Expert Answers

www.transparency.org
www.cmi.no
Author(s): Marie Chene, Transparency International, mchene@transparency.org,
Reviewed by: Dr. Finn Heinrich, Transparency International, fheinrich@transparency.org
Date: 30 January 2013 Number: 358
U4 is a web-based resource centre for development practitioners who wish to effectively address corruption challenges in their work.
Expert Answers are produced by the U4 Helpdesk – operated by Transparency International – as quick responses to operational and
policy questions from U4 Partner Agency staff.
Query
Please identify the good governance characteristics for running a civil society organisation with
strong internal accountability measures (i.e., managing complaints, conflicts of interest, official travel,
financial management, record keeping, election and accountability of the Board, etc). Where possible,
please identify organisations with best practise examples.
Purpose
Anti-Corruption civil society organisations are integral to
helping prevent and raise awareness about corruption,
and as a result, need to maintain public and donor
confidence that they themselves are preventing
corruption and promoting accountability standards
within their own organisations.
I am trying to identify potential anti-corruption and civil
society partners in a corruption-prone environment and
want to ensure their own organisations have strong
internal accountability measures.
Content
1. NGO accountability and donor relations
2. NGO standards and systems of
accountability
3. Examples of NGO accountability initiatives
4. References
5. Appendix: List of potential indicators
Summary
As NGOs take on an increasingly prominent role as
development assistance implementers and political
counter-power, they are under greater scrutiny and
pressure to demonstrate that they are using their
resources in an efficient, accountable and transparent
manner. Their legitimacy in managing aid resources is
closely tied to their accountability to their constituency
(and the public at large), their adherence to their
mission, the transparency of their processes, and their
effectiveness in fulfilling their mandate.
As, in most countries, only rather basic legal
requirements for the set up and running of NGOs exist,
NGO accountability is primarily enforced through self-
regulatory mechanisms and internal rules and
procedures, which therefore need to be carefully,
assessed in terms of their effectiveness in managing
corruption risks. This includes looking at the
organisation’s governance structure and standards,
independence, integrity policies/codes of conduct,
transparency standards, human resource management
policies, financial management standards and
downward accountability measures.
Key features of NGO accountability systems

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1 NGO accountability and
donor relations
NGOs have taken an increasingly prominent role as
development assistance implementers in recent years,
especially in fragile states where they often provide
essential services which are traditionally under the
responsibility of the public sector. With the growing
influence of the non-profit sector over service delivery
as well as their increased involvement in the
development of national and international policies, the
transparency and accountability of NGOs have become
an emerging area of concern.
As resources channelled through the non-profit sector
increase, NGOs are under greater scrutiny and
pressure to demonstrate that they are using their
resources in an efficient, accountable and transparent
manner, and can be held accountable for their
effectiveness, organisational reliability and legitimacy.
In particular, their legitimacy in managing aid resources
is closely associated to their accountability to their
constituency (and the public at large), their adherence
to their mission, the transparency of their processes,
and their effectiveness in fulfilling their mandate (Chêne
2009).Yet, as “private entities”, NGOs are not submitted
to the same integrity mechanisms and legislative norms
that apply to state institutions, including internal or
external oversight bodies, which can have an impact on
their vulnerability to corruption (Trivunovic 2011). In the
non-profit sector, accountability is primarily enforced
through self-regulatory mechanisms, internal rules and
procedures, which therefore need to be carefully,
assessed in terms of their effectiveness in managing
corruption risks.
Overview of NGO corruption risk
management systems for donors
Two recent U4 briefs provide a good overview of what a
comprehensive risk management system should entail
for donors engaging with the non-profit sector
(Trivunovic, Johnson, and Mathisen 2011; Trivunovic
2011).
Preventing corruption
The first step for donors dealing with NGOs consist in
taking appropriate measures to prevent corruption by
assessing the probability and potential impact of such
risk and identifying appropriate measure to mitigate
those risks. This can be done through a number of
measures, including assessing the overall programming
context, exercising due diligence on potential of local
partners, as well as identifying the risks inherent to
specific programmes and activities:
Environmental corruption risk analysis
NGOs operating in countries affected by endemic
corruption are likely to face higher corruption
challenges than other NGOs. Similarly, corruption risks
may be different for different NGOs, depending on the
nature of their activities, their sector of intervention or
the type of operations. For example, advocacy NGOs
may be confronted with risks of different nature than
organisations providing humanitarian relief or delivering
health or education services. Therefore, donors need to
conduct an in-depth analysis of the country, region or
locality where the programme will take place, as well as
a comprehensive risk mapping exercise of the sector
and activities planned, using a mix of quantitative and
qualitative indicators.
Partner selection criteria due diligence
The selection of reliable partners is key to limit
opportunities for corruption and donors can use a
combination of initial in-house assessment and more in-
depth evaluations of financial management capacities
and practice. For these assessments, donors typically
use broad criteria such as compliance with national
NGO laws and regulations (e.g., registration and
financial reporting), legal representative of the NGO,
quality of managing and accounting systems, past
performance and institutional capacity for financial
management and corruption prevention. This includes
looking at the organisation’s governance structure and
standards, integrity policies/codes of conduct,
transparency standards, human resource management
policies, financial management standards and
downward accountability measures, which will be
developed further below.
It is also important to consider that while donors ‘key
partner NGOs often have robust mechanisms in place
to prevent corruption, in many cases these partner
NGOs can work with other NGOs at the country level
which may not have the same structures and capacity
to effectively manage corruption risks. This additional
layer of administration and oversight can make
enforcement of a donor’s integrity standards vis-à-vis
the local NGO challenging.
Programme operations and activities
Corruption risks are also closely linked to the nature of
the operations, the sector and type of activities with
different corruption challenges such as humanitarian

