Final report. nguyen ngoc anh.01.07.2013

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DOCTORATE IN CO-ASSOCIATION BETWEEN
TELECOM ECOLE DE MANAGEMENT & UNIVERSITY EVRY VAL D’ESSONNE
Speciality: Management Science
Doctoral school: Science of Society
Presented by
Ms. Ngoc Anh NGUYEN
To obtain the degree of
DOCTOR OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCE OF TELECOM ECOLE DE MANAGEMENT
Defended on 03/07/2013 in front of the jury including:
Director of thesis: Mrs. Chantal AMMI
Professor, HDR, Télécom Ecole de Management
Reporters: Mr. Van Cuong LE
Research Director Emeritus of the National Center for Scientific
Research (CNRS)
Professor emeritus, HDR, Paris School of Economics
Mr. Duc Khuong NGUYEN
Deputy Director for Research
Professor, HDR, Ipag Business School
Examinators: Mr. Denis DARPY
Professor of Universities, Paris Dauphine University
Mr. Thiery MATHE
Responsible for the study and research on consumption, Research
Center for Study and Observation of Living Condition (CREDOC)
Doctor in sociology, Paris-Descartes University
Thesis n° 2013TEMA0002
Ethnic identity, socialization factors and
their impacts on ethnic consumption behavior and
ethnic food consumption in France

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Telecom Ecole de Management and Université d'Evry-Val-d'Essonne do not intend to give any
approval or disapproval to the opinions expressed in this thesis. These opinions should be
considered the author’s own point of view.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to my supervisor,
Professor Chantal AMMI, for her valuable guidance and advice. Her availability, enthusiasm
and carefulness in making comments, as well as her continuous encouragement inspired me
much to complete the thesis.
In addition, I would like to send my sincere thanks to all the members of my jury. My
great thanks are sent to the reporters, Mr Cuong LE VAN and Mr. Duc Khuong NGUYEN, for
their detailed comments. Also, it is my privilege to express my warm regards to the
examinators, Mr. Denis DARPY and Mr. Thierry MATHE for the kindness and support.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank to all the participants for helping me with
data collection while implementing the project entitled “Ethnic Identity, Socialization Factors
and their Impacts on Ethnic Consumption Behavior and Ethnic Food Consumption in France”,
including the respondents and the experts.
Last but not least, an honorable mention goes to my parents, my husband, my son, other
family members and my friends for their understanding and supports. Without helps of the
particular mentioned above, I would face many difficulties while doing this thesis.

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ABSTRACT
As a country with biggest number of immigrants in Europe, France has been so far
known with its multiple ethnic populations, in which the ethnic minority represents a viable and
untapped market segment. As a result, ethnic marketing has been developed correspondingly by
several market agents who would like either to pursue new market segment or strive to cover
the whole market while taking into account of growing multi-ethnic reality in France.
The objective of this research is to measure ethnic identity of ethnic population in
France, their socialization factors, their ethnic consumption behavior in general and their ethnic
food consumption in particular, as well as to determine the influences of these factors. Applying
a hypothetico-deductive approach, both theoretical and empirical investigations are conducted
to serve the mentioned objective.
The first part is a literature review, helpful in developing a conceptual model of ethnic
identity, socialization factors and their impacts on ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food
consumption. It includes the social identity theory [Henry Taifeil & John C. Tuner, 1970];
identity development theory which consists of theory on ego identity [Erik Erikson, 1986] and
empirical researches on personal identity [Marcia, 1980] and ethnic identity development
[Phinney & Ong, 2007]; theory on culture, sub-culture, counter-culture, acculturation; as well
as in depth knowledge on ethnicity, ethnic identity, and ethnic marketing.
Whereas empirical part involves data collection, processing and analysis, which serve
the purpose of verifying not only variables of the conceptual model, but also the hypotheses on
the relationships between them.
The results of the survey on ethnic population in France have confirmed these
hypotheses. They are useful in terms of theoretical contribution, as well as from the point of
management since they help highlighting some strategies for ethnic marketing in associated
with ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption.
Key words: ethnic identity, socialization factor, ethnic consumption behavior, ethnic food
consumption

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RESUME
Avec le plus grand et le plus diversifié nombre d’immigrants et d’étrangers en Europe,
la France représente un segment de marché viable et inexploité. Le marketing ethnique, élaboré
par plusieurs acteurs du marché, a pour objectif de développer de nouveaux segments de
marché, ou de couvrir l’ensemble du marché en tenant compte de la croissance multi-ethnnique
en réalité.
L’objectif de notre travail est de mesurer l’identité ethnique de la population ethnique en
France, leurs facteurs de socialisation, leur comportement de consommation ethnique en
général, et leur consommation d’aliments ethniques en particulier, ainsi que de déterminer les
influences de ces facteurs. Cette recherche s’inscrit dans une démarche hypothético-déductive
et est structurée en deux parties théorique et empirique pour servir l’objectif visé.
La première partie est consacrée à l’analyse du contexte général, à la revue de la
littérature et à l’élaboration d’un modèle conceptuel de l’identité ethnique, des facteurs de
socialisation et de leurs impacts sur les comportements de consommation ethnique et sur la
consommation d’aliments ethniques. Seront analysées la théorie de l’identité sociale [Henry
Taifeil & John C. Tuner 1970], la théorie du développement de l'identité qui se compose de la
théorie de l'ego identité [Erik Erikson 1986] et des recherches empiriques sur l'identité
personnelle [Marcia, 1980] et le développement de l'identité ethnique [ Phinney et Ong, 2007] ;
la théorie de la culture, sous-culture, contre-culture, acculturation, ainsi qu'une connaissance
approfondie de l'ethnicité, l'identité ethnique et le marketing ethnique.
La partie empirique sera consacrée à la collecte, le traitement et l’analyse de données,
qui serviront à vérifier non seulement les variables du modèle conceptuel, mais aussi les
hypothèses des relations entre elles.
Les résultats de notre étude sur la population ethnique en France ont confirmé nos
hypothèses de manière générale. Ils sont utiles en termes de contribution théorique et
managériale car ils aident à mettre en évidence quelques stratégies pour le marketing ethnique
associé à l'identité ethnique, les comportements de consommation ethnique et la consommation
d'aliments ethniques.
Mots clés: identité ethnique, facteur de socialisation, les comportements de consommation
ethnique, la consommation d'aliments ethniques

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...................................................................................................... 2
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................ 3
RESUME................................................................................................................................. 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................ 5
LIST OF FIGURE................................................................................................................ 10
LIST OF TABLE.................................................................................................................. 12
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 14
Managerial context of the research..................................................................................14
Theoretical context of the research..................................................................................15
Rationale and objective of the research ...........................................................................17
Research structure............................................................................................................18
PART I.................................................................................................................................. 20
ETHNICITY, ETHNIC IDENTITY, AND.......................................................................... 20
ETHNIC MARKETING ...................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER I......................................................................................................................21
CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH ..................................................................................21
Introduction ..................................................................................................................22
I. Ethnic marketing development in world-wide situation..........................................23
I.1. Countries with ethnic diversity..............................................................................23
I.1.1. United States of America................................................................................23
I.1.2. Canada ...........................................................................................................27
I.1.3. Australia.........................................................................................................30
I.2. Ethnic products and services worldwide................................................................32
I.2.1. Banking sector ...............................................................................................33
I.2.2. Food sector.....................................................................................................34
I.2.3. Cosmetic sector..............................................................................................36
I.3. Ethical issues ........................................................................................................39
I.3.1. Ethnic marketing may cause discrimination and might be the reason for social
separation................................................................................................................39
I.3.2. Ethnic market segment is not easily defined, usually costly and time consuming
……………………………………………………………………………………….41
I.3.3. Ethnic marketing: integrating but not melting.................................................43
II. Ethnic diversity and ethnic marketing in France ...................................................45
II.1. Ethnic population in France .................................................................................45
II.1.1. Categories and estimated number of ethnic population in France...................45
II.1.2. Statistic on ethnic population in France.........................................................46
II.2. Development of ethnic marketing or alternative ones...........................................57
II.2.1. From alternative manner of ethnic marketing ................................................57
II.2.2. To authentic ethnic marketing.......................................................................59
II.3. What restraint the existence and development of ethnic marketing in France?......65
III.3.1. Legal obstacle..............................................................................................65
II.3.2.Taboo of ethnic marketing in France..............................................................66
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................67
CHAPTER II ....................................................................................................................68
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND .................................................................................68
Introduction ..................................................................................................................69

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I. Social identity theory.................................................................................................70
I.1. Social identity theory- a familiar concept ..............................................................70
I.2. Principals of social identity theory ........................................................................72
I.2.1. Self categorization and social categorization ..................................................72
I.2.2. Social comparison..........................................................................................73
I.2.3. Social identification........................................................................................73
I.2.4. Collective self esteem and self enhancement ..................................................75
I.3. Social identity theory vs. identity theory ...............................................................76
I.3.1. Difference ......................................................................................................77
I.3.2. Similarity .......................................................................................................78
I.4. Link between ethnicity and social identity, social identity theory and ethnic
marketing....................................................................................................................81
II. Theory of identity development...............................................................................83
II.1. Ego identity by Erik Erikson- Core concept of identity development theory.........83
II.1.1. Ego ...............................................................................................................83
II.1.2. Stages of life.................................................................................................84
II.1.3. Ego-identity status ........................................................................................86
II.2. Personal identity formation by James Marcia.......................................................87
II.2.1. Identity formation .........................................................................................87
II.2.2. Identity status................................................................................................87
II.3. Identity development process by Phinney J. S. and Ong A.D. ..............................89
III. Culture, subculture and counterculture ................................................................90
III.1. Culture ...............................................................................................................90
III.1.1. Origin and concept.......................................................................................90
III.1.2. Culture and its components..........................................................................92
III.1.3. Cultural characteristic..................................................................................94
III.1.4. Acculturation...............................................................................................97
III.2. Subculture ........................................................................................................103
III.2.1. Basic concept of subculture .......................................................................103
III.2.2. Importance of subculture in marketing.......................................................105
III.2.3. Ethnic subculture.......................................................................................106
III.3. Counterculture..................................................................................................109
III.4. Culture and consumption behavior in academic research ..................................110
III.4.1. Culture and consumption behavior.............................................................111
III.4.2. Cultural approaches in marketing...............................................................113
IV. Ethnic related issues and ethnic marketing .........................................................115
IV.1. Definitions of some principal concepts.............................................................116
IV.1.1. Ethnicity, community, race and tribe .........................................................116
IV.1.2. National identity, race identity and ethnic identity .....................................123
IV.2. Ethnic marketing..............................................................................................125
IV.2.1. Origin of ethnic marketing.........................................................................125
IV.2.2. Definition of ethnic marketing...................................................................126
IV.2.3. Factors of ethnic marketing .......................................................................130
IV.2.4. Effective ethnic marketing strategies .........................................................136
IV.3. Ethnic marketing in comparison with tribal marketing......................................138
IV.3.1. General concept of tribal marketing...........................................................138
IV.3.2. Key rules of tribal marketing .....................................................................141
IV.3.3. Important factors of tribal marketing .........................................................144
IV.3.4. Step to design tribal marketing strategy .....................................................147
IV.3.5. Tribal marketing practice...........................................................................148
IV.3.6. Tribal marketing vs. ethnic marketing........................................................150
IV.4. Ethnic marketing in comparison with community marketing ............................150

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IV.4.1. What is community marketing? .................................................................150
IV.4.2. Community marketing tools ......................................................................153
IV.4.3. What makes community marketing different?............................................155
IV.4.4. Community marketing as a larger concept and practice of ethnic marketing158
IV.5. Ethnic identity and ethnic consumption in academic research...........................158
IV.5.1. Ethnic identity research .............................................................................158
IV.5.2. Ethnic consumption behavior research.......................................................160
Conclusion...................................................................................................................161
CHAPTER 3................................................................................................................163
CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND..................................................................................163
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS......................................................................................163
Introduction ................................................................................................................164
I. Conceptual model of the research...........................................................................165
I.1. Formulation of conceptual model........................................................................165
I.2. Constructs and measuring items..........................................................................168
I.2.1. Ethnic identity..............................................................................................168
I.2.2. Parental orientations.....................................................................................170
I.2.3. Ethnicfriendship orientation .........................................................................171
I.2.4. Other group orientation ................................................................................172
I.2.5. Situational orientation ..................................................................................173
I.2.6. Ethnic consumption behavior .......................................................................174
I.2.7 . Ethnic food consumption.............................................................................175
I.2.8. Moderator variables......................................................................................177
II. Hypotheses of the research ....................................................................................183
II.1. Factors influencing ethnic identity .....................................................................183
II.1.1. Parental orientations....................................................................................184
II.1.2. Ethnic friendship orientations......................................................................185
II.1.3. Other group orientations..............................................................................186
II.1.4. Situational factor.........................................................................................187
II.2. Factors influencing ethnic consumption behavior...............................................188
II.2.2. Friendship orientation .................................................................................190
II.2.3. Ethnic identity.............................................................................................191
II.3. Factors influencing ethnic food consumption.....................................................192
II.3.1. Situational factor.........................................................................................193
II.3.2. Ethnic identity.............................................................................................194
II.4. Factor influencing ethnic friendship socialization ..............................................195
II.4.2. Situational orientations................................................................................195
II.5. Interaction effects ..............................................................................................196
Conclusion...................................................................................................................197
PART II............................................................................................................................... 199
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ....................................................................................... 199
Introduction ....................................................................................................................200
CHAPTER 4 ...................................................................................................................201
EPISTEMOLOGY AND ................................................................................................201
METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH....................................................................201
Introduction ................................................................................................................202
I. Epistemological position and methodological approach........................................203
I.1. Epistemology......................................................................................................203
I.1.1. Positivism versus constructivism..................................................................203
I.1.2. Choice and justification of epistemology......................................................204

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I.1.3. Design of the research..................................................................................206
I.2. Methodological approach....................................................................................209
I.2.1. Quantitative versus qualitative approach.......................................................209
I.2.2. Measuring instrument- Online questionnaire ................................................211
I.2.3. Sampling approach.......................................................................................212
II. Churchill paradigm- Methodology to develop and validate variables and
constructs ....................................................................................................................217
II.1. Presentation of Churchill paradigm....................................................................217
II.2. Procedure to valid variables and constructs........................................................219
II.2.1. Definition of conceptual domain of construct..............................................220
II.2.2. Exploratory phase .......................................................................................220
II.2.3. Confirmatory phase.....................................................................................226
III. Methodology to verify the conceptual model and hypotheses.............................230
III.1. Structural equation modeling method ...............................................................230
III.2. Principal issues in structural equation modeling................................................231
III.3. Choice of statistic software for structural equation modeling ............................234
Conclusion...................................................................................................................237
CHAPTER 5 ...................................................................................................................240
RESEARCH RESULTS .................................................................................................240
Introduction ................................................................................................................241
I. Analysis of samples..................................................................................................242
I.1. Distribution of respondents by ethnic origin........................................................243
I.2. Distribution of respondents by nationality...........................................................244
I.3. Distribution of respondents by gender.................................................................245
I.4. Distribution of respondents by language..............................................................247
I.5. Distribution of respondents by religion................................................................248
I.6. Distribution of respondents by age ......................................................................250
I.7. Distribution of respondents by profession ...........................................................252
I.8. Distribution of respondents by time of residence in France..................................254
II. Factor analysis .......................................................................................................256
II.1. Parental Orientation towards Ethnicity...............................................................257
II.2. Parental Orientation towards Integration in French society.................................258
II.3. Ethnic Friendship Orientation............................................................................259
II.4. Out-group Orientation........................................................................................260
II.5. Situational Orientation.......................................................................................261
II.6. Ethnic Identity...................................................................................................262
II.7. Ethnic Consumption Behavior ...........................................................................263
II.8. Ethnic Food Consumption .................................................................................264
III. Hypothesis validation ...........................................................................................267
III.1. Analysis of constructs’ direct relation with global samples ...............................270
III.1.1. Effect on ethnic identity.............................................................................270
III.1.2. Effect on ethnic consumption behavior ......................................................271
III.1.3. Effect on ethnic food consumption.............................................................272
III.1.4. Effect on the socialization with ethnic friends............................................273
III.2. Analysis of the effect of moderator variables....................................................275
III.2.1. Effect of the gender ...................................................................................278
III.2.2. Effect of the age.........................................................................................279
III.2.3. Effect of profession....................................................................................279
III.2.4. Effect of residence time in France..............................................................280
III.3. Comparison of the result between PLS and AMOS with global sample ............281
IV. Analysis of main ethnic groups ............................................................................284
IV.1. Factor analysis .................................................................................................284

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IV.2. Testing model and hypothesis...........................................................................284
V. Discussion of findings.............................................................................................286
V.1. With global sample............................................................................................286
V.1.1. Effect on ethnic identity..............................................................................286
V.1.2. Effect on ethnic consumption behavior .......................................................288
V.1.3. Effect on ethnic food consumption..............................................................289
V.1.4. Effect on the socialization with ethnic friends.............................................290
V.2. Similarity and difference across ethnic groups...................................................290
V.2.1. Parental role................................................................................................290
V.2.2. Ethnic friends’ role .....................................................................................291
V.2.3. Out-group’s role .........................................................................................291
V.2.4. Situation’s role............................................................................................291
V.2.5. Ethnic identity’s role...................................................................................292
Conclusion...................................................................................................................293
CONCLUSION ...............................................................................................................294
I. Synthesis of the research.....................................................................................294
II. Contribution of the research .................................................................................296
II.1. Theoretical contribution.....................................................................................296
II.2. Managerial and professional contribution...........................................................297
III. Limit of the research ............................................................................................300
IV. Perspectives...........................................................................................................301
REFERENCE ..................................................................................................................... 304
ANNEX ............................................................................................................................... 336

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LIST OF FIGURE
Figure1: The American population age by ethnicity ................................................................24
Figure 2: Population of France in 2008 ...................................................................................51
Figure 3: Age pyramid of immigrant population in France......................................................54
Figure 4: Ethnic food market in France...................................................................................59
Figure 5: Concept of social identity theory..............................................................................70
Figure 6: Comparison of identity theory versus social identity theory .....................................80
Figure 7: Erikson’s epigenetic diagram ...................................................................................85
Figure 8: Ethnic identity formation process.............................................................................89
Figure 9: Immigrant's acculturation process and its link to ethnic marketing...........................98
Figure 10: Example of subcultures based on ethnicity, language and nationality in France....107
Figure 11: Cultural factors influencing consumer behavior and marketing strategy ............... 112
Figure 12: Ethnic marketing as a component of identity marketing and its principles............129
Figure 14: Steps to define effective ethnic marketing strategies.............................................138
Figure 15: Tribal marketing design steps...............................................................................147
Figure 16: Important factors of tribal marketing approach.....................................................149
Figure 17: Factors of community affecting community marketing.........................................152
Figure 18: Proposed model of ethnic identity, socialization factors and their impacts on ethnic
consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption.............................................................166
Figure 19: Hypothetico-deductive research process...............................................................207
Figure 20: Processus of web-based questionnaire diffusion...................................................212
Figure 21: Churchill paradigm- Suggested procedure for developing better measures ...........219
Figure 22: Factor analysis steps described by Rietveld & Van Hout (1993:239) ....................229
Figure 23: Classification global sample according to ethnic origin........................................243
Figure 24: Classification of global sample according to nationality.......................................244
Figure 25: Distribution of respondents according to nationality and ethnicity........................245
Figure 26: Classification of global sample according to gender.............................................245
Figure 27: Classification of global sample according to gender and ethnicity........................246
Figure 28: Classification of global sample according to language spoken..............................247
Figure 29: Classification of global sample according to language daily spoken and ethnicity 248
Figure 30: Classification of global sample according to religion practised ............................249
Figure 31: Classification of global sample according to religion practiced ............................250
Figure 32: Classification of global sample according to age..................................................251

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Figure 33: Classification of global sample according to age and ethnicity.............................252
Figure 34: Classification of global sample according to profession .......................................253
Figure 35: Classification of global sample according to profession and ethnicity ..................254
Figure 36: Classification of global sample according to time staying or living in France.......255
Figure 37: Classification of global sample according to time staying or living in France and
ethnicity................................................................................................................................256
Figure 38: Conceptual model................................................................................................268
Figure 39: Validation of hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 .............................................................271
Figure 40: Validation of hypotheses 6, 7 and 8......................................................................272
Figure 41: Validation of hypotheses 9 and 10........................................................................273
Figure 42: Validation of hypotheses 11 and 12 .....................................................................273
Figure 43: Validation of the model with global sample..........................................................275
Figure 44: Moderator variables'effect…………………………………………………………277

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LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Population by race for the United States of America in 2000 and 2010 ......................24
Table 2: Buying Power of ethnic consumers in the United State of America............................25
Table 3: American consumers’ expenditures in 2009...............................................................26
Table 4: Ethnic origin in Canada.............................................................................................27
Table 5: Visible minoritythnic population in Canada...............................................................29
Table 6: People groups according to ethnicity in France in 2011 .............................................48
Table 7: Population of France Metropolitan from 2005 to 2008...............................................50
Table 8: Acquisitions of French citizenship during the period of 2005 to 2010........................51
Table 9: Immigrants in France by nationalities in 2007 and 2008 ............................................52
Table 10: Foreigners in France by nationalities in 2007...........................................................53
Table 11: Housing situation of households in France...............................................................55
Table 12: Synthesis of research on ethnic identity, ethnic affiliation and situational ethnicity..97
Table 13: Synthesis of research on acculturation of ethnic groups .........................................100
Table 14: Behavior of different ethnic groups in the United State of America........................108
Table 15: A comparison of tribe, ethnicity and community....................................................122
Table 16: Synthesis of constructs measuring ethnic identity..................................................159
Table 17: Ethnic identity perspectives in consumer research .................................................160
Table 18: Synthesis of constructs and measurements used in conceptual model.....................180
Table 19: Hypotheses on moderators’ effect..........................................................................196
Table 20: Synthesis of hypothesis .........................................................................................197
Table 21: Main strengths and limitations of qualitative and quantitative approaches .............210
Table 22: Origin of foreigners and immigrants in France.......................................................216
Table 23: Profile of persons taking part in experience survey................................................222
Table 24: Constructs and measuring items purified and retained after the pretest...................224
Table 25: Comparison of LISREL and PLS methods.............................................................236
Table 26: Heuristics for construct validity and model validity in the research........................237
Table 27: Profiles of the respondents.....................................................................................242
Table 28: Factor analysis for the construct of Parental Orientation towards Ethnicity............258
Table 29: Factor analysis for the construct of Parental Orientation towards Integration in French
society..................................................................................................................................259
Table 30: Factor analysis for the construct of Ethnic Friendship Orientation .........................260
Table 31: Factor analysis for the construct of Other Group Orientation .................................261

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Table 32: Factor analysis for the construct of Situational Orientation....................................262
Table 33: Factor analysis for the construct Ethnic Identity ....................................................263
Table 34: Factor analysis for the construct of Ethnic Consumption Behavior ........................263
Table 35: Factor analysis of Ethnic Food Consumption........................................................265
Table 36: Factor analysis with global samples.......................................................................267
Table 37: Quality indices for justification of research model.................................................269
Table 38: Hypotheses related to factors influencing ethnic identity .......................................271
Table 39: Hypotheses related to factors influencing ethnic consumption behaviors ...............272
Table 42: Validation of hypothesese in the model for global sample with LISREL................274
Table 43: Hypotheses on moderators’ effects.........................................................................277
Table 44: Effect of gender.....................................................................................................278
Table 45: Effect of age..........................................................................................................279
Table 46: Effect of profession ...............................................................................................280
Table 47: Effect of length residing in France.........................................................................280
Table 48: Validation of effect of four moderator variables gender, age, profession and time of
residence in France...............................................................................................................281
Table 49: Comparison of hypothesis testing with LISREL and PLS ......................................283
Table 50: Testing hypotheses on three ethnic groups .............................................................285

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INTRODUCTION
Managerial context of the research
In such developed and culturally diverse economies as the United State of America,
United Kingdom, Canada, France, and Australia, etc. different minority ethnic groups co-exist
with the mainstream one, and there are interactions between their cultures with the host one,
that is why market segmentation based on criterion of ethnicity would be increasingly crucial
[O’Guinn, T., Imperia G. and MacAdams, E., 1987].
For years now, ethnicity has been considered as important factor affecting marketing,
together with cultural differences, it is the base to understand customers and design marketing
strategies responding to their needs, demands and interest. Ethnic marketing has been regarded
as a label used by the marketers all over the world to identify a globalization trend that a "one
size fits all" model will not work for every business anymore. Instead, segmentation of different
groups of customers as well as customized products and services according to these different
groups evidently bring both clients and product/service providers more benefit, and as a result
gain their loyalty and market fragment.
From the side of businessmen, ethnic minority groups are evaluated as gold ores waiting
to be mined thanks to their easy accessibility and increasing buying power and because the
mainstream market becomes so oversaturated. If digging correctly, then at least entrepreneurs
could get benefits in four aspects: (i) in profit, (ii) in loyalty from ethnic customers who are
usually underserved in host culture, (ii) in lifetime value of ethnic audiences; and (iv) in lower
competitiveness compared with the mainstream one since it is under-penetrated market.
Nevertheless, well identifying group of ethnic customers and satisfying their needs remains the
key to a successful ethnic marketing strategy and business.
From the side of ethnic consumers, ethnic focused businesses help them satisfy their
concrete needs and demands that they cannot find in the mainstream market. Positively, this
allows them to integrate in their living environment without melting or losing their own identity
and typically valuable ethnical and cultural characteristics.
If the United Nations of America has long time known as either a « melting pot », it is
recently called with new name "salad bowl". It is because of ethnic diversification which
derives from immigration flow. In fact, immigration at national and international levels now

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transforms each country to a "salad bowl" in different sizes and levels, depending on the
diversity of ethnicities, cultures, religions, and depending on the changes in socio-demographic
structure of each nation. As a result, the market has to take into account new demands and
behaviors of different groups of customer regarding their basic demand (education, health,
food, clothes) and others (communication, beauty, transportation, etc), originating a new
marketing approach: ethnic marketing.
It is found that ethnic marketing is an important aspect of lifestyle marketing which
allows a company tailoring its products and services towards the customer's lifestyles. It is a
precision marketing involving in-depth consumer knowledge. First, it must know who the
customers are by demographic and consumer behavior profile. Second, it takes advantages of
their cultural media and events to communicate with customers. Last but not least, it must
design and implement ethnic strategies by selection of sales staffs, products and services,
distribution channels, promotion periods, so on so forth to meet their needs and desires.
In France, it is estimated that over 12 million people belong to ethnic communities,
representing more than 20% of the total population, of which about 6 million from Northern
Africa; “3.5” million from Antillais, Domtom and other African countries; 1 million from Asia;
and 2 million from other European countries [Tréguer and Segati, 2005: 216]. This number
continues to grow over years. Such high number of ethnic populations shows great potentiality
of ethnic consumption. Ethnic marketing can be therefore effective in the French multicultural
environment, because ethnic marketing in France is big, is growing, is concentrated, and is
profitable with high purchasing power. However, despite of big ethnic populations, ethnic
marketing has been underdeveloped in France.
The purpose of this research is to clarify current situation of ethnic population, ethnic
identity, and ethnic consumption behavior in general and in the sector of food in particular in
this multi-ethnic and multi-cultural country. Through this lens, hopefully the situation of ethnic
marketing in France is better described.
Theoretical context of the research
Dealing theoretical context of the research on ethnic identity, ethnic consumption
behavior, and ethnic food consumption, much theoretical knowledge involves, for example
theories on social identity, ethnic identity, identity development, culture, sub-culture,
acculturation, ethnicity, tribe, community, ethnic marketing, as well as academic research on
these topics up to now.

