to increase group conflict, especially in the early stages of a
group’s tenure, which often lowers group morale and raises dropout rates.
4. Research shows that teams in which the members’ values or opinions differ tend
to experience more conflict, but leaders who can get the group to focus on the
task at hand and encourage group learning are able to reduce these conflicts and
enhance discussion of group issues.
5. Culturally and demographically diverse groups may perform better over time –
if they can get over their initial conflicts.
a. Performance-related norms established by the group are the key
moderating variable between cohesiveness and productivity.
b. If performance-related norms are high and the group is cohesive, they will
be more productive than a less cohesive group.
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116
c. However, a cohesive group with low performance
norms will experience low productivity.
V. GROUP DECISION-MAKING
A. Groups versus the Individual.
1. Whether or not a group’s decisions are better than an individual’s decisions
depends on a number of factors.
2. To understand the group decision-making, we must examine its strengths and
weaknesses.
B. Strengths of Group Decision-Making.
1. The use of groups in decision-making provides the following
benefits:
a. Generates more complete information and knowledge.
b. Offers increased diversity of views.
c. Increases the acceptance of the solution.
2. Weaknesses of Group Decision-Making:
a. Typically, it takes more time to reach a solution.
b. Greater conformity pressures exist.
c. Discussion can be dominated by one or a few members.
d. Ambiguous responsibility decreases accountability.
3. Effectiveness and Efficiency.
a. Effectiveness.
1) Whether or not group decisions are more effective
than are those of an individual depends on the criteria used for defining
effectiveness.
2) Accuracy: group decisions are generally more accurate than that of the
average individual in the group, but less accurate than the judgments of
the most accurate group member.
3) Speed: individual decision-making is much faster than group decision-
making.
4) Creativity: groups tend to be more creative than are individuals.
5) Degree of acceptance: group decisions tend to be more readily accepted
than are those of an individual.
b. Efficiency.
1) Groups are far less efficient than are individual decision-makers.
2) In deciding whether to use a group, consideration should be given to
assessing whether increases in effectiveness more than offset the
reductions in efficiency.
C. Groupthink and Groupshift.
1. These two phenomena of group decision-making have the potential to affect
the group's ability to appraise alternatives subjectively and to arrive at quality
decision solutions.
2. Groupthink:
a. This occurs when group members become so enamored
of seeking concurrence with the norm that the desire for
consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action
and limits the full expression of deviant, minority, or unpopular views.
b. It describes a deterioration of an individual's mental efficiency, reality
testing, and moral judgment as a result of group pressures.
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c. Symptoms of Groupthink.
1) Group members rationalize away any resistance to the assumptions
they have made, no matter how strong the evidence may be that those
assumptions are incorrect.
2) Members apply direct pressures on those who momentarily express
doubts about any of the group’s shared views or who question the
validity of arguments supporting the alternative favored by the
majority.
3) Members who have doubts or hold differing points of view keep silent
about their misgivings and may even internally minimize the
importance of their doubts.
4) The illusion of unanimity: unless a group member speaks out, his or her
silence is taken as concurrence.
5) Groupthink appears closely aligned with the conclusions Asch drew in
his experiments with a lone dissenter.
a) Individuals who hold a position different from that of the dominant
majority are under pressure to suppress, withhold, or modify their
true feelings and beliefs.
b) As members of a group, we find it more pleasant to be in
agreement—to be a positive part of the group—
than to be a disruptive force, even if disruption is
necessary to improve the effectiveness of the
group’s decisions.
d. Minimizing Groupthink.
1) First, they can monitor group size.
a) People grow more intimidated and hesitant as group size increases,
and, although there is no magic number that will eliminate
groupthink, individuals are likely to feel less personal responsibility
when groups get larger than about ten members.
2) Managers should also encourage group leaders to play an impartial
role.
a) Leaders should actively seek input from all members and avoid
expressing their own opinions, especially in the early stages of
deliberation.
3) In addition, managers should appoint one group member to play the
role of devil’s advocate; this member’s role is to overtly challenge the
majority position and offer divergent perspectives.
4) Still another suggestion is to use exercises that stimulate active
discussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group and
intensifying identity protection.
a) One such exercise is to have group members delay discussion of
possible gains so they can first talk about the dangers or risks
inherent in a decision.
5) Requiring members to first focus on the negatives of an alternative
makes the group less likely to stifle dissenting views and more likely to
gain an objective evaluation.
3. Group Shift or Group Polarization.
a. There are differences between group decisions and the
individual decisions of group members.
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1) Sometimes group decisions are more conservative.
2) More often, they lean toward greater risk. What appears to happen in
groups is that the discussion leads members toward a more extreme
view of the position they already held.
3) Conservatives become more cautious, and more aggressive types take
on more risk.
b. The group discussion tends to exaggerate the initial position of the group.
c. We can view group polarization as a special case of groupthink.
1) The group’s decision reflects the dominant decision-making norm that
develops during discussion.
2) Whether the shift in the group’s decision is toward greater caution or
more risk depends on the dominant pre-discussion norm.
d. The shift toward risk has generated several explanations.
1) It’s been argued, for instance, that discussion makes the members more
comfortable with each other and, thus, more bold and daring.
2) Another argument is that the group diffuses responsibility.
a) Group decisions free any single member from accountability for the
group’s final choice, so greater risks can be taken.
b) It’s also likely that people take on extreme positions because they
want to demonstrate how different they are from the outgroup.
3) People on the fringes of political or social movements take on more and
more extreme positions just to prove they are really committed to the
cause.
4) So how should you use the findings on groupshift?
a) Recognize that group decisions exaggerate the initial position of the
individual members,
b) Recognize that the shift has been shown more often to be toward
greater risk, and
c) Recognize that which way a group will shift is a function of the
members’ pre-discussion inclinations.
D. Group Decision-Making Techniques.
1. One of the most common forms that groups take when
making decisions is that of interacting groups.
2. The techniques presented below are designed to reduce
many of the problems inherent in the traditional interacting group.
a. Interacting Groups: groups in which the members meet face-to-face and
rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with each
other.
b. Brainstorming.
1) It can overcome the pressures for conformity that dampen creativity by
encouraging any and all alternatives while withholding criticism.
2) This somewhat ineffective technique does not lead to a solution, and
may in fact lead to fewer creative alternatives than an individual could
come up with, due to production blocking (distractions to thought
caused by the technique itself).
c. Nominal Group Technique (NGT).
1) This technique restricts discussion or interpersonal communication
during the decision-making process.
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Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page
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119
a) This is why it is referred to as a "nominal" (in name only) group
technique.
2) Group members are all physically present, but operate independently.
3) A problem is presented and the following steps take place.
a) Each member independently writes down ideas on the problem
without discussing it in the group.
b) Sequentially, each member will present one idea to the group until
all ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion is
allowed until all ideas have been recorded.
c) Group discusses ideas for clarity and evaluates them.
d) Each group member silently and independently rank orders the
ideas.
e) The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final
decision.
4) The use of NGT does not restrict independent thinking; groups that use
this technique tend to outperform brainstorming groups.
V. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
A. Performance. A number of group properties show a relationship
to performance.
1. There is a positive relationship between role perception and
an employee's performance evaluation.
2. When group norms support high output, managers can expect individual
performance to be markedly higher than when group norms aim to restrict
output.
3. Group norms that support antisocial behavior increase the likelihood that
individuals will engage in deviant workplace activities.
4. Status inequities can increase frustration and adversely influence productivity
and turnover.
5. Group size has an impact on both group effectiveness and efficiency.
6. Group cohesiveness can play an important part in influencing a group’s level of
productivity if the group has high performance-related norms.
B. Satisfaction
1. High congruence between a boss’s and an employee’s perception of the
employee’s job correlates strongly with high employee satisfaction.
2. Role conflict is associated with job-induced tension and job dissatisfaction.
3. Most people prefer to communicate with others at their own status level or a
higher one rather than with those below them.
a. As a result, we should expect satisfaction to be greater among employees
whose job minimizes interaction with individuals lower in status than
themselves.
4. The group size–satisfaction relationship is what we would intuitively expect:
a. Larger groups are associated with lower satisfaction.
b. As size increases, opportunities for participation and social interaction
decrease, as does the ability of members to identify with the group’s
accomplishments.
c. At the same time, having more members also prompts dissension, conflict,
and the formation of subgroups, which all act to make the group a less
pleasant entity of which to be a part.
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VI. KEEP IN MIND
A. Group norms, roles, and identities have powerful affects on
individual behavior.
B. Conformity can be a problem: have leaders minimize initial inputs.
C. Group decision making is not always better than individual decision
making.
VII. SUMMARY
Discussion Questions
1. What is the difference between formal and informal groups? Give an example of
each.
Answer: Formal groups are those defined by the organization’s structure,
designated work assignments and established tasks. It may be in the form of the
command group or a task group. Informal groups are alliances that are neither
formally structured nor organizationally determined. Informal groups are typically
interest groups or friendship groups. Examples will vary.
2. Describe the five-stage model of group development and the caveats associated with
its use.
Answer: Five-stage model includes forming (group is unsure what is expected of it),
storming (conflict period while leadership is determined), norming (further conflict
period where social rules are established), performing, (actually accomplishing the
work) and adjourning (formally breaking up the group). Caveats: teams may not
actually go through the steps sequentially, multiple steps may be taken at the same
time, and teams can regress in the earlier steps. But the model is a good overall
guide.
3. How can group cohesiveness be increased? Give specific recommendations.
Answer: Group cohesiveness can be increased by: (1) decreasing the size of the
group, (2) encouraging group members to agree with the group's goals, (3)
increasing the time members spend together, (4) increasing the status of the group
and the perceived difficulty of obtaining membership in that group, (5) stimulating
competition with other groups, (6) giving rewards to the group rather than to
individual members, and (7) physically isolating the group.
4. Describe the three sources of status.
Answer: (1) Power: the power of person wields over others. The more power that
an individual has, the higher his or her status. (2) Ability: a person's ability to
contribute to a group’s goals. People whose contributions are critical to the group
success also tend to have high status. (3) Characteristics: an individual's personal
traits. When a group positively values certain personal characteristics, people who
carry those traits receive high status.
5. Why does social loafing occur?
Answer: There are a number of possible causes of social loafing. Equity theory
would indicate that when an individual in the group believes that he or she is
working harder than the other group members, that individual will reduce effort to
match that of the group. Another explanation may be the dispersion of
responsibility: because the results of a group cannot be attributed to any single
individual, the relationship between an individual's input and the group's output is
clouded and difficult to measure.
6. List the strengths and weaknesses of group decision-making.
PPT 9.29
PPT 9.30
Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page
Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc.
121
Answer: Strengths of group decision-making: (1) generates information and
knowledge that is more complete, (2) offers increased diversity of views, and (3)
increases the acceptance of the solution. Weaknesses of group decision-making: (1)
typically takes more time to reach a solution, (2) greater conformity pressures exist,
(3) discussion can be dominated by one or a few members, and (4) ambiguous
responsibility decreases accountability.
7. Compare and contrast brainstorming and NGT. Ensure you describe both
techniques fully in your answer.
Answer: Brainstorming. The technique designed to generate a list of creative
alternatives. A problem is presented and everyone provides oral input on the
solution simultaneously. No feedback or discussion is allowed until all of the inputs
have been recorded. This somewhat ineffective technique does not lead to a
solution, and may in fact lead to fewer creative alternatives than an individual could
come up with, due to production blocking (distractions to thought caused by the
technique itself).
Nominal Group Technique (NGT). This technique restricts discussion or
interpersonal communication during the decision-making process. This is why it is
referred to as a "nominal" (in name only) group technique. Group members are all
physically present, but operate independently. A problem is presented and the
following steps take place:
1) Each member independently writes down ideas on the problem without
discussing it in the group.
2) Sequentially, each member will present one idea to the group until all
ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion is allowed until
all ideas have been recorded.
3) Group discusses ideas for clarity and evaluates them.
4) Each group member silently and independently rank orders the ideas.
5) The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final
decision.
The use of NGT does not restrict independent thinking; groups that use this
technique tend to outperform brainstorming groups.
Exercises
1. Self-analysis. Consider the last group that you were in that was required to make a
decision. What type of group was it? What types of decision-making techniques
were used? How is your input to the group affected by the type of group and
decision-making technique?
2. Web Crawling. Using your favorite search engine, locate a group decision-making
technique that was not mentioned in the textbook. Write a brief one-page synopsis
of the technique that would allow a manager to use it without having viewed the
website. Ensure you properly cite the source.
3. Teamwork. In this exercise instructor will break the class up into groups of various
sizes, some large (12+ members) and some small (4-7 members) and leaving three
individuals by themselves. The instructor will provide three datasheets on a
product (cars, laptop computers, MP3 players, or something similar). Using
whichever group decision-making techniques the group thinks is appropriate,
decide which of the three products is superior. Keep track of the time it takes to
Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page
Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc.
122
make your decision. The three individuals will also make this decision, each on their
own, and keep track of the time it takes them.
As a class, compare the quality of the results and the time it took to achieve them,
based on group size and decision-making technique. What are your findings?
4. Analyzing Your Organization (Cumulative Project). Write a one-page paper that
outlines the use of groups and/or teams in your organization for decision-making.
What decision-making techniques are commonly used and how does the average
worker feel about the quality of these decisions?
Suggested Assignment
1. Group Membership Analysis. List out all of the groups that you belong to and
categorize each group based on the group subcategories given in the text. Count up
the number of groups you belong to in each subcategory and record that subtotal.
Sum up all of the subcategories and record your total group memberships. Share
your results in class and sum up the individual subtotal counts to get a class total. In
what subcategory was group membership most frequently identified and in which
was membership least frequently identified? What was the average number of
groups to which members of the class belonged?
2. Status Symbols. Examine an organization with which you are familiar and pay
particular attention to the use of status symbols by those in high status positions.