www.U4.no 3
relief, infrastructure projects, service delivery, or
advocacy activities.
Detecting, investigating and sanctioning
corruption
A comprehensive NGO corruption risk management
system also involves taking appropriate measures to
detect, investigate and sanction corruption cases.
Detection mechanisms include rigorous monitoring of
project implementation (activity and financial reporting
as well as on-site visits and inspections), audits and
evaluations, reporting and whistle-blowing mechanisms.
As few donors have internal units with in-depth financial
investigation resources and expertise, investigations of
suspected fraud and corruption are often delegated to
internal audit departments or external assistance can
be sought.
If corruption is uncovered, there should be adequate
sanctions. While rigid systems respond to all incidents
in the same manner (e.g. freezing aid), it is
recommended that sanctions be proportional to the
scope, nature and seriousness of the offence , using
criteria such as monetary value, the deliberate nature of
the defraud efforts, etc.
Implementation instruments
There are three broad implementation instruments to
ensure effective enforcement of the corruption risk
management strategy:
Project documents and contracting
All corruption risk mitigation measures should be
formally agreed with the partners and specified in the
contract.
Operational manuals and guidelines
Provide operational guidelines and details for the
various corruption management mechanisms, through
explicit corruption-related procedures (whistle-blowing
procedures, reporting procedures, procurement
guidelines, gift and asset declaration, vehicle inventory,
financial review checklists, etc.), as well as other
measures dealing with broader issues (programme risk
assessment, partner assessment checklists, etc.).
Policy documents
There are also a number of policies that can be
formulated to specifically address corruption risks.
Defining principles of NGO
accountability
While donors need to put sound NGO corruption risk
management systems in place for mitigating corruption
risks when engaging with non-profit organisations, the
issue of NGO accountability is not limited to what is
referred to in the literature as “upward accountability”
towards donors and external partners. Transparency
International’s Plain Language Guide refers to
accountability as “the concept that individuals, agencies
and organisations (public, private and civil society) are
held responsible for executing their powers properly.”
This implies the obligation to report on activities and
raises the question of what to report and to whom.
Accountable to whom?
The literature increasingly suggests that the concept of
accountability should be understood as accountability to
all stakeholders affected by the organisation’s activities.
Given the specificity of NGO mandates and operations,
this can include a wide variety of stakeholders with
different agendas, making the issue of NGO
accountability extremely complex and challenging. For
example, the International Non-Governmental
Organisation Accountability Charter, which has been
adopted by most of major international NGOs since its
drafting in 2006, identifies a wide variety of
stakeholders:
• Internal stakeholders (staff, board, supporters,
subsidiaries, local partners, volunteers, members);
• Donors and external partners (governmental and
non-governmental);
• Regulatory bodies;
• Organisations to be influenced by NGO activities;
• Ecosystems (who cannot speak for themselves);
• Beneficiaries and parties affected by NGO
operations;
• The media, civil society and the public at large.
In practice, however, NGOs tend to emphasize upward
and external accountability to donors, and mechanisms
to ensure internal accountability or accountability to
beneficiaries are often less developed (Ebrahim 2003).
In addition, accountability mechanisms often do not
reflect the complex web of relationships NGOs develop
with other stakeholders, as they tend to prioritise
accountability to donors over other relationships. In
addition, different types of organisations tend to
develop and emphasise different forms of
accountability. For example, membership organisations
tend to be primarily accountable to their members;