16
Theoretical foundation of the research includes three main theories. Firstly, the social
identity theory, developed by Henri Taifeil and John C. Tuner, depicts both conceptualization
and measurement of ethnic identity. Through this, some principal elements helpful to design
relevant ethnic marketing strategies are highlighted, including (i) common identity and behavior
of an ethnic group; (ii) the level of ethnicity; (iii) the level of membership of an ethnic person
towards a particular ethnic group, and (iv) negative factors that may influence ethnic members,
such as prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination... All these factors serve the purpose of
understanding the self and the group of a particular ethnic population. However, this theory is
limited in understanding why and how ethnic identity derives. Therefore, it is essential to take
an in-depth analysis on the process of ethnic identity development and cultural intervention
during the formation of ethnic identity through the lens of ethnic identity development theory
and the one on culture.
Secondly, the identity development theory is reviewed so that ethnic identity could be
understood as a developmental process. This involves not only the psychological study on ego
identity model of Erik Erikson (1986), but also empirical study on personal identity conducted
by James Marcia (1980). Combining ego identity process and personal identity development,
Phinney et al. propose a particular process for ethnic identity formation. According to these
authors, the two principal processes include exploration and commitment that influence at
different stages of ethnic identity formation, from childhood, to adolescence and young
adulthood, then finally adulthood. In fact, the authors share the same idea with Marcia (1980)
when using four statuses of personal identity in the ethnic identity formation process: (i)
identity diffusion or unclear identity; (ii) foreclosure or commitment to identity; (iii)
moratorium or exploring identity; and (iv) achieved identity or clear identity. Also, they agree
with Erikson (1968) that adolescence and young adulthood mark the dramatic developmental
changes in terms of identity. Accordingly, starting with the assumption that individuals are
unclear in terms of their personal identity at childhood, the ethnic identity of individuals is
formulated gradually, either to foreclosure, meaning commitment without exploration, or
moratorium, meaning merely exploration. Finally, their ethnic identity becomes clearer thanks
to the joint process of exploration, then commitment to the identity chosen [Phinney J. S. and
Ong A.D., 2007]. However, this final status could be either stable or not, in case of unstable, it
continues to explore for identity purpose [Phinney, 2006].
Lastly, theory on culture, sub-culture, counter-culture, acculturation, etc. and their
influences on ethnic identity and marketing are presented as each ethnic group hold their own
cultures, and differs each other according to time and context. Furthermore, as ethnic marketing

17
takes all cultural factors mentioned above into play, it starts by "recognizing culture as the
frame and the essence driving contemporary business". Then, it "discovers the hidden
predominant values and beliefs supported by an in-depth underlying world located at the heart
our cultural roots", where «products are charged with symbolic meanings" and market agents
(consumers, customers, clients, entrepreneurs, employees, competitors, distributors...)
[Dagoberto Paramo Morales, 2005]. In this section, comprehensive studies on culture are
provided. Especially in the theory of culture, subculture, acculturation and the transmission of
culture among different social agents are put on focus.
In addition, literature review also provides an in-depth study on ethnic related issues and
ethnic marketing which aims at defining not only basic concepts of ethnicity and ethnic identity
but also differences between ethnicity versus tribe, race, community; ethnic identity versus
national identity, race identity; and ethnic marketing versus community and tribal marketing.
On each theoretical section, a review of researches on ethnic identity, socialization factors, their
relationship with consumption behavior and food consumption is synthesized which shows
fruitful results in developed countries with ethnic diversity, such as the United States of
America, Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia… but little research on this topic in
France, especially in ethnic marketing perspective and quantitative method.
The literature review is useful in making a solid theoretical foundation for the study on
ethnic identity, socialization factors and their impacts on ethnic consumption behavior and
ethnic food consumption in France. Based on this, an empirical study is conducted on 450
ethnic individuals from 17 to 70 years old, rather equal in terms of gender, with diversity in
terms of professions, living in France from short time to very long time, and with different
ethnic origins but mainly belonging to Northern African, Sub-Saharan African and Eastern
Asian groups.
Rationale and objective of the research
The study is designed to examine the conceptualization and measurement of ethnic
identity as a multidimensional and dynamic construct. It also aims at discovering the degree to
which ethnic identity and other socialization factors influence ethnic consumption behavior in
general, and ethnic food consumption in particular of different ethnic groups in France.
Five research questions are defined as the followings:
1- Who are representatives of ethnic population in France that closely associated to the
consumption of ethnic products in general and ethnic food in particular?

18
2- What are influent factors determining the ethnic friendship socialization of ethnic
population?
3- What are the factors contributing to form ethnic identity and to what extent do they
influence ethnic identity?
4- Which are the factors that have the most influence on ethnic consumption behavior?
5- What motivate ethnic individuals towards the consumption of ethnic food?
Research structure
The research is divided into two parts. The first concentrates on context, theoretical
background and academic research on ethnicity, ethnic identity and ethnic marketing, that the
conceptual model and hypotheses of the research are grounded. The second include empirical
study which presents epistemology and methodology, research results, discussion and
perspectives of the research. Each part consists of two chapters.
Chapter one starts providing general context of ethnic related issues, at world wide level
in general and particularly in France. As can be seen, France is among countries with long
history of immigration. Therefore, this country has a diversity of ethnicity and cultures. As
Anne Sengès reveals, after the United State of America, the United Kingdom has applied ethnic
marketing, the same things happen to German and Nederland. However, in Europe, France
continues to resist with the ethnic temptation. Due to its special characteristics, ethnic
marketing has been very weakly developed, or changed in other kinds of variations, or
alternatives. This section is supposed to discuss ethnic related issue in France, for instance
ethnic population, ethnic products and suppliers, etc... It also attempts to understand what
restraint the existence or development of ethnical issues within the territory of this nation.
For the second chapter, it deals with theoretical background, including (i) social identity
theory, developed by Henri Taifeil and John C. Tuner, depicts both conceptualization and
measurement of ethnic identity; (ii) identity development theory which involves not only the
psychological study on ego identity model of Erik Erikson (1986), but also empirical study on
personal identity conducted by James Marcia (1980) and on ethnic identity formation done by
Phinney et al. (1992); (iii) theory on culture and its influences on ethnic identity and marketing;
(iv) clarification of basic concepts concerning ethnicity, ethnic identity, and ethnic marketing.
All of these theoretical backgrounds serve the purpose of developing conceptual model and
hypotheses. Therefore, at the end of this chapter, conceptual models with concrete latent

19
variables, manifest variables, and moderator variables together with hypotheses on relationships
among these variables are discussed in detail.
The third chapter concerns epistemology and methodology to conduct the research. For
epistemology, the research applies positivism and hypothetic deductive approach. For
methodology to conduct empirical study, it employs quantitative approach, online
questionnaire, and convenience sampling method. Last but not least, while Churchill paradigm
is considered as methodology to develop and validate variables, structural equation modeling
method is taken in use to verify conceptual model and hypotheses.
The last chapter presents research results, which involves not only the analysis of
sample, factor analysis but also hypothesis validation. For better understanding of the sub-
group, analysis of main ethnic groups taking part in the survey is done. It ends up with
discussion of findings with global sample, as well as across ethnic groups.
Finally, contribution of the research, its limitations and perspectives are mentioned in
conclusion.

20
PART I
ETHNICITY, ETHNIC IDENTITY, AND
ETHNIC MARKETING

21
CHAPTER I
CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH

22
Introduction
Before tackling the issues of ethnic marketing in the French society, it is vital to understand
the general situation of ethnic marketing development in the world. First and foremost, since
mentioning ethnic marketing, rather it is the concern of developed countries with vast diversity
of ethnicity as consequent of immigration. Therefore, some remarkable countries with their
multiple ethnic populations are supposed to be discussed. In addition, an overview of ethnic
products and services in different sectors, including finance and banking, telecommunication,
food, cosmetics, technology, media and communication, hospitality, health, so on so forth…
existing in this global village are presented in the second section. The purpose of this chapter is
that through the lens of international view, ethnic related issues are provoked and understood in
all-sided manner.

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I. Ethnic marketing development in world-wide situation
I.1. Countries with ethnic diversity
In fact, every country is already embedded with ethnic diversity. However, in this
modern society, the globalization and international movement make the earth become just a
small global village where all countries become more and more multiethnic and multicultural. It
is certain that this is still on the move merging population, changing socio-demographic
structure in every country. However, developed nations are the most concerned with this issue
due to huge immigration.
I.1.1. United States of America
If we take the United State of America (USA) as the biggest one touching by this issue,
it is easy to recognize ethnic diversity in this country, which has constituted of immigrants and
their descendants. According to the Joshua Project- A ministry of the U.S. Center for World
Mission, the population of more than 313 million in the US is classified into 365 ethnic groups,
which belong to five main ethnic groups: the Caucasian or the White, the African American, the
Hispanic American, the Asian American and the Indian American with such primary religions
as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddism and other ethnic religions.
As can be seen in the below table, there is a moderate changes in the socio-demographic
of the US during the period of 2000 to 2010. Within an increase of more than 27 million (or
9.7%) in the national population, 43.3% is due to the increase of Asian in American society,
whereas the native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, American Indian and Alaska Native
represents, and the African American represent 35.4%, 35.4% and 18.4% respectively. A big
proportion for this increase can be explained by the increase of those of two or more races,
meaning the one mixed with ethnicity: 32%.
In addition, it should be noted that despite of the increase in population, the “White”
does not remain its 75% of the total population as in 2000; alternatively, they represent 72.4%
of the total population in 2010. Furthermore, it is easy to see a rapid change in the population of
the Asian American when instead of representing 3.6% of the total population in 2000; it now
changes to account for 4.8%. The increase in ethnic population between 2000 and 2010 shows
the importance of this group in the US society, besides the mainstream population.

24
Table 1: Population by race for the United States of America in 2000 and 2010
Race Year 2000 Year 2010 Change from 2000 to
2010
Number % of total
population
Number % of total
population
Number % of total
population
One race 274,595,678 97.6 299 736 465 97.1 25 140 787 9.2
White 211,460,626 75.1 223,553,265 72.4 12,092,639 5.7
Black or African
American
34,658,190 12.3 38,929,319 12.6 4,271,129 12.3
American Idian
and Alska Native
2,475,956 0.9 2,932,248 0.9 456,292 18.4
Asian 10,242,998 3.6 14,674,252 4.8 4,431,254 43.3
Native Hawaiian
and other Pacific
Islander
398,835 0.1 540,013 0.2 141,178 35.4
Some other race 15,359,073 5.5 19,107,368 6.2 3,748,295 24.4
Two or more
races
6,826,228 2.4 9,009,073 2.9 2,182,845 32.0
Total population 281,421,906 100 308,745,538 100 27,323,632 9.7
Source: U.S. Census Bureau
Then, if taking into account the population by age and ethnicity, it is easy to recognize
that the ethnic minorities represent a high proportion of younger population in the US society.
According to the synthesis 2011 of Nielsen Company, these ethnic populations may have
different perspectives and behavior, compared to the mainstream population, which should be
aware by the marketer and producers, especially in their design of marketing strategies and
product development to satisfy the requirements of these target groups.
Figure1: The American population age by ethnicity

25
Moreover, the buying power of these ethnic consumers has a dramatic change over the
years, which affirm their potential consumption. As illustrated in the table of buying power of
ethnic consumers in the United States of America over the years, it is seen that the buying
power of each ethnic consumer group nearly double after each ten years. However, the Hispanic
population shows its great purchasing power when it is estimated to be the leader of all ethnic
group, in 2013 with 1,386.2 billion dollars. The second important ethnic group in American
society is African American group when its buying power follows with estimated 1,239.5
billion dollars.
Table 2: Buying Power of ethnic consumers in the United State of America
Ethnic population group 1990
(in billion $)
2000
(in billion $)
2008
(in billion $)
2013 (estimated)
(in billion $)
African American 318.1 590.2 913.1 1,239.5
Hispanics 211.9 489.5 961.0 1,386.2
Asian American 116.5 268.9 509.1 752.3
Total 645.5 1348.6
Source: A portrait of black America on the eve of 2010 census
A closer look at the buying power of ethnic and minority populations, including African
Americans, Asian Americans and Hispanics, is all it takes to persuade advertisers to jump into
ethnic market. Let's see the U.S consumers’ expenditures in 2009 as an example.
Although the Asian American is positioned at low level of buying power as indicated
the table below, their annual consumption per person is at the peak of more than 56,000 dollars,
compared to any other ethnic group. Like other ethnic groups, housing, transformation and food
are among items the most consumed, but, it should be noted that these expenditure is higher for
the Asian American, compared to other ethnic groups. Higher income can partly explain their
higher expenditure. Nevertheless, the expenditure per items shows the budget that each ethnic
group spends in their living. Together with the average income of these groups, the marketers
can understand better the financial and living conditions of each group to design appropriate
products and services if they take any of these ethnic groups as target consumers.

26
Table 3: American consumers’ expenditures in 2009
2009, all
consumer
units
Race
Hispanic origin or
Latino
White and all other races
and Asian Black or
African
American
Hispanic
Non-
Hispanic
Total
White and
all other
races
Asian
..Income before
taxes 62 857 65 405 64 898 76 633 44 397 49 930 64 591
..Income after
taxes 60 753 63 113 62 663 73 107 43 654 49 185 62 305
Average annual
expenditures
(dollars) 49 067 50 957 50 723 56 308 35 311 41 981 50 015
..Food 6 372 6 622 6 585 7 565 4 524 6 094 6 409
..Alcoholic
beverages 435 466 471 350 201 267 457
..Housing 16 895 17 362 17 224 20 395 13 503 15 983 17 016
..Apparel and
services 1 725 1 721 1 704 2 150 1 755 2 002 1 689
..Transportation 7 658 7 983 7 950 8 784 5 302 7 156 7 725
..Health care 3 126 3 314 3 351 2 498 1 763 1 568 3 335
..Entertainment 2 693 2 869 2 894 2 270 1 404 1 664 2 829
..Personal care
products and
services 596 603 606 557 536 532 604
..Reading 110 118 119 111 46 36 119
..Education 1 068 1 134 1 080 2 327 591 707 1 116
..Tobacco products
and smoking
supplies 380 400 413 122 230 182 406
..Miscellaneous 816 843 853 611 626 544 853
..Cash
contributions 1 723 1 784 1 799 1 452 1 280 1 015 1 818
..Personal
insurance and
pensions 5 471 5 736 5 674 7 117 3 550 4 230 5 638
Source: U.S. Census Bureau
It is certain that the rise in ethnic identity is shifting behavior in the U.S. consumer
market. Consequently there is a necessity in knowing and understanding representatives of
different ethnic groups in American society, as well as know how to connect with them as they
are not the mainstream but represent the new main stream in this society. Acknowledging
ethnic diversification, more and more companies see "ethnicity" as natural but vital factor and
decide to focus their marketing strategies on the immigrants and their descendants with
different origins and ethnicities, which makes the United States of America known as the
birthplace of ethnic marketing so far.

27
I.1.2. Canada
The population born outside Canada increases recently despite the fact that 83.8% of the
population in this country is Canadian-born. Today, this country has over 100 various ethnic
groups, most of whom have retained their respective languages and cultures and the Canadian
government’s policy of multiculturalism encourages them to preserve their distinctive heritage
and also share that with Canada’s remaining population.
Canada consists of primarily two founding ethnic communities: the British and the
French. British Canadians have mostly exercised dominance over Canada. However the French
Canadians were only less successful in maintaining their distinctive culture and language
mostly in the Quebec region. During the 1960s, the French minority population put pressure on
the government to avoid French culture and language from being overthrown by the English
society. As a response, the government of Canada took on its shoulder the responsibility of
devising ways to prevent discrimination against different ethnic groups. Other Canadian ethnic
groups are Germans, Ukrainians, Italians, Chinese, Dutch, Indians, Aboriginals, Jewish,
Moroccans, African Americans, South Asians, Latin Americans, Greek, Arab.
Table 4: Ethnic origin in Canada
Ethnic origin Population (in person)
Total - Ethnic origin(1)
31,241,030
British Isles origins 11,098,610
French origins 5,000,350
Aboriginal origins 1,678,235
Other North American origins 10,408,735
Caribbean origins 578,695
Latin, Central and South American origins 360,235
European origins 9,919,790
African origins 421,185
Arab origins 470,580
Maghrebi origins 94,445
West Asian origins 302,555
South Asian origins 1,316,770
East and Southeast Asian origins 2,212,340
Oceania origins 58,500
(1): The sum of the ethnic groups in this table is greater than the total population count because a person may report more than
one ethnic origin in the census
Source: Statistics Canada, 2006 Census of Population
To better understand the socio-demographic situation of the country, the Canadian
government also collects statistics related to ethnic origin or cultural origin of its population, in
which ethnic or cultural origin refers to the ethnic or cultural groups to which the respondent's
ancestors belong, meaning their ethnic roots or ancestral background of the population. It

28
should not be confused with citizenship or nationality. Accordingly, this society includes 110
population groups with the following origins:
• British Isles origins: English, Irish, Scottish, Welsh
• French origins: Acadian, French
• Aboriginal origins: Inuit, Métis, North American Indian
• North American origins: American, Canadian, Newfoundlander, Québécois...
• Caribbean origins: Antiguan, Bahamian, Bermudan, Carib, Cuban, Dominican,
Grenadian, Guyanese; Haitian, Jamaican, Kittitian/Nevisian, Martinique, Puerto Rican,
St. Lucian, Trinidadian/Tobagonian, Vincentian/Grenadinian, West Indian, Caribbean
• Latin/Central/South American origins: Argentinean, Belizean, Bolivian, Brazilian,
Central/South American Indian, Chilean, Colombian, Costa Rican, Ecuadorian,
Guatemalan, Hispanic, Honduran, Maya, Mexican, Nicaraguan, Panamanian,
Paraguayan, Perivian, Salvadorean, Uruguayan, Venezuelan
• European origins: Weasten European Origins (Austrian, Belgian, Dutch, Flemish,
Frisian, German, Luxembourger, Swiss) Northern European Origins (Danish, Finish,
Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Scandinavian), Eastern European Origins
(Byulorussian, Czech, Czechoslovakian, Estonian, Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian,
Polish, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Ukrainian), Southern European Origins (Albanian,
Bosnian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Cypriot, Greek, Italian, Kosovar, Macedonian, Maltese,
Montenegrin…
• African origins: Afrikaner, Akan, Amhara, Angolan, Ashanti, Bantu, Sub-Saharan
African, Burundian, Cameroonian, Congolese, Eritrean, Ethiopian, Ghanaian, Guinean,
Ivorian, Kenyan, Nigerian, Rwandan, Senegalese, Somali, Sudanese, Tanzanian, South,
etc.
• Arab origins: Egyptian, Iraqi, Jordanian, Kuwaiti, Lebanese, Libyan
• Maghrebi origins: Algerian, Berber, Moroccan, Tunisian, etc.
• West Asian origins: Afgan, Armenian, Assyrian, Azerbaijani, Georgian, Iranian, Israeli,
Kurd, Pashtun, Tatar, Turk, etc.
• South Asian origins: Bangladeshi, Bengali, East Indian, Goan, Gujarati, Kashmiri,
Nepali, Pakistani, Punjabi, Sinhalese, Sri Lankan, Tamil, etc.

29
• East and Southest Asian origins: Burmese, Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Indonesian,
Japanese, Korean, Laotien, Malaysian, Singaporean, Taiwanese, Thai, Tibertan,
Vietnamese…
• Oceani orgins: Australian, New Zealander, Pacific Islands origins (Fijian, Hawaiian,
Maori, Polynesian, Samoan…)
Among ethnic population in Canada, some are considered as visible minority population
due to their big number of population, for example the South Asian, Chinese, Sub-Saharan
African, Latin American, so on so forth. This can be seen clearer in the following table
Table 5: Visible minoritythnic population in Canada
Population (in person)
Total Population 31,241,030
Total visible minority population(1)
5,068,095
South Asian(2)
1,262,865
Chinese 1,216,565
Sub-Saharan African 783,795
Filipino 410,700
Latin American 304,245
Arab 265,550
Southeast Asian(3)
239,935
West Asian(4)
156,695
Korean 141,890
Japanese 81,300
Multiple visible minority(5)
133,120
Visible minority (not included elsewhere)(6)
71,420
Not a visible minority(7)
26,172,940
(1): The Employment Equity Act of Canada defines visible minorities as “persons; other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-
Caucasian in race or non-white in colour”.
(2)For example, Est Indian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, etc.
(3) For example, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Malaysian, Laotien, etc.
(4) For example Iranian, Afghan, etc
(5) Those belonging to more than one visible minority group
(6)For example Guyanese, West Indian, Kurd, Tibertan, Polynesian, Pacific Islander
(7) Aboriginal people and those not considered to be members of a visible minority group
Source: Statistics Canada, 2006 Census of Population
There is une diversity of ethnic population in Canada according to generations.
Principally, there are three groups of generations for ethnic people. The first generation
includes those born outside Canada. For the most part, these are people who are now, or have
ever been, landed immigrants in Canada. However, a small number of them are born outside
Canada to parents who are Canadian citizens by birth. In addition, the first generation includes
people who are non-permanent residents, who come from another country living in Canada on
work or study permits or as refugee claimants, and any family members living with them in

30
Canada. Meanwhile the second generation represents persons born inside Canada with at least
one parent born outside Canada and the third generation includes persons born inside Canada
with both parent born inside Canada [Canada, 2006 Census of Population].
According to the population census of Canada in 2006, the visible minority groups has
higher unemployment rate compared to the invisible minority groups. Among ethnic groups,
those with the highest unemployment rate include Arab (13%), Sub-saharan African and West
Asian (10.7%), Latin American (9%), South Asian (8.6%), Southese Asian and Korean(8.5%),
and Chinese (7.5%).
I.1.3. Australia
With 143 ethnic groups in its approximately 23 million populations, nowadays Australia
acknowledges a high proportion of ethnic people: 40% of its population was born oversea or
having at least one parent born oversea. These ethnic people mainly include those speaking
Chinese, Italian, Greek, Arabic and Vietnamese at home. They are defined by the Department
of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs thanks to what they call "minimum core set"-
consisting of such variables as country of birth of person, main language other than English
spoken at home, proficiency in spoken English and indigenous status; and "standard set"
covering "minimum core set" and other variables, for example ancestry, country of birth of their
parents, first language spoken, language spoken at home, religious affiliation and year of arrival
in Australia. Like the United States of America, the migrants and their descendants have much
contributed to the constitution of Australia country. Therefore, ethnic activities and business are
much respected here.
It is necessary to mention the Ethnic Business Awards-one of the longest Australian
business awards, created by the founder Joshepth Assaf since its inception in 1988, for the main
objective of celebrating the success of migrant contribution to Australian business and the
economy. Initially hosted and sponsored by the National Australia Bank, now it has got much
sponsorship from Singapore Airlines, Telstra, Gulf Air, Emirates and MBF along with
Government Departments such as the Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources,
Austrade and Centrelink as well as, enormous support from various media outlets, providing the
awards with national and international exposure, namely SBS Television, Australian Network,
Aurora Community Channel, El Telegraph (Arabic), The Sydney Korean Herald, Chieu Duong
Vietnamese Daily, Sing Tao Daily Chinese Newspaper, Indian Link, Neos Kosmos (Greek) and
1688 Chinese Newspaper Group. Up to now, Ethnic Business Awards include Business Migrant

31
Awards, Ethnic Media Awards, the Arts, Women in Business and Initative Award as
recognition of Australians from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds, who have followed
and realized their dreams successfully despite of hardship and difficulties1
.
For example, in 2011, more than 700 nominations from 57 different countries of origin
participated in Ethnic Business Awards. Finally, a migrant named Peter Puljich, who has built
accommodation for thousands of Australian baby boomers became winner of the top prize at
the 23rd
Ethnic Business Awards for the Medium to Larde Business Category. Arriving from
Croatia with little money and English language proficiency, he has set up his own company
Living Gems since 1982 and has developed some of the nation’s largest and most successful
residential villages and resorts. In the same year, Micropace Pty Ltd-led by former refugee,
Michael Cejnar, who arrived in Australia with limited English proficiency- received the
Australian Ethnic Business Award in recognition of small business but excellence and
contribution to society achieved by a first generation immigrant to Australia. In fact, Mr Cejnar
became a heart surgeon and developed a specialist heart device to help save lives while his
company is a leader in cardiac stimulator sales in the US and worldwide, with stimulators based
in over 2000 electrophysiology laboratories in over 45 countries. Micropace prides itself in the
highest quality ergonomic product design, manufacture and support. In addition, Complete
Workwear Services Pty Ltd. - an Indigenous owned and managed laundry and dry cleaning
business- is the Indigenous in Business Category Winner within the Ethnic Business Awards.
Starting the business with no asset, the company now becomes specialists in the niche of the
Airline Industry with only 40 employees, who work hard every day to wash, dry, iron, fold and
package items, and tries to provide fast and flawless service to its customers base with airlines
operating from Tullamarine and Essendon Airport such as Air New Zealand, Emirates, Cathay
Pacific, V Australia, China Airlines, China Eastern Airlines, Emirates Airlines, Korean Air,
Qantas, Philippine Airlines, Singapore Airlines, Shanghai Airlines, Thai Airways, Vietnam
Airlines. In fact, this awards received much support, not only from the sponsors and partners,
but also the Australian government and its people as it recognizes of the contribution of
Australia’s diverse people in driving business and prosperity to transform their experience and
spirits of enterprises into the nation's fortune, those from the first inhabitants to more recent
waves of migrants choosing this great land to settle.
However, not only business set up by different ethnic people are respected, but also
ethnic population considered as the customers are highly evaluated when products and services
1
Source: http://www.ethnicbusinessawards.com

32
designed to serve specifically different cultural and ethnic population are developed and
focused.
I.2. Ethnic products and services worldwide
At international level, it is seen that there is a rapid change in socio-demographics since
the world become a global village, where people move around to find their better opportunities,
and integrate in local life while trying to keep their own culture and value. This can be
illustrated with a big migration from the Middle East, Asia and Africa to Europe, or from
Europe, Africa, Philippine, India and Pakistan to Gulf countries of the Middle East. As for
African countries rich in mineral, it is easy to see a big flow of Chinese or Indian.
Within a country, this can be seen from the example of the United States of America
where a huge population of American Hispanics, African American and Asian American settle
down. Another illustration from Europe is France, one of the countries with big immigration
from every corner of the world, especially French-speaking countries from Africa, Asia and a
large number of Arabs. Similarly, the socio-demographic changes within a nation when ethnic
minorities can be found moving from rural to urban area for growth opportunities while a
certain ethnos of the country can move to rural area for different reasons.
As a result, a market often includes different ethnic groups of consumers. For marketing,
this means that the purchasing power of different ethnic groups does not remain the same and
that someone born and living in their mother land does not have the same needs and tastes like
the one with the same origin but growing or living in other countries.
Given these movements, it is believed that standardized marketing approaches that
ignore the differences in culture, symbol and practice of different client groups within a single
national economy are unlikely to effectively reach ethnic groups with a strong sense of identity.
It is even less appropriate to ignore these groups of consumers, especial when their purchasing
power is increasing dramatically. Instead, the companies need to customize their products and
services for different groups of people as well as to find strategic marketing plan to serve their
diversified clients and to gain customers as markets fragment. It is also anticipated that the
more a group of customers is cared for, the more this group engages with the brand and the
customized products or services. For these reasons, ethnic marketing has been applied in
different fields, showing its strong perspectives in bringing adapted products to ethnic
customers as well as prompt solutions to improve client managements. For example, it can be
seen in financial, food, beauty, housing, textile, communication, touristic products and services,

33
etc. targeted to particular ethnic consumers in such multicultural countries as the US, Canada,
Australia, German, France, UK, etc, and even in emerging countries like China, India, and
some Latin American countries, etc. The main objective of this section is to present some ethnic
products or cases, regarded as examples or application of ethnic marketing in different fields.
I.2.1. Banking sector
This can be firstly shown in the banking sector in the USA where the banks use ethnic
banking to identify their main ethnic groups of customers. As indicated Kuehner Hebert.K., the
growth of East West Bank in the US is among those thanks to their focus on ethnic Chinese
and Koreans. Targeting at first the Chinese American in Southern California, from the 70s to
the 90s, the bank conducted a traditional savings and loan business by making predominantly
long-term, single family residential and commercial and multifamily real estate loans. Now it
also provides loans for commercial, construction, and residential real estate projects and for the
financing of international trade for companies primarily in California. Not only products have
been designed to meet the demand of these customers, for example low cost pass book savings,
money market deposit, and credit for real estate and business, but also the banking services
have been adapted to better serve these clients, for instance trilingual branch systems where
Mandarin, Cantonese and English can be spoken to facilitate their clients [Kuehner Hebert, K.
2003].
With the Bank of America, it has a long history of commitment to immigrants of diverse
ethnic origins, their development, growth, and well-being in the United State of America. It has
been successful in penetrating the ethnic remittance market by innovating its remittance
products like SafeSend in May 2002, which at first targeted exclusively the Hispanic population
in five states: Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico and Nevada based on their increasing
and growing importance of the remittance industry. Then the product also drives towards the
prominent ethnic groups of Filipinos and Vietnamese. Beside remittance, it was also one of the
pioneer in providing Hispanics loans, checking and mortgage products.
Targeting Hispanic population in America, the Bank of America has been lauching its
largest brand and product advertising campaign exclusively focusing Hispanic consumer, for
instance, it has included the tagline in Spanish "Creemos en Ti", meaning "We believe in you"
on television, radio and its print advertisement, signifying its commitement to healping
Hispanic consumers realize their financial dreams. Particularly with the product SafeSend, it
partnered with Lopez Negret Communications, a Houston-based, Hispanic owned and operated