Make a list of the differences in symbols between those in high and low status
positions. Share your findings with the class, and as a class, discuss how being able
to identify these high status symbols can help you become more effective in the
organization.
3. Identifying Norms. As college students to have been exposed to a continuing series
of norms. From elementary school on, you have learned what is considered to be
proper behavior in the classroom. As a class (or in small groups), brainstorm and
identify these unwritten rules of classroom behavior. How many norms were there?
How many of these norms were you consciously aware of prior to listing them?
Other documents randomly have
different content
From on board the John and Mary, riding in
Yarmouth Roads during the great Storm, but now in
the River of Thames.
SIR,
Hearing of your good Design of preserving the Memory of
the late Dreadful Storm for the Benefit of Posterity, I
cannot let you want the Particulars as happen'd to us on
board our Ship.
We came over the Bar of Tinmouth about the ——
having had terrible blowing Weather for almost a Week,
insomuch that we were twice driven back almost the
Length of Newcastle, with much Difficulty and Danger we
got well over that, and made the High-land about Cromer
on the North-side of Norfolk; here it blew so hard the
Wednesday Night before, that we could not keep the Sea,
nor fetch the Roads of Yarmouth; but as the Coast of
Norfolk was a Weather-shore, we hall'd as close Cromer as
we durst lie, the Shore there being very flat; here we rode
Wednesday and Thursday, the 24th and 25th of
November.
We could not reckon our selves safe here, for as this is
the most dangerous Place between London and
Newcastle, and has been particularly fatal to our Colliers,
so we were very uneasy; I considered that when such
Tempestuous Weather happen'd, as this seem'd to
threaten, nothing is more frequent than for the Wind to
shift Points; and if it should have blown half the Wind
from the South East, as now blew from the South West,
we must have gone a-shore there, and been all lost for
being embayed; there we should have had no putting out
to Sea, nor staying there.
This Consideration made me resolve to be gon, and
thinking on Friday Morning the Wind slacken'd a little, I
weigh'd and stood away for Yarmouth Roads; and with
great Boating and Labour got into the Roads about One in
the Afternoon, being a little after Flood, we found a very
great Fleet in the Roads; there was above Three Hundred
Sail of Colliers, not reckoning above Thirty Sail which I left
behind me, that rode it out thereabouts, and there was a
great Fleet just come from Russia, under the Convoy of
the Reserve Frigate, and Two other Men of War; and
about a Hundred Sail of Coasters, Hull-Men, and such
small Craft.
We had not got to an Anchor, moor'd, and set all to
Rights, but I found the Wind freshen'd, the Clouds
gather'd, and all look'd very black to Windward; and my
Mate told me, he wish'd he had staid where we were, for
he would warrant it we had a blowing Night of it.
We did what we could to prepare for it, struck our Top-
mast, and slung our Yards, made all tite and fast upon
Deck; the Night prov'd very dark, and the Wind blew a
Storm about Eight a Clock, and held till Ten, when we
thought it abated a little, but at Eleven it freshen'd again,
and blew very hard; we rid it out very well till Twelve,
when we veer'd out more Cable, and in about Half an
Hour after, the Wind encreasing, let go our Sheet Anchor;
by One a Clock it blew a dreadful Storm, and though our
Anchors held very well, the Sea came over us in such a
vast Quantity, that we was every Hour in Danger of
Foundring: About Two a Clock the Sea fill'd our Boat as
she lay upon the Deck, and we was glad to let her go over
board for Fear of staving in our Decks: Our Mate would
then have cut our Mast by the Board, but I was not
willing, and told him, I thought we had better slip our
Cables, and go out to Sea, he argued she was a deep
Ship, and would not live in the Sea, and was very eager
for cutting away the Mast; but I was loth to part with my
Mast, and could not tell where to run for Shelter if I lost
them.
About Three a Clock abundance of Ships drove away,
and came by us; some with all their Masts gone, and foul
of one another; in a sad Condition my Men said they saw
Two founder'd together, but I was in the Cabin, and
cannot say I saw it. I saw a Russia Ship come foul of a
Collier, and both drove away together out of our Sight, but
I am told since the Russia Man sunk by her Side.
In this Condition we rid till about Three a Clock, the
Russia Ships which lay a-head of me, and the Men of War,
who lay a-head of them, fir'd their Guns for Help, but
'twas in vain to expect it; the Sea went too high for any
Boat to live. About Five, the Wind blew at that prodigious
Rate, that there was no Possibility of riding it out, and all
the Ships in the Road seem'd to us to drive: Yet still our
Anchors held it, and I began to think we should ride it out
there, or founder; when a Ship's long Boat came driving
against us, and gave such a Shock on the Bow that I
thought it must have been a Ship come foul of us, and
expected to sink all at once; our Men said there was some
people in the Boat, but as the Sea went so high no Man
dust stand upon the Fore-castle, so no Body could be sure
of it; the Boat stav'd to pieces with the Blow, and went
away, some on One Side of us and some on the other; but
whether our Cable receiv'd any Damage by it or not we
cannot tell, but our Sheet Cable gave Way immediately,
and as the other was not able to hold us alone, we
immediately drove; we had then no more to do, but to put
afore the Wind, which we did: it pleased God by this Time
the Tide of Ebb was begun, which something abated the
Height of the Sea, but still it went exceeding high; we saw
a great many Ships in the same Condition with our selves,
and expecting every Moment to sink in the Sea. In this
Extremity we drove till Daylight when we found the Wind
abated, and we stood in for the Shore, and coming under
the Lee of the Cliff near Scarbro, we got so much Shelter,
as that our small Bower Anchors would ride us.
I can give you no Account but this; but sure such a
Tempest never was in the World. They say here, that of
Eighty Sail in Grimsby Road, they can hear of but Sixteen;
yet the rest are all blown away, Here is about Twelve or
Fourteen Sail of Ships come in to this Place, and more are
standing in for the Shore.
Yours, &c.
Abundance of other strange Deliverances have been related, but
with so small Authority as we dare not convey them into the World
under the same Character with the rest; and have therefore chose to
omit them.
The Conclusion
The Editor of this Book has labour'd under some Difficulties in this
Account: and one of the chief has been, how to avoid too many
Particulars, the Crowds of Relations which he has been oblig'd to lay
by to bring the Story into a Compass tolerable to the Reader.
And tho' some of the Letters inserted are written in a homely Stile,
and exprest after the Country Fashion from whence they came, the
Author chose to make them speak their own Language, rather than
by dressing them in other Words make the Authors forget they were
their own.
We receiv'd a Letter, very particular, relating to the Bishop of Bath
and Wells, and reflecting upon his Lordship for some Words he
spoke, That he had rather have his Brains knock'd out, than &c.
relating to his Inferiour Clergy. The Gentleman takes the Disaster for
a Judgment of God on him: But as in his Letter the Person owns
himself the Bishop's Enemy, fills his Letter with some Reflexions
indecent, at least for us: and at last, tho' he dates from Somerton,
yet baulks setting his Name to his Letter: for these Reasons we
could not satisfie to record the Matter, and leave a Charge on the
Name of that unfortunate Gentleman, which, he being dead, could
not answer, and we alive could not prove. And on these Accounts
hope the Reverend Gentleman who sent the Letter will excuse Us.