www.U4.no 4
service organisations are principally accountable to
their donors, and network organisations to their
organisational members.
Accountable for what?
There are three main areas of accountability for which
NGOs can be held accountable by their stakeholders
pertaining to their effectiveness, their organisational
reliability and their legitimacy (Jordan 2005):
Effectiveness
NGOs can be held accountable for the effectiveness in
fulfilling their mandate and the quantity, quality, impact
and value for moneys of their operations, as well
responsiveness to the beneficiaries.
Organisational reliability
NGOs can also be held accountable for the
independence and reliability of their organisational
structures, with criteria such as the role and
composition of the board, financial and management
structures, human resource management policies and
practices, etc.
Legitimacy
Last but not least, they also need to answer legitimacy
issues such as their constituency, adherence to their
mission, ties to the public/beneficiaries etc.
2 NGO standards and
systems of accountability
Donors’ selection procedures can vary according to the
local context, amount of funding involved and the
urgency of delivering aid, which may limit the possibility
of conducting in-depth and costly financial reviews.
However, it is good practice to exercise due diligence
and conduct minimum background checks of new
partners, including reviewing past performance on
projects financed by other agencies and a set of
internal governance and accountability systems that
have been identified in the two above-mentioned U4
briefs.
Governance structures and
standards
The governance structure of the organisation largely
depends on the nature of the organisation, its
constituencie(s), its mandate and purpose, operations,
and activities, etc. However, there is a broad consensus
on some essential standards that cut across all
organisations:
• By nature, NGOs should have a non-for-profit
character, a legal entity identifying office holders,
and a clear mission.
• NGOs should also have clearly defined governance
structure, and decision making processes,
membership rules and a description of the
responsibilities, powers and duties of the governing
body, as well as its relationships to other
organisational entities. Board members should be
selected through transparent processes set out in
publicly available policies, have defined terms of
office, receive no remuneration beyond
reimbursement of expenses and should not profit
from the organisation’s assets. There should also
be conflict of interest provisions for board members
in place.
• Board functions should be clearly separated from
management, and the CEO should not have a
voting role on the Board. Board competencies
include the appointment and annual review of the
CEO performance, the review of financial
performance and statements, as well as the
responsibility to hire the auditor.
• The list of current Board members should be
publicly accessible, Board meeting minutes should
be recorded on file, and decisions should normally
be communicated to the membership in a
comprehensive and timely manner, unless good
reasons apply (privacy concerns).
A handbook of NGO governance provides a
comprehensive checklist of criteria to look at for
assessing the governance structure of the organisation
(Wyatt 2004). In addition, the U4 brief on NGO
accountability provides a detailed list of indicators for
NGO governance structures that is reproduced in the
appendix.
Integrity policies and systems
NGOs should also have strong internal integrity
management systems in place and policies to prevent
and effectively address corruption risks that also apply
to partners and service providers.
A group of UK NGOs developed a set of principles and
guidance to NGOs for countering corruption and bribery
(Bond 2011). In addition to recommending an anti-
corruption statement articulating the organisation’s

