Exercise as prevention in CAD
- 1. CENTER FOR PHYSIOTHERAPY AND REHABILITATION SCIENCE JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA By Qurat ul aein 19mpc005 MPTcardiorespiratory
- 2. Exercise in primary prevention of coronary arteries disease
- 3. • The first scientific evidence regarding the beneficial effects of work associated exercise training (ET) was published by Morris in 1953 who examined the incidence of coronary artery disease (CAD) in London bus driver teams. • He clearly documented that the incidence of CAD was less in the middle-age conductors than in the sedentary drivers of the same age. • Subsequently, studies in more than 100 000 individuals clearly documented that the higher the level of physical fitness, the less likely an individual will suffer premature cardiovascular death (reviewed in Lee et al.2). • Based on these studies, all major cardiovascular societies made physical activity part of their guidelines for prevention of CVD (class I recommendation), recommending at least 30 min of moderate-intensity aerobic activity, 7 days per week with a minimum of 5 days per week
- 4. Results in primary cardiovascular disease prevention: dose–response • Many older studies dichotomized participants into physically active vs. inactive groups, more recent studies have grouped the participants into multiple quantitatively designated categories of physical activity (such as quartiles of leisure-time physical activity), making it possible to assess a dose–response relation between physical activity and mortality. • As a result, inverse dose–response relations have been found between volume of physical activity behaviour and all-cause mortality,CVD mortalityand risk of CAD. • Notably, Wen et al.and Sattelmair et al have reported that even 15 min of daily exercise (about half of the minimal level of guideline recommendation13) is associated with a significant reduction of all-cause mortality or CAD risk. • This finding may support the guideline's assertion that some physical activity is better than none.This is also evident in the study by Myers, where moving from the worst to the second worst quintile provided the largest benefit
- 5. Prevention of cardiovascular disease in diabetes and obese population • Most deaths due to diabetes are attributable to CVD, especially CAD. Previous data strongly support the role of lifestyle intervention involving physical activity to improve glucose and insulin homeostasis and CVD risk factors.The Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group demonstrated that a lifestyle modification program with goals of ≥7% weight loss and ≥150 min/week of physical activity in overweight patients with impaired fasting glucose resulted in a 58% reduction in the incidence of diabetes mellitus, whereas there was a 31% reduction with metformin (850 mg twice daily) compared with placebo. • Tanasescu et al.reported in their 14-year follow-up study that the total amount of physical activity was inversely related with all-cause mortality in diabetic men. Intriguingly, in their study, walking pace was inversely associated with CVD, fatal CVD, and all-cause mortality, independent of walking hours. On the basis of these findings, the 2009 AHA Scientific Statement on ET in type 2 diabetes mellitus recommends 150 min/week of moderate- intensity exercise combined with resistance training
- 6. • Although weight loss is important in obese patients, current exercise protocols in cardiac rehabilitation (CR) result in little weight loss, in part because of the low energy expenditure of 700–800 kcal/week. In a randomized controlled clinical trial. • comparing the effect of high-calorie-expenditure exercise (3000–3500 kcal/week exercise-related energy expenditure) with standard exercise (700–800 kcal/week) on weight loss and risk factors, 5 months, high-calorie-expenditure exercise resulted in greater weight loss (−8.2 vs. −3.7 kg, P < 0.001) and more favourable CVD risk profiles than standard exercise. • In addition, Blair and colleagues reported that in men with documented or suspected coronary heart disease, cardiorespiratory fitness greatly modifies the relation of adiposity and mortality
- 7. • Several observational studies have been published regarding the relation between participation in a CR program and the CV prognosis in post-myocardial infarction, post-coronary intervention, and elderly CAD patients Witt et al. reported that participation in CR was independently associated with decreased mortality and recurrent MI, and that its protective effect was stronger in more recent years. In another study, the relation between the number of CR sessions attended and mortality/MI risk at 4 years in elderly CAD patients was analysed.27 An inverse dose–response relation between session attendance and mortality/MI risk was observed at 4 years. Likewise, in a prospective cohort study in Canada, Martin et al.reported that, compared with non-completers (n = 554), CR completers (n = 2900) had a lower risk of death (adjusted hazard ratio 0.59), all- cause hospitalization (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.77), and cardiac hospitalization (adjusted hazard ratio 0.68). • Suaya et al. performed extensive analyses to control for potential confounding between CR users and non-users among 600 000 Medicare CAD patients (age ≥65 years), and found that 5- year mortality rates were 21–34% lower in the CR users than non-users.