Also we have omitted, tho' our List of Particulars promis'd such a
thing, An Account of some unthinking Wretches, who pass'd over
this dreadful Judgment with Banter, Scoffing, and Contempt. 'Tis a
Subject ungrateful to recite, and full of Horror to read; and we had
much rather cover such Actions with a general Blank in Charity to
the Offenders, and in hopes of their Amendment.
One unhappy Accident I cannot omit, and which is brought us
from good Hands, and happen'd in a Ship homeward bound from the
West-Indies. The Ship was in the utmost Danger of Foundring; and
when the Master saw all, as he thought, lost, his Masts gone, the
Ship leaky, and expecting her every moment to sink under him, fill'd
with Despair, he calls to him the Surgeon of the Ship, and by a fatal
Contract, as soon made as hastily executed, they resolv'd to prevent
the Death they fear'd by one more certain; and going into the
Cabbin, they both shot themselves with their Pistols. It pleas'd God
the Ship recover'd the Distress, was driven safe into —— and the
Captain just liv'd to see the desperate Course he took might have
been spar'd; the Surgeon died immediately.
There are several very remarkable Cases come to our Hands since
the finishing this Book, and several have been promis'd which are
not come in; and the Book having been so long promis'd, and so
earnestly desir'd by several Gentlemen that have already assisted
that way, the Undertakers could not prevail with themselves to delay
it any longer.
FINIS.
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  • 5. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 109 Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Chapter Overview The text thus far has been dealing with individual behavior. Another important component of OB is group behavior. This chapter and the next will focus on how groups work and how to create effective teams. Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Define group and differentiate between types of groups. 2. Identify the five stages of group development. 3. Show how role requirements change in different situations. 4. Demonstrate how norms and status exert influence on an individual’s behavior. 5. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision-making. Suggested Lecture Outline I. INTRODUCTION A. While understanding individual behavior is important, most work takes place in group settings. B. It is important for an effective manager to understand how people work in groups, and how to create effective teams. II. DEFINING AND CLASSIFYING GROUPS A. Types of Groups. There are many different types of groups. Being able to accurately define and classify the groups may help explain their behavior. 1. Group: two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives. 2. The two basic types and their subtypes are: a. Formal Groups: groups that are defined by the organization's structure with designated work assignments that establish tasks. 1) In these groups, acceptable behaviors are stipulated by, and directed toward, organizational goals. 2) Command Group: determined by the organization chart, composed of individuals who report directly to a given manager. 3) Task Groups: also organizationally determined, these groups are comprised of people working together to complete a job task. a) This group's boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior; it can span multiple functional and command relationship lines. PPT 9.1 PPT 9.2 PPT 9.3 PPT 9.4
  • 6. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 110 b) All command groups are task groups, but the reverse need not be true. b. Informal Groups: alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. 1) Informal groups are natural formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact. 2) Interest Group: people may affiliate to attain in a specific objective of shared interest. a) It is the formation of a united body to further its own common interests. 3) Friendship Groups: groups that form because the individual members have one or more common characteristics. a) These social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based on a similar demographic or sports/hobby interest. B. Group Joining Behavior. 1. There is no single reason why individuals join groups. 2. Because people do belong to a number of different groups, it appears obvious that each group provides different benefits to their members. 3. Exhibit 9-1 provides some of the most popular reasons people give for joining groups. III. STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT A. Groups generally pass through a standardized sequence of five developmental stages in their evolution. 1. While not all groups follow this pattern, it’s a useful framework for understanding group development. B. The Five-Stage Model. 1. These progressive steps characterize the growth of groups. a. Forming. Characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership. 1) Members experiment to determine which behaviors are acceptable. 2) The stage is complete when members think of themselves as part of a group. b. Storming. This stage is full of intragroup conflict as members resist the constraints the group imposes upon them and determine leadership. 1) When complete, the team will have a relatively clear hierarchy of group leadership. c. Norming. The group is cohesive and develops close relationships with a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie. 1) Stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior. d. Performing. Finally, group energy moves toward performing their assigned task. 1) The group structure is fully functional and accepted. e. Adjourning. While permanent groups may not ever make it to this stage, temporary groups do. Exhibit 9.1 Exhibit 9.2 PPT 9.5 PPT 9.6
  • 7. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 111 1) In this stage, the group prepares to disband and perhaps join other groups. 2. Many interpreters of the five-stage model have assumed a group becomes more effective as it progresses through the first four stages. a. Although this may be generally true, what makes a group effective is actually more complex. b. Groups proceed through the stages of group development at different rates. 1) Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve high performance and improve over time. 2) Those with less sense of purpose actually see their performance worsen over time. 3) Groups that begin with a positive social focus appear to achieve the “performing” stage more rapidly. c. Nor do groups always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. 1) Storming and performing can occur simultaneously. 2) Groups even occasionally regress to previous stages. 3. An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines. a. Temporary groups with deadlines don’t seem to follow the usual five stage model. Instead, they follow the punctuated-equilibrium model. b. Their first meeting sets the groups direction, this first phase of group activity is one of inertia. c. A transition takes place exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time. This transition initiates major changes. d. A second phase of inertia follows the transition and the group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. IV. GROUP PROPERTIES: ROLES, NORMS, STATUS, SIZE, AND COHESIVENESS A. In order to understand workgroups, it is important that we realize that the behavior of the members is shaped by the properties of the workgroups. 1. Those workgroup properties allow us to explain and predict a large portion of individual behavior within the group as well as the performance of the group itself. B. Group Property 1: Roles. 1. Roles are the set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. a. Typically, people are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off the job, which makes the understanding of role behavior more difficult. b. There are different ways to examine roles: 1) Role Perception. a) The view of how a person is supposed to act in a given situation. b) The interpretation of how an individual believes he or she is supposed to behave will determine behavior. c) Perceptions can be gained through the media, direct experience, or observation. 2) Role Expectations. a) How others believe a person should act in a given situation. PPT 9.7 PPT 9.9 PPT 9.10 PPT 9.8