34
agency specializing in Hispanic marketing to develop its advertising campaign. Accordingly, a
Mexican Consulate Identification Program has lauched, in which the bank accept the Mexican
Consulate Identity card on a nationwide basis. This "Matricula Consular" card has allowed
more Hispanic to open new accounts and cash checks. Furthermore, in its systems, the bank
facilitates its customers with bilingual staffs, who can communicate target ethnic minority
groups either in their native language or English. All its collateral materials, from brochure to
television, print and radio advertising have been created and developed directly in Spanish,
rather than translating from English into Spanish. Therefore, by using message directly to
Hispanic individuals and designing products and services specifically to help customers to
achieve their financial dreams, the bank has demonstrated an deep understanding and respect
for their specific cultural needs and preferences2
.
More and more banks in the US have applied ethnic marketing in their strategy. As
indicated Shanmuganathan.P et al., "While a number of US banks have already become
experienced and well-positioned in this market, other more generic banks are identifying the
need to be more informed and responsive to the needs of their substantial base of ethnic
customers and to those who are not yet banking customers" [Shanmuganathan.P et al., 2004].
I.2.2. Food sector
In food sector, it is inevitable to mention McDonald in the United States, one of the
pioneers in ethnic marketing as a fast food chain. In such a culturally diverse country, the
marketers of McDonalds have been refocusing the way they promote their products to
consumers with ethnic marketing, meaning using a marketing mix reflecting the attitudes,
values and preference of ethnic Americans. It has shown its forefront of this new wave in the
US by developing menu items and advertising schemes gleaned from ethnic favour, taste and
preference, catering to the ultra-diverse population in this country, rather than focusing on only
its traditional middle class Caucasian. According to this, the likes and dislike, unique taste,
cultural identity and preference of ethnic consumers such as African American, Asian, and
Hispanic have been taken into thorough consideration to turn into marketing campaigns,
making it a market power and potential advertising perspective.
For example, the very first products that Neil Golden, McDonald's U.S. chief marketing
officer and his team developed aiming at Hispanics population in the U.S. West in the 1990s
was "Fiesta Menu," which included guacamole and spicy beef tortas. This products brought
2
Source: Bank of America http://mediaroom.bankofamerica.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=234503&p=irol-newsarticle&ID=1406282

35
much success for the team when it was sold very well in not only Hispanic neighborhoods but
also in the areas of white people like Orange County and Laguna Beach- California, and got
positive feedback and appreciation from target consumers at that time3
.
The second examples of ethnic products include McCafé coffee and espresso beverage
presented in this fast food chain in the US in 2009 with sweet, and indulgent represent taste
preference of the African American, as a result are the products geared towards African
American. Furthermore, the advertisement for coffee drinks of
McDonalds also emphasized in the indulgent aspect of such sweet
drinks as mochas.
Also, its recent introduction of fruit combination, known
as McDonalds’ smoothies and snack wraps reflects the taste
preference of ethnic focus groups. This kind of products was
developed based on the tastes and preference of African
Americans, Hispanics, and Asians. Together with the launch of these products in its menu and
advertisement campaign, McDonald not merely orients its products towards ethnic minorities,
but also aims at encouraging middle- class Causasians to consumes them as frequent as hip-hop
and rock’n’ roll4
.
In addition, as Dearborn, Michigan, is known as the second area with high density of the
Arabians, after the Middle East; and that most of them are Muslim, McDonalds has decided to
offer them with Halal chicken nuggets since September 2000. With this kind of product, the
Muslim community could have chance sharing the popular restaurant with other Americans,
and note McDonalds as their favourite one, instead of worrying about non-Halal food or
possible contamination from cooking oil used for meat products. The success of this item
stimulated McDonalds to offer the same thing in the second restaurant in Michigan Avenue,
where Halal McNugget usually accounted for 65% of the order of chicken nuggets, and then in
its third restaurant at Ford Road. The version of Halal McNugget continued to inspire many
other McDonalds’ restaurants, including the one in Autralia and the United Kingdom 5
.
However, this success mainly relied on the word of mouth of the Muslim population because
McDonalds did not want to communicate it [Nestorovic.C., 2009:51].
Then, it is clear that McDonalds spends much marketing efforts towards a broader
spectrum of ethnicities.
3
Source: http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_29/b4187022876832.htm
4
Source: http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_29/b4187022876832.htm
5
Source : http://islam.about.com/od/dietarylaw/a/halalmcd.htm
Source : http://www.mcdonalds.com

36
In general, ethnocentricity and food neo-phobia have shown its great importance in
influencing the decision to consume ethnic foods [Dena M. Camarena et al., 2011]. Hence,
ethnic marketing can find its crucial role in the systems of retailing markets like supermarkets
and traditional ones, or in such fast food chain as KFC, Mc Donald's and Quick. Nonetheless, it
seems at infant stage in restaurants considered as irrespective of ethnocentricity or neo-phobia,
because the purpose of restaurants with ethnic food is to attract clients with specialities from
other corners of the world, to differentiate themselves to various restaurants and to bring the
different taste to their customers.
I.2.3. Cosmetic sector
Cosmetic sector can be seen as a dedicated example for ethnic marketing due to its close
attachment to ethnicity. Although there are many critical towards ethnic marketing, it remains
extremely important in cosmetics due to the fact that people of different ethnicity are physically
different.
Mr. Nicolas Boulander- Responsible of the pole Lux, Mode and Beauty at Eurostaff
assesses that today all major cosmetic groups are well positioned on conventional cosmetic
products so the market becomes saturated. Nevertheless, ethnic cosmetic is a dynamic market
where these giants are poorly positioned, therefore, become niche potential, especially for large
groups. The reasons is that on one hand, ethnic beauty opens them an opportunity to growth
with the customers who have been neglected, and not yet been the subject for research and
development in cosmetics. On the other hand, it brings them a breath of fresh air to capture the
market of population with less difficulty6
.
L'Oréal Softsheen-Carson
L'Oréal is considered as one of the leading in ethnic cosmetic. In order to penetrate this
market, since 1998 it has bought American enterprises namely Softsheen and Carson, both of
which specialize in ethnic hair, and then merged to form Soft Sheen- Carson, occupied
American ethnic hair market, targeting non-Caucasian women. The principle of Softsheen-
Carson is to “help people of color celebrate their unique, highly individual looks and styles with
confidence and flair through the most innovative products specially designed for their needs”7
.
6
Source: Journal du Net http://www.journaldunet.com/economie/tendances/beaute-ethnique/2.shtml
7
Source: Softsheen-Carson website http://www.softsheen-carson.com/_us/_en/about-us/index.aspx

37
Over 100 years, Softsheen- Carson have
continued providing specific products targeted
color communities, for example its first hair
color product named “Dark & Lovely” launched
and formulated specifically for African American
women in 1972, its first no-lye relaxer allowing
women to relax their hair at home later in 1978,
its Carefree Curl launched in 1979 offering
consumers curls and sheen which have made a
major market phenomenon that propelled the
health and beauty market for African Americans
into a $1 billion category, and its first body
perm for black hair named "Wave Nouveau"
launched in 1987. In addition to these products, it is necessary to mention others like Optimum
Care, Roots of Nature, Let's Jam, Beautiful Begining, Sportin'Wave, Optimum Oil Therapy, etc.
as successful products helping their consumers of color define and express beauty on their own
terms. Today, Softsheen-Carson offers a diversity of hair care products, from hair color, relaxer,
styling, permanent wave, maintenance for women and men to relaxer and hair care products for
kids and those for men 'grooming.
Later in 2002, l'Oréal created a new subsidiary, producing hair care products for black
and mixed women in Europe. Its target customers are not merely black and mixed women, but
also Latin and other diversities. This can be seen in its muses of ethnic products such as
Beyoncé, Kelly Rowland, Eva Longoria and Penelope Cruz.
Since 2004, every year, Softsheen Carson has organized “My Style My Way Tours”
bringing the brand to many cities where its stylists have been available at the parkings of
retailing shops to provide information of their products to the customers. Besides, several
events of this kind have been organized, like free hair diagnostic, counseling, distribution of
samples, allowing Softsheen-Carson educating their consumers at the same time entertaining
them. Especially in 2006, by sponsoring the film "A Journey Through Black Hair'itage" with
Essence magazine, Softsheen-Carson brought audiences a history with cultural significance of
African American hair and its trends over the past ten years. What is more , the company offer
in its kit Optimum Care relax a short version of the film as if showing its interest in the value
and culture of its consumers 'life and contribute to preserve their identity reflected in their hair
with the slogan "My Style My Life".
Source : http://www.softsheen-carson.com/

38
IMAN
Beside the giant corporation L'Oréal, the case
of IMAN Cosmetics, Skincare and Fragrances, a
beauty company can be discussed in this section
because it created the first cosmetics, skin care
collection, beauty advice and make overtips with
IMAN brand designed especially for all women with
color skin in 1994.
Iman, the Somali- American entrepreneur
worked as the founder and CEO of IMAN Cosmetics,
Skincare and Fragrances has become a pioneer in the
field of ethnic cosmetics when deciding to make up
this top cosmetic lines in the world for three main
reasons: (i) Firstly, she saw that the face of beauty has changed when such stars as Halle Berry,
Jennifer Lopez and Lucy Liu, etc. have become the most celebrated women in Hollywood; (ii)
Secondly, she was inspired by her two careers as a world class supermodel with much success
in the fashion world, known as a muse for fashion designers including Yves. St. Laurent,
Versace, Calvin Klein and Donna Karan and then as a founder and CEO of IMAN cosmetics;
and (iii) Most importantly, it derives from her particular awareness of the difficulties of women
with skin colors in their make-up and skin care. As a result, she becomes entrepreneurs
delivering a new approach to global makeup and skin care by launching the concept "Beauty of
Color"- revolutionizing the way of thinking of women with skin of color towards beauty, by
categorizing people according only to ethnicity, and by publishing the first beauty and make up
book entitled "The beauty of color: The Ultimate Beauty Guide for Skin of Color (Putnam
Penguin 2005), which is considered as manual addressing skin tones from across the spectrum
Latina, Black, Asian, Indian, Native American, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern, as well as
multiple ethnicities.
The philosophy of IMAN brand is that women with skin of color represent many races,
cultures and ethnicities, so IMAN cosmetics, skincare and fragrances products and services are
designed specifically for ethnic women for example African American, Asian, Latina and
multi-cultural women with skin tones in a myriad of shades. The products and services are
firstly based on Iman's experience mixing her own formulation for make up and use Iman as the
commercial face of the company. Accordingly, it offers them skincare and cosmetics including
16 foundation shades, variant choices that they have never had, regardless their skin tone. Iman
Source : http/www.imancosmetics.com/

39
now has its distribution channels in the United States, Canada, Belgium, France, Norway,
Sweden, Switzerland, the Neitherlands, United Kingdom, Gabon, Nigeria, West Indies and
Zambia. This prestige brand is also available at mass retailers including Target, Wal-Mart,
Walgreens and Duane Reade8
.
In addition to these three presented sector, many other sectors should be mentioned here
as examples of ethnic products, such as telecommunication, media and communication,
technology, building and construction, education, fashion and textile, so on so forth. This shows
the popularity and increasing importance of ethnic marketing and commerce in a multicultural
environment throughout the world.
I.3. Ethical issues
However, there are many critics related to ethnic marketing that need to be discussed.
The purpose of this section is to present ethnical issues concerning this particular marketing
approach.
I.3.1. Ethnic marketing may cause discrimination and might be the reason for social
separation
Firstly, as Kotler et al. mentions, the notion of what is good is quite abstract, because it
may change from one minority ethnic group to another, like it may change from one country to
another [Kotler et al., 1998]. That is why discrimination may derive because it touches the
“don’t” and taboos of some cultures and religions.
Chantal Ammi lists some of vivid illustrations as due to carelessness, the condescension
in advertisement message can be understood as contempt. For example, the Miss Asia was
forbidden in the Great Britain because of Indian women’s oppose, who believed that this event
degraded their women and community. Another example is that effort of the campaign
preventing the SIDA seriously failed in Muslim community for the simple reason that it is
against the principles of this religion [Chantal Ammi, 2005, p.56]. Also, advertisements of pork
based products and wine not allowed in Muslim, therefore, it can be considered as blasphemy in
such societies.
Similarly, ethnic stereotype can be the reason for racist attitude and cultural difference
reinforcement. Stereotype in ethnic marketing happens when an ethnic group is assumed to
8
Source: the website of IMAN Cosmetics, Skincare and Fragrances (http://www.imancosmetics.com/)

40
have certain characteristics, and then the messages used in ethnic marketing strategy become
stereotypical as a generalization of this target group without caring for the diversity within the
group. For instance, during a long period, American movies had been usually portrayed the
African- American in general as unintelligent, lazy or violent, and described physically
attractive African American women as those unintelligent, unintellectual and sexually
promiscuous. These results from the fact that marketers do not obtain all information they need
to have an accurate overview, judgment, and facts towards a group of ethnic people, in many
cases, just because they do not have firsthand contact with the group.
According to Chantal Ammi, it is importantly necessary to cooperate with the leaders of
targeted ethnic group or the ones of same origin to verify and use correct advertisement
message. That is to say the communication policies in ethnic marketing must be carefully tested
before realization since it can lead to amalgam of the so-called discrimination.
In addition, it is ethical that ethnic marketing may use superficial or exaggerated
physical or biological attributes of minority ethnic group. This is also reason for discrimination
and social separation.
Although the fact is that each ethnic group can have their own expectations and needs,
which can lead to different shopping, what is more critical is that the marketing based on
characteristic of race is really dehumanizing, as if needs
and desires, basic elements of marketing, are not as
important and relevant as skin color. This is clearly
discrimination, so instead of focus on the ethnicity, it
should be better to go inside the minds of the consumers
to understand what they really want as product or service
and use this understanding to create appropriate
marketing strategy and convey relevant communication
message.
Furthermore, if different ethnic groups have their
own products and keep their own cultures, they will be
certainly isolated, fractured, and separate from the
mainstream culture and people. So, another argument
on ethnic marketing is that in such multicultural
societies as the United States of Amercica, Canada, Australia, or France, etc., it would be rather
make emphasis on the ties that connect the population of different ethnics than focus on the
gaps and the difference that keep them apart. As marketing, and particular advertisement, has
An advertisement of soap trying to
demonstrate the effectiveness of a
whitening product in 1910 that can lead to
discrimination.

41
great power, which can change the way of thinking, of behaving, it can stimulate consumers to
take action, educating them, and bringing people together. Then beside the objective of selling
and profit, it should care for social issues, as a result take responsibility as hyphenation, an
alliance that link people together, rather than making them acknowledged their difference, act
in other way and lengthening their gap. Moreover, many ethnic population that have longtime
immigrated or are born in the countries of host culture don’t want to be considered as ethnic
minority in their countries of nationality. They would like to be regarded as similar to the ones
surrounding.
Also, some claim that ethnic marketing may lead to ethnocentric bias, especially those
belonging to other ethnic minority groups in the same host cultures, since it focuses on
particular groups, considered as worthy to treat as separate market segment and due to the fact
that the fundamental principles of marketing applied here are mainly based on the behavior of
the majority. This is another reason for social separation.
To sum up, there are so many controversies debate around ethnic marketing,
discrimination and social separation. That is why it is necessary to raise another question to find
its answer: Does the respect of ethnic coincide with the development of ethnic marketing? For
sure, it is not an easy question to find a response.
I.3.2. Ethnic market segment is not easily defined, usually costly and time consuming
Targeting a or several ethnic markets require much time and money since several firms
have defined their principal work to deal with in case they would like to segment market and
focus on a market fragment. For example, they need to firstly develop ethnic profiles, detect
their locations, then go deeply in the community to understand their cultures, analyse their
demographic characteristics. and penetrate in their networks of communication, etc. After that,
a study on the feasibility of treating a minority ethnic group as a separate market segment
should be conducted. In case of positive answer, products and services adapted to their demand
are necessarily designed, together with the development of appropriate marketing strategy to
stimulate them buying and using these new tailored products and services.
Therefore, it is seen that the obstacle here is how to define appropriate ethnic market
segment. Nwankwo and Lindridge (1998), as well as Guilherme D.Pires et al. (2003) reveal that
it is difficult to segment or fragment the market with the process of acculturation of ethnic
minorities. The boundaries of different minority ethnic groups is found fuzzy and not easy to
identify respective population even when using very simple indicators like country of birth or

42
language practised [Guilherme D.Pires et al., 2003]. In addition, although such factor of group
profile as size of ethnic group, geodemographic characteristics, lifestyle, behaviour, needs and
preference are common requirements of ethnic marketing, it is not always available in
convenient form, to make the matter worse, the collection of this information is quite onerous,
time consuming and complicated [Guilherme D.Pires et al., 2011].
The reason lies in the fact that despite the difference, ethnic consumers also have many
things in common related to age, income, education, religion and level of acculturation [Cui, G.,
1997]. Moreover, many young people of ethnic minorities have a strong sense of belonging to
the host country, rather than their countries of origin [Burton, D. 2002].
Due to the difficulty in ethnic segmentation, some ethical failure associated with (i)
inadvertent stereotypes not reflecting the diversity of ethnic group, (ii) the use of biological and
genetics attributes implying inferior ethnic consumers, (iii) nature of some ethnic products with
negative and harmful effect on targeted ethnic group, (iv) redlining reflecting the selection or
exclusion of race based markets, and (v) ethnocentric bias generalizing ethnic groups based on
the research of majority population are extremely crucial to account for. Otherwise, ethnic
marketing can find it failure in providing basic needs of ethnic customers, misallocating
resources of investors, discriminating ethnic population with inadequate, insufficient,
misdirected, misinterpretable information, overtaking social responsibility towards ethnic
minority groups, or perpetuating minority status when continuing promoting invisible ethnic
groups, etc [Guilherme D.Pires & John Stanton, 2002].
However, this problem may be “solved with more or less difficulty through market
research” [Guiherme, D. P. et al. 2002]. This may lead to a question "How to develop a market
for a group of population that we cannot measure?"9
. Yet, to deal with this problem, Lisa, A.
G. et al. (2005) specifies the need of identification of ethnicity level of target ethnic group
owning to such factors as environment, social characteristics and economic situation so that
relevant marketing approach could be applied, either following the culture of majority ethnic, or
pursuing unique cultural value and beliefs of the target ethnic group.
What is more, from the side of managerial aspect, it is essential to assess minority ethnic
group substantiality following the procedure of ethnic marketing segmentation by firstly setting
the criteria to gauge market attractiveness and competitive position of some particular ethnic
groups, giving the weight for each criterion to rate each segment based on their total weight in
comparison with others, making forecast of future position of each segment owing to the trends
9
"Identity Marketing: targeting or integrating the differences?" debate conference organized by the IMS at the Institute of Arab
World in Paris on 11th
October 2010.

43
and evaluation of alternative segment as desirable target groups, as well as assessing
implication of possible changes in the coming business strategies and resource requirements.
This serves the purpose of making assessment of opportunities for each ethnic group. Once a
minority ethnic group is chosen, it is vital to give reasons for explanation, for example, based
on the business mission, capabilities, competencies, expected benefit for customers, group
strength or potential attractiveness, etc. After that, using community resources, for example,
businesses, media, health and entertainment services, worth of mouth, so on so forth to satisfy
the needs of ethnic members is regarded as external signs of group substantiality. These
resources are often easily identified in written forms or even on Internet. However, it is
necessary to have a priori screening framework for ethnic group substantiality by assessing (i)
group associative and congruent behaviour based on public and social institutions like schools,
clubs, churches, associations; (ii) group gateways such as press, radio, television, and Internet;
(iii) professional services especially for the ethnic group, for instance community organizations,
practitioners, lawyers, etc; and (iv) business services available to ethnic group, for example
restaurants, café, bars, markets, travel agencies, beauty services, and so on so forth [Guilherme
D.Pires et al., 2011].
Nevertheless, it should be noted that each minority ethnic group has its own
characteristics which made them different from others, so “recipes do not necessarily
guarantee excellent outcomes” [Morse, 2001, P. 147]. In the other words, for each ethnic
market, it is crucial to develop a different marketing strategy with adaptation. Finding it hard
and costly to reach ethnic consumers, many firms are still reluctant and hesitate to assess to
these groups [DiGiancomo 1990; Miller 1994; Tong 1994].
I.3.3. Ethnic marketing: integrating but not melting
Ethnic marketing can be claimed as touching very complex issues of discrimination and
social separation. In the mean time, it is regarded as a useful tool for ethnic and culture
preservation. In this sense, it can be compared to the case of salad bowl or melting pot in the
United States of America. The huge diversity of ethnic groups in the society can turn this
country into a "melting pot" where all cultures merge together and people integrate each other
to become similar. “Melting pot” is in fact the metaphor implying a heterogeneous society
becoming more homogenous where different elements melting harmoniously to set up the so
called “common culture”. Yet, along the time, many authors attempt to protect their point of
view that despite this ethnic variation, culture and people are combined into one place, but each
one keep their culture, ethnic identity and individuality in their own ways, depending on the

44
level of their cultural integration and ethnicity degree. It is also like the case that every child
grown up would like to know his/her origin, whether then accept his/her native culture or not,
he still bears in minds this fact and act relatively. For some kinds of products like cosmetics and
textiles for example, even when an ethnic individual totally integrates in the host culture, he
remains physically different. So, “salad bowl” is applied in this case representing the
maintenance of different cultures and distinctions, and this is the place for ethnic marketing
development. Many see this as a positive discrimination of ethnic marketing. Based on this
concept, ethnic marketing strategy is designed to appeal members of ethnic groups to their
shared cultural norms, values, tradition, and belief.
As integrating in the mainstream culture but remaining a society with multi-cultures,
ethnic marketing is associated with such advantages as: (i) responding or satisfying proper and
specific needs of different ethnic people; (ii) preserving and maintaining a diversity of ethnic
cultures and identities; (iii) increasing the importance of the nutshell in which the purchasing
power of minority people increases, as a result, their needs also increase in importance to
business for the purpose of making profit, the entrepreneurs are enable to conduct ethnic related
businesses, the competition in ethnic market is higher, the variety of products/services increase
stimulating the purchasing of the ethnic people.

45
II. Ethnic diversity and ethnic marketing in France
France is among countries with long history of immigration. Therefore, this country has
a diversity of ethnicity and cultures. Unlike other developed countries such as the United State
of America, the United Kingdom, Australia, German and Nederland, etc, France continues to
resist with the ethnic temptation. Due to its special characteristics, ethnic marketing has been
very weakly developed, or changed in other kinds of variations, or alternatives. This section is
supposed to discuss the situation of ethnic population in France, and the development of ethnic
marketing in this country as well as attempt to understand what restraint the existence or
development of this special marketing approach within the territory of this nation.
II.1. Ethnic population in France
II.1.1. Categories and estimated number of ethnic population in France
There are many ways to categorize ethnic population in France, as well as different
estimation of the number of ethnic population in this countries, especially when the official data
collected in line with ethnicity is unpermitted, illegal, and unavailable.
First and foremost, it is necessary to make clear the concept of ethnic population in
France, which can be classified into two main kinds:
(i) Individuals acquired French citizenship by naturalization (after moving to live in
France at least 5 years or married to a French) and their offspring born in France and adopt
French nationality at the age of 18
(ii) Foreigners, immigrants, children under 18 years old of immigrant parents and those
born in France but deny adopting French nationality at the age of 18 residing in France.
FRANCE
Geography Area: 543,965 sq km
(The largest country in Western Europe)
Capital: Paris
Official language: French
Urbanites: 77.8%
Total People Groups: 101
Largest Religion: Christian
Languages: 62
Source: Operation World 2012

46
In France, it is estimated that over 12 million people belong to ethnic communities,
representing more than 20% of the total population, of which about 6 million from Northern
Africa; “3.5” million from Antillais, Domtom and other African countries; 1 million from Asia;
and 2 million from other European countries [Tréguer and Segati, 2005: 216]. This number
continues to grow over years. Such high number of ethnic populations shows great potentiality
of ethnic consumption. Ethnic marketing can be therefore effective in the French multicultural
environment, because ethnic marketing in France is big, is growing, is concentrated, and is
profitable with high purchasing power. Although this estimation could not be verified because
of lack of formal statistic, it could be seen more or less through the names of those living in
France [Tréguer and Segati, 2005: 216].
Nonetheless, the main ethnic groups in France can be also categorized in different
manner. According to the French ethnic marketing expert, Chantal Ammi, based on recent and
ancient waves of immigrants, they include 4 groups [Chantal AMM, 2007: 64].
North Africans- the Maghreb: for instance Algerian, Morrocan, Tunisians, these
ethnic groups are mostly Muslims, speaking Arabic and French
Sub-Saharan Africans with those coming from nations situated in the West or
Central Africa/ the Africans and Antillais: this group include both people practising Muslim
and Christian, normally speaking French, together with their national languages
Asians: mainly comprises of Vietnamese political immigrants after the war in
Vietnam or Chinese migrating to France for economic reasons
Ethnic people of other nationalities recently immigrate to France for different
purposes: for example the Turkish concentrated in the East of France, or those from the East of
Europe migrating to the European Union in general and to France in particular.
II.1.2. Statistic on ethnic population in France
Secondly, let's trace back to understand why France has attracted so many ethnic groups
to move to this country for their living. In fact, during the twenty century, France experienced a
high rate of immigration with a mass immigration from Armenia, Greeks, Italia, Yugoslavs,
Portugal, Poles, Russia, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, and its African and Asian
colonies. This helped the country preventing its decline in population because of low fertility
rates and its heavy losses of two world wars. After the World War II, high economic growth
was the main reason attracting such immigrants as Portuguese, and Arabs from North Africa.