- 8. • There have been prospective randomized trials of ET in other aspects of CVD prevention. Hambrecht et al.34 as well as Niebauer et al.35 have demonstrated that long-term ET can halt the progression and, in some cases, actually promote regression of coronary atherosclerotic lesions . Additionally, in the ETICA trial,36 the ET group showed a significantly better cardiac event-free survival than the non-exercise group in patients after PCI with balloon angioplasty or bare-metal stents at 33-month follow-up. Furthermore, Hambrecht et al.37 compared ET vs. PCI with bare-metal stents in patients with stable angina pectoris, and found that ET improved event-free survival at 12- month follow-up.
- 9. secondary cardiovascular disease prevention: meta-analysis and guidelines • Since modern comprehensive CR programs contain not only ET but also patient education and counselling, it is difficult to see how much effect is attributable to exercise per se. In the meta-analysis of 2004, Taylor et al.31 reported that the effect size of total mortality reduction was not significantly different between exercise-only CR and comprehensive CR (−24 vs. −16%, NS). • In a subsequent meta-analysis,38 they estimated that approximately half of the 28% reduction in cardiac mortality achieved with exercise-based CR was attributable to reductions in major risk factors, and hence, the remaining half attributable to exercise per se. Taken together, it is clear that ET/physical activity reduces CVD/CAD risk in addition to dietary and/or pharmacological interventions in primary and secondary prevention. In relation to this, both European and American guidelines for CVD prevention5,12 describe recommendations for physical activity and CR participation in independent sections
- 11. Endothelial function and nitric oxide bioavailability • One of the most important molecular consequences of regular physical exercise is the absolute increase of vascular nitric oxide (NO) concentration. NO is responsible for vasodilation, which results in the lowering of peripheral resistance and increase of perfusion. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), the main source of NO, is up-regulated by an increase in flow-mediated shear stress associated with physical exercise due to a complex pattern of intracellular regulation like acetylation,51 phosphorylation,52 and translocation to the caveolae.53 Numerous investigations have now clearly documented that exercise or increased shear stress up-regulates eNOS activity either in cell culture,54 animal,55 or human studies.56 Nevertheless, it remains unclear how an elevated shear stress is translated into increased eNOS activity. On the luminal side of the endothelial cells, direct signalling can occur through deformation of the glycocalyx which results in the activation of calcium ion channels, phospholipase activity leading to calcium signalling, PGI2-release, and cAMP-mediated smooth-muscle-cell relaxation.57 In addition, VEGFR2 is located at the luminal surface and can associate with VE-cadherin, β-catenin, and phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase to phosphorylate Akt and induce AKT-mediated eNOS phosphorylation, leading to higher NO production
- 13. CENTER FOR PHYSIOTHERAPY AND REHABILITATION SCIENCE JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA
- 14. Tobacco control to fight physical inactivity • Control of tobacco consumption has been impressively successful despite deep-rooted addiction in many countries. Warning labels, tax increases, and smoke-free places resulted in elimination of tobacco consumption from many areas of public life. Figure 6 shows the change in cigarettes consumption and prevalence of smoking in youths during a period of nearly 20 years in Germany. Although no single intervention was effective by itself, the combination of several tax hikes, smoking ban in public areas, warning signs, and restriction of tobacco sales to youths caused a highly significant downturn of cigarette consumption by nearly 50% (Figure 6). Can this experience therefore serve as a template for fighting physical inactivity? Probably not but there are some parallels: tobacco consumption and physical inactivity are major risk factors for CAD; both of them are difficult to fight and there is no pill as is the case for the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia or hypertension. But there are also major differences: tobacco consumption is susceptible to powerful negative incentives such as the taxation and a ban in public areas, transportation, and restaurants. To increase physical activity, positive incentives would be required, but presently they are weak or missing altogether. There are numerous aspects how improvements could be implemented without major changes in existing regulations or great investments: membership fees for gyms and sports clubs as well as sports equipment could be made tax deductible. Physical activity could be encouraged by establishing safer cycling routes especially for school children, to promote walking as a means of at least partial daily transportation
- 16. • In conclusion, physical activity is one of the most fundamental factors necessary for maintaining health and warding-off risk factors; long-term compliance, however, is poor in the vast majority of patients. Until today, all strategies to improve adherence significantly have failed and long-term trends seem to point the wrong direction. New concepts need to be contemplated, borrowing from successful fights against other risk factors.
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