  • 8. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 112 3) Role Conflict. a) When multiple role expectations are incompatible, individuals experience conflict. b) Role conflict exists when an individual finds that compliance with one role’s requirements makes it more difficult to comply with another role's requirements. C. Group Property 2: Norms. 1. Norms are the acceptable standards of behavior as shaped by the group's members. 2. When accepted by the group's members, norms act as a powerful means of influencing the behavior of group, especially in the area of performance (performance norms). 3. The Hawthorne Studies. The importance of norms in influencing worker behavior grew out of a series of studies undertaken at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago from 1924 through 1932. a. The initial study determined that increases in productivity were caused by the fact that the groups were receiving more attention because they were observed, not by changes in the environmental conditions (lighting). b. In a follow-on study, dealing with pay-for-performance, researchers discovered that workers do not maximize individual economic rewards, but as a group, establish and maintain the norm of a “proper day’s work” level of output. 1) This also included strongly enforced norms of not creating too much or too little output or “squealing” to supervisors—enforced by sarcasm or punches. 4. Conformity. In order to be accepted, an individual will often change his or her behavior or opinion to conform to the group. a. Reference Groups. 1) While an individual cannot conform to the norms of all groups, he or she is most likely to try to conform to the norms of reference groups. 2) These are groups in which a person is aware of other members; defines himself or herself as a member, (or would like to be a member); and feels that the group members are significant to him or her. b. Asch Studies. 1) In the set of classic studies by Solomon Asch, effects of conformity were demonstrated. 2) When the subjects of the experiment were shown lines of unequal length in the presence of a group who claimed that the lines were of equal length, 75% of the subjects gave at least one answer that conformed, even though they knew it was wrong. However, these experiments are 50 years old and culture-bound: the pressures to conform may not be as strong today as they were then. 5. Deviant Workplace Behavior (also called Counterproductive Behavior or Employee Withdrawal). Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms, and in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. Exhibit 9.4 PPT 9.11 PPT 9.12 PPT 9.13 PPT 9.14
  • 9. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 113 a. Like norms in general, individual employees’ antisocial actions are shaped by the group context within which they work. 1) Evidence demonstrates that antisocial behavior exhibited by a work group is a significant predictor of an individual’s antisocial behavior at work. 2) In other words, deviant workplace behavior is likely to flourish where it’s supported by group norms. b. Workers who socialize either at or outside work with people who are frequently absent from work are more likely to be absent themselves. 1) What this means for managers is that when deviant workplace norms surface, employee cooperation, commitment, and motivation are likely to suffer. 2) This, in turn, can reduce employee productivity and job satisfaction and increase turnover. c. Someone who ordinarily wouldn’t engage in deviant behavior might be more likely to do so when working in a group. 1) A recent study suggests those working in a group were more likely to lie, cheat, and steal than individuals working alone. a) As shown in Exhibit 9.5, in this study, no individual working alone lied, but 22 percent of those working in groups did. b) Those working in groups also were more likely to cheat on a task (55 percent versus 23 percent of individuals working alone) and steal (29 percent compared to 10 percent working alone). d. Groups provide a shield of anonymity, so someone who might ordinarily be afraid of getting caught can rely on the fact that other group members had the same opportunity, creating a false sense of confidence that may result in more aggressive behavior. e. Thus, deviant behavior depends on the accepted norms of the group—or even whether an individual is part of a group. D. Group Property 3: 1. Status. a. Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. 1) Even the smallest group will develop roles, rights, and rituals to differentiate its members. 2) Status is a significant motivator and has major behavioral consequences when individuals perceive a disparity between what they believe their status to be and what others perceive it to be. 2. What Determines Status? a. According to this theory, status develops into a hierarchy, and tends to be derived from one of three sources: 1) Power: the power of person wields over others. The more power (control of resources) that an individual has, the higher his or her status. 2) Ability: a person's ability to contribute to a group’s goals. People whose contributions are critical to the group success also tend to have high status. Exhibit 9.5 PPT 9.15
  • 10. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 114 3) Characteristics: an individual's personal traits. When a group positively values certain personal characteristics, people who carry those traits receive high status. 3. Status and Norms. a. High status members of groups often have more freedom to deviate from norms than do low status members. b. High status members are also better able to resist conformity pressures, as they are less likely to be motivated by the need for social rewards. 4. Status and Group Interaction. a. The interactions among members of a group are influenced by status. b. High status people tend to be more assertive, while lower status members are more likely to be less active participants in discussions. c. The situation may result in a lower diversity of ideas and creativity. E. Group Property 4: Size. 1. Group size does affect the group's overall behavior, but it is contingent upon which dependent variables are being examined. 2. Smaller groups complete tasks faster and their individuals perform better, but larger groups consistently do better in problem solving. 3. Group size affects: a. Social Loafing: the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. 1) As demonstrated by Max Ringlemann, a group’s effort is not equal to the sum of the efforts of individuals within that group. 2) Group performance does increase with group size, but the addition of new members of the group has diminishing returns on productivity. 3) Causes of Social Loafing. a) There are a number of possible causes of social loafing. b) Equity theory would indicate that when an individual and the group believes that he or she is working harder than the other group members, that individual will reduce effort to match that of the group. c) Another explanation may be the dispersion of responsibility: because the results of a group cannot be attributed to any single individual, the relationship between an individual's input and the group's output is clouded and difficult to measure. 4) Social loafing appears to have a Western bias. It is consistent with individualistic cultures, and not prevalent in collective societies in which individuals are motivated by in-group goals. 5) Preventing Social Loafing. While there is no magic bullet, these four suggestions will help minimize its effect: a) Set group goals so that the group had a common purpose. b) Increase intergroup competition (increases focus on shared outcomes). c) Engage in peer evaluation. PPT 9.16 PPT 9.17 PPT 9.18
  • 11. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 115 d) Select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in groups. e) Distribute group rewards by partially basing them on each member’s unique contributions. F. Group Property 5: Cohesiveness. 1. Cohesiveness is the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. 2. Cohesiveness is important because it is been found to be related to the group's productivity. 3. Groups may become more cohesive when they spend a lot of time together, the group size is small, or the group has experienced external threats. 4. Cohesiveness and Productivity. a. Performance-related norms established by the group are the key moderating variable between cohesiveness and productivity. b. If performance-related norms are high and the group is cohesive, they will be more productive than a less cohesive group. c. However, a cohesive group with low performance norms will experience low productivity. 5. Encouraging Cohesiveness. a. The following methods may increase group cohesiveness: 1) Decrease the size of the group. 2) Encourage group members to agree with the group's goals. 3) Increase the time members spend together. 4) Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of obtaining membership in that group. 5) Stimulate competition with other groups. 6) Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members. 7) Physically isolate the group. G. Group Property 6: Diversity. 1. Diversity is the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or different from, one another. 2. A great deal of research is being done on how diversity influences group performance. Some looks at cultural diversity and some at racial, gender, and other differences. Studies identify both costs and benefits from group diversity. 3. Diversity appears to increase group conflict, especially in the early stages of a group’s tenure, which often lowers group morale and raises dropout rates. 4. Research shows that teams in which the members’ values or opinions differ tend to experience more conflict, but leaders who can get the group to focus on the task at hand and encourage group learning are able to reduce these conflicts and enhance discussion of group issues. 5. Culturally and demographically diverse groups may perform better over time – if they can get over their initial conflicts. a. Performance-related norms established by the group are the key moderating variable between cohesiveness and productivity. b. If performance-related norms are high and the group is cohesive, they will be more productive than a less cohesive group. PPT 9.19 PPT 9.20