47
Meanwhile the Algerians, Tunisians, Morocco found the decline of the French empire and its
following the Six-Day- War as reason for moving to France to live in the late 70s. Whereas,
Chilean and Argentinean settled as refugees in this country for political purposes. Later, in
1975, France experienced another immigration flux from Vietnam as Vietnamese and Chinese
refugees because of Vietnam War. According to INSEE, it should be noted that until the mid-
1970s, immigration flows are predominantly male, filling the needs of labor. In 1974, family
migration was on increase, following the immigration of labor. They were then mainly
composed of women who joined their husband already present in the territory. Also, the
immigration of people from African countries was remarkable in this period. Since then, the
population in France has become ethnically diversified with the flow of immigrants and
foreigners.
Recently, ethnic population in France includes Italian, Spaniards, Portuguese, Polish,
Romanian, Russian, Ukrainian, those originating from the former Yugoslavia, Greek, Arab-
Berber, Turks, Algerian, Moroccan, Tunisian, Sub-Sahara African or those coming from
African and Asian countries which were colonies of France or have been French overseas
territories like Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Senegal, etc. While most of foreigners in France are
Portuguese, Algerian or Moroccan, the majority of immigrants includes those from EU
countries, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. With the acculturation, these ethnic groups show their
differences in terms of culture, language, living style, religion and practice, when interacting
with the mainstream French culture. Some integrate totally in the French society; some partly or
still resists their own cultures. In addition, it is necessary to note that Île-de-France, Rhone-
Alpes, Provence and Côte d’Azur are four greatest regions concentrated with immigrant
population10
.
The information on ethnic population in France can be justified by exterior and interior
sources. With the statistics coming from outside of France, let's take a look at the below table of
population according to ethnicity in France, synthesized by Johua project11
, which has been
conducted since 1995 and officially become a ministry of the U.S. Center for World Mission
since 2006. However, in fact, it is not involved in primary ethnic people research but rather
seeks to compile and integrate ethnic people information from various global, regional and
national researchers and workers into a composite whole. This information can be seen more in
detail in the annex 2 but overall it can be synthesized as the following table.
10
Source: Migration Infos, No. 10, October 2009- Department of Statistics, Study and Documentation- French Ministry of
Immigration, Integration, National Identity and Solidarity Development
http://www.immigration.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/IM10popetrangere06.pdf
11
Source: Johua Project http://www.joshuaproject.net/countries.php?rog3=FR

48
Table 6: People groups according to ethnicity in France in 2011
People group Population
Group 1 Caucasian Peoples 55,246,400
Germanic 3,369,000
Scandinavian 13,000
French 46,954,000
Spanish 863,000
Slav 320,1000
Romany 254,000
Italian 1,223,000
Others (Armernia, Assirian, Basque, Greek,
Portugese, American US…)
2,250,300
Group 2 Asian 1,903,300
South Asian 133,000
East Asian 198,300
West Asian 82,000
South Est Asian 884,000
Center Asian 606,000
Group 3 African 4,812,900
Arab Maghrebi 2,521,000
Arab Levant 252,000
Sub-saharan 579,900
Arab-Berber 1,208,000
Afro-Caribbean 252,000
Unclassified / Other Individuals 962,000
UN Country Population (2011) 63,126,000
Source: Synthesized from statistics of Joshua Project, U.S. 2011
Then, it can be seen that the number of non-French origin people in France is very high.
Of more than 63 million living in France, there are over 16 million people of ethnic or national
non- French origins, which make up 25.6% of the total country population. In the other words,
one quarter of the population in France finds their origin outside the Hexagon, which seems
attractive to develop ethnic markets.
The detailed table in the annex 2 shows that there are 101 ethnic people groups in
France. Beside the mainstream French people, the ethnic groups accounting for great number of
people, including:
• East Asian (mainly Chinese),
• South-East Asian (mainly Vietnamese, Hmong, Khmer),
• Centre Asian (mainly Turk),
• Arab-Malgreb (Algerian, Moroccan, Tunisian),
• Sub-Saharan (mainly Bambara, Comorian, Maninka, Mossi Moore and Wolof),

49
• Arab-Berber (mainly Berber Kabyle, Berber Riffian, Berber Imazighen and Shawiya),
• Afro-Caribean (Saint Lucian, Messer Antille).
• Concerning the Caucasian, it includes the groups of Germanic, Spaniard, Italian, Slav,
Romany, Portuguese, …
These ethnic groups create a French society with diversity in not only ethnicity, but also
in culture, living styles, practice, rituals, religions, so on so forth. However, it is important that
the table above brings us a vivid illustration of all types of ethnicity existing in France with
concrete number of people, from which important ethnics could be extracted, serving the
purpose of understanding target ethnic population of ethnic marketing in France later.
Whereas, immigrant languages should be taken into account as well since they play vital
role for other ethnic groups who are either immigrants or French citizen by acquisition.
Especially, in ethnic marketing, language spoken by target ethnic groups is one of criteria that
should be cared for to penetrate in certain ethnic community. In France, these immigrant
languages are very various, including Adyghe, Algerian Spoken Arabic, Armenian, Assyrian
Neo-Aramaic, Central Atlas Tamazight, Central Khmer, Chru, Giáy, Hmong Daw, Hmong
Njua, Iu Mien, Judeo-Moroccan Arabic, Judeo-Tunisian Arabic, Kabuverdianu, Kabyle, Khmu,
Kirmanjki, Lao, Laz, Lesser Antillean Creole French, Mandjak, Morisyen, Moroccan Spoken
Arabic, Northern Kurdish, Standard German, Tachelhit, Tai Dam, Tai Dón, Tai Nüa, Tarifit,
Tày, Tunisian Spoken Arabic, Turkish, Vietnamese, Western Cham, Western Farsi, Western
Yiddish, Wolof, and Yeniche. The importance of languages spoken by target ethnic population
is about to discussed more in detail in the next section presenting theoretical base for ethnic
marketing. However, the living of these ethnic languages shows that ethnic population still
preserves and maintains their own languages besides practising French to integrate in the
mainstream culture. This partly demonstrates the diversification in culture and practice of
ethnic population in France.
What is more, as synthesized above, in addition to Christian, French society
encompasses a great community practising Islam. This should be paid much attention since
Arab community, whose special culture and practice influence much on the living style and
habit of the Arabian, plays an important role in French society and many special products have
been created in response to Arabian community, from Halal products to Islam banking products
and services. The same happen with Jew community when France is evaluated as the European
country with biggest Jew people and Kosher products serve this ethnic group specifically.

50
Now that formal sources on ethnic population of the French is taken into consideration,
it is found that it is illegal to collect data and information of ethnicity and race in France.
Instead, the number of French by acquisition, immigrants and foreigners with countries of
nationality can be found. These groups of population are regarded as non-French origin or
might be classified in ethnic groups. According to the most up-to-date statistics of INSEE, in
2008, the total number of French by acquisition, immigrants and foreigners is defined to be
11,56 million, occupying for 18,6. Although official statistics of these ethnic concerned groups
is only available up to the year 2008, it shows that the number of non-French origin population
in France is quite high. As can be seen in the below table, the immigrants acquiring French
citizenship, the immigrants with other nationality as well as the foreigners in France during the
period from 2005 to 2008 keep rather constant, just increase moderately over the years.
Table 7: Population of France Metropolitan from 2005 to 2008
Year
Population
(in thousand)
French by
birth (in %)
French by
acquisition (in %)
Foreigners
(in %)
Immigrants
(in %)
On 1st January 2005 60,825 90.0 4.3 5.7
On 1st January 2006 61,400 89.9 4.3 5.8 8.1
On 1st January 2007 61,795 89.9 4.3 5.8 8.3
On 1st January 2008 62,135 89.8 4.4 5.8 8.4
Source : INSEE, census of the population.
In this statistics, the foreign populations are those residing in France without French
nationality. They can be born either oversea or in France, but do not have French nationality. In
terms of immigrants, they are defined as those born over sea but living in France. This includes
French by acquisition, and foreigners born outside France. However, it is necessary to include
also illegal immigrants in France. According to the International Comparative Study of the
National Institute of Demographic Study, France is the sixth country with big immigration in
the world, with 6.7 millions of immigrants who were born over sea, making up 11% of its
population. In terms of French by acquisition, they can be either foreigners or immigrants
before being delivered with French nationality. To better the understanding, please take a look
on the following diagram, with the most updated data of 2008.

51
Figure 2: Population of France in 2008
Source: INSEE 2012
If the group of French by acquisition is taken into discussion, it is seen that after several
years of growth, the number of foreigners acquiring French nationality declined between 2005
and 2007. However this trend seems to have stalled. Suddenly there is an increase of 7433
persons in 2010, compared with the year 2009 when more than 143000 foreigners were granted
French citizenship. This growth is mainly due to the progression statements through marriage.
However, it is necessary to state that most of those obtaining French citizenship is either by
naturalization or reintegration. These statements are proved with the statistics in the below.
Table 8: Acquisitions of French citizenship during the period of 2005 to 2010
2005 (r) 2006 (r) 2007 2008 2009
2010
(in %)
Acquisitions by
decree
101,785 87,878 70,095 91,918 91,948 94,573 66.0
by naturalization 89,100 77,655 64,046 84,323 84,730 88,509 61.8
by reintegration 12,685 10,223 6,049 7,595 7,218 6,064 4.2
Acquisitions par
anticipated declaration
27,258 26,881 26,945 25,639 23,771 23,086 16.1
Acquisitions by
marriage
21,527 29,276 30,989 16,213 16,355 21,923 15.3
Other declarations of
acquisition and of
reintegration
1,291 1,280 1,397 1,347 1,405 1,238 0.9
Acquisitions without
any formality
2,966 2,553 2,576 2,335 2,363 2,455 1.7
Total of acquisitions 154,827 147,868 132,002 137,452 135,842 143,275 100
Source: Sous-direction de la statistique et des études (SDSE) r: revised data
Total population
62.135 millions
French
58.531 millions
Foreigners
3.603 millions
French by birth and
French by acquisition
born in France
French by
acquisition born
outside France
Foreigners born
oversea
Foreigners born
in France
Immigrants
5.237 millions

52
In terms of immigrants, in 2008, 8.4% of people living in France belong to this group.
The report of population of INSEE also shows that 20% of them have lived in France
Metropolitan for forty years and at least 30% of them arrived there less than a decade.
Meanwhile, the direct descendants of immigrants represent 11% of the population in
metropolitan France; half is between 18 and 50 years, and among them, one in two has only one
immigrant parent. In addition, 43% of immigrants were born in a country in Africa, Maghreb
countries or former countries under French administration, just over one in seven from Asia,
and only 5% are from America or Oceania. It is crucial to mention that among immigration
population, the community of Berber from Algeria and Morocco makes up a big number in
French society. This can be illustrated in the following table of immigrants in France by
nationalities in 2007 and 2008.
Table 9: Immigrants in France by nationalities in 2007 and 2008
Countries of nationalities
Immigrants in France 2007 Immigrants in France 2008
In percentage (%) Effectifs In percentage (%) Effectifs
Europe 38.4 2,018,102 38.0 2,032,021
Europe 27 34.3 1,802 532 33.9 1,808,425
Spain 5.0 262,883 4.8 257,315
Italia 6.2 323,809 5.9 317,260
Portugal 11.0 576,084 10.9 580,598
United Kingdom 2.7 142,949 2.8 147,954
Other countries of EU 27 9.5 496,807 9.5 505,296
Other European countries 4.1 215,570 4.2 223,596
Africa 42.3 2,223,617 42.5 2,271,231
Algeria 13.4 702,811 13.4 713,334
Morocco 12.3 645,695 12.2 653,826
Tunisia 4.4 231,062 4.4 234,669
Other African countries 12.3 644,049 12.5 669,401
Asia 14.0 735,863 14.2 756,846
Turk 4.5 234,540 4.5 238,862
Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam 3.1 162,063 3.0 162,684
Other Asian countries 6.5 339,260 6.7 355,301
America, Ocean 5.2 275,114 5.3 282,191
Total 100 5,252,696 100 5,342,288
Source : INSEE, census 2007, principal exploitation
INSEE also indicates that in 2010, 2.7 million immigrants aged 15 or more are present
on the labor market in the metropolis, active or unemployed, representing 9.4% of the
workforce. Nonetheless, the unemployment rate of immigrants in 2010 is much higher than
non-immigrants. Any qualifications of immigrants and jobs they do not explain this differential
alone. Also, the unemployment rate for immigrant graduating of higher education is double that

53
of the non-immigrant. For the immigrants from third countries outside the European Union 27,
it is much more difficult to access to the labor market compared with the rest of the population.
This explains the weak economic situation of immigration groups in France.
In terms of foreigners, in 2008, there are 3.7 million foreigners living in France, making
up 5.8% of the total population, in which most of them come from Europe and Africa,
accounting for 40% and 42.6% of the total foreigners in France respectively. Whereas, this
percentage of Asian people is only 13.9%. The foreigner coming from American and Ocean
countries keep a small number of foreign populations in France: 3.5%. Among this foreigner
population, the groups of those coming from Portugal, Algeria and Morroco are greatest, each
group account for about 13% of the foreign population in France.
Table 10: Foreigners in France by nationalities in 2007
Countries of
nationalities
Foreigners in France in 2007
Foreigners in France in
2008
In percentage
(%) Effective
In
percentage
(%) Effective
Europe 40.0 1,429,618 39.2 1,454,728
Europe 27 35.9 1,281,696 35.0 1,300,641
Spain 3.6 130,328 3.5 128,780
Italia 4.9 174,581 4.7 174,016
Portugal 13.7 490,232 13.2 490,724
Great Brittan 4.1 145,037 4.1 150,819
Other nationalities of
the EU 27 9.6 341,519
9.6 356,302
Other European
nationalities 4.1 147,922
4.1 154,087
Africa 42.6 1,519,605 41.0 1,523,506
Algeria 13.3 475,094 12.7 470,776
Morocco 12.6 451,672 11.9 443,536
Tunisia 4.0 144,058 3.9 143,716
Other African
countries 12.6 448,782
12.5 465,478
Asia 13.9 498,035 13.7 509,929
Turk 6.3 223,406 6.0 221,935
Cambodia, Laos,
Vietnam 1.2 42,421
1.1 41,855
Other Asian countries 6.5 232,208 6.6 246,139
America and Ocean 3.5 124,001 6.1 226,342
Total 100 3,571,259 100 3,714,505
Source : INSEE, census 2007, principal exploitation
As can be seen in the tables above, it is remarkable that 40% of either immigrants or
foreigners have origin from Portugal, Algeria and Morroco.

54
Most of immigrant and foreign population are young, at the age of work, from 25 to 54
years old, regardless women or men. This is illustrated by the below figure of age pyramid of
immigrant population in France according to gender.
Figure 3: Age pyramid of immigrant population in France
Male immigrants Female immigrants
Men in total Women in total
Source: Census of the population in France 2006
According to the population census of France in 2006, the foreigners in France mainly
settle in three regions: Ile de France (38%), Rhône-Alpes (11%), and Provence-Alpes- Côte
d'Azur (9%). An equal proportion of the foreigners of 4% can be found in the following
regions: Languedoc-Roussillon, Midi-Pyrénées, Aquitaine, Alsace and Nord-Pas-de Calais. The
remaining regions of France locate less foreigners, just equal or below 3%.
Ile de France, Rhône- Alpes and Provence-Alpes Côt d’Azur are the most preferred
places for the Maghbins, African and Asian in France. More concretely, the Maghreb, African,
Turkish and Asian immigrants concentrate in Paris, la Seine-Saint-Denis and les Hauts-de-
Seine. In the mean time, the majority of those from Maghreb and Turk install in Rhône and
Isère department in the region of Rhône-Alpes. In terms of Provence-Alpes- Côte d'Azur,
Bouches-du-Rhône and the Alpes Maritimes are two departments preferred for settlement by
foreigners from Magreb. The rest regions, namely Languedoc-Roussibllon; Nord-Pas-de-
Callais, Alsace, Lorraine, Aquitaine, Midi-Pyrénées, etc. are the place that can find foreigners

55
from Maghreb and Turk [Chantal Ammi, 2005: 209-210]. For more information, please see in
the annex of the distribution of the immigrants according to regions in France.
In 2006, of 27 million households in France, there are about 3.1 million immigrant
households, in which 73% of them live in couple (compared with 71% for the non-immigrants)
and 61% of them have children of under 24 years old (compared to 51%) of the non-
immigrants). It is important to refer that the size of African households is the biggest compared
to others when 27% of them have 3 or more children. Especially African sub-Saharan
households like Mali and Senegal can have 4 or more children under 24 years old. Averagely,
the size of immigrant household is 2.9 person whereas the one of non-immigrant is just 2.3.
Table 11: Housing situation of households in France
Origin of household Household with private
owned housing (in %)
Household with low
rent housing (in %)
Europe 61 13
European Union 25 62 17
In which Portugal 55 18
In which Italy 71 10
In which Spain 65 14
Non European Union 50 17
In which Ex-Yougoslavia 41 27
Africa 24 43
Malghreb 26 44
In which Algeria 24 48
In which Maroc 26 43
In which Tunisia 29 36
Other African countries 19 40
In which Mali 9 52
In which Senegal 13 49
Asia 38 26
In which Turkey 31 41
America, Ocean 36 45
Total of immigrant households of third
world countries
28 34
Total of immigrant households 42 27
Total of non-immigrant households 59 13
Source: Recensement de la population France 2006
In terms of housing, most of the immigrants are tenants and live in collective habitat and
social locative habitat since only 42% of them own a house (compared to 59% for the non-
immigrants). If taking the immigrants' origin into account, it is seen that those originating from
Europe or Europe 27 have a high level in house possession, 61 to 62%, even superior to the
non-immigrant households (59%) while this number of African households is quite low, only
24%. This also explains why a large number of African populations live in the low rent

56
housing: 43%. In terms of Asian households, they have a quite moderate percentage of housing
possession: 38%. In addition, it is necessary to note that 7% of immigrant households live
without shower or bathtub.
Education is very crucial to discuss the situation of immigrants. In 2006, the percentage
of the immigrant without any diploma (without any education or without high school education)
is very high, 44% for those more than 15 years old, while this number is only 17% for the non-
immigrants. However, thirty percent of the immigrant in the age of more than 24 years old
have baccalaureate or superior education degree (against 38% of non-immigrants). In fact, their
education level depends much on age and countries of origin, but it is acknowledged that
immigrants coming from Mali, Turkey and Portugal are those with lowest education as the
percentage of non-diploma fluctuates from 60 to 65% for those of 15 years old and over, and
from 52% to 56% for those in the age of 25-29.
More importantly, it is very difficult for the immigrants coming from under-developped
countries to find a job in France. That is why the unemployment for these immigrants is quite
high, 20%, double to the non-immigrants. But it is not the case for immigrants from Europe
since their unemployment rate is equal to those of non-immigrant (9%). In 2006, there is
approximately 2.8% of the immigrants at age of working, representing 10% of active
population in France, that means either they practise a professional work, or are finding a job.
Especially, the number of active immigrant women in working market is less than those of non-
immigrant (60% and 68% respectively). This number is quite low particularly for those from
Turkey, or Maghreb. Nonetheless, the number of men active in working market remains the
same for immigrants or non-immigrants: 76%. However, if segmenting labor market by age, it
is found that the young immigrants meet difficulties into penetrating in labor market when 22%
of those between 25 and 29 years old are unemployed (in comparison with 14% for non-
immigrant). In addition, 65% of the immigrants are employees or workers, compared to 56%
for the non-immigrants. It is seen that a high number of immigrants from Africa works as
workers. Nevertheless, 10% of immigrant population are artisans, merchants, or bosses of
enterprises while this number is only 7% for non-immigrants, especially this number is quite
high for those from Asia, including Turkey.
To sum up, it is seen that France is a country with great ethnic and cultural
diversification. Absent of official statistics, it is estimated that totally, there are about 16 million
ethnic people, accounting for 25.6% of the population in France. There are four main ethnic
communities in France: Maghreb, African and Caribean, Asian (Southern Asian) and Turkish.
These ethnic people usually do not have favorable living condition because of their inferior

57
qualification, their professions as workers and employees, due to inequality in salary between
native and immigrant/foreign people, and because of unemployment [Chantal Ammi, 2005:
216-220]. To make the matter worse, the immigrants population and those belonging to visible
minorities, however, are often victim of discrimination in France due to their difficult
integration. Yet, there has been convergence of lifestyle of immigrants in France.
II.2. Development of ethnic marketing or alternative ones
Ethnic marketing in France barely covers basic needs, with a range of relatively little
sophisticated products and only at infant stage as long as it remains marginal with general
practice. This is due to legal framework, the lack of in-depth reflexion on the potential of
visible minorities, the lack of knowledge on behaviors, the motivation and purchase criteria of
ethnic minority groups [Nguyen-Conan, 2011:105]. However, no one denies the existence of
ethnic marketing in France, either in its authentic manner or alternatively.
II.2.1. From alternative manner of ethnic marketing
It is illegal to collect statistics on ethnicity and religion, as well as develop marketing
using such criterion as ethnicity as the base for market segmentation in France. Therefore,
dissertation on this topic is quite limited. Nonetheless, if we take regionalism like ethnic and
community criteria, it is found that France has long-
time acknowledged the practice of ethnic or community
marketing. For instance, such appellation of origin or
geographical indication products as Breton cheese or
meat, or the unification of 130 Breton enterprises
valorising the products originating in Bretagne facilitate
the consumption of those with Breton origin living in
other places or those loving products of this region is a
vivid example [Patric Hetzel, 2003].
Furthermore, ethnic marketing could be modified to serve ethnic people by the
marketing based on religion, for example "Halal" products for Muslim population or "Kosher"
for Jewish community [Patric Hetzel, 2003]. In fact, Halal – a quality certificate largely
recognized in Arabic countries in Arabic means – “in accordance with the law”, i.e. contains no
pork derivates, no animal blood, alcohol nor other intoxicants and the term Kosher – certificate
recognized by Jewish communities, as well as regular consumers, who require the utmost
quality means "fit". For more information on these topics, please consult our work entiled
Source : http://jewsforsarah.com

58
“L’alimentation communautaire, s’inscrit-elle dans le development de la consommation
engagée?” done in 2012 in coordination with the Research Center for the Study and the
Observation of Living Conditions (CREDOC).
Isla Délice should be firstly mentioned as the pioneer of Halal brand in France. Founded
in 1990, and belonging to Zaphir society, it has been the leading brand in the Halal market,
focusing 100% of its production
and commercialisation for Halal
meat and frozen products. Up to
now, it offers the wide range of
Halal products with over eighty references It is also the first brand having developed
communication campaignes in Halal market at national level. In 2010, its campaign was gauged
as the most innovative of the year by consumers and professionals. Recently it has been well
acknowledged with its poster campaign throughout France, and especially at Paris metro system
"Isla Délice, Vive la Diversité" insisting on the diversification of culture in France12
.
Some of Halal products offered with Isla Délice brand is illustrated as follows:
Aslo paying attention to the
Muslim community, Kentucky
Fried Chicken (KFC) in France has
served Halal chicken in its French
outlets for twenty years now.
Another fast food chain offering a
tailored food for this community is
Quick when it has begun serving
Halal food in 22 of its 358 outlets,
since July 2010. Some of its classic
fast foods have been modified to suit these people, for example the "Long Balcon" has been
replaced by "Long Beef" and bacon sandwiches has changed to smoked chicken one in Quick
12
Source: Isla Delice website http://www.isladelice.fr/societe/
Source : www.isladelice.fr
Source : www.isladelice.fr
Source : http://www.lexpress.fr

59
Halal Argenteuil while the same burgers in Fleury-Merogis, outside Paris, has been served with
smoked turkey instead.
Figure 4: Ethnic food market in France
Source: Nielsen & Symphony IRI 2012
II.2.2. To authentic ethnic marketing
Despite the fact that ethnic traceability is illegal in France, there still exist ethnic
marketing and commerce simply because people are physically different and some ethnic group
have so unique characteristics that deserve to develop products or services targeting different
groups of customers.
Ethnic cosmetics
A vivid example can be seen in cosmetic and beauty sector. As indicated Mr. Jean-
Christophe Despres- Director of Ethnic Marketing Agency SOPI, discussing ethnic beauty in
France means mentioning beauty products and services specifically for "black people and Arab-
Berber". With a potential customers amount to 7 million, in which Arab Berber occupies for 4.5
€5 billion- Halal Food Market
€350 million- Exotic and Ethnic Food in Great and Average Surface
€250 million- Exotic Food Market
€116.5 million- Asian Food Market
€105 million- Tex-Mex Food Market
€95 million- Community and Religious Food Market

60
million. The demand for ethnic cosmetic of these populations is increasing in line with the
increase of diversity
Source: www.mgc.fr
There are many ethnic cosmetics offers, namely Naomi Sims, Iman and Fashion Fair
(beauty product for black and métis skin), DOP (hair products for those with dry and fries hair
like the African and the Arabs. Yet, referring to the cosmetic market in France, it is inevitable
to mention two giants L'Oréal and Estee Lauder that have invested much in ethnic beauty. In
their retailing supermarket chains like Sephora and Marionnaud, ethnic cosmetics could be
easily found13
. However, due to the fact that the case of L'Oréal has already mentioned in the
preceded section, this section is not supposed to discuss it anymore, but focusing on smaller
enterprise: the beauty expert MGC.
Founded in 1982 by Marcel Cohen, MGC invented ethnic beauty market in France with
its first small shop of 4m2
at boulevard de Strasbourg in Paris selling special cosmetics for
Antillais and African population with the help of a black sales assistant. Its immediate success
has stimulated this enterprise to continue and expand their business with eight stores, online
commercial siteweb (www.mgc.fr) and hundreds of employees. Its business is mainly ethnic
haircare products and services, for instance the products with such brands as Black Star or
13
Source: http://www.journaldunet.com/economie/tendances/beaute-ethnique/1.shtml
An announcement recruiting models for advertissement
of MGC Paris:
Bonjour à toutes !
MGC Paris, N°1 de la cosmétique ethnique en France,
RECHERCHE son égérie 2011 parmi vous. Pour postuler,
vous pouvez nous envoyer vos photos (portrait en
couleur) à lcohen@mgc.fr.
Les critères de sélection sont les suivants :
- Être métisse ou noire
- Avoir des cheveux lisses mi-longs à long (ou avec la
possibilité de faire un brushing pour le shooting).
- Petit plus : Une belle peau et un joli sourire sauront
vous avantager!
Merci d’avance pour votre participation. En espérant
vous voir très prochainement dans nos magasins MGC.
Bonne journée
Source: MGC Beauty Expert
MGC shop system:
1) 146 rue de Rennes, 75006 Paris
2) 3 boulevard de Strasbourg, 75010 Paris
6) 10 passage de l'Industrie, 75010 Pairs
7) 14 passage de l'Industrie, 75010 Pairs
8) 89 rue du Commerce, 75015 Paris

61
Capirelax. In addition, it also plays the role as distributor of many American brands like Black
Opal14
. The monthly basket in MGC shop amounted to 180 euros in 2006 and its flagship
product and body lotion were sold one million units per year. Today, MGC is considered as the
leading distributor of ethnic cosmetics and hair products and equipment for professional
hairdressers and beauty salons, and estimated to dominate 35% of ethnic market in France. It is
now responsible for the development of ethnic beauty in this country and strives to improve the
quality of its products as well as offer better services as demanded by customers.
Ethnic telecommunication
Another example of ethnic commerce and marketing can be found in telecommunication
with illustration of Phenix Telecom- a telecom operator officially recognized by the French
authorities for regularization of Telecom. Founded in 1999 in Paris with the goal of providing
international telecommunication services, this company has become the calling card specialist
and expert in Asian destination, a Telecom operator and even become sold to other operators
such as Allomundo, Buget Telecom, etc. For calling card, it offers a wide range of products for
Asian population, either Allo Asie for the whole Asian countries, or other cards for only such
population as Chinese, Korean, Japanese or Thailand. Moreover, its website also offers the
Chinese version to facilitate a big Chinese group in France.
Source: http://www.phenixmobile.com
In addition to Asian destination, this company also serves other ethnic people in France,
for example African ones with Afri-Card, American with Phenix Caraibes card for Caribea and
the DOM TOM countries of France, Tiempo Latino for Southern American countries, Phenix
Com+ card for Northern American destination. For those who would like to call to European
countries, they can use Phenix Com + for all European destination, or Phenix Eastern Europe
for East Europe. The Phenix Com+ can also serve Ocean Indian and Pacific destination.
Source: http://www.phenixmobile.com
14
Source: http://www.journaldunet.com/economie/tendances/beaute-ethnique/3.shtml

62
Ethnic media and communication
Ethnic marketing in media and communication has not been so developed in France.
However, the appearance of some is rather remarkable. Amina magazine should be cited here as
vivid example. It is a French monthly magazine for African and Caribbean women. As
explained by Michel de Breteuil- Editor of Amina-, the idea of this magazine for black women
was born in 1970, inspired by “the Drum”- an Anglophone newpapers fighting against
apartheid. At first, it was just the translation of photo stories in Drum. Then, he launched
several women 'titles, including Awoura for Ivory Coast, Akouavi for Benin and Togo, Wife for
Cameroon, Congo and Mwasi and Amina for the rest of francophone countries. All editions
were then combined into one which took the name of Amina. Its birth place was Senegal before
moving to Paris in 1975. From its first to thirteenth
issues, Amina had just been a picture story of thirty-
two pages in black and white, while the only one
color page is the back cover. Today the magazine has
evolved, from thirty two pages to 196 pages for
almost editions showing female faces, with main
objective of ensuring and supporting the social
advancement of women in family and their
professional environment. It gives women the chance to express themselves, as well as help
solve integration problems in the black communities in Europe. Now it has international
audience in France, Caribbean, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Canada and West Africa
and enjoys solid reputation worldwide. The distribution has reached 81,000 copies per month
and the price remains quite moderate, about 2€/edition thanks to its great advertising revenue15
.
Another press that should be mentioned here is the Jeune Afrique- a weekly French
magazine created in 1960 by the Tunisian journalist Bechir Ben Yahmed in Paris. Its mission
was to support the development of Africa by offering its readers major political and economical
issues at African and international levels. It is the first pana-African magazine acknowledged by
its audience and thanks to its reputation worldwide. To date, it is distributed to over 80
countries in the world and read every week by about 800,000 readers. Furthermore, with the
purpose of promoting the emergence of African enterprises, its annual special editions provides
the most comprehensive analysis of the economic and social state of the continent, with the
ranking of the top 500 companies and 200 leading financial institutions16
.
15
Source: http://www.amina-mag.com/presentation_du_magazine.html
16
Source: http://www.groupeja.com/fr/activites/presse.html
Source : www.jeuneafrique.com