www.U4.no 5
commitment to high ethical standards, the report
highlights a number of key elements that should be
considered for inclusion in the organisation’s
procedures, including provisions and guidance on
bribery (especially for corruption prone activities such
as procurement), facilitation payments, payments under
duress, gifts and hospitality, political donations. The
anti-corruption policy should be communicated to all
partners, suppliers, contractors, intermediaries and
other third parties.
Conflict of interest (COI) provisions are also an
important component of an organisation’s integrity
management system, with a clear definition of what
constitutes a conflict of interest and guidance for staff,
volunteers and board members on handling conflicts of
interest when they arise. Such policies typically require
that real or perceived conflicts of interest or affiliation
with actual or potential suppliers be disclosed, and that
staff, volunteers and board members excuse
themselves from decision making processes in which
they have a conflict of interest. There should be clear
guidelines specifying under which conditions gifts and
entertainment may be or may not be accepted (and
reported) or family members may be recruited (or not).
There also should be a clear process for COI
management, including a public register of interests
maintaining a record of staff/trustees current and past
interests and positions, and training/awareness raising
activities. An internal ethical body should also be
appointed with clear terms of reference to advise and/
or decide on such issues if required.
The obligation for staff to report corruption or any
unethical behaviour should be backed by whistle
bowing policies protecting those speaking out about
abuses, corruption or mismanagement. In addition,
there should be an effective complaint management
system in place, with clear scope, procedures, internal
and external complaints channels, timeframe for
addressing complaints and an appeal process. A
previous U4 expert answer has specifically focused on
complaints mechanisms (Chêne 2007).
These integrity standards cutting across organisational
management, project implementation, financial
management and information disclosure can be
addressed in a code of conduct. As self-regulation
tools, codes of conduct are the most common approach
to NGO regulation. In addition to setting core values
and guiding principles, they typically provide for
establishing strong oversight boards, complaints
procedures, conflict of interest, and whistleblowing
provisions. A previous U4 Helpdesk answer has
specifically focused on codes of conduct for NGOs
(Chêne 2009). In order to enhance ownership, such
codes should ideally arise from among the
organisation’s staff/ Board members, while also drawing
from best practice.
Transparency standards
Standardised, regular and adequate reporting, in
compliance with relevant governance, financial
accounting and reporting requirements (based on
national laws and global good practice) represent an
important aspect of NGO transparency, with the view to
making basic data available to the public or oversight
bodies on NGO operations. In some countries, such
disclosure statements and reports are required by the
state. For example, in the United States, NGOs
applying for a tax exempt status are required to provide
detailed information on finances, organisational
structure and programme through an annual
information return. Some donors can also impose
similar conditions as part of their reporting requirements
(Ebrahim 2003). However, such requirements tend to
emphasise an upward reporting of financial data, with
limited information on the quality of the work and
downward accountability to stakeholders.
As private entities, NGOs are not submitted to the same
information disclosure laws that apply to donors and
governments. NGOs should therefore voluntarily
commit to high standards of transparency and
disclosure of information. With regard to transparency,
the INGO accountability charter states “we are
committed to openness, transparency and honesty
about our structures, our mission, policies and
activities. We will communicate actively to stakeholders
about ourselves and make information public available”.
NGOs that have adopted this charter are committed to
report accurately on the organisation’s mission and
values, objectives and outcomes, environmental
impact, governance structures and processes, main
sources of funding, financial performance, contact detail
and compliance with the charter.
The organisation’s commitment to transparency can
also be articulated in an information disclosure
policy. Information-sharing should be considered good
practice. At a minimum, NGOs should publish the list of
donors and annual reports that include financial
statements (Trivanovic 2011).

www.U4.no 6
Human resources management
policies
Human resources (HR) policies set a high bar on
ethics and anti-corruption: Remuneration and benefits
should be aligned with the public mandate of the
organisation, while set at levels that can attract and
retain the employment of qualified staff. Policies should
fully comply with relevant national and international
labour regulations, as well as pay particular attention to
specific corruption related risks:
• Merit-based recruitment and promotion practices
and processes;
• Transparent salary and benefit structures, including
per diem policies;
• Transparent performance appraisal systems;
• Transparent disciplinary measures and procedures;
• Regulations/prohibitions of employment of relatives,
family members, etc.
In terms of official travel, there are a few safeguards
that can limit the potential for abuse. The purpose and
benefit of the travel for the organisation should be clear
and pre-approved by the manager, along with an
outline of the expected costs and a budget line covering
these costs. There should be clear reimbursement
guidelines as well as rules governing class of travel and
class of hotels.
Financial management standards
Many donors have developed their own financial
management standards for their NGO partners. Well
established NGOs have typically developed robust
financial management processes, but the challenges for
donors is often to enforce minimum standards when
engaging with lower capacity partners. The minimum
requirements could include:
• Existence of basic accounting tools (book of
accounts, general ledger, general journal, cash
receipt book, cash disbursement book, bank
account records);
• Separation of key functions (approving officer, book
keeper, cash custodian) and “four-eye” principles for
expenses, requiring two signatures by relevant staff;
• Annual financial statement of income and
expenditures;
• Annual financial reports that conform to relevant
laws and practices and which are audited by a
qualified independent public accountant(s).
As procurement is typically an activity highly vulnerable
to abuse, especially in countries with endemic
corruption, it is essential to set minimum standards to
mitigate those corruption risks. This could include:
• There should be open competitive procedures for
purchase above a certain threshold;
• The organisation should require proof of submission
of several offers above a certain threshold and the
justification of the decision;
• The organisation should pro-actively communicate
its anti-bribery policy to all agents, intermediaries,
contractors and suppliers
The above mentioned U4 brief on NGO accountability
provides a detailed list of financial management
indicators which is also reproduced in the appendix.
Ethical fundraising policies
There should also be clear fundraising policies, with
fundraising activities conducted ethically and
accurately, and funding being reported transparently. In
particular, the INGO accountability charter identifies
some standards of ethical fundraising, such as respect
for the rights of donors to be informed about how their
donation will/has been used, accurate description of
needs and activities, clear guidelines when dealing with
gifts in kind, as well as ensure that donations sought
through third parties are solicited and received in
conformity with the organisation’s own practices.
Downwards accountability standards
As already mentioned, the issue of downward
accountability of NGOs towards their beneficiaries is
typically neglected. However, NGOs dealing with
service delivery have developed some experience with
such accountability by promoting greater participation of
the beneficiaries and target groups in the programme
implementation. This could include:
• Open-house policies;
• Community meetings;
• Participatory evaluation of programmes with
participation of beneficiaries/feedback;
• Complaints/ feedback mechanisms.