  • 12. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 116 c. However, a cohesive group with low performance norms will experience low productivity. V. GROUP DECISION-MAKING A. Groups versus the Individual. 1. Whether or not a group’s decisions are better than an individual’s decisions depends on a number of factors. 2. To understand the group decision-making, we must examine its strengths and weaknesses. B. Strengths of Group Decision-Making. 1. The use of groups in decision-making provides the following benefits: a. Generates more complete information and knowledge. b. Offers increased diversity of views. c. Increases the acceptance of the solution. 2. Weaknesses of Group Decision-Making: a. Typically, it takes more time to reach a solution. b. Greater conformity pressures exist. c. Discussion can be dominated by one or a few members. d. Ambiguous responsibility decreases accountability. 3. Effectiveness and Efficiency. a. Effectiveness. 1) Whether or not group decisions are more effective than are those of an individual depends on the criteria used for defining effectiveness. 2) Accuracy: group decisions are generally more accurate than that of the average individual in the group, but less accurate than the judgments of the most accurate group member. 3) Speed: individual decision-making is much faster than group decision- making. 4) Creativity: groups tend to be more creative than are individuals. 5) Degree of acceptance: group decisions tend to be more readily accepted than are those of an individual. b. Efficiency. 1) Groups are far less efficient than are individual decision-makers. 2) In deciding whether to use a group, consideration should be given to assessing whether increases in effectiveness more than offset the reductions in efficiency. C. Groupthink and Groupshift. 1. These two phenomena of group decision-making have the potential to affect the group's ability to appraise alternatives subjectively and to arrive at quality decision solutions. 2. Groupthink: a. This occurs when group members become so enamored of seeking concurrence with the norm that the desire for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action and limits the full expression of deviant, minority, or unpopular views. b. It describes a deterioration of an individual's mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment as a result of group pressures. PPT 9.21 PPT 9.22 PPT 9.23 PPT 9.24
  • 13. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 117 c. Symptoms of Groupthink. 1) Group members rationalize away any resistance to the assumptions they have made, no matter how strong the evidence may be that those assumptions are incorrect. 2) Members apply direct pressures on those who momentarily express doubts about any of the group’s shared views or who question the validity of arguments supporting the alternative favored by the majority. 3) Members who have doubts or hold differing points of view keep silent about their misgivings and may even internally minimize the importance of their doubts. 4) The illusion of unanimity: unless a group member speaks out, his or her silence is taken as concurrence. 5) Groupthink appears closely aligned with the conclusions Asch drew in his experiments with a lone dissenter. a) Individuals who hold a position different from that of the dominant majority are under pressure to suppress, withhold, or modify their true feelings and beliefs. b) As members of a group, we find it more pleasant to be in agreement—to be a positive part of the group— than to be a disruptive force, even if disruption is necessary to improve the effectiveness of the group’s decisions. d. Minimizing Groupthink. 1) First, they can monitor group size. a) People grow more intimidated and hesitant as group size increases, and, although there is no magic number that will eliminate groupthink, individuals are likely to feel less personal responsibility when groups get larger than about ten members. 2) Managers should also encourage group leaders to play an impartial role. a) Leaders should actively seek input from all members and avoid expressing their own opinions, especially in the early stages of deliberation. 3) In addition, managers should appoint one group member to play the role of devil’s advocate; this member’s role is to overtly challenge the majority position and offer divergent perspectives. 4) Still another suggestion is to use exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group and intensifying identity protection. a) One such exercise is to have group members delay discussion of possible gains so they can first talk about the dangers or risks inherent in a decision. 5) Requiring members to first focus on the negatives of an alternative makes the group less likely to stifle dissenting views and more likely to gain an objective evaluation. 3. Group Shift or Group Polarization. a. There are differences between group decisions and the individual decisions of group members. PPT 9.25 PPT 9.26
  • 14. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 118 1) Sometimes group decisions are more conservative. 2) More often, they lean toward greater risk. What appears to happen in groups is that the discussion leads members toward a more extreme view of the position they already held. 3) Conservatives become more cautious, and more aggressive types take on more risk. b. The group discussion tends to exaggerate the initial position of the group. c. We can view group polarization as a special case of groupthink. 1) The group’s decision reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develops during discussion. 2) Whether the shift in the group’s decision is toward greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant pre-discussion norm. d. The shift toward risk has generated several explanations. 1) It’s been argued, for instance, that discussion makes the members more comfortable with each other and, thus, more bold and daring. 2) Another argument is that the group diffuses responsibility. a) Group decisions free any single member from accountability for the group’s final choice, so greater risks can be taken. b) It’s also likely that people take on extreme positions because they want to demonstrate how different they are from the outgroup. 3) People on the fringes of political or social movements take on more and more extreme positions just to prove they are really committed to the cause. 4) So how should you use the findings on groupshift? a) Recognize that group decisions exaggerate the initial position of the individual members, b) Recognize that the shift has been shown more often to be toward greater risk, and c) Recognize that which way a group will shift is a function of the members’ pre-discussion inclinations. D. Group Decision-Making Techniques. 1. One of the most common forms that groups take when making decisions is that of interacting groups. 2. The techniques presented below are designed to reduce many of the problems inherent in the traditional interacting group. a. Interacting Groups: groups in which the members meet face-to-face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with each other. b. Brainstorming. 1) It can overcome the pressures for conformity that dampen creativity by encouraging any and all alternatives while withholding criticism. 2) This somewhat ineffective technique does not lead to a solution, and may in fact lead to fewer creative alternatives than an individual could come up with, due to production blocking (distractions to thought caused by the technique itself). c. Nominal Group Technique (NGT). 1) This technique restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-making process. PPT 9.27
  • 15. Visit https://testbankbell.com now to explore a rich collection of testbank, solution manual and enjoy exciting offers!