63
With radio, beside some general radios discussing political issues of some particular
region worldwide like RFO or RFI, other radio channels like Africa n°1, Beur FM, radio Orient,
Radio Tropical, etc. should be analyzed in this section because they are designed to target
specific ethnic communities in France and Europe. Take the Beur FM as an example, it is one
of the leading radio stations in France targeting Franco Maghreb audience, founded by Nacer
Kettane in 1981 and was first known as Radio Beur. The word "Beur" itself demonstrates a
distortion of Arab population living in France and trying to have French identity but constantly
affiliating to the group of Arab, immigrant, and recently Muslim. The radio channel was born at
the time of liberalization of the French airwaves and the issue of law giving the foreigner s in
France the right to create their association, so Beur FM has allowed ethnic minorities in France
to express themselves freely and legally although it was against the French republican rule as a
must to separate ethnic, race and religious origins from the identity of the citizens. What is
more, the appearance of Beur FM was to responding the demand of the immigrants of Maghreb
origin to mark their representation in the national media in France. Although in 1992, Radio
Beur was claimed as a result of a failed attempt to form multi-culturalism in France by
Derderian because its was accused of addressing only a certain ethnic group, for example
Berbers from Kabylia, Algeria [Derderian, 1995], this radio station has developed in
appropriate way as a professional and commercial radio proposing to the advance of the
integration process while incorporating republican values of mutual understanding, and culture
equality with the unique characteristics of its target ethnic group. With the purpose of
integrating its ethnic minorities in host culture, the main language used is French, but
sometimes there are programs in Arabian or Tamazight (the Berber language). This
independent commercial radio station gets its main income from advertising. It is now
broadcasted in 11 regions in France. Its success is the base for the launch of Beur TV as seen in
the paragraph below.
In terms of television, with the satellite, ethnic minorities in France can access to many
television channels in their own languages. However, it is necessary to mention Beur TV,
officially launched in 2003 in Paris; it has been considered as a private francophone audiovisual
media that bridges the two shores of the Mediterranean. It is a secular, modern, independent and
free channel, addressing a wide audience in France and Europe, especially to the French with
North African origin, or the Maghreb or North African either living in France, Europe or their
own country, even those with affinity to the countries of the southern shore of the
Mediterranean. It is estimated to have 4 million of tele-spectators every day in France and 100
million worldwide. The programs broadcasted are much diversified, from health, law,

64
entertainment, news to current affaires, involving a Press Club inviting journalist to comment
on the news and actuality, etc. All of these programs are primarily in French, but the breaking
news and debates are in Arabic and Tamazight in short term expending its editorial content.
This general channel funded by advertising would like to target its visible minorities who have
no access to French media, including 6 millions of the North African community in France, and
also 75 millions of inhabitants in Maghreb, the majority of which having satellite access17
.
Ethnic marketing agencies
In addition, there are also marketing agencies in France that focus on the issues of ethnic
products, commerce, marketing and the research related to these matters. Back in 2002, SOPI
was the first ever ethnic marketing agency in France with limited vision for limited budget
because ethnic communities in France were evaluated to be much smaller than in the USA and
far from homogenous. However, due to their shared values and needs, sophisticated marketing
was developed to target the right people. After that, "niche markets" have been increasing and it
has been acknowledged that with the global market, there is no identity, but identities and
multicultural comes to transcultural, SOPI has received more and more demands from its
clients. It is necessary to mention the survey on affinities between the programs and a selected
audience on digital, including brand strategy, business model and campaigned launched and
supported by France Ô; the impact survey on a campaign of Western Union targeting African,
Maghrebi, Chinese and Turkish communities in France; L'Oréal case study on ethnocosmetics;
design and contribution to an ethnic marketing conference ordered by Stratégies.fr; Ramadan
special commercial operation from Bouygues; brand animation in areas of Paris with a high
concentration of African population supported by Blédina- Du Côté des Mamans; or brand
name search and study for a new Algerian bank ordered by Financière OCEOR- Group Caisse
d'Eparge18
.
In terms of Public System Agency (Agence Public Système), it does not put the focus of
ethnic issue, but community phenomena like profession, passions, ethnicity, etc. rather
interested in such communities. Twenty percent of its employees has ethnic origin. Other
tradition marketing agencies, for instance Publicis and Euro RSCG imply the issue of ethnic
minorities, nonetheless, rather integrating the personnel of ethnic minorities for the purpose of
diversity [Chantal Ammi, 2005:223].
17
Source: Beur TV website http://beurtv.over-blog.com/categorie-67816.html
18
Source: SOPI website http://www.sopi.fr/en/pages/2/vision.html

65
II.3. What restraint the existence and development of ethnic marketing in France?
III.3.1. Legal obstacle
The law finding its origin in the 1789 revolution and in the constitution of 1958 does not
allow collecting data on ethnicity, race or religion in France. The first article of the Constitution
indicates that "France is a republic nation indivisible, secular, democratic and social. It ensures
the equality before the law for all citizens regardless their origin, race or religion. It respects all
beliefs".
Then, even France is considered as the most multi-cultural country with great numbers
of immigrants and foreigners of different ethnicity and religion, its republican value and system
refuses to acknowledge distinction related to ethnic, race or religion by all means. From the
point of view of policy makers, ethnic and religion are exclusively private matter of individual,
so referring to this matter is touching private life of individuals. As a result, a temptation on
ethnicity resists, with institutional barriers that lead to the absence of reliable statistics and
prohibition mentioning the factor of ethnic, religion and culture of a person.
In practice, using such criterion as ethnicity in marketing in France is usually implicit
because the actors are afraid of legal framework and severe critics of people living in this
country. However, it is not totally invisible in the media. For example, in 1994, there were 6
French advertisements putting the African French as focus. Nonthemess the number of
advertisement with the participation of ethnic minority members has increased gradually. In
2003, this number increased to 59. To illustrate, Marrionnaud used the image of Sonia Rolland
to attract black population with their "chocolate, caramel and honey" complexion. In terms of
SFR and RTL, they used "the black" in their advertisement. What is more, Sheen Carson, the
subsidiary of l'Oréal started to develop their ethnic cosmetic line for the population with black,
mixed skin, and curly hair [Isabel Barth & André Boyer, 2008]. Nevertheless, it is easy to
remark that advertising agencies are still reluctant to get involved with ethnicity in their
advertisement and enterprises hesitate to invest in ethnic market.
Moreover, the law on Informatics and Liberty also precise that "It is prohibited to keep
nominative data, either directly or indirectly, related to racial origin, ethnicity or religion of
individual on informatics memory, except specific agreement of the interest". As can be seen in
the previous section, there is only data of immigrants and foreigners by nationalities year by
year, but not French or foreigners by ethnic origins, race or religion. Whereas, other
information valuable in the design of ethnic marketing such as number of ethnic population,
their profile with socioeconomic factors like revenue, profession, social status, so on so forth,

66
their purchasing power, consumption pattern, preference, etc. seem unavailable and illegal to
collect restraint enterprises to invest in ethnic minorities in France.
However, recently, some marketing agencies on ethnic marketing, for instance SOPI and
Public System Agency, as well as special means of media for ethnic population have appeared
in France. This is like a light making ethnic marketing possible despite of legal obstacle.
II.3.2.Taboo of ethnic marketing in France
The controversies related to ethnic marketing seem to have something very typical in
France. Ethnicity (including skin color and ethnic origin) as criterion in marketing often implies
problematic, negative effect, discrimination, social separation, making people feel annoying and
receive much reaction from people. Therefore, using such criterion as ethnicity in marketing in
France is usually implicit because the actors are afraid of severe critics. Although the
segmentation of market based on ethnicity is just one of the ways to address specific demand of
target customers, the French can hardly find it legal and relevant to do now. Instead, it is
recommended to use such criteria as way of living; family structure, education level, revenue,
etc. for the segmentation.
For the sociologists, what they are afraid most is the bad use of such data, which provide
clear pictures of different ethnic communities that can lead people to different judgments, think
of problematic, or which can lead them to the discrimination. In the other side, in 2002,
Grossman and Miclo, the two Alsatien politicans saw ethnic marketing as the basis of
communautarism, which is evidently against a united and indivisible republic that France have
been years strived to develop. Hence, according to them, all kinds of public expression of
particularism were problematic and focusing on the difference of ethnic community is the
reason deriving racism and discrimination. From these points of view, it is easy to see a rule
that "when in Rome, do as Rome does". The ethnic minorities, as consequently, find it
uncomfortable in expressing their idea and show their pride of ethnicity. So it becomes a
vicious cycle that the population in France tries not to mention.

67
Conclusion
To sum up, a picture of ethnicity, immigration, ethnic products and services has been
depicted in the chapter of context for the research. It helps clarifying not only the current
situation of ethnic related issues in the world, but also the concrete situation of France.
Although there are many ethical debates on ethnic marketing, it remains the importance
in the economies of developed countries as an inevitable element. However, not only the ethnic
marketing but also the design of ethnic products and services targeting ethnic minority groups
are quite difficult, sensitive and challenging. Each country should gauge whether advantages
outweigh the disadvantages. In other words, all the disadvantages and advantages of ethnic
marketing should be kept in mind to determine the relevant usage of ethnic marketing.
In the next chapter, theoretical background and acacdemic researches are supposed to be
presented so as to conceptualize the model of the research, as well as its hypotheses.

68
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

69
Introduction
The objective of this part is to discuss theoretical foundation for ethnic marketing, a
marketing approach that finds its importance in society with several ethnicities, holding
different identities, values, attitudes and behaviors; as well as for the explanation and
development of ethnic identities, core concept of ethnic marketing. This includes three main
theories.
Firstly, with social psychological and developmental perspective, the social identity
theory, developed by Henri Taifeil and John C. Tuner, depicts both conceptualization and
measurement of ethnic identity. Through this, some principal elements helpful to design
relevant ethnic marketing strategies are highlighted.
Secondly, the identity development theory is reviewed so that ethnic identity could be
understood as a developmental process. This involves not only the psychological study on ego
identity model of Erik Erikson (1986), but also empirical study on personal identity conducted
by James Marcia (1980).
Lastly, theory on culture and its influences on ethnic identity and marketing are
presented as each ethnic group hold their own cultures, and differs each other according to time
and context.
In addition, indepth knowledge on ethnic related issue, such as ethnicity, community,
race, and tribe; on ethnic marketing and incomparison to other kinds of marketing, for instance
community marketing and tribal marketing is presented.
All of these theoretical backgrounds serve the purpose of setting a foundation for the
development of conceptual and hypotheses of the research.

70
I. Social identity theory
Social identity theory should be initially discussed in theoretical framework of this
study since it creates pivotal link between ethnic identity and social identity. As indicated
Rosenberge social identity refers to the identification of an individual with "the groups,
statuses, or categories to which a person is socially recognized as belonging", for instance
racial, ethnic or religious groups [Rosenberg, 1979: 9-15]. This implies not only the role of
individual within group, but also his/her sense of belonging, attribution and internalization of
shared expectations or traits associated with a specific group [White C.L., 1989]. In addition to
better understanding the identity, social identity theory is useful in mastering the knowledge of
behaviors and cognitions of particular ethnic group.
I.1. Social identity theory- a familiar concept
The social identity theory has been well-known all over the world since the early 1970s
in association with such famous names as Henri Taifel and John C.Turner. It involves the self-
definition of a member of a social group and attempts to explain the cognitions and behaviors
with the help of group processes [Sabine Trepte, 2006:256], including social categorization,
social identification and social comparison [Tajfel, 1978] in which the focus is "the group in the
individual" while the cognition and behavior are group behavior, or group cognition like
solidarity, and the group processes helps identify social identity, including the favoritism of in-
group and discrimination against out-group to achieve positive self- esteem and self-
enhancement [Abrams & Hogg, 1988]. This theory can be summarized in the following figure.
Figure 5: Concept of social identity theory
Personal identity
Social identification
Social identity including satisfied social
identity favorable to in-group and dissatisfied
social identity favorable to out-group
Distinct social
groups
Self
Categorization
andSocial
Categorization
Out group
In group
Intergroupcomparison,
SocialComparison
andEvaluationofthe
Categorizations
Positive
Self-esteem
and Self-enhancement

71
In social identity theory, it is necessary to understand three basic concept, including
personal identity, social group and social identity. For Brewer, Bogg and Abram, personal
identity is the lowest level of self-categorization [Brewer 1991; Hoog and Abrams 1988],
indicating that each individual acts according to his/her own goals and desires, which makes
him or her unique and distinct entity. Social identity is defined as knowledge of a person
belonging to a social category or social group whistle social group is a set of individuals
categorized as members of the same social group due to their common social identification.
Each of these individuals has more or less power, prestige, status, etc., but they, together set up
a unique combination of social group [Hogg & Abrams, 1988].
As indicated Turner et al., the focus of social identity theory is the intergroup relations
manifesting how people see themselves as members of a group (in-group) in comparison with
the other (out-group) [Turner et al. 1987]. As a result, this theory is very useful in explaining
the behavior of a group or inter-group behavior in other words, arisen from the sharing of social
category/group membership. It derives from personal identity and through both the self
categorization and social categorization to define who belongs to the group. Then, thanks to the
inter-group and social comparisons as well as evaluation of the categorizations, it helps
determining common identity, membership and affiliation to the group, that set up the social
identity. While the in-group members support the common social identity, the out-group
includes those against the common social identity. Positive social identity is the main objective
for group members to develop to enhance their self-esteem. To do so, several different group
behaviors are shown.
However, what makes this social identity theory different to other social psychological
theories is that it assumes a social group, consisting of a number of people feeling and either
self categorizing or being categorized as group members [Tajfel & Turner, 1979: 40], but not
starting with the assumption referring to the individual. In fact, the "social settings" and
"groups" are two main factors stimulating Taifel and Turner to conduct research on the social
identity theory [Taifel & Tuner, 1979]. However, social identity for these authors consists of
emotional, evaluative and other psychological correlates of in-group classification [Turner et al.
1987:20]. Later, self-categorization has been separated to the evaluative element, which is self-
esteem, and commitment- psychological elements- to empirically investigate the relationships
among these factors [Elllemers & Van Knippenberg, 1997].

72
I.2. Principals of social identity theory
Through the preceding diagram, it is seen that the three main stages should be
underlined in social identity theory, including (i) self categorization and social categorization;
(ii) social comparison; and (iii) social identification. These three stages play critically crucial
role in the differentiation between social actors as members of distinct social groups and
ultimately have implications for an individual's functioning in various context [Jarvis, 2000].
Together with elements related in each stage, these processes help set up principals for the
social identity theory.
I.2.1. Self categorization and social categorization
Self categorization was proposed by Turner in 1987 as the process that changes
interpersonal to intergroup behaviors with various levels represented in the differences of an
individual-personal identity- and the similarities of the group-social identity [Turner, 1999].
Consequently, it helps in accentuating the perceived similarities between the self and other in-
group members as well as differences between the self and out-group members in terms of
attitudes, behavioral norms, and styles of speech, so on so forth. Together with social
comparison, this is an important process involved in social identity formation [Jan E.Stets &
Peter J. Burke, 2000].
In terms of social categorizations, it refers to the division of different individuals into
different social categories/groups based on similarity and distinction of oneself or one social
actor. Thanks to this process, individuals perceive others in terms of their differentiation as
members of the in-group or the out-group at a given time [Baron & Byrne, 2003]. In case of in-
group, individuals share common characteristics and become members of the same group. In
other case, they differ and are not members of the in-group. If they are manifested as cognitive
tools segmenting, classifying, and ordering the social environment, as well as enabling the
individuals to undertake several social actions, they define the place of individuals in the
society [Taifel & Tuner, 1979: 40]. Yet, if group members share social categorizations, they are
considered as "social stereotypes and prejudices", interpreting and explaining their behaviors
[Taifel, 1981].
Ethnocentrism is an example of the consequences of the self and social categorization
when people see themselves as members of the in-group in comparison with the out-group
[Turner et al., 1987].

73
I.2.2. Social comparison
The social comparison, in its turn, allows individual to make comparison of himself with
others against whom he believe to have reasonable similarity. It can be taken upward, meaning
comparing with others deemed to be socially better in some way, or downward in the opposite
direction. With the upward comparison, for positive effect, one is enabled to fit into the social
hierarchy of the group he/she is in, and at the same time tries to better his/her performance by
subconsciously imitating the people he/she thinks better than him/her. On contrary, with
negative effect, he/she may feel helpless and disappointed with his/her failure for not achieving
comparable levels set out, to make matter worse, getting angry with his/her superiors. In terms
of downward comparison, it can bring such emotions as gratitude and guilt.
According to the psychologist Leon Festinger, who initially proposed the Social
Comparison Theory in 1954, social comparison allow speople to gauge their own point of view
and abilities as well as reinforce their abilities and strives to obtain performance which is
realistic and achievable. However, the point of view does not take the same process of
improvement like the abilities. Then, people are likely to categorize themselves into groups of
similar opinions and abilities while exclude themselves from the groups not satisfying their
comparison objectives.
In the social identity theory, thanks to social comparison process, it is possible to
categorize and label one person to the in-group in case he/she is similar to the self, or to the out-
group in case of difference.
Hence, social comparison is useful in many dimensions. First it is an useful tool
explaining the behavior of herd instinct as individuals support group behavior. Second, it finds
reason for helplessness and such behavior as envy. Third, it generates emotion control behavior,
for example preventing actions in case of shame and guilt, dominance in case of anger, follow
in case of fear, so on so forth. Forth, it helps reducing the conflicts in groups with group
pressure, showing the price of shame and guilt once breaking moral code and social conduct of
the group. Last but not least, it triggers buying decision in the market and stimulate individuals
to better their performance.
I.2.3. Social identification
Social identification refers to an identity that individuals adopt as member of a particular
group [Baron & Byrne, 2003]. Hence, through social identification process, social identity is
defined.

74
Social identity refers to "those aspect of a person that are defined in terms of his or her
group memberships", it is "a way of grouping a number of people together on the basis of some
shared features", and it bears in it many implications "both for the person who claim the social
identity and for others who see them as members of particular categories" [Kay Deaux. 2001].
On one hand, social identity coincides with the identification and enhancement of self esteem in
positive way. On the other hand, it plays the role as a reference group with shared activities, and
values in which individuals have interactions and find themselves different to other groups in
the larger community. However, since a person can belong to different groups, only some
meaningful groups are taken into account so that the person can share his or her self-definition
with other group members. In addition, it is driven by both individual and contextual historical
forces [Kay Deaux. 2001].
Also according to Kay Deaux, there are many types of social identity reflecting social
categories and how people connect together, which include five principal ones such as ethnicity
and religion identities(like Asian American, West Indian, Jewish...); political identities
(republican, feminist, environmentalist, ...),; identities of vocations and avocations (military
veteran, psychologist, researcher...); relationship identities (parent, mother, teenager, widow,
orphans...); and identities of stigmatized groups (AIDS affected people, alcoholic, homeless
people, fat people...). Each of these social groups has their distinctive characteristics that differ
it to others. So, the process of social identification is helpful in identifying the identity of an
ethnic group. In view of this, ethnic individuals and ethnic groups define themselves in relation
to the environment in terms of their membership to certain ethnic groups.
. Within social identity, besides categorizing people into different groups, three aspects
involve explaining the implication beyond this, namely:
• Cognitive beliefs: combination of socially shared beliefs and other attributes based on
personal experience such as personal traits, personal social and political attitudes,
memories for identity related events, etc.
• Emotional associations of membership and motivational aspects: personal emotional
ties with group members for example group leader or parent as member of the group,
and personal motivation in case of choice of identification
• Behavior consequences: demonstrated in the enactment of oneself and the interaction
with others, in-group or out-group. There is evidence that a person is likely to have
supportive action towards the group he belongs to in case he is strongly identified with
the group. Despite positive behavior, social identity may have negative consequences

75
like prejudice (thread, anxiety, stereotypes, etc.), in-group bias, scapegoating, or hate
group membership, so on so forth.
For instance, social stereotypes are one of cognitive outcomes, and stereotyped
perceptions of in-group members and out-group members are enhanced made more
homogeneous thanks to the identification of the in-group [Haslam et al., 1996]. In addition, this
in-group identification leads to greater commitment to the group and to less desire to leave the
group, even when the status of the group is relatively low [Ellemers, Spears, and Doosje, 1997].
Take the case of a low-status minority group as an example, in-group members who use the
group label to describe themselves are more likely to distinguish themselves from the out-group
as well as to show attraction to the group through their behavior, than not to participate in their
group's culture [Ethier & Deaux, 1994; Ullah, 1987].
Yet, it is important to bear in mind that "having a particular social identity means being
at one with a certain group, being like others in the group and seeing things from the group's
perspective" [Jan E.Stets & Peter J. Burke, 2000]. Hence, those with high level of ethnic
identity may place high value on his/her belonging, affiliation, and commitment to his/her
ethnic group and vice versa.
I.2.4. Collective self esteem and self enhancement
Through the three above mentioned processes, self esteem is gradually shaped. It
reflects the self evaluation of his/her own worth, encompassing both his/her cognition, beliefs
and emotions. It is not necessary stable but differs across different contexts [Crocker, 1999]. It
can be positive or negative, but it represents what the individual thinks of himself/herself and
his/her social group, as well as how he/she feels about it. In case of positive evaluation, it
contributes to a positive social identity. This leads to the conclusion in which the individual
perceives his/her social group is superior to the others, which leads to high self-esteem [Turner,
1982]. In case of negative evaluation, members of that social group are associated with
stereotypes, often being discriminated and perceive themselves and their group as inferior to
others. This may lead to low esteem [Crocker, 1999]. Therefore, self-esteem is mainly related to
the judgment about the self. This judgment involves not only cognitively self evaluation as
either positive or negative, but also affective component, meaning the development of positive
or negative feelings, based in individuals' assessment of their performance [Leary &
Baumeister, 2000, p.2]..

76
It is seen that self-esteem can be personal or collective. In case of personal, it refers to
the evaluation of oneself as an individual within a broad social context. Within social identity
theory, however, this self esteem is mainly collective, rather than personal since it is closely
related to the perception of membership to a social group. Hence, collective self-esteem is the
result of the evaluation of oneself as members of a particular group in the relation to other
groups. In other words, it is an evaluation of the value of the social group to which one belongs
[Downie et al., 2006]. In the sense of ethnic group, collective self-esteem represents the feelings
of esteem relating to membership to an ethnic group as well as the value and the standing of a
particular ethnic member and ethnic group compared to others. High collective self-esteem
reflects positive appraisal of an individual's ethnic group and vice versa. In view of this, ethnic
identity and collective self-esteem both link to group membership. Then the strength of an
ethnic identity depends on the commitment of ethnic group members and their practices in
relation with the ethnic group.
The results of the above three group processes do not include only collective self
esteem, but also self- enhancement. This later outcome shows the consequence of the social
comparison process by selecting application of the accentuation effect. Normally, the self
enhancement is usually made by the comparison and assessment of the in-group and out-group,
which lead to the positive judgment of the in-group and negative one for the out-group [Stets &
Burke, 2000]. As a result, these two dimensions may lead to the salience of identification as a
member of a particular group, that means fostering feelings of commitment towards the in-
group as well as a strong social identity associated with membership to a group [Baron &
Byrne, 2003].
I.3. Social identity theory vs. identity theory
Social identity theory and identity theory are two different theories allowing explaining
the self, and the identity, which is worth for consideration in the framework of ethnic
marketing. However, they are usually confused because of similarities and overlapping. That is
why in the cadre of this section, these two theories are supposed to be clarified for better
understanding. Both differences and similarities would be seen in three aspects (i) the concept
and base of identity; (ii) the activation of identities and identity salience; and (iii) cognitive and
motivational processes arising when an identity is activated.

77
I.3.1. Difference
The first main difference is that social identity theory takes the group as the basis- the
being, while the identity theory view the role as its basis- the doing [Thoirts & Virshup, 1997].
In other words, the base of identities of these two theories also differs. Accordingly, self
categorization or identification forming one's identity in social identity theory allows describing
the situation, the being of a category/group. Nevertheless, in identity theory, self-categorization
is the process forming one's identity, focusing on the role, on what a person does, in which
categorization depends on a named and classified world [Stryker, 1980], and the meaning and
expectation associated to the role and its performance create a set of standards that guide
behavior [Burke & Tully, 1977; Thoits, 1986; Burke 1991; Burke & Reitzes, 1981]. Further,
group-based identity expresses the uniformity of perceptions and behaviors-similarities with
others in the same role, while the role-base identity shows interconnected uniqueness-
individuality and interrelatedness with others in counter-roles in the group or interaction
context. Then, a group is regarded as a collective of similar persons with similar views, seeing
themselves and each other in similar ways, all in contrast to members of out-groups in the view
of social identity theory. Yet, identity theorists identify group as a set of interrelated individuals
with different views and perspectives, expressed in different unique performance but integrated
activities [Stets & Burke, 2000].
Secondly, once an identity is activated, it is called salience. The social identity theory
understands it as a social identity functioning to increase the influence of membership in a
particular group on the perception and behavior of individuals and the group as a whole [Oakes,
1987: 118], or the situational activation of an identity at a particular level [Stets & Burke,
2000]. But for identity theory, it is a range of probabilities [Stets & Burke, 2000]. Then, social
identity theory takes an emphasis on characteristics of situation where the identity may be
activated, including (i) the distinctiveness of social categories; (ii) accessibility showing the
readiness of a category to become activated in the person, and (iii) the fitting between the stored
category specifications and perceptions of the situation (both normative in case of stereotype
and uniqueness of culture and comparative in case comparing an individual perceive within-
group differences to be less than between- group differences) [Turner et al. 1987; Stets &
Burke, 2000]. Whereas, for identity theory, the focus was placed on characteristics of the
identity, not of the situation, with its social structural arrangement and the link between
persons, with regards to (i) the understanding of the effect of persons' positions in the social
structure towards the fact that an identity, rather than another, is activated by them; and (ii) the
commitment to an identity shown in quantitative number of persons to whom one is tied

78
through an identity and qualitative strength and depth of the ties to other [Stryker & Serpe
1982, 1994; Stets & Burke, 2000].
Lastly, in regards to cognitive processes, the social identity theory sees it as a
depersonalization, considering the self or other as an embodiments of the in-group or out-group
prototypes respectively [Hogg et al., 1995] or unique individual [Turner et al., 1987] and acts in
accordance with the norms set up in the group. This process underlies such group phenomena as
social stereotype, group cohesiveness, ethnocentrism, cooperation, emotional contagion and
collective action [Turner et al. 1987]. One its side, the cognitive process in identity theory is
seen as self-verification, meaning that the person behaves to maintain consistency with the
identity standard [Burke 1991; Swanne, 1983], underlines such behavioral process as role
taking, role-making, group formation [Burke & Cast, 1997; Burke & Stets 1999; Turner 1962].
In terms of motivational process, in the social identity theory, it links to the maintenance
and enhancement of self-esteem- basis of in-group favoritism, ethnocentrism, and hostility
toward the out-group. However, it is closely associated to commitment and salience in identity
theory [Stets & Burke, 2000]. Hence, the motives in this theory include self-esteem and self-
efficacy, which increase in accordance with the good performance in a role and the sense of
feeling good, of control over the environment, and of being rewarded with appraisal and
approval [Frank & Marolla, 1976; Gecas & Scwalbe, 1983] by the self verification [Burke &
Stets, 1999].
I.3.2. Similarity
Whether the basis of self classification of social identity theory is group/ category, or the
role in the identity theory, both of the two theories evoke that individuals view themselves in
terms of meanings imparted by a structured society [McCall and Simmons, 1978; Stryker 1980;
Turner et al. 1987]. Whereas other scholars suggest that both the being and the doing are central
features of one's identity [Stets & Burke, 2000]. In addition, the group and the role bases of
identity correspond to two aspects of the society: the organic (group) and mechanical (role)
forms linked separately but relatively to individual identities, which allow to fully
understanding society [Durkheim, 1983, 1984].
In addition, person identity is defined in the same manner in both the two theories,
meaning the categorization of the self as a unique and distinctive entity whose actions comply
to his/her own goals and desires rather than as a group member, all the set of meanings in the
self tied to and sustain the self as an individual [Stets & Burke, 2000].

79
Despite seeing salience in different ways, both of the theories agree that without
activation, an identity has no effect, and highly appreciate the importance of the individuals'
goals and purposes.
With depersonalization and self-verification, social identity theory and identity theory explain
and reaffirm social structural arrangement in which the self exists in the society and is
influenced by society thanks to shared meanings incorporated into one's prototype or identity
standards and vice versa by changing social arrangements to update the self to the abstract
prototype/identity standards [Stets & Burke, 2000].
With regards to motivational process, recently both theories consider several sources of
motivations: self esteem motive (for instance actions fulfilling the need to feel valuable and
worthy), self efficacy motive (like acting to feel competent and effective) [Cast, Stets & Burke,
1999; Stets, 1997], as well as self- consistency and self- regulation (for example response are
deliberate and self-regulated in case a social identity is salient and attended to) [Abrams 1992,
1994; Burke 1991; Burke and Stets, 1999; Stet, 1997].
In short, the differences and similarities of social identity theory and identity theory
could be summarized in the figure below.