www.U4.no 7
3 Examples of NGO
accountability initiatives
Although the issue of NGO accountability is relatively
recent, there has been a number of voluntary initiatives
that promote the development and implementation of
NGO accountability standards and mechanisms. They
also provide valuable information on whether and how
NGOs have committed to adhere to high standards of
integrity, accountability, and transparency, and provide
guidance on minimum expected standards for the non-
profit sector.
Global voluntary Initiatives
INGO Accountability Charter
The International Non-Governmental (INGO)
Accountability Charter was launched in 2006 by
eleven leading international NGOs (including Amnesty
International, CARE, ActionAid, CIVICUS, Greenpeace,
OXFAM, and Transparency International) as a
voluntary self-regulating initiative that defines common
values, policies and practices. It is considered one of
the strongest initiatives in terms of assurance
mechanism (Obrecht, Hammer and Laybourn 2012).
The INGO Accountability Charter is a statement of
principles that promote transparency and accountability
both internally and externally through a number of
provisions that cover issues such as respect of human
rights, political and financial independence, responsible
advocacy, participatory and effective programmes, non-
discrimination, transparency in reporting activities,
accuracy of information, good governance, professional
and ethical fundraising. Signatory NGOs commit
themselves to gradually apply the Charter’s provisions to
all their programmes, conduct annual independent fiscal
audits and submit annual compliance reports, which are
reviewed by an independent panel whose assessment is
made publicly available.
For additional information, see:
http://www.ingoaccountabilitycharter.org/about-the-charter/.
Istanbul Principles (Open Forum for CSO
Development Effectiveness)
The Open Forum for CSO Development
Effectiveness is a global process set up by and for
Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) worldwide, to create
a shared framework of principles that defines effective
CSO development practice and elaborates the
minimum standards for an enabling environment for
CSOs. The fifth of these eight principles relates to
“Transparency and Accountability”: CSOs are effective
as development actors when they “demonstrate a
sustained organisational commitment to transparency,
multiple accountability, and integrity in their internal
operations.”
An implementation toolkit provides guidance and
concrete examples on the guidelines, mechanisms and
indicators that CSOs might use to put the Istanbul
Principles into practice in their local/regional contexts.
For more information, please see:
http://www.cso-effectiveness.org/home,091
The Global Reporting Initiative
The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) provides a
comprehensive Sustainability Reporting Framework
that is widely used around the world by companies and
NGOs. The Framework enables all organisations to
measure and report their economic, environmental,
social and governance performance.
The NGO Supplement covers key sector-specific
issues, including: (i) program effectiveness including
affected stakeholder engagement, mechanisms for
feedback and complaints, and monitoring and
evaluation; (ii) integration of gender and diversity into
programs; (iii) public awareness and advocacy; (iv)
resource allocation; (v) ethical fundraising; and (vi)
working with volunteers, among others.
For more information, see:
https://www.globalreporting.org/reporting/reporting-
framework-overview/Pages/default.aspx
International Aid Transparency
Initiative
The International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI)
aims to improve transparency by making information
about aid spending easier to find, use, and compare by
using a common reporting standard. It is a multi-
stakeholder initiative which involves NGOs as well as
donor countries and developing country governments.
NGOs that are reporting using the standard include
CAFOD, Development Initiatives Poverty Research,
Engineers Without Borders Canada, The Indigo Trust,
The International HIV/AIDS Alliance, Oxfam GB,
Publish What You Fund, YIPL (Young Innovations Pvt.
Ltd), and Transparency International.