  • 16. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 119 a) This is why it is referred to as a "nominal" (in name only) group technique. 2) Group members are all physically present, but operate independently. 3) A problem is presented and the following steps take place. a) Each member independently writes down ideas on the problem without discussing it in the group. b) Sequentially, each member will present one idea to the group until all ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion is allowed until all ideas have been recorded. c) Group discusses ideas for clarity and evaluates them. d) Each group member silently and independently rank orders the ideas. e) The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision. 4) The use of NGT does not restrict independent thinking; groups that use this technique tend to outperform brainstorming groups. V. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS A. Performance. A number of group properties show a relationship to performance. 1. There is a positive relationship between role perception and an employee's performance evaluation. 2. When group norms support high output, managers can expect individual performance to be markedly higher than when group norms aim to restrict output. 3. Group norms that support antisocial behavior increase the likelihood that individuals will engage in deviant workplace activities. 4. Status inequities can increase frustration and adversely influence productivity and turnover. 5. Group size has an impact on both group effectiveness and efficiency. 6. Group cohesiveness can play an important part in influencing a group’s level of productivity if the group has high performance-related norms. B. Satisfaction 1. High congruence between a boss’s and an employee’s perception of the employee’s job correlates strongly with high employee satisfaction. 2. Role conflict is associated with job-induced tension and job dissatisfaction. 3. Most people prefer to communicate with others at their own status level or a higher one rather than with those below them. a. As a result, we should expect satisfaction to be greater among employees whose job minimizes interaction with individuals lower in status than themselves. 4. The group size–satisfaction relationship is what we would intuitively expect: a. Larger groups are associated with lower satisfaction. b. As size increases, opportunities for participation and social interaction decrease, as does the ability of members to identify with the group’s accomplishments. c. At the same time, having more members also prompts dissension, conflict, and the formation of subgroups, which all act to make the group a less pleasant entity of which to be a part. PPT 9.28
  • 17. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 120 VI. KEEP IN MIND A. Group norms, roles, and identities have powerful affects on individual behavior. B. Conformity can be a problem: have leaders minimize initial inputs. C. Group decision making is not always better than individual decision making. VII. SUMMARY Discussion Questions 1. What is the difference between formal and informal groups? Give an example of each. Answer: Formal groups are those defined by the organization’s structure, designated work assignments and established tasks. It may be in the form of the command group or a task group. Informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Informal groups are typically interest groups or friendship groups. Examples will vary. 2. Describe the five-stage model of group development and the caveats associated with its use. Answer: Five-stage model includes forming (group is unsure what is expected of it), storming (conflict period while leadership is determined), norming (further conflict period where social rules are established), performing, (actually accomplishing the work) and adjourning (formally breaking up the group). Caveats: teams may not actually go through the steps sequentially, multiple steps may be taken at the same time, and teams can regress in the earlier steps. But the model is a good overall guide. 3. How can group cohesiveness be increased? Give specific recommendations. Answer: Group cohesiveness can be increased by: (1) decreasing the size of the group, (2) encouraging group members to agree with the group's goals, (3) increasing the time members spend together, (4) increasing the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of obtaining membership in that group, (5) stimulating competition with other groups, (6) giving rewards to the group rather than to individual members, and (7) physically isolating the group. 4. Describe the three sources of status. Answer: (1) Power: the power of person wields over others. The more power that an individual has, the higher his or her status. (2) Ability: a person's ability to contribute to a group’s goals. People whose contributions are critical to the group success also tend to have high status. (3) Characteristics: an individual's personal traits. When a group positively values certain personal characteristics, people who carry those traits receive high status. 5. Why does social loafing occur? Answer: There are a number of possible causes of social loafing. Equity theory would indicate that when an individual in the group believes that he or she is working harder than the other group members, that individual will reduce effort to match that of the group. Another explanation may be the dispersion of responsibility: because the results of a group cannot be attributed to any single individual, the relationship between an individual's input and the group's output is clouded and difficult to measure. 6. List the strengths and weaknesses of group decision-making. PPT 9.29 PPT 9.30
  • 18. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 121 Answer: Strengths of group decision-making: (1) generates information and knowledge that is more complete, (2) offers increased diversity of views, and (3) increases the acceptance of the solution. Weaknesses of group decision-making: (1) typically takes more time to reach a solution, (2) greater conformity pressures exist, (3) discussion can be dominated by one or a few members, and (4) ambiguous responsibility decreases accountability. 7. Compare and contrast brainstorming and NGT. Ensure you describe both techniques fully in your answer. Answer: Brainstorming. The technique designed to generate a list of creative alternatives. A problem is presented and everyone provides oral input on the solution simultaneously. No feedback or discussion is allowed until all of the inputs have been recorded. This somewhat ineffective technique does not lead to a solution, and may in fact lead to fewer creative alternatives than an individual could come up with, due to production blocking (distractions to thought caused by the technique itself). Nominal Group Technique (NGT). This technique restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-making process. This is why it is referred to as a "nominal" (in name only) group technique. Group members are all physically present, but operate independently. A problem is presented and the following steps take place: 1) Each member independently writes down ideas on the problem without discussing it in the group. 2) Sequentially, each member will present one idea to the group until all ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion is allowed until all ideas have been recorded. 3) Group discusses ideas for clarity and evaluates them. 4) Each group member silently and independently rank orders the ideas. 5) The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision. The use of NGT does not restrict independent thinking; groups that use this technique tend to outperform brainstorming groups. Exercises 1. Self-analysis. Consider the last group that you were in that was required to make a decision. What type of group was it? What types of decision-making techniques were used? How is your input to the group affected by the type of group and decision-making technique? 2. Web Crawling. Using your favorite search engine, locate a group decision-making technique that was not mentioned in the textbook. Write a brief one-page synopsis of the technique that would allow a manager to use it without having viewed the website. Ensure you properly cite the source. 3. Teamwork. In this exercise instructor will break the class up into groups of various sizes, some large (12+ members) and some small (4-7 members) and leaving three individuals by themselves. The instructor will provide three datasheets on a product (cars, laptop computers, MP3 players, or something similar). Using whichever group decision-making techniques the group thinks is appropriate, decide which of the three products is superior. Keep track of the time it takes to
  • 19. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Page Copyright ©2014 Pearson Education Inc. 122 make your decision. The three individuals will also make this decision, each on their own, and keep track of the time it takes them. As a class, compare the quality of the results and the time it took to achieve them, based on group size and decision-making technique. What are your findings? 4. Analyzing Your Organization (Cumulative Project). Write a one-page paper that outlines the use of groups and/or teams in your organization for decision-making. What decision-making techniques are commonly used and how does the average worker feel about the quality of these decisions? Suggested Assignment 1. Group Membership Analysis. List out all of the groups that you belong to and categorize each group based on the group subcategories given in the text. Count up the number of groups you belong to in each subcategory and record that subtotal. Sum up all of the subcategories and record your total group memberships. Share your results in class and sum up the individual subtotal counts to get a class total. In what subcategory was group membership most frequently identified and in which was membership least frequently identified? What was the average number of groups to which members of the class belonged? 2. Status Symbols. Examine an organization with which you are familiar and pay particular attention to the use of status symbols by those in high status positions. Make a list of the differences in symbols between those in high and low status positions. Share your findings with the class, and as a class, discuss how being able to identify these high status symbols can help you become more effective in the organization. 3. Identifying Norms. As college students to have been exposed to a continuing series of norms. From elementary school on, you have learned what is considered to be proper behavior in the classroom. As a class (or in small groups), brainstorm and identify these unwritten rules of classroom behavior. How many norms were there? How many of these norms were you consciously aware of prior to listing them?
  • 20. Other documents randomly have different content
  • 21. From on board the John and Mary, riding in Yarmouth Roads during the great Storm, but now in the River of Thames. SIR, Hearing of your good Design of preserving the Memory of the late Dreadful Storm for the Benefit of Posterity, I cannot let you want the Particulars as happen'd to us on board our Ship. We came over the Bar of Tinmouth about the —— having had terrible blowing Weather for almost a Week, insomuch that we were twice driven back almost the Length of Newcastle, with much Difficulty and Danger we got well over that, and made the High-land about Cromer on the North-side of Norfolk; here it blew so hard the Wednesday Night before, that we could not keep the Sea, nor fetch the Roads of Yarmouth; but as the Coast of Norfolk was a Weather-shore, we hall'd as close Cromer as we durst lie, the Shore there being very flat; here we rode Wednesday and Thursday, the 24th and 25th of November. We could not reckon our selves safe here, for as this is the most dangerous Place between London and Newcastle, and has been particularly fatal to our Colliers, so we were very uneasy; I considered that when such Tempestuous Weather happen'd, as this seem'd to threaten, nothing is more frequent than for the Wind to shift Points; and if it should have blown half the Wind from the South East, as now blew from the South West, we must have gone a-shore there, and been all lost for being embayed; there we should have had no putting out to Sea, nor staying there.