80
Figure 6: Comparison of identity theory versus social identity theory
Source: Synthesis of "Identity Theory and Social Identity Theory" [Stets & Burke, 2000].
- Salience: a range of probabilities
- Focus on characteristics of the
identity, including:
(i) the understanding of the effect of
persons' positions in the social
structure;
(ii) the commitment to an identity
(quantitative and qualitative)
- Cognitive process: self-verification
- Motivational process: associated to
self-esteem and self-efficacy
- Being and doing: central features of one's identity
- Group and role bases of identity: two aspects of the society, allow to fully understand
society
- Individuals: view themselves in terms of meanings imparted by a structured society
- Person identity: categorization of the self as a unique and distinctive entity whose actions
comply to his/her own goals and desires; set of meanings in the self tied to and sustain the self
as an individual
- Without activation, an identity has no effect
- Highly appreciate the importance of the individuals' goals and purposes
- Through depersonalization and self-verification: explain and reaffirm social structural
arrangement
- Recently consider several sources of motivations: self esteem, self efficacy, self-
consistency and self- regulation
Identity Theory
Group based identity
(focus on the being)
- Express the uniformity of perceptions
and behaviors, the similarities with
others in the same role,
- Regard group as a collective of
similar persons, all in contrast to
members of out-groups
Role-based identity
(focus on the doing)
- Show interconnected uniqueness-
individuality and interrelatedness with
others in counter-roles in the group or
interaction context.
- View group as a set of interrelated
individuals with different and unique
performance but integrated activities
Social Identity Theory
Differences
- Salience: situational activation of an
identity at a particular level
- Focus on characteristics of
situation, including:
(i) the distinctiveness of social
categories;
(ii) accessibility showing the readiness
of a category to become activated in the
person;
(iii) the fitting between the stored
category specifications and perceptions
of the situation
- Cognitive process: depersonalization
- Motivational process: link to the
maintenance and enhancement of self-
esteem
Similarities

81
Despite of differences, it is suggested that these two theories should be merged toward a
general theory of the self to assess: (i) the role and group bases of identity; (ii) identities based
in the person providing stability across groups, roles, and situation; (iii) the participation of an
individuals in social movements when he/she is closely attached to the group and its social
identities; (iv) the inter-group and intra-group relations based on the power and status of the self
and its identity; as well as (v) motivational processes such as self-esteem, self-efficacy and
authenticity of individuals or groups in cases they are associated with particular groups [Stets &
Burke, 2000]. These theories, in combination, could bring an in-depth understanding both the
situational characteristics and the actions, the behaviors of different ethnic groups in the cadre
of ethnic marketing.
I.4. Link between ethnicity and social identity, social identity theory and ethnic
marketing
There is close linkage between ethnicity and social identity as Kay Deaux points out
"For many people, ethnicity is a central element of self-deﬁnition and becomes an important
social identity" [Kay Deaux. 2001]. In practice, ethnicity here is usually based on three main
factors: culture, language used and country of origin. And ethnic identity is grounded on shared
language, religion, race, and/or ancestry [Yinger, 1985]. Therefore, members of a certain ethnic
group tend to identify with each other through their similar linguistic, cultural, religious and
behavioral traits.
For the first generation of immigrants, it seems easier for them to choose an ethnic
identity, which, in most cases, is the one of their origin. The fact is that these people are much
affiliated with their origin culture, native language, ethnic relationship, and have strong emotion
and motivation to define their membership with the group of their country of origin.
Nevertheless, it can be a troublesome for the second generation immigrants to claim for their
group identity, the one with host country or the one with country of origin due to their different
level of acculturation. In many cases, one can choose to be dual, meaning keeping both social
identities, this often happens to biracial persons [Kay Deaux. 2001]. In reality, one can refuse
both and follow the other that he/she finds more suitable or interested.
With the social identity theory, Taijel & Turner points out three key factors associated
with this linkage, including group membership, social context and relevant comparison groups
[Taijel & Turner, 1979]. With the group membership, it is extremely important in ethnic group
for at least two reasons. The first is that an individual can be classified to belong to his ethnic

82
group based on his shared values and traits [Chance, Turner & Goldstein, 1982]. And the
second reason lies in the fact that similarity of ethnic group members can be determined by a
strong indicator named ethnicity to form reference group [Korzenny & Korzenny, 2005].
Thanks to these factors, a particular consumer usually takes information of one or several
members who have similar characteristics in terms of ethnicity, economic and social situations,
etc. so as to make his decision making.
In addition, collective self-esteem has a linkage with ethnic identity. This factor includes
the identification with a group, private regard toward the group, and public regard toward the
group [Wiley et al., 2008]. It is suggested that salient ethnic identity implies collective self
esteem [Louw and Edwards, 1997]. For example, individuals may be aware of the negative
stereotypes against their in-group by out-group members, so their overall self-esteem may be
affected by both their own point of view towards their in-group as well as the one of out-group
members. Nonetheless, despite of negative regard of out-group, high ethnic identity and self-
esteem are still maintained [Spencer-Rodger and Collins, 2006].
In the research on "Social Identity of Ethnic Minority Families: An Ecological
Approach for the New Millennium" Lillian A. Phenice et al. finds that ethnic minority members
are often burdened with negative social identities [Lillian A. Phenice et al., 2000] because of
inequality and limited access due to their cultural and physical differences from the dominant
group [Mindel, Habenstein, & Wright, 1988]. Social identity theory is often used to consider
the relationship between ethnic identities and their attitudes toward out-group [Romeo & Rober,
1998] as well as identify the differences of ethnic minority's social identities compared to other
groups [Lillian A. Phenice et al., 2000]. The ethnic minority identity then has two folds:
negative and positive. One is bringing a social disadvantage for members of ethnic minority
group, increasing the dissatisfaction with their social identity, even create the so-called "learned
helplessness" in individuals based on the enactment and reproduction of prejudice and
stereotypes among the group, and adversely influencing their self-concepts in the sense that
reduce self efficacy and self-help behavior. The other is to bring them force with their
distinctive social identities [Lillian A. Phenice et al., 2000].
Synthesis
Brief, the social identity theory allows defining four important elements helpful to
design relevant ethnic marketing strategies: (i) common identity and behavior of an ethnic
group; (ii) the level of ethnicity; (iii) level of membership of an ethnic person towards a
particular ethnic group, and (iv) negative factors that may influence ethnic members, such as
prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination... All these factors serve the purpose of understanding the

83
self and the group of a particular ethnic population. However, this theory is limited in
understanding why and how ethnic identity derives. Therefore, it is essential to take an in-depth
analysis on the process of ethnic identity development and cultural intervention during the
formation of ethnic identity through the lens of ethnic identity development theory and the one
on culture.
II. Theory of identity development
In addition to the theory of social identity, which explains the self concept, membership,
value and emotional significant attached to that membership [Tajfel, 1981:255], theory of
identity development is helpful in clarifying the development process of ethnic identity.
This section presents firstly the psychological study on ego identity model by Erik
Erikson (1968) as the foundation of this process, then empirical study of personal identity by
James Marcia (1980) with two identity development steps: exploration and commitment.
Lastly, it comes up with a proposed process of Phinney J. S. and Ong A.D. (2007) as the
combination of the two above theoretical foundation.
II.1. Ego identity by Erik Erikson- Core concept of identity development theory
Erikon is well-known for his theory of identity development in which he modifies and
expands the psychosexual development stages of Freudian putting emphasis on the social
context of development, and proposes a development theory encompassing the entire human
life cycle. He believed that “for each libidinal zone, we can also speak of an ego mode”, a more
general “mode of activity [Crain, 2005:279]. The crisis in the life helps forming an ego-identity
with clear sens of who one is, what his place in the world is, what he wishes to do with his life,
what he believes, etc.
What is more, there are many domains in identity formation, so not all will reach
identity achievement status at the same time. For instance, it is not necessary for an adolescent
to reach identity achievement in terms of religion, political views, desired educational level…
at one time. The most importance of this theory is the acquisition of an ego-theory, and the
exploration of identity issues [Erikson, E. 1950: 43].
II.1.1. Ego
As for Freud, ego is sufficiently developed in healthy people to rein the identity, even
though its control is still tenuous and identity implulses might erupt and overwhelm the ego at

84
any time. Meanwhile, Erikson sees ego as a positive force that creates a self identity of “I”. It is
significantly influenced by society and concerns three aspects as the follows:
Body ego: experience with the body, seeing physical self as different to others
Ego ideal: the image used to compare oneself with an established ideal. It shows
satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the one in terms of physical self and entire personal
identity.
Ego identity: the image that one represents in the variety of social role that he plays
II.1.2. Stages of life
For Erikson, there are eight stages of human development, not only five as proposed
Freud, since the development continues to some level even into old age. Each stage of life has
an interaction of opposites, showing the conflict between syntonic or harmonious elements and
dystonic or disruptive elements. This conflict produces ego quality or ego strength called basic
strength. Ego identity is shaped by a multiplicity of conflicts and events anticipated in different
stage of life. At each of these stages, when something new is introduced, the individual is faced
to a unique crisis, which is considered as a turning point, a crucial period of inceased
vulnerability and heighten potential. Personality is characterized by this identity crisis.
“Each successive step… is a potential crisis because of a radical change in perspective.
Crisis is used here in a developmental sense to connote not a threat of catastrophe, but a
turning point, a crucial period of increased vulberability and heightened potential, and
therefore, the ontogenetic source of generational strength and maladjustment. The most radical
change of all, from intrauterine to extrauterine life, comes at the very beginning of life. But in
postnatal existence, too… radical adjustments of persoective… must all be accomplished in
their own goodtime. With them, the interpersonal perspective also changes rapidly and often
radically… Different capacities use different opportunities to become full-grown components of
the ever-new configuration that is the growing personality” [Erikson, 1968].
The eight stages of life according to Erikson (1968) include:
Oral Stage: incorporation, and biting or grasping as first passive taking in then active
taking. This period deals with trust and mistrust.
Anal stage: holding on and letting go. This period concerns autonomy versus shame
and doubt.
Phallic or oedipal stage: intrusion. It involves initiative and guilt

85
Latency stage: conflict between industry versus inferiority
Puberty/ genital stage: new social conflicts and demands. This include ego identity
and role confusion
Young adulthoold: adolescent is self-centered, centered with who he is and how the
world sees him. This period shows conflict between intimacy and solidarity versus isolation
Adulthood: conflict between generativity versus self absorption and stagnation
Old age: life review, signifying conflict of ego integrity versus despair.
His proposed eight developmental stages, each of which presents a conflict with
possibility of bipolar outcoles are demonstrated in the below figure. Normal development is
shown in the movement upward along the diagonal axis, implying mature levels. There is a
systematic relation among these items, depending on the particular development in proper
sequence of each item.
Figure 7: Erikson’s epigenetic diagram
INTEGRITY
vs.
DESPAIR
GENERATIVITY
vs.
STAGNATION
INTIMACY
vs.
ISOLATION
Temporal
Persepective
vs. Time
Confussion
Self Certainty
vs. Self
Consciousness
Role
Esperimentati
on vs. Role
Fixation
Apprenticeshi
p vs. Work
Paralysis
IDENTITY
vs. IDENTIY
CONFUSION
Sexual
Polarization
vs. Bisexual
Confusion
Leader and
Followership vs.
Authority
Confusion
Ideological
Commitment
vs.
Confusion of
Values
INDUSTRY
vs.
INFERIORIT
Y
Task
Identification
vs. Sense of
Futility
INITIATIVE
vs. GUILT
Anticipation
of Roles vs.
Role
Inhibition
AUTONOMY
vs. SHAME,
DOUBT
Will to be
Oneself vs.
Self Doubt
TRUST vs.
MISTRUST
Mutual
Recognidtion
vs. Autistic
Isolation
Source: Erik AH. Erikson (1968)
VIII
VII
VI
V
IV
III
II
I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

86
II.1.3. Ego-identity status
Ego-identity status is determined by two ways. The first way is exploration via
knowledgeability, activity directed toward gathering information, evidence of consideration of
alternative possible identity elements, emotional tone, and desire to make an early decision. The
second way is commitment through knowledgeability, activity directed toward implementing
the chosen identity element, emotional tone, identification with significant other, projection into
one’s personal future and resistence to being swayed.
Accordingly, with regard to a particular domain, it is possible to have four identity
status: (i) diffusion; (ii) foreclosure; (iii) moratorium; and (iv) identity achievement. With
diffusion, it shows in fact a low exploration, low commitment, for instance lack of commitment
to any carreer, knowledge may be demonstrated but lack of enthusiasm and hope, identity
diffusion in the domain of family and carreer priorities. Identity diffusions include young
people who have no occupational or ideological direction [Marcia J.E., 1980:111].
Foreclosure is a status of low exploration but high commitment. That means, for
example, individual expresses a genuine commitment to one vocation without taking other
alternatives into consideration seriously. Therefore, activities and knowledge tend to be
restricted to this chosen field. There is no conflict between the options proposed by family and
careers because the individual relies on parent or older sibling as model to choose priorities in
this domain, as a result there is little or no evidence of “crisis”. Emotional tone is one of
assurance for this status. Then, this status concern those committed to occupation and
ideological positions but rather chosen by their parents than self chosen [Marcia J.E.,
1980:111].
As for moratorium, it implies high exploration but no commitment yet. That means, for
instance career choice is simultaneously or sequentially selected among other alternatives, and
the individual is able to gauge his personal skills with regards to the needs of jobs.Both family
and career roles are taken into consideration with the same importance. However, the older
adolescents tend to be more anxious than young adolescents. Those at moratoriums really
struggle with occupational and/or ideological issues [Marcia J.E., 1980:111].
In terms of identity achievement, it signifies high exploration and high commitment. For
illustration, the one with this status shows his commitment to the vocational alternative the
most expressive for him. He can discuss the pros and cons of expected career as well the one
not chosen.He resists toward better career options although some reflexible statements are
made. Nonetheless, he may show anxiety continuously in case of douting the probability of

87
success. Hence, identity achievements are individual experiencing a decision-making period
and pursuing self-chosen occupation and ideaological goals [Marcia J.E., 1980:111].
Synthesis
Ego identity, stages of life and ego identity status are useful in defining identity of
ethnic individuals of different age and with different time of residence in host culture. It also
helps understanding the origin of measuring items or constructs used in several academic
researches on ethnic identity and ethnic consumption.
II.2. Personal identity formation by James Marcia
II.2.1. Identity formation
“Identity refers to an existential position, to an inner organization of needs, abilities,
and self-perceptions as well as to a sociopolitical stance” [Marcia J.E., 1980:110].
Inhereted from Erik Ericson (1959, 1963, 1968), who places identity within the context
of ego-psychoanalytic theory and views it as the based psychosocial task distinctive to
adolescents, James Marcia proposes another way of identity formation from interior, which
involves self constructed and dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs and individual
history. [Marcia J.E., 1980:159]. According to him, this structure is dynamic, not static, and the
content of individual identities can be added or discarded over timebetter. However, he does not
focus on the content but the undelying process in which the development of this structure shows
better awareness of individuals in terms of their uniqueness, similarities to other, as well as his
strength and weakness in making his way in the wolrd. On contrary, he must rely on external
source to gauge himself [Marcia J.E., 1980:110].
II.2.2. Identity status
Addressing Erikson’s notion of identity crisis, Marcia indicates that the adolescent stage
consists neither of identity resolution nor identity confusion, but rather the degree to which one
has explored and committed to an identity in a variety of life domains from vocation, religion,
relational choices, gender roles, and so on [Marcia J.E., 1966]. Marcia’s theory of identity
achievement argues that there are two distinct parts that form an adolescent’s identity: crisis (i.
e. a time when one’s values and choices are being reevaluated) and commitment. Crisis is

88
defined as a time of upheaval where old values or choices are being reexamined. The end
outcome of a crisis leads to a commitment made to a certain role or value.
To better understand the identity formation process, Marcia conducted a research applying
interview approach to ask young people whether the participants in his study (i) had established
a commitment to an occupation and ideology and (ii) had experienced, or were presently
experiencing, a decision making period (adolescent identity crisis). Based on this semi-
structured interview on identity research with young people, Marcia (1966) proposed four
identity statuses in the psychological identity development which should not be in sequential
process but interact each other as the follows:
• Identity diffusion: the status in which the adolescent does no have a sense of having
choices; he or she has not yet made nor is attempting/willing to make a commitment
• Identity foreclosure: the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some
relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not
experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others
regarding their future (e.g. allowing a parent to determine a career direction). As such,
these individuals have not explored a range of options.
• Identity moratorium: the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring
various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not made a commitment to
these choices yet.
• Identity achievement: the status in which adolescent has gone through a identity crisis
and has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or value) that he or
she has chosen
Core concept is that the sense of identity of a certain individual is mainly determined by
making choices and commitments with regards to certain personal and social traits. His
empirical work attempts to measure how much one has made certain choices, and how much he
or she displays a commitment to those choices. It is found that three factors involve in the
identitification of his/her identity, including (i) a sexual orientation; (ii) a set of values and
ideals; and (iii) a vocational direction. The fruits of identity identification present two kinds of
identity. With the first one, a clear sense of self strength, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness
are identify. It is “well-developed identity”. With the second, sense of self is unknown, neither
the strength nor weakness of the self are identified. This is “less well-developed identity”.

89
Synthesis
The work of James Marcia is useful in understanding how ethnic individuals determine
their uniqueness and similarities to other, for instance other ethnic population or the mainstream
one. The sense of ethnic identity, therefore, depends on the choices and commitments with
regards to certain personal and social traits. Based on commitments of ethnic individuals, their
ethnic identity can be strong and well developed, or less-well developed.
II.3. Identity development process by Phinney J. S. and Ong A.D.
Combining ego identity process and personal identity development, Phinney and Ong
propose a particular process for ethnic identity formation. According to these authors, the two
principal processes include exploration and commitment that have influence at different stages
of ethnic identity formation, from childhood, to adolescence and young adulthood, then finally
adulthood. This can be synthesized in the following diagram.
Figure 8: Ethnic identity formation process
2007
Source: Phinney J. S. and Ong A.D. (2007)
In fact, the authors share the same idea with Marcia (1980) when using four statuses of
personal identity in the ethnic identity formation process: (i) identity diffusion or unclear
identity; (ii) foreclosure or commitment to identity; (iii) moratorium or exploring identity; and
(iv) achieved identity or clear identity. Also, they agree with Erikson (1968) that adolescence
and young adulthood mark the dramatic developmental changes in terms of identity.
Accordingly, starting with the assumption that individuals are unclear in terms of their personal
identity at childhood, the ethnic identity of individuals is formulated gradually, either to
Childhood
Adolescence and
young adulthood
Adulthood
Exploration
process
Commitment
process
Ethnic identity diffusion
(unclear identity)
Foreclosure Moratorium
Ethnic identity achievement
(clear ethnic identity)

90
foreclosure, meaning commitment without exploration, or moratorium, meaning merely
exploration. Finally, their ethnic identity becomes clearer thanks to the joint process of
exploration, then commitment to the identity chosen [Phinney J. S. and Ong A.D., 2007].
However, this final status could be either stable or not, in case of unstable, it continues to
explore for identity purpose [Phinney, 2006].
III. Culture, subculture and counterculture
Culture is discussed in separated section as a theoretical base for the development of
marketing to diversity of population in general and for ethnic population in particular. In the
countries with ethnic diversity, each ethnic group represents a subculture along with the
mainstream one. These cultural groups tend to preserve key elements of their ancestral cultures,
which are then expressed in their behavior and make them different to the other ethnic groups
as well as the mainstream group. In addition, acculturation is the key process that changes the
behaviors of different ethnic consumers. Ethnic marketing therefore find a must in
incorporating culture factor in its study and practice. This section aims at clarifying culture,
subculture, counterculture and other related cultural factors as unseparated elements of
marketing approach focusing on minority ethnic groups, as well as studies on ethnicity and
consumption in the perspective of culture.
III.1. Culture
III.1.1. Origin and concept
Culture now is understood as "the body of learned belief, tradition, principles and
guides for behaviors that are commonly shared among members of a particular group. Culture
serves as a road map for both perceiving and interacting with the world" [Don C.Locke,
1992:10]. Nevertheless, no culture could be assessed superior or inferior to another
[Usunier.J.C.et al., 2009:7].
However, originally, culture is understood as "cultivation", meaning the principal
activities satisfying the need for nutrition. In line with the time, it has been known as either
care, education, human quality, knowledge (including philosophical, scientific, ethical and
artistic knowledge...), property and commodities that human obtains from their activities in
their life, process of human capacity perfection, or evolution of human intellectual and moral
strength, so on so forth. These initial notions of culture had been rather defined by the
philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Nevertheless, the very first concept of

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culture appeared between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries thanks to the anthropologists
with their predominant utilization of these notions, also marking the foundation of
anthropological science.
Yet, one of the most important concepts of culture in anthropological science useful in
explaining ethnic marketing is the one defined by the English anthropologist Edward B. Taylor:
Culture is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” [Edward B. Taylor,
1871]. These coherent elements on the first hand set up culture and create identity for different
cultures. In fact, this collective finger print of the identity can have good or bad elements in it,
but all depend on subjective view. On the second hand, this concept implies cultural movement
unstable and able to be modified, enriched with added elements or simplified with eliminated
ones by all of its members in the society. The survival of culture is closely attached to the
survival of a society, in other terms, without society, culture does not exist. These aspects are
very crucial in studying the culture of ethnic groups since they are people who can belong to
both mainstream and their original cultures, as well as influenced by many others with different
cultures in the society they live.
The other author, Charles Dussart digs culture in his own way by studying cultural
attributes that allows distinguishing a culture with the other. His study shows that these
principal cultural attributes include socialization, norms, rewards and sanctions in which culture
content is transferred from generation to generation thanks to socialization, and has high impact
on consumption behavior. Whereas, norms is considered as the bible ruling how to act and
behave correctly in a society, demonstrated in law and customs with criteria for judgment, and
rewards and sanctions are the tools ensuring the compliance of action and behavior with norms
set in a particular culture [Dussart C., 1983]. However, with ethnic consumers, it is much more
complicated since acculturation, level of ethnicity and level of membership towards ethnic
group should be incorporated to these attributes to define which culture(s) they belong to or has
influence on them, as well as to understand their consumption behavior.
The other point of view towards culture that contributes to the characterization of an
ethnic group to others is the definition of Hofstede in 1994. This author put culture in a set of
mental programming, including two other factors: personality and human nature. While the
human nature, for him, is universal, common for every one since it is inherited from gene, like
anger, happiness, sorrow..., shown as the feeling of individual in different ways, able to
modified by culture and situated at the lowest level of mental program; personality is the top
level one that makes up the uniqueness of an individual, differing him/her to others thanks to

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special gene inherited and personal experience acquired. Culture, in the model of Hofstede,
finds its place in the middle of mental programming, only acquired by individuals from social
environment, and represents special characteristic of a certain group.
Since then, the concept of culture has developed strongly and diversely, but it is
undeniable that culture is a very complex concept. Generally, it is as a set of shared values,
attitudes, beliefs, goals, and practices of a particular group, organization or institution. In order
to have these shared items, there are interactions among individuals of the groups and
individuals with different groups. At lower level, it can be understood as an individual's culture
that influences his or her behavior, attitudes, beliefs and values. Meanwhile, at higher level,
culture is the common in human knowledge, belief and behavior of one or several societies. It is
known as high culture when it is defined as the taste in fine arts and humanities. One may
belong to different cultures at the same time due to their racial or ethnic groups.
III.1.2. Culture and its components
Culture is constituted by several elements, which are usually used to identify the
similarities and differences between one culture and the others. Some of these elements include:
• Language: used as a set of symbols to assign and communicate meaning, as social
conduct and allow people to exchange ideas and experience as well as to learn other's
experience
• Norms: as humanly created rules for behaviour, including folkways, mores, taboos, and
rituals, used as a social control internally (ideologies, beliefs and values) and externally
(with informal and formal sanctions) to regulate peoples behaviour in a given society
• Values: as aspiration or the holdings in high esteem that should be achieved and
considered of great worth, for example democracy, liberty, freedom, independence,
autonomy, individual rights, success, wealth, prosperity, equity, fairness, equality of
opportunity, love, compassion, humanitarianism, tolerance, forgiveness, faith, religion,
family, conformity, tradition, patriotism, health, happiness, education, knowledge, etc.
• Belief: including facts accepted to be true by all or most members of a culture at a
particular point of time. It is not limited to religious statement but all other things
believed to be true, like common sense or knowledge

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• Social collectives and their relations: considered as symbolic social construction, for
instance family, social groups, organizations, communities, institutions, classes,
governments and societies
• Clothing and appearance: the way people dressing in different situations (at work, at
home, at ceremonies, so on so forth.)
• Food and consumption habits: these include food choice and preference, taste, way of
eating, consumption behaviour, etc.
Jean-Claude Usunier and Julie Anne Lee categorize these elements into four groups:
language; institutions, material productions and symbolic productions. For these authors,
language can "influences both consumer and business attitudes and behaviours, including
punctuality, opening times and bargaining" through tense and words. Meanwhile institutions
(family, social and political organizations) play the role as the link between individual and the
groups, encourage individuals to follow the rules in their exchange within the group or to
contribute in changing these rules. Material productions regroup "tools, machines, factories,
paper, books, instruments and media of communication, food, clothing, ornaments, etc." that all
belong to physical, intellectual, artistic and service outputs, transmitting, reproducing, updating
and improving the knowledge and skills in the society. On the contrary, symbolic productions
can be defined through religious and moral belief. They are the bridge between physical and
metaphysical world [Usunier.J.C.et al., 2009, p.4:6].
However, others may classify culture components into other four aspects:
communication, cognitive, material and behavioral ones. For communication, it includes
language and symbols, that are used for interaction among people and for recognition of people
sharing the same culture. In terms of cognitive aspect, ideas, knowledge, belief, values,
accounts (way people use their language for explanation or justification) are components.
Regarding behavioral components, including norms, or more exactly mores, laws, folkways,
and rituals, depict how people act. The last component is material one, signifying all materials
objects used for practical and artistic purposes. This kind of categorization is also quite
comprehensive, but it forgets about organizations and their relations that make up society.
Jean-Claude Usunier and Julie Anne Lee believe that at individual level, culture can find
its source from language, nationality, education in general, profession, ethnicity, religion,
family, sex, social class and corporate or organizational culture [Usunier.J.C.et al., 2009, p.7:8].

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III.1.3. Cultural characteristic
Each culture is influenced by two groups of characteristics, collective and individual.
Collective characteristic
The first and foremost collective characteristics of culture represent in language learnt
and used at birth. In the case of immigrants and their children, it should be the language of
preference that they use for thinking, reaction and interaction. Language include spoken and
sign for communication. It helps the user to convey their meaning to other. Therefore, the social
function of language is very important, enabling social interaction and cooperation. Each
language is unique in its self due to its symbols and grammatically rules. The use of language is
always in coherence with the other factors of culture, such as value, belief, hierarchy. For
example, in Vietnamese, to talk to anybody, the subject used is different, depending on the
relationship, age, social position, etc. of the two speakers, compared to just "you" and "I" in
English. Hence, language is one factor that makes a culture different from others and creates the
so called "identity" for community practising it.
Secondly, nationality is among crucial characteristics of culture. It creates a national
identity of a culture, usually based on ethnic, cultural ties and self-determination. In reality,
nationality is usually used to categorize culture despite the fact that some countries can share
the same one.
Religion, the third collective characteristic of culture systemizse all human spiritual and
moral values through cultural and belief symbol. Some religions focus on practice while others
place their emphasis on belief. Some are practised by small groups; on the contrary, others are
universal with the involvement of a big number of populations, such as Christianity, Islam,
Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism. Different religions and in difference places, they have their
own importance and closely associated with public institutions (schools; hospitals, government,
etc), family, political point of view or not. Besides, different individuals have their own
affiliation to a certain religion depending on their belief and practice. Accordingly, it influences
individual and the whole community economically, politically and socially at different levels,
deciding their behaviour and decision process.
Fourthly, institutions are elements perceived to be traditionally important to members of
a certain culture. It can link the members by blood relationship like family; by belief and
practice such as churches, pagoda, mosques; by work relation like companies, office; by public
interest such as administrative and political systems (the structure of precinct, commune, city,
region, state), educational system (schools, university, laboratories...); by personal interest such

95
as clubs, associations; or by means of communication like mass media; so on so forth. These
kinds of cultural institutions represent the social order and cooperation that govern behaviours
of individuals in a certain community.
Fifthly, the need hierarchy in different culture is quite different, especially those of the
secondary and psychogenic needs in the model of Henry Murray (1938); or the need for love
and affiliation, to obtain prestige and esteem, or for self-fulfilment and actualization in
Abraham Maslow model (1943), which correspond to the groups of relatedness and growth
needs in Clayton P. Alderfer (1969) model.
In addition to the collective characteristic above, it is necessary to mention the
conventions, habits, customs, which the larger part of the history of mankind. They exist in all
aspect of human life (eating, drinking, dressing, working, communicating, etc.) and in all events
land ceremonies of a given community. These elements contribute to affect behavior of
individual and community, as well as their purchase and decision making process in terms of
brand loyalty, products and services consumed place of selling and pattern of communication of
preference, etc.
Last but not least, a national culture can tell whether a certain country follows the
culture of individualism or collectivism. For example, the point of view of reference groups
influence decision of the Vietnamese much more than the French because the French tend to be
more individualist.
Individual characteristic
Individual characteristics of culture is in fact the individual's behavior manifested in
their brand loyalty, implication, perceived risk, and cognitive style [Chantal Ammi, 2005, p.39-
40]. That is why a certain brand is loved in European countries but not a favorite one in Asian
countries. Or when an occidental consumer decides to buy a certain thing because of its high
utilization but an oriental one prefers and chooses the other because of its aesthetic
characteristics. The risk mentioned here as individual characteristic of culture because each
culture has its own risks in terms of physical, social, and economic aspects. Meanwhile
cognitive style or thinking style, describing the way individuals think, perceive and remember
information varies according to different culture. Therefore, it affects the whole factors during a
consumer's purchase decision process
However, whether collective or individual, culture is learned by any individual in terms
of language, knowledge, experience, skills, personality and lifestyle. This can be taken through

96
the process of enculturation, meaning learning about own culture and acculturation, meaning
learning about different culture. It can be formal learning if a person is taught how to behave by
his siblings and friends, or informal if a person learn himself by imitating the behavior of others
that he select, for example a friend, a neighbor, a movie stars, etc. Nonetheless, it can be also
technique learning if a person learns in educational environment.
Secondly, culture is ideational and shared by a group of people who believe and practice
it. Take language as an example, it is practiced by a community and allow community members
to share their values and experience. Meanwhile social, educational and religious institutions of
a culture allow people to transmit and share their culture, knowledge, skills, patriotism,
religious consciousness, spiritual guidance, moral and other cultural values.
Thirdly, culture is dynamic and changing constantly as time comes with new ideas, new
techniques, new knowledge, etc. Culture evolves in this sense to function in the interest of its
society. This characteristic is very important for marketers to understand their customers if a
certain culture in a given time so that tailored marketing strategy for a specific society is made.
Normally, culture is cumulative along the time to make it richer and richer except the
case it does not coincide with community interest.
In addition, it is very diverse with plenty of subcultures, which are mutually
interdependent.
Last but not least, it creates the 'do' and 'don't' as guidance for its members' behavior and
action.
Study on ethnicity and consumers as individual and collective characteristics
Taking collective and individual characteristics of culture in the research on ethnic
consumers, recent studies focus on three dimensions: ethnic identity, intensity of ethnic
affiliation, and situational ethnicity [Ogden, Ogden and Schau, 2004]. A synthesis of the
research on these three dimensions is presented in the following table.

97
Table 12: Synthesis of research on ethnic identity, ethnic affiliation and situational
ethnicity
Dimension
Author
Ethnic identity Ethnic affiliation Situational ethnicity
Padilla (1980) Ethnic fidelity
Deshpande, Hoyer and
Donthu (1986)
Intensity of ethnic
affiliation
Stayman and Deshpande
(1989)
Sense of belonging
varies according to
situation and role of
ethnic individuals
Zmud and Arce (1992) Situational ethnicity
Webster (1994) Degree of ethnic
affiliation
Laroche, Kim, and
Tomiuk (1998)
Ethnic identity
as maintenance
of original
culture
Chung and Fischer (1999) Intensity of ethnic
affiliation
Ogden, Ogden and Schau
(2004)
Situational ethnicity
III.1.4. Acculturation
Acculturation as a process
Mentioning culture and ethnic marketing, it is essential to refer to the acculturation
process, especially for the immigrants in developed countries, as it is one of elements inspiring
the development of ethnic identity, and ethnic marketing. Acculturation, which measure how
different elements of culture interconnect, compliment, mutually support and harmonize with
each other during the movement, translation and adaptation to a country's cultural environment
of a person from another country. These elements could be family characteristics, friends’
relationship, media patterns of preference, institutions, education, religion, etc., those of
different culture levels, like sub-cultures, local cultures, counter cultures or diversity in
historical and cultural traditions and those of the culture of immigration.
The table below synthesizes and presents immigrant’s acculturation process and its link
to ethnic marketing.

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Figure 9: Acculturation process and its link to ethnic marketing
As Suinn et al define "it is a process that occurs when two or more cultures interact
together. There are several possible outcomes of this process including assimilation whereby a
host culture absorbs the immigrant culture, or multiculturalism whereby both cultures exists
side-by-side. On an individual level, exposure to another culture can lead a person to resisting
change in his/her values and behavioral competencies, adopting the host culture's values and
behavioral skills and styles as a replacement for his/her parent culture's values/behaviors,
acquiring host culture values/ behaviors while retaining parent culture values/ behaviors with
situational reliance determining which values/ behaviors are in effect at different times" [Suinn
et al. 1987].
In other words, the process of integration to mainstream culture can then categorize an
individual of an ethnic group to one of the four following groups: (i) acculturated, meaning that
he has the traits of the dominant culture and mostly not remaining any traits of their origin
culture; (ii) bicultural, that means effectively function (working, living, communicating, etc.) in
the host culture while remaining some traits of their origin culture; (iii) traditional, that i.e.
Decide
Ethnic individuals’
differences
Acculturation
agents
Acculturation processes Acculturation
outcomes
1. Demographic
variables
2.
Language
3.
Time of arrival
4.
Ethnic identity
5.
Environmental
factors
Culture of origin
Family
Friends
Media
Institutions
Education
Religion...
Culture of
immigration
Family
Friends
Media
Institutions
Education
Religion...
Movement
Assimilation
Maintenance
Resistance
Segregation
Translation
Adaptation
Motives of ethnic
marketing
In which resistance much
more strongly motivates the
development of ethnic
marketing than maintenance
Ethnic market segment
deserved to develop
Cultural factors needed to
be emphasize
Communication patterns
applied
Contribute to

99
adopting only a few traits of the dominant culture, but the majority of his cultural traits comes
from his origin culture; and (iv) marginal, which keep just little contact with either culture of
origin or host culture. For an immigrant family, it is quite popular to see the grandparents with
traditional culture while the parents seem bicultural and the children s acculturated.
The acculturation process is also one of the measures for cultural openness, a degree to
which the historic boundaries between ethnic and racial groups are perceived as highly porous
and easily crossed. Accordingly, people are allowed to navigate without self-consciousness and
social constraint within and across different cultural groups, absorbing the elements perceived
as suitable to their preferred lifestyles, but not necessarily at the cost of pride and participation
in their native culture. Or acculturation is regarded as the first but vital of five stages of cultural
openness, in which with the first stage, intercultural influence is a source of concern. Then, at
the second and third stage, people will acknowledge the benefit of the intercultural influences
within society, and recognize, considerate this benefit when applying in their own life before
entering to the fourth stage of deciding to actively pursue and immense themselves in inter-
cultural experiences and situations, in order to finaly navigate non-self consciously within and
across multiple cultural group bounderies.
Study on acculturation of ethnic groups
Acculturation usually happens when there are cultural interactions between and among
ethnic groups or ethnic individuals of different countries, and especially in a multiple ethnic
country. For an ethnic individual, acculturation can take place internally or externally. In the
first case, it is his interest in integrating in a culture, either mainstream culture or subcultures
that he has chance to deal with. Whereas the second one can be made via such contacts as: (i)
his family members and relatives, especially his parents; (ii) his friends, neighbors or
colleagues; (iii) other people in the society where he lives, works or travels, etc.
For socio-psychologists, acculturation is a learning process for children to acquire their
ethnic culture that they should belong to [Redfield et al., 1936]. Particularly through the
parents, or parental acculturation in other words, this is considered as the way that has most
influence on the sense of ethnic identity of an adolescent [Phinney & Nakayama, 1991]. For
cultural anthropologists, acculturation represents relation among sub-cultures.
In the lens of marketing, acculturation affects consumers' values, symbols, practice, and
specifically buying habits. Hence, it is understood as a socialization process allowing
consumers to learn about the behavior, values, attitudes, knowledge, practice and habits of other

100
consumers from different cultures [Penaloza, 1989; Lee, 1989]. This can be done by both
assimilation and unique behavior model [Pascale G.Q. et al. 2000: 1022].
For instance, Wallendorf and Reilly (1983) study the assimilation process of Mexican
immigrants in the United States of the America finding that the consumption structure of
Mexican American is sometimes different to those of the Mexican as well as the American.
Meanwhile, Hui et al. (1992) indicate that despite the assimilation to host culture, some still
maintain a strong sense of belonging to their ethnic culture.
However, it is Berry (1980, 1989) who is the pioneer in studying acculturation in an all-
sided manner when putting individual in the context of two cultures, one is their original
culture, and the other is the one of host country to see cultural changes resulted from continuous
and direct contacts between two cultures [Berry, 1989: 135].Accordingly, its objective is to
measure the maintenance of identity and original culture as well as the development of relation
and integration to other cultural groups.
Therefore the study of immigrants' acculturation process and their consumption
behavior helps in understanding cultural dynamics underlying consumer behavior [Yuping Liu,
2000: 26]. The acculturation process of immigrants stimulating ethnic marketing can be seen in
the figure 9 while the consumption behavior is supposed to be discussed in the section of
subculture. Nevertheless, the pioneer in studying acculturation of ethnic population can be
listed in the following table.
Table 13: Synthesis of research on acculturation of ethnic groups
Author Topic Variable Item
Szapocznik et al.
(1978)
Behavioral
acculturation scale of
Hispanic population
1. Language used
2. Habit and customs
3. Entertainment and living style
4. Behavior preference
24
Olmedo and
Padilla (1978)
Measure of
acculturation for
Mexican-Americans
1. Language and nationality
2. Socio-economic status
3. Evocative power of the terms 'father'
and 'man'
28
Cuellar, Harris and
Jasso (1980)
Acculturation rating
scale for Mexican
American
1. Familiarity to language
2. Language used
3. Ethnic interaction
4. Ethnic pride
5. Ethnic identity
6. Cultural heritage
7. Generational proximity
20

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Padilla (1980) Acculturation scale of
Hispanic population
1. Cultural, personal and familial heritage
2. Ethnic pride
3. Discrimination
8
Valenvia (1985) Index of Hispanic 1. Ethnic identity power
2. English mastering
3. Language spoken at home
4. Preference in expression
5. Duration of time in host country
6. Marital relation
6
Marin et al (1987) Short acculturation
scale for Hispanics
1. Language used
2. Media used
3. Social relation
12
Mendoza (1989) Cultural life style
inventory of Mexican
Americans
1. Language spoken in family
2. Language spoken outside family
3. Social relation and activities
4. Cultural preferences and activities
5. Cultural identification and pride
29
Anderson et al
(1993)
Acculturation scale
for Southeast Asia
population in America
(Cambodians, Laos,
Vietnameses)
1. Language used
2. Preference in terms of communication
3. Ethnic interaction
4. Habit of food used
13
Landrine and
Klonoff (1994)
African Amercian
acculturation scale
1. Traditional belief and practice
2. Traditional familial structure and
practice
3. Socialization
4. Preparation and consumption of
traditional food
5. Preferences
6. Interacial attitudes
7. Superstitions
8. Belief and practice in terms of health
74
Cuellar, Arnold
and Maldonado
(1995)
scale for Mexican
American
1. Language used
2.Communication practice
3. Ethnic identity
4. Generational proximity
30
Dawson, Crano
and Burgoon
(1996)
scale for Mexican
American (short form)
1. Language used
2. Education place
3. Ethnic identity
4. Musical and televisual preferences
5. Contact with Mexican
10

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Sabatier and Berry
(2008)
Orientation of
acculturation in
France (for Algerians,
Antillais, Morrocan,
Portugals,
Vietnamese) and in
Canada (Greeks,
Haitians, Italians,
Vietnamese)
1. Language used
2. Communicational practice
3. Food habit
4. Cultural heritage
5. Traditional attitude and behavior
6. Interracial attitude
....
46
SOPI- an ethnic marketing agency in France- chooses social style segmentation and
acculturation level to classify ethnic population in France into 5 principal groups as the
followings:
The "positive thinkers": represented by the young professional originating from
Africa, maghreb (north Africa) or Vietnam between the age of 25 and 45, who are driven by the
desire to get individual success or fairer demonstration and recognition of their achievements
while neglecting the discrimination in reality. This group of ethnic people usually live in chic
area in big cities or residential areas. Their consumption is wholly analogous to the one of their
colleagues, except when they are with their family. These people are always interested in latest
fashionable products, household equipments, high technology and travel
The "ET ET": is in fact the ones of middle class who claim much the culture of
their parents, rather than that of the country they were born. The majority of their friends shared
the same community like them, however, they can also have friends of all origins. They are the
main consumers of identical medias. They usually do not buy meaningless goods, but loyalty
programs can meet their expectation. They are African European, Franco-Arabic, and Franco-
Asian.
The "Sam'suffit": is also the one of middle class, but rather assimilated when not
wanting to be considered as belonging to any precise ethnic minority group but just as an
average consumer. They are normally in the age between 25-40, working as a middle manager,
employees or official, and living in neighborhoods with small immigrant populations. They
include West Indian, or North African women and African origin, but often live in mixed
marriage, meaning married to the one of different ethnicity.
The "Identity rebel" groups those driven by a strong frustration vis-à-vis French
society. Although born in France, they keeps feeling returned to their origins. In fact, they are
divided into two groups differently:

103
- Group 1: includes those unemployed, or in under-qualified jobs. They adopt logic
quite similar to the African American in the 60s when always searching for an identity which
sometimes they know badly. However, they can be the future leaders, or political association
community entrepreneurs.
- Group 2: often include the young and newly arrived persons at the age of 18-25, who
represents popular class and a very visible minority in the media as the sub-urban youth, the
scum. They develop an urban ghetto culture, with its distribution channels and information.
They are considered as the model for the "white" and middle class young of the same age.
Different from their parents, the people of this group are very potential for identity marketing,
but in favor of tribal marketing, other than ethnic marketing. For example they are the
consumers of streetwear, hip-hop music, cultural products, halal food, etc. and their logic of
purchasing is "By us and for us!".
The "As in their country": is in fact the one from African or Maghreb, often new arrivals
through reunification or illegal immigration, and keep most of their lifestyle as in their
homeland. Despite of weak purchasing power, below the national average one, their propensity
to consume is very high thanks to high number of household members. They usually purchase
specific products like food, pre-paid telephone cards, clothing, remittance service... and prefer
ethnic commerce. They include men and women over 45 years old or those of the age 25-35 but
young economic migrants, who mainly live in the areas with large immigrant populations, in
high demand of event promotions, such as Ramadan or tailored trips during their holiday, and
prefer talking in their native language.
III.2. Subculture
III.2.1. Basic concept of subculture
Within a national culture, there can be several subcultures. Subculture is "cultural
variants displayed by certain segments of the population", constituting "relatively cohesive
cultural systems", and considered as small worlds in the larger world of a national culture
[Mirra Komarovsky & Sargent S.S., 1949, p. 143]. This small society has its own
characteristics, which makes it different to other societies of the national culture. "A society
contains numerous subgroups, each with its own characteristics ways of thinking and acting.
These cultures within a culture are called subcultures" [Blaine Mercer, 1958: p.34].

104
In the other terms, it can be understood as the behaviors that are shared and learnt
among members of a particular group: "Shared learned behaviors which are common to a
specific group or category are called subcultures" [New York: American Book, 1959: p.49].
In a simple manner, a distinct cultural group identifiable within a larger and more
complex society is a good definition for subculture.
So subculture is segment of society with certain distinctive cultural elements of their
own [Donnelly, 1981] and consists of shared identifiable beliefs, values, and means of symbolic
expression [Green B.Christine, 2001].
Subculture is usually used in sociology and anthropology. Now it is also a common
concept in marketing. It can be identified in six ways [Gelder, 2007]:
• Through the link with territory or geographic location like the hood, the quarter, the
street, etc.
• Through outside movement such as social groups
• Through the exclusion from ordinary life and massification
• Through the uniqueness or stylistic ties to excess and exaggeration (with some
exception)
• Through negative relations to work like idle, parasitic, leisure or entertainment
• Through negative relation to class
Subcultures exist at all levels and become very diversified. It can be based on: (i) age to
divide into subcultures of the senior, the teenager, or the middle age; (ii) on gender to classify
into subculture of women, men, gays or lesbians; (iii) on social class (education, occupation,
income) with general four classification of upper, upper-middle, lower-middle and lower
classes; (iv) on favorite types of music such as jazz, hip hop, goth, or punk, etc; (v) on race and
ethnicity (for instance African American, Asian American, Caucasian, Hispanic American); (vi)
on nationalities like French, Italian, Japanese, Vietnamese, etc.) ; (vii) on religion (namely
Catholic, Budhist, Hindu, Mormon, Jewish, etc.); (viii) on geographic location such as Asia,
Europe, America, Africa,... or Eastern, Southern, Northern, Western, Southwestern,
Northeastern, etc..; (ix) occupation e.g. scientist, economist, researcher, professor, worker, so
on so forth. Hence, members of a subculture usually use their distinctive symbolic use of style,
including fashions, mannerisms and argot as signal of their membership [Hebdige, Dick, 1979].

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III.2.2. Importance of subculture in marketing
In marketing, subcultures represent market segmentation. According to Chantal Ammi,
they can be categorized thanks to such traditional criterion of segmentation as [Chantal Ammi,
2005:70-71]:
• Demographic: including age, gender, occupation, education level...
• Socioeconomic: social class, poverty level, revenue...
• Geographic: regions, countries, types of habitat environments...
• Psychographic: living style, personal value, personality...
• Environment: culture, family...
Like the relationship between culture and consumer behavior, the link between
subculture and consumer behavior is very strong, and very specific. Depending on the nature of
products and services, the marketers can classify their customers into different subculture
groups so as to better serve their clients and develop their business. For instance, cosmetics can
be targeted to different racial groups due to their different types of skin and needs for beauty
services. Wherease, clothes can be categorized to serve either different genders or age groups.
Communication products such as television channels, newspapers, magazines, radios, etc. can
serve different nationality groups based on languages used. However, these kinds of products
could also be developed based on the level of consumers' income.
In marketing, subculture shows its crucial role in shaping the needs and wants of its
members. By identifying a subculture, marketers can have a background on its characteristics,
understand subculture values and norms, and then find unique market behavior of its members,
e.g. their food preferences, distinctive clothing style, type of media exposure, willingness to try
new products or to pay for premium, leisure activities, etc. for the final purpose of best
responding to specific needs, wants, motivation, perceptions, and attitudes shared by subgroup
members, as well as facilitating them in focusing on sizable and natural market segment. In
addition, many subcultures have powerful stereotypes and taboos, both positive and negative,
but are highly respected by their members and much influence their behaviors. Furthermore,
depending on such factors as time, place, acculturation level, so on so forth, the consumer
behavior of a subculture can be much different. Then, a good knowledge of subculture is a must
for marketers to ensure good marketing campaign.
In practice, major subcultures often taken in use as criteria for market segmentation
include nationality, geographic location, race, age, gender and religion. The marketers can

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incorporate several sorts of subcultures to segment the target market, for example ethnicity and
religion, or geographic location and age, etc. These subcultures usually subordinate to help the
marketers better identify the clients, their needs and wants to satisfy them with relevant tailored
products or services through appropriate marketing strategy and execution. Moreover, the
consumers simultaneously can belong to more than one culture. Therefore, specific interaction
of sub-cultural memberships should be well chosen to influence the purchase decisions of target
consumers. Plus, promotional strategy should not be limited to a single subculture membership
but includes those involving in the interaction.
III.2.3. Ethnic subculture
Ethnic subculture is a self-perpetuating group whose members' unique and shared
behaviors are based on a common racial, language, or nationality backgrounds. This makes
them distinguishable compared with other ethnic subcultures. Yet, among these factors, genetic
ties and the ties to home culture are considered as the most important ones.
Below is a graphic showing an example of subcultures based on ethnicity, language and
nationality in France

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Figure 10: Example of subcultures based on ethnicity, language and nationality in France
To decide who belong to a certain subculture, such indicators usually are taken into
account: country of origin, ancestor, and language used at home, original name, etc. What is
more, it can be identified by objective method, based on deterministic and exterior factors, for
example socio-cultural criteria, or subjective method, based on voluntary and personal factors
[Chantal Ammi, 2005, p. 53], or the third method as a combination of the two above ones
[Handlemen, 1977].
Ethnic subculture is one of the bases for the categorization and segmentation of ethnic
people as focused consumers in the market in ethnic marketing. This concept helps marketers
understand the particular and unique culture of certain ethnic groups, and their distinctive
behaviors compared with other ethnic groups in the society, either minority or majority ones.
Based on the criterion of ethnicity, the behavior of consumers can be much different.
Take the case of the United State of America as an example to see the differences. These
Asian
culture
African
culture
European
culture
French culture-
Dominant culture
Example of subcultures based on ethnicity, language and nationality
in France
Indian culture
Chinese
culture
Japanese
culture
Italian culture
Morrocan
culture
Nigerian
culture
Haitian
culture
Spanish
culture
Romanian
culture
Vietnamese
culture
Tunisian
culture

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differences can be seen at different levels. At higher level, ethnic groups in America consist of
three main groups: Hispanic, Asian, and African. The differences of consumer behavior of these
groups have been much discussed and easily found out both academic studies and practices.
Yet, at lower level, each of these ethnic groups can be categorized into many sub-ethnic
groups. For instance, the Asian ethnic group includes such groups as Indian, Philippino,
Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, so on so forth. At this level, the differences of
consumer behavior are more difficult to study since these people may share similar values,
tradition, and characteristics, etc. Of course, just take a sub-ethnic group like the Chinese
American; it can have many other ethnic layers, each comprise different sub-sub-ethnic groups.
The behaviors of consumers belonging to different groups can have both differences and
similarities, but maybe more similarities than difference. Hence, the deeper ethnicity level is
chosen, the more difficult it is to analyze differences in consumer behavior.
Nevertheless, based on different products and services, business scales, as well as the
importance of customer groups, the marketers would choose which ethnic level they should
focus for their market segmentation. The following table would just present behavior of three
main ethnic groups in the United States of America, including Asian, African and Hispanic
American as an example.
Table 14: Behavior of different ethnic groups in the United State of America
Main ethnic groups Particular consumer behaviors
Asian American
(primary Chinese,
Filipinos, Japanese,
Asian Indian,
Korean, and
Vietnamese
American)
- Frequent purchase of food product and spend more money on food
than national medium food purchase (because of big family scale)
- Prefer traditional buying method like big shop and near living place
- Very economic and always think of their future, spend based on real
need, pay attention to price, not ready to spend on shopping without
reason
- Strong need of using native language in their communication, prefer
traditional communication media in native language, prefer distribution
in native language, with long open hours, small packaging, high
technology application, with consulting service, etc.
- Not individualist but strong sense of community
- Spend much time in working and study, which limits time for
entertainment and increase their spending on children's education
- Value quality and high technology, and willing to pay for it
- Male-oriented consumption decision
- Tend to be loyal customers
- Prefer Asian American patronage business

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African American
(principally Haiti,
Jamaican,
Republic
Dominican,
Trinidad and
Tobago,
- Frequent purchase of sweet product (like confectionary), poultry
products rather than other kinds of meat, strong alcoholic beverage,
clothing and accessories
- Strongly in need of ethnic cosmetics
- Highly consume audiovisual products
- Spend much money on luxury and jewelry products
- Prefer big packaging because of large family size
- Adore popular or leading brands, very brand loyal, and willing to
pay more for "the best"
- Prefer advertisement on magazines, newspapers, television, radio and
other media specifically directed to African Americans as well as on
their special events such as sportive competition, cultural and religious
events, etc. and sponsoring since it is believe that most of
advertisement in this country focus on the Caucasians
Hispanic American
(mainly Mexican,
Puertoricans, and
Cubans American)
- Frequent purchase of food product, clothing, accessories, body care,
and cosmetics, while automobile also play an important role in their
budget spending
- Closely attached to family and prefer product appeals stressing the
ability to provide wealth for the family
- Dynamic and evolving
- Prefer media in the first language that they learned to speak
- Usually read newspapers and printings in Spanish, watch television in
Spanish, and especially listen o Spanish radio and prefer publicity for
Latino community on radio
- Prefer traditional small commerce and purchasing method, not with
such modern technology like with television, internet, catalogue...
Source: Synthesized from “Marketing Ethnique: Utopie ou Réalité”[Chantal Ammi, 2005] and other documents
In addition, ethnic subculture is a factor that helps social identity theory explaining
individuals' identification, and then social identity of a particular group [Tajfel, 1982; Tejfel &
Turner, 1979]. This has been further discussed in the next section of social identity theory.
III.3. Counterculture
Counterculture represents values, and norms of a cultural group that are much different
and opposed to those accepted by most of the social mainstream at a given time19
. This can be
19
Source: Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, 2011

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expressed in the ethos aspirations, and dreams of a specific population in a certain period of
time, for example groups with political oppositions, or those of lesbian, gay, bisexual and
transgender communities, or those supporting "bad and unacceptable" music like the punk rock
culture of the 70s and 80s before, etc.
For many people; the value and norms of these countercultures reflect ideal of equality
and pursuit of happiness while the other may see it as self-indulgent, unpatriotic, rebellious or
destructive of moral order since it runs counter to those of the social mainstream of the day.
Therefore, a counterculture can be evaluated as not counter as time change, when the values
and norms promoted by a group or subculture are no longer oppose to those of mainstream
society. For instance, in the past, women were not highly respected, even voiceless in the
community. Thanks to women's liberation or women's movement, there have been dramatic
reforms on such issues as reproductive rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay,
women's suffrage, sexual harassment and violence. Therefore, in many countries in the twenty
century, or even in the early 1960s, the culture respecting women was considered as
counterculture. Take Thailand as a vivid example, it is considered as paradise for transgender
community members now since they are treated normally and equally in this country despite the
fact that they are hardly accepted in other cultures.
Considering the concept of culture and counter culture, it is seen that identities and
counter identities has a close relationship and ethnic identity is given more meaning and
understanding when being contrasted to other ethnic group identities . In other words, there is
no ethnic identity except in contrast to some other counter identity, and the nature of the
identity changes as the contrast identity changes [White C.L., 1989]. To date, in such countries
with ethnic diversity as the United States of America, Canada, France, German, Great Britain,
Australia, etc. there are different sub-cultures existing along with the mainstream one, as well
as different ethnic identities which can be either contrast or not with each other, creating
external attribution of stereotypical characteristics to a given ethnic group and its members.
III.4. Culture and consumption behavior in academic research
To date, culture is a multi-faceted construct connecting people at plural levels such as
material, ideological and normative, reflecting a group's worldview and having impacts on not
only attitudes but also behavior [McCracken, 1989]. In marketing literature, culture plays an
important role influencing individual behavior, but it is not a decisive factor that determines the
behavior. As stated Lindridge and Dibb, culture has been considered as the main backstage to

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assume consumption behavior and to link certain products with particular symbolism
[Lindridge & Dibb, 2003].
III.4.1. Culture and consumption behavior
Each individual perceives the world through his own cultural lens; accordingly, the
consumers usually view themselves in the context of their culture and react to their living
environment based on their cultural frame.
In the frame of this section, it is necessary to go back to the concept of consumer
behavior and then put it in connection with culture factors. In simple manner, consumer
behaviour can be understood as the selection, purchase and consumption of goods or services
for the satisfaction of their needs, their wants or how and why people make the purchase
decisions. From the point of view of the authors Engel, Blackwell and Miniard, consumer
behaviour are “activities directly involved in obtaining, consuming, and disposing of products
and services, including the decision processes that precede and follow these actions” [Engel at
al. 1995 pp. 4]. Others define it as “the behaviour that consumers display in searching for
purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of product, service and idea which they expect will
satisfy their needs” [Schiffman and Kanuk. 1997].
There are various factors influencing the decision process of consumers. In literature,
Koudelka classifies them into inner and outer factors [Koudelka, 1997], but Brown categorizes
into personal, psychological, and social factors [Brown, 2006] and Kotler then adds with
cultural one [Kotler 2001]. Other authors highlight situational factors as a crucial influence of
purchase decision [Berkowitz et al. 1992; Vysekalova 2004].
Personal factors: age, gender, resident place, profession, economic condition,
personality, lifestyle, etc.
Psychological factors: motivation, perception (selecting, organizing and interpreting
information to produce a meaningful experience), attitudes, skills and knowledge
Social factors: reference groups and opinion of group leaders, family and members,
roles and status in the society, etc.
Cultural factors: buyer culture, subculture (religion, nationalities, geographic region,
racial groups, etc.), social class (income, wealth, education, occupation), etc.
Situational factors: social environment, physical environment, time, consumer financial
condition, so on so forth...

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Then, it is seen that cultural factors are among factors playing in important role in the
behaviour of the consumer. Take an example, Muslim culture does not allow its members to
consume pork based or alcoholic products. Then, of course it is no use to advertise and
persuade them to buy these kinds of goods. Another example is the green bean cake made in
Vietnam. It is considered as a delicious and special product for Vietnamese people, but it is
worthless to sell it in such Muslim communities in Indonesia or Phillipin, simply because pork
fat is one of the ingredients of the cake.
Cultural factors affecting consumer behavior and marketing strategy can be shown as
following figure, which have the same importance in the identification of ethnic consumer
behavior as well as in the design of an ethnic marketing strategy:
Figure 11: Cultural factors influencing consumer behavior and marketing strategy
In marketing, two aspects are paid much effort: evaluating and influencing consumers’
behaviour because understanding consumers’ behaviour is a must for marketer to design
appropriate marketing strategy and conduct profitable and sustainable business. While the
evaluation of consumers’ behaviour can be conducted either by direction (what they want) or
intensity (how much they want it), influencing consumer behaviour can be implemented by
giving them an acceptable motive reasoning their purchase like healthy products or service with
much caring and guarantee, by giving them the chance to have sensory stimuli, or by offering
specialized goods making their products or services different from other.
Furthermore, a culture is often measured in three ways, either content analysis,
consumer field work or value measurement instruments. With content analysis, it allows to
analyze the content of verbal, written, and pictorial communication systematically to determine
the prevailing and changes of social and cultural values in a society. The consumer field work is
Language
Demographics
Values (social, economic,
educational, religious values)
Non-verbal communication
(Time, Space, Symbols, Friendship,
Agreements, Things, Etiquette)
Consumer
behavior
Marketing
strategy

113
another method focusing on observing behavior of a small sample of people, sometimes without
the subject's awareness in a natural environment in order to draw out their values, belief and
customs. Whereas, value measurement instruments is in fact a kind of data collection
instrument by selecting some values, for instance freedom, peace, personal comfort, etc; to ask
members of a specific society for their personal feeling and assessment, which are then used to
make a conclusion of this society's value. However, the value chosen must be pervasive,
enduring and consumer related.
III.4.2. Cultural approaches in marketing
It is evident that every society has its own culture where people share the same
language, traditions, perceptions, beliefs and behaviors, which makes them unique and different
from those of other cultures. In the circumstance of globalization, people move around the
world and may migrate or settle in other countries, and then the hosting society is considered as
dominant culture while the one of these immigrants becomes subculture. Nevertheless, these
people may either adapt and adopt to new culture or preserve theirs, or both. That is why two
main cultural approaches are usually used in marketing and management, including “cross-
cultural approach” (or accultural one) and “inter-cultural approach”. While the first observes
the similarities and differences when different cultures act towards one another and how well
they tend to get along or do not get along, the second centers on the interactions between people
of different cultures and their impact on marketing variables.
Cross-cultural approach usually adopts positivism or constructivism epistemology.
Positivistic researches attempt to examinine complex concept of culture based on studies of
observed variables and focus on finding causal relations with important implications for
managerial practices. Generalizations are made; however, these generalizations are neither
general nor exact as those in natural sciences. In addition, positivist researchers in cross-cultural
management research often try to choose for parcimonious model using as few variables as
possible to find cause and feect relations since culture is a concept so complicated. With social
constructivist perspective, the actors’s interpretations or constructions of culture are put on
focus. The results of constructivist studies rely much on context, and therefore hardly reliable,
lacl of generalizability and difficult to replicate to other situation [Yeganeh H. and Su Z., 2005].
Schein (1985), While Kogut and Singh (1988), Hirschman and Holbrook (1992), Hostede
(1997) and Shenkar (2001)) are researchers with positivistic positions, Weber (1949), Geertz
(1974), Vaara (2000), Gertsen and Soderberg (1998) are known researchers with social
constructivist approach.

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As for the second approach, let’s take intercultural approach used in communication
sector as an example as this is influenced by culture. "Advertising, which is based on language
and communication, is the most culture-bound element of the marketing mix" [Jean Claude
Usunier et al., 2009:376]. In another interpretation, it can be understood that an excellent
advertising campaign in a country does not mean that it can get success in another country.
Hence, the same advertising strategy and execution should not be repeated but modified and
adapted to target audiences of different cultures so as to best communicate message to them.
From the point of view of Jean Claude Usunier et al., these include:
(i) Advertising strategy using adequate advertising appeals based on common themes and
concept with attention to cultural sensitivity, values (like preference in soft sell-using a more
subtle, casual, or friendly sales message- or hard sell- using a more direct, forceful, and overt
sales message), differences in the use of symbolic and information appeals, etc. This strategy
can be direct or indirect, explicit or implicit, rational or emotional.
(ii) Advertising style using informative, persuasive or dream oriented information content
through different-purpose- communication media like television, radio, printing, etc. with
extremely focus on culture, which highly influences types of information quality and cues ( for
example price, warranty, guarantee, packaging, product quality, new idea, product availability,
special offer, etc.), in addition to such factors as product types, competitive environment and
government regulation, etc.
(iii) Language, both textual and colloquial language, with characters and structures has great
impact on the effectiveness of advertisement and varies from one culture to another. This
should be used appropriately according to language structure, preference of audiences (choice
of word- formal or slang-, simple structure, foreign vocabulary, etc.), types of communication
media, literacy of audience, etc.
(iv) Humor based on word, on gestures, on portrayed characters, and on situations with
regard to advertisement intending, incongruity, and preferred kind of humor
(v) Characters and roles presented in advertisements regardless dress and represented
situation should be easily identified by target audiences and with special care for stereotypes in
gender, and age roles across cultures.
(vi) Mores and religion as a filter of advertising message making audience focusing on
meaning rather than on information. As a result, social convention, traditional and religious
belief and taboo, which differs across cultures, should be respected.

115
(vii) Visual elements of advertising such as color perceptions and usage; size of visual; use
of photographs; presentation of characters e.g. children, teenager, senior, etc.; background
themes and setting... reflecting cultural background and therefore presenting specific cultural
norms. Hence, with the same use of these elements in advertising, people from different
cultures may get different messages since they evaluate the informations in different manners.
Another important factor in the intercultural marketing communication that should be
mentioned here is public relation and its link to culture. This factor is quite different to
advertising in the sense that it focuses on the coordinated communication programs to (i) bridge
the gap between the firms, their business, their products and services with its key publics as
well as connect each other by trust and relationship and managing this relationship; (ii) to
create, improve and protect a firm's products and image via publicity, events, meetings,
conferences, and sponsorship. With different cultural circumstances, for instance highly
respecting privacy or public display, highly appreciating social responsibility or not, so on so
forth, a firm may have its own public relation strategy. This can be seen in the way it makes
contact and maintain relationships with its target public, in the manner it discloses information,
in the fashion it develops arguments and handle such problems as accidents, strikes, crisis,
boycotts, criticism, etc., and in the mode it deals with nationalistic feelings [Jean Claude
Usunier et al., 2009:376].
IV. Ethnic related issues and ethnic marketing
If identity theory and culture are considered as basic theories in the research of ethnic
identity and consumption, then ethnic related issues should be regarded as grounded
knowledge. In this chapter, three issues are presented aiming at providing comprehensive
foundation for the research. Firstly, the section provides some main definitions for better
understanding. This includes the definition of ethnicity, community, race and tribe, ethnic
identity versus national identity and racial identity as these concepts usually relate to ethnicity
issues. Secondly, ethnic marketing is addressed systematically from its origin, its definition, and
its components to how to design an effective ethnic marketing strategy. Thirdly, the section
attemps to differentiate ethnic marketing with community marketing as well as with tribal
marketing to avoid misunderstanding. Last but not least, ethnic identity and ethnic consumption
in academic research are discussed.

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IV.1. Definitions of some principal concepts
IV.1.1. Ethnicity, community, race and tribe
Ethnicity
The terminologies of ethnic group or ethnicity are often referred to as a group of people
sharing common language, culture, traditions, ancestry and homeland.
In the 5th century BCE, Herodotus is the first one giving the concept of ethnicity or
ethnic group when defining Greek identity. For him, kinship, language, cults and customs are
among characteristics of ethnicity. Since then, different authors have shown their own point of
view towards this concept. Ethnicity is a multi-factorial concept including, but not limited to,
cultural constructs, genetic background, ecological specialization, and self-identification
(Crews and Bindon, 1991). Sekhon and Szmigin reveal that ethnicity can be evaluated based on
not only sociological, cultural and anthropolical aspects, but also demographic one.
On one hand, "Subjective measures conceptualize ethnicity as a matter of personal
belief and reflect an individual’s psychological identity about their cultural attributes. On
the other hand objective measures of ethnicity include socio-cultural features such as religion,
language and cultural tradition. To some extent it seems likely that the two are embedded in
some way together" [Sekhon and Szmigin, 2005].
Hence, it is clear that ethnicity refers to some commonly shared features, including “a
sense of common customs, language, religion, values, morality, and etiquette”
[Webster, 1994, p.321] and is made of six principal attributes including a collective proper
name, a myth of common ancestry, shared historical memories, one or more differentiating
elements of common culture like language, an association with a specific homeland and a sense
of solidarity [Bouchet Dominique, 1995].
At group level, it is "a highly biologically self-perpetuating group sharing an interest in
a homeland connected with a specific geographical area, a common language and traditions,
including food preferences, and a common religious faith" [Abel, Ernest L., 2003]. However, at
individual level, it involves more a sense of belongings to a particular community, together with
their emotion and value closely attached to the community rather than geographical or racial
origin in case of self ethnic identification [Deshpande, Hoyer, and Donthu, 1986].
In our modern world, ethnicity reflects the globalization of lifestyles through migration
and travel, which involve different issues of acculturation, either (i) assimilation where ethnic
groups acquire the host culture without maintaining their home culture, or (ii) integration where

117
they both adapt to host culture and maintain theirs, even (iii) separation where they decide to
reject the host culture and maintain their culture and (iv) marginalization where these ethnic
groups reject both the host and home cultures [Berry et al. 1987].
This can be seen everywhere worldwide, for instance with cultural integration, the Asian
in Italy get use to eat pizza, but may change the ingredients with their favorite food and/or
spices. However, their younger generations assimilate the culture when choosing authentic
Italian food, just because they are born in the host countries and cannot accept their home
culture. For cultural separation, many French in Asia prefer to consume cheese produced in
France rather than those from elsewhere or several Japanese living in such country producing
wine as France have preference of sake as wine that should be used together with fish.
In addition, it is seen that ethnic products have been popularized, especially in food
industry, and particularly in countries with big immigration and travel [Jean Claude Usunier et
al. 2009]. Take the case of France as an example, couscous- a Maghrebian traditional food,
Japanese sushi, Thailand rice, and Turkey Kebab, so on so forth become so popular to the
French. So, the consumption patterns and behaviors of different ethnic groups become more
and more crucial for marketers to study for the final objective of bringing their relevant
products and services to their target consumers.
Therefore, the definition of ethnicity as “awareness, identity, belonging, culture,
external difference and internal similarity” is quite relevant [Guilherme D. Pires. et al., 2005:8].
However, although ethnicity was expected to disappear as a social force during the twentieth
century [Bentley, 1981; Hutchinson and Smith 1996], globalization nowadays has strengthened
it, making a various locally constructed strong ethnic identities [Guiherme.D.Pires. et al,
2005:10].
Under this circumstance, from the point of view of marketing sector, ethnicity is simply
understood as a sub-culture reflecting the feeling of belonging towards a certain ethnic group,
ethnic membership, typical characteristics that make up ethnic identity and special behavior
(especially in consumption) of an ethnic group, level of ethnicity, etc.
According to Chantal Ammi, ethnic groups in a country can be analyzed based on the
following main factors: language speaking, acculturation, family income (compared with the
national medium income and compared to other ethnic groups), education level, family
characteristics (number of children, age of parents, role of the bread winner, situation of
marriage and divorce in the family, importance of religion in their decision process, etc.), social
class and effect of discrimination on the life of ethnic groups [Chantal Ammi, 2005].

118
By definitions mentioned above, it is seen that there are two approaches to classify
ethnicity. One is objective method. These etic measures allow the outsiders to identify an
individual's ethnicity or a group's ethnicity, including both ethnic identity and similarity, based
on their upbringing and background like common history, traditional culture, social capital,
religion, geographical origin, written and oral literature; language spoken; skin color; surname;
social interaction, and even ethnic identification of the spouse... [Hui and Kim, 1997].
The other is subjective method. These emic measures assume that the self description
and the strength of ethnic identification are clearly understood by each ethnic individual
[Cohen, 1978; Hirschman, 1981]. Hence, this method allows the assessment of the difference of
a particular group, or allowing its members perceiving their difference compared to others and
acknowledging the group that they should belong to and at different levels. These two
approaches are not contradictory but complement each other, allowing defining characteristics
of an ethnic group and its members correctly [Isabelle Barth & André Boyer, 2008].
Race
Some can confuse ethnicity with race; however, these two concepts are totally different.
Neff argues that while race is based on the distinction in terms of physical features between
social groups, ethnicity can be differentiated based on common language and shared histories
which are specific to each group. Also, ethnic group is more homogeneous than race groups
since members of the same ethnic group can have a lot more in common with one another than
they would with their fellow members in their race group [Neff, 2007].
Tribe
Tribe is understood as a social, cultural and political group within an ethnic group. It
represents the intermediate stage between bands and state in social evolution. Many
anthropologists believe that it is formed based on kinship and common territory.
According to Hunter and Whitten, it is a relatively small group of people (small society)
who share a culture, speak a common language or dialect, and share a perception of their
common history and uniqueness. This unstratified social group often link with a minimum of
(or no) centralized political authority, organized around kinship lines [Hunter and Whitten,
1982]. Usually known as social structure, but baring in it, tribe is administrative units with
family and village structures, region, lineage, history, etc.

119
In 1988, Maffesoli uses the metaphor of the tribe to make reference to "micro group"
sharing something in common with emotional impulse [Maffesoli, 1988: 16]. Later Cova
recommends to understand the tribe not as micro group but a network of micro group, in which
they link with each other and use the terminology of "neo-tribal constellation" [Cova ,
2003:77].
Although it is difficult to make a perfect definition of tribe, as Le Quéau specifies
"Tribes are not easy to identify. They are fuzzy: more societal sparkles than socioeconomic
certainty. They are shifting aggregation of emotionally bonded people, open systems to which a
person belongs and yet does not quite belong. They underlying logic is made of shared
experience, interpretations and representations" [Le Quéau, 1998], the postmodern still
identifies tribe as a group of individual, not necessarily homogenous but inter-linked by the
same subjectivity, the same interest or passion and potentially capable to have intense collective
action.
However, tribe should be firstly considered as social and cultural entity, rather than
political one because its members are united by ties of common origin, language, customs,
rituals, social organizations and religious beliefs. Nevertheless, it is important to note that a
tribe possesses certain qualities and characteristics that make it a unique cultural, social, and
political entity.
People have different motivations to join tribes. For some, it is purely social purpose to
share their common interest, to avoid the loneliness, and to have social connection. For others,
it incorporates a value and social purpose, meaning that connecting socially to share similar
values. Nevertheless, some also join tribes to share experiences with people of the same
country, speak common language and practice cultural traditions. Also, with tribe, members can
develop social relationships to expand their business networks and coverage.
Different tribes are generally identified by taste, symbolism and consistencies within
tribal strata and in young population who is considered to be potential in affecting other age
groups. Similarities create membership solidarity, in contrary, differences leads to complex
territorial and cultural conflicts. In marketing, since the social behavior of group of people is
usually used to promote a product, service or idea, the tribal marketing use relatively identical
common behavior of certain consumer groups (tribes) for product/service promotion, which
focus on at least three key social variables of value orientation (political, religious and socials
values), relative social class (income, occupation rank, portfolio of investment, so on so forth.),

120
age (physical and health ages). Tribal marketing targets a specific community of users by
integrating the brand in the life of the target group20
.
Community
Gusfield makes emphasis on community with two factors: the first is the location, the
place where a community resides or has resided, for example town, city, neighborhood,
country, etc.; the second is the relation among members [Gusfiled, 1975]. Nevertheless,
Durheim sees that community is developed based on a share of interest and skills, rather than
locality [Durheim, 1964].
Concretely, community should be understood as a social group whose members reside
in a specific locality, share government and often have a common cultural and historical
heritage. Since the advent of the Internet, the concept of community no longer restricted within
geographical limitations, but can be understood in broader meaning as social, religious,
occupational or other groups sharing common characteristics or interests and perceived itself as
distinct in some respect from the larger society within which it exists. The members of a
community usually interact, share and use information related to their common interest.
Hence, as indicated Mc Alexander James H., Schouten John W. and Koenig Harold F.,
“A community is made up of its member entities and the relationships among them.
Communities tend to be identified on the basis of commonality or identification among their
members, whether a neighborhood, an occupation, a leisure pursuit, or devotion to a brand…
They are instrumental to human well-being. Through communities, people share essential
resources that may be cognitive, emotional, or material in nature”. In all situation, they always
share “the creation and negotiation of meaning” [Mc Alexander James H., Schouten John W.
and Koenig Harold F., 2002: 38].
In order to have a community, its members must have a sense of community, which is
"a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to
the group, and a shared faith that members' needs will be met through their commitment to be
together" [McMilan, 1976]. Then, it is easy to see that community is based on four elements,
including the (i) membership- that members feel they should belong to the group or share a
sense of their personal relatedness-; (ii) influence- in which both individual can have influence
on group or the group can matter its members; (iii) integration and fulfillment of needs-
meaning that the needs of members can be satisfied by assessing the resource of the group; and
20
Source: Mercator

121
(iv) shared emotional connection- which allow members to share their history, common places,
time together and related experience. In reality, community can develop both in good and bad
senses. However, due to its powerful force in the culture, it should be based on "faith, hope, and
tolerance, rather than on fear, hatred, and rigidity" so as to foster understanding and
cooperation [McMilan, 1986].
The marketing uses community to develop an approach connecting local communities or
those of the same interest and skills, it can even include such initiatives as sponsoring
community events. This marketing approach involves the identification of affinity group in
order to send them a specific message or to make adapted offers. Common ideas, shared values
or feeling, characteristics and habit of the community are often defined to serve the purpose of
community marketing. Nonetheless, usually their identification and members' location is much
more difficult to define and their way of constitution is not always predictable and structured21
.
Comparison of ethnicity, race, tribe and community
In reality, people usually get confused among the concepts: ethnicity, race, tribes, and
community. Furthermore, the application of ethnicity, race, tribe and community in marketing
is obscure. Therefore, this section is dedicated to clarify some main differences and similarities
of ethnicity, race, tribe and community in the perspective of marketing as well as to avoid the
misunderstanding of these three terminologies. Meanwhile, the clarification of these aspects in
relation with marketing will be discussed later.
The table below provides some basic information of race, tribe, ethnicity and
community concerning important factors, location, scale, institutional dimension, link among
members, link to the group, hierarchy, and useful information for marketers.
21
LEHU (J-M.), L'Encyclopédie du Marketing, Emarketing.fr

122
Table 15: A comparison of tribe, ethnicity and community
Items Race Tribe Ethnicity Community
Important
factor
Heritable
phenotypic
characteristics,
geographic
ancestry, culture,
history,
language,
physical
appearance,
ethnicity, and
social status
Kinship and
common
territory, origin,
language,
customs, rituals,
social
organizations,
religious beliefs,
opinion, living
style, etc.
Racial origin,
customs, language,
religion, values,
morality, kinship,
cultural constructs,
genetic background,
ecological
specialization, self-
identification,
collective proper
name, a myth of
common ancestry,
shared historical
memories
Shared
government,
share of interest
and skills
Location Associated to
common
homeland
Particular place,
considered as
homeland
Associated to
common homeland
Not depend on
the factor of
location since it
can exist on
Internet
Scale Very large,
exceed the
frontiers of
nation due to
immigration and
travel
Relatively
small, under
ethnic group
Very large, exceed
the frontiers of
nation due to
immigration and
travel, but can be
considered as a
subgroup of
community
Depend on the
participation of
members
sharing the same
interest
Institutional
dimension
Not organized Very organized Not organized Can be well
organized in
case of official
entity
Link among
members
Depending on
the level of
acculturation and
ethnicity degree
Closed Depending on the
level of acculturation
and ethnicity degree
Rather closed,
but depend on
the interaction
among members
and level of
interest of
members
Link to the
group
Depending on
the level of
acculturation and
ethnicity degree
Very strong Depending on the
Depend on the
concerned
interest and the
activeness of the
members
Hierarchy Depending on
culture of
different
countries
Before: Very
hierarchic,
depend on
kinship and
family status
Now: Depend
Depending on the
Depend on the
identity of
members
compared to the
general situation
and status of

123
on the active
participation,
shared
knowledge and
experience
community, as
well as the level
of members'
knowledge
Useful
information
for
marketers
- Easy to
distinguish
customers and
adapt to their
demand due to
principal race
factors
- Socio-
demographic
criteria are
crucial in
regrouping racial
members.
- The behavior
of individuals is
much influenced
by their family
members and
their tribe
members.
- Opinion and
living style is
very important
to form a tribe.
- Useful
communication
system for enterprise
thanks to word-of-
mouth and
institutions or
association in the
ethnic network.
- Socio-demographic
criteria are crucial in
regrouping ethnic
members.
- Rich in
information
since the
members
usually make
comments on
the products and
services as well
as marketing
strategy of
enterprise
IV.1.2. National identity, race identity and ethnic identity
National identity versus ethnic identity
The borders among different cultures are vague due to their complexity. However,
marketers usually use country or nation to segment despite the fact that some countries may
share the same ethnic, religious and linguistic characteristics. Meanwhile the marketing
researchers rest their focus on the concept of "identity", both national identity [Keillor and Hult,
1999], and ethnic identity [Deshpande et al., 1986; Xu et al., 2004]. This concept help
individuals or groups identify themselves within certain national and ethnic characteristics,
beliefs and values. However, in some cases, national identity and ethnic identities may be
confused with each other. So, it is necessary to make clear these two concepts.
Firstly, the national identity can be seen at two levels: world-wide culture and national
culture. At international level, national identity is built around the premise of the uniqueness of
a given culture, which is defined by unique elements associated with that culture [Clark, 1990].
These unique elements can be: (i) belief structure: role of religion or super-national belief in
cultural solidarity; (ii) cultural homogeneity: number of subcultures in a larger national culture;
(iii) ethnocentrism: tendency to make cultural evaluations and attributions based on criteria of
home culture; or (iv) national heritage reflecting the culture's sense of its singularly unique
history based on historical figures and events. At national level, national identity regroups
elements that combine different subcultures together [Claudia C. Mich & Bruce D. Keillor,
2011].

124
National identity is usually used to deal with cultural differences across cultures.
However, ethnic identity serves the purpose of addressing cultural differences within a culture.
Due to acculturation process, ethnic identity can be shown in assimilation, biculturalism, mono-
cultural ethnicity or even ignorance, generating four sorts of people respectively: assimilators,
integrators, separatists, and marginalizers [Berry et al. 2006]. Therefore, it represents not only
common characteristics as membership based on national identity [Bourne, 1956], but also
differences of individuals compared to their cultural roots [Deshpande, D. et al. 1986].
Marketing research and practice have shown the relationship between national identity
as well as ethnic identity and the adoption of new product, ethnic advertising effectiveness,
situational ethnic consumption, ethnic food consumption, ethnic cosmetic consumption, ethnic
financial and banking service, ethnic entertainment, so on so forth.
Racial identity versus ethnic identity
In terms of race identity and ethnic identity, these two concepts share many similarities.
First and formost, both of the two consider sens of belonging to group as principal factors and
involve learning process about their group. In addition, they all interlink with cultural factors
such as values, attitudes towards their group, cultural behavior, stereotypes, and especially
inequality and discrimination. In marketing research, inequality in the availability, cost of good
and services to minority racial or ethnic groups have received much concern [Caplovitz, 1963;
Andreasen, 1978; Sturdivant; 1989]. For instance, according to Caplovitz (1963), the black or
other minority group members pay above average prices for below average products.
Meanwhile Andreasen (1978) points out that inequalities reason in purposeful discrimination,
the unavailability of mass transit and limited information. For other researcher, consumption
resource inequality persists along racial, religious, and nationalitiy dimension, affecting the
ability to purchase products [Duncan, Featherman and Dunca, 1972; Blau and Duncan, 1967,
Hirchman, 1985]. Last but not least, the importance and salience in race identity and ethnic
identity differ across time and context. As for differences, it is found that while race identity
focus on the issue of racism, ethnic identity focuses on the sense of belonging to an ethnic
group.

125
IV.2. Ethnic marketing
IV.2.1. Origin of ethnic marketing
It is believed that the ethnic marketing was born in the United States of America in 1900
when madam C.J. Walker, a black women working as aesthetician, found that the black women
at that time would like to integrate in American society, which was dominated by the white, by
trying to straighten their hair, even in dangerous manner, for instance, using the iron to do it.
Thus, this woman had an idea of creating a comb heater capable to straighten curly hair of black
women in safety [Tréguer, J.P. et al., p188].
However, another source shows that ethnic marketing was initially used as a tool for
government-funded advertising program targeting lower socio-economic group, meaning that
ethnic marketing has historically referred more to such social services as health and education,
rather for commercial purposes. Yet, as brand marketers realize that they could make valuable
business in case adapting their business to ethnic groups and develop strong affiliations via
advertising and marketing strategies, this marketing approach have started to grow very fast22
.
As indicated in "Ethnik- The Marketing of Difference", ethnic marketing approach had
brought great success to the Negro Digest magazine, later renamed Black World, founded by
John H. Johnson - an Afro-American- in November 1942 when 1.8 millions of copies had been
sold targeting the black population in the United State of America and targeting positive
influences in the African American community with initial and liberal idea of business without
race constraints. Since then, different marketing approaches have been applied to reach ethnic
consumers.
Cui G. (1997) made a review of marketing for ethnic consumers including traditional
marketing, separated marketing, integrated marketing and multicultural marketing. According
to him, facing with such social and economic problems as exclusion, racial segregation and
discrimination, the traditional marketing used to place ethnic minorities as the "culture of
poverty" and up to now, it still makes some marketers cautious to deal with ethnic market
segment. Meanwhile, separated marketing helps ethnic consumers be acknowledged on the
market, but with less choice of products and services, lower quality, and higher cost. Although
this "separated but not equal" marketing [Pollay, Lee & Carter-Whittney, 1992] brings new
opportunities for ethnic consumers, they remain mistreated and excluded from products and
services available in the market.
22
Source: Ethnic Marketing: Reaching an increasingly multicultural society is proving to be a challenge for New Zealand
marketers. Steven Shaw investigate. NewZealand Marketing Magazine, November 1, 2005

126
On the contrary, integrated marketing attempts to integrate minority groups to the
mainstream population of host culture, for instance the appearance of ethnic community in
advertising. Yet, this integration is rather assimilation because many ethnic consumers find
offended with stereotypes and superficial assumption, instead of their products and service
preferences and affiliation to their ethnic identities. Then, with societies of big immigration and
travel, diverse ethnic groups and their increasing purchasing power, multicultural marketing has
appeared as a solution, helping ethnic customers keeping their unique values and cultural
heritage whist integrating to the mainstream culture by offering these groups of consumers with
ethnic sensitive products and services, recruiting special marketing staffs to serve them and
using ethnic media [Cui, 1997]. These marketing approaches make a foundation for the
development of ethnic marketing, which put ethnic consumers in focal point and take important
variation in marketing assumption and perceptions like value uniqueness, product preferences,
communication pattern, etc. into consideration.
IV.2.2. Definition of ethnic marketing
Many researchers have attempted to define ethnic marketing, either in academic
terminologies, or in simple explications. This section provides some of the definitions, which
are considered as the clearest, and easiest to understand the concept. The initial idea of ethnic
marketing only pays attention to the homogeneity of a particular ethnic group. As indicated
Bernard Cova and Olivier Badot, ethnic marketing is in fact the market segment, which is based