www.U4.no 8
For more information on the initiative, please see:
http://iatistandard.org/
Examples of initiatives at the
country level
In many countries, national NGO networks have put in
place accountability and transparency guidelines and
initiatives. One World Trust runs a global website of
national level accountability mechanisms as a tool to
map country level accountability initiatives.
For more information, please see:
http://oneworldtrust.org/csoproject/
Other initiatives
The Global Accountability Project
The Global Accountability Project was launched in
2001 by One World Trust5 and targets Inter
Governmental Organisations (IGOs), Transnational
Corporations (TNCs) and international NGOs with the
view to promoting the transparency and accountability
of decision-making processes. The Global
Accountability Report (GAR) presents an assessment
of the accountability of leading organisations to the
people they affect. The organisations are assessed on
how they integrate key accountability principles into
their organisational policies and management systems.
The last iteration of the report was produced in 2008.
As such, the GAP Framework provides a useful
checklist of the various aspects of NGOs’ operations. It
produces an assessment of the capabilities of 30 global
organisations to be accountable to civil society, affected
communities and the public at large, using four
dimensions of accountability, including transparency
(consistent public disclosure and responses to
information requests), participation (equitable member
control and engagement of external stakeholders in
decision making), evaluation (evaluation and learning)
and complaints handling (provision of safe channels for
internal and external stakeholders to make complaints).
The CIVICUS Civil Society Index (CSI)
The CIVICUS Civil Society Index (CSI) is a
participatory needs assessment and action planning
tool for civil society. The CSI most recent phase 2003 -
2006 covered over 50 countries and can be accessed
through a searchable online database. The database
allows users to create personal accounts to access and
search the CSI data and diamond in all countries that
have completed and published the CSI results.
The state of civil society in their national context is
assessed along four basic dimensions using a
structured methodology.
Please see: http://civilsocietyindex.wordpress.com/
• The structure of civil society.
• The external environment in which civil
society exists and functions.
• The values practiced and promoted in the civil
society arena.
• The impact of activities pursued by civil
society actors.

www.U4.no 9
4 References
Bond, 2011, Anti-Bribery principles and guidance for NGOs,
http://www.bond.org.uk/pages/anti-bribery-principles-and-
guidelines-for-ngos.html (accessed March 4, 2013).
Chêne, Marie, 2009, Developing a code of conduct for
NGOs, http://www.u4.no/publications/developing-a-code-of-
conduct-for-ngos/
Chêne, Marie, 2007, Anti-corruption complaints mechanisms,
http://www.u4.no/publications/anti-corruption-complaints-
mechanisms/
CIVICUS, 2011. Cutting the Diamonds: A first look at the
quantitative data of the CIVICUS Civil Society Index, 2008-
2011.
Ebrahim, Alnoor, 2003, Accountability in practice:
Mechanisms for NGOs,
http://www.plataformademocratica.org/Publicacoes/575_Cac
hed.pdf
International Non-Governmental Organisations Accountability
Charter, http://www.ingoaccountabilitycharter.org/ (accessed
March 4, 2013).
Jordan, Lisa, 2005, Mechanisms for NGO accountability,
http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-
Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=cab359a3-9328-19cc-
a1d2-8023e646b22c&lng=en&id=15446
Obrecht, Alice, Michael Hammer and Christina Laybourn,
2012, Building a common framework: Mapping national level
self-regulation initiatives against the NGO accountability
charter,
https://www.google.no/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=w
eb&cd=1&ved=0CC8QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Foneworldt
rust.org%2Fpublications%2Fdoc_download%2F491-building-
a-common-framework-
report&ei=oDM3UYGQJ8iVswaan4CYDA&usg=AFQjCNEX_
ww2OhsIA36itTVi1FyLZcYOLQ&bvm=bv.43287494,d.Yms
One World Trust, 2008, Global Accountability report,
http://www.oneworldtrust.org/globalaccountability/gar/2008ga
r-mock
Trivunovic, Marijana, Jesper Johnson and Harald Mathisen,
2011, Developing an NGO corruption risk management
system: Considerations for donors,
http://www.u4.no/publications/developing-an-ngo-corruption-
risk-management-system-considerations-for-donors/
Trivunovic, Marijana, 2011, Countering NGO corruption:
Rethinking the conventional approaches,
http://www.u4.no/publications/countering-ngo-corruption-
rethinking-the-conventional-approaches/
Wyatt, Marilyn, 2004, A handbook of NGO governance
http://www.oneworldtrust.org/csoproject/images/documents/E
URO11.pdf

www.U4.no 10
5 Appendix

www.U4.no 11

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