  • 22. This Consideration made me resolve to be gon, and thinking on Friday Morning the Wind slacken'd a little, I weigh'd and stood away for Yarmouth Roads; and with great Boating and Labour got into the Roads about One in the Afternoon, being a little after Flood, we found a very great Fleet in the Roads; there was above Three Hundred Sail of Colliers, not reckoning above Thirty Sail which I left behind me, that rode it out thereabouts, and there was a great Fleet just come from Russia, under the Convoy of the Reserve Frigate, and Two other Men of War; and about a Hundred Sail of Coasters, Hull-Men, and such small Craft. We had not got to an Anchor, moor'd, and set all to Rights, but I found the Wind freshen'd, the Clouds gather'd, and all look'd very black to Windward; and my Mate told me, he wish'd he had staid where we were, for he would warrant it we had a blowing Night of it. We did what we could to prepare for it, struck our Top- mast, and slung our Yards, made all tite and fast upon Deck; the Night prov'd very dark, and the Wind blew a Storm about Eight a Clock, and held till Ten, when we thought it abated a little, but at Eleven it freshen'd again, and blew very hard; we rid it out very well till Twelve, when we veer'd out more Cable, and in about Half an Hour after, the Wind encreasing, let go our Sheet Anchor; by One a Clock it blew a dreadful Storm, and though our Anchors held very well, the Sea came over us in such a vast Quantity, that we was every Hour in Danger of Foundring: About Two a Clock the Sea fill'd our Boat as she lay upon the Deck, and we was glad to let her go over board for Fear of staving in our Decks: Our Mate would then have cut our Mast by the Board, but I was not willing, and told him, I thought we had better slip our Cables, and go out to Sea, he argued she was a deep Ship, and would not live in the Sea, and was very eager
  • 23. for cutting away the Mast; but I was loth to part with my Mast, and could not tell where to run for Shelter if I lost them. About Three a Clock abundance of Ships drove away, and came by us; some with all their Masts gone, and foul of one another; in a sad Condition my Men said they saw Two founder'd together, but I was in the Cabin, and cannot say I saw it. I saw a Russia Ship come foul of a Collier, and both drove away together out of our Sight, but I am told since the Russia Man sunk by her Side. In this Condition we rid till about Three a Clock, the Russia Ships which lay a-head of me, and the Men of War, who lay a-head of them, fir'd their Guns for Help, but 'twas in vain to expect it; the Sea went too high for any Boat to live. About Five, the Wind blew at that prodigious Rate, that there was no Possibility of riding it out, and all the Ships in the Road seem'd to us to drive: Yet still our Anchors held it, and I began to think we should ride it out there, or founder; when a Ship's long Boat came driving against us, and gave such a Shock on the Bow that I thought it must have been a Ship come foul of us, and expected to sink all at once; our Men said there was some people in the Boat, but as the Sea went so high no Man dust stand upon the Fore-castle, so no Body could be sure of it; the Boat stav'd to pieces with the Blow, and went away, some on One Side of us and some on the other; but whether our Cable receiv'd any Damage by it or not we cannot tell, but our Sheet Cable gave Way immediately, and as the other was not able to hold us alone, we immediately drove; we had then no more to do, but to put afore the Wind, which we did: it pleased God by this Time the Tide of Ebb was begun, which something abated the Height of the Sea, but still it went exceeding high; we saw a great many Ships in the same Condition with our selves, and expecting every Moment to sink in the Sea. In this
  • 24. Extremity we drove till Daylight when we found the Wind abated, and we stood in for the Shore, and coming under the Lee of the Cliff near Scarbro, we got so much Shelter, as that our small Bower Anchors would ride us. I can give you no Account but this; but sure such a Tempest never was in the World. They say here, that of Eighty Sail in Grimsby Road, they can hear of but Sixteen; yet the rest are all blown away, Here is about Twelve or Fourteen Sail of Ships come in to this Place, and more are standing in for the Shore. Yours, &c. Abundance of other strange Deliverances have been related, but with so small Authority as we dare not convey them into the World under the same Character with the rest; and have therefore chose to omit them.
  • 25. The Conclusion The Editor of this Book has labour'd under some Difficulties in this Account: and one of the chief has been, how to avoid too many Particulars, the Crowds of Relations which he has been oblig'd to lay by to bring the Story into a Compass tolerable to the Reader. And tho' some of the Letters inserted are written in a homely Stile, and exprest after the Country Fashion from whence they came, the Author chose to make them speak their own Language, rather than by dressing them in other Words make the Authors forget they were their own. We receiv'd a Letter, very particular, relating to the Bishop of Bath and Wells, and reflecting upon his Lordship for some Words he spoke, That he had rather have his Brains knock'd out, than &c. relating to his Inferiour Clergy. The Gentleman takes the Disaster for a Judgment of God on him: But as in his Letter the Person owns himself the Bishop's Enemy, fills his Letter with some Reflexions indecent, at least for us: and at last, tho' he dates from Somerton, yet baulks setting his Name to his Letter: for these Reasons we could not satisfie to record the Matter, and leave a Charge on the Name of that unfortunate Gentleman, which, he being dead, could not answer, and we alive could not prove. And on these Accounts hope the Reverend Gentleman who sent the Letter will excuse Us. Also we have omitted, tho' our List of Particulars promis'd such a thing, An Account of some unthinking Wretches, who pass'd over this dreadful Judgment with Banter, Scoffing, and Contempt. 'Tis a
  • 26. Subject ungrateful to recite, and full of Horror to read; and we had much rather cover such Actions with a general Blank in Charity to the Offenders, and in hopes of their Amendment. One unhappy Accident I cannot omit, and which is brought us from good Hands, and happen'd in a Ship homeward bound from the West-Indies. The Ship was in the utmost Danger of Foundring; and when the Master saw all, as he thought, lost, his Masts gone, the Ship leaky, and expecting her every moment to sink under him, fill'd with Despair, he calls to him the Surgeon of the Ship, and by a fatal Contract, as soon made as hastily executed, they resolv'd to prevent the Death they fear'd by one more certain; and going into the Cabbin, they both shot themselves with their Pistols. It pleas'd God the Ship recover'd the Distress, was driven safe into —— and the Captain just liv'd to see the desperate Course he took might have been spar'd; the Surgeon died immediately. There are several very remarkable Cases come to our Hands since the finishing this Book, and several have been promis'd which are not come in; and the Book having been so long promis'd, and so earnestly desir'd by several Gentlemen that have already assisted that way, the Undertakers could not prevail with themselves to delay it any longer. FINIS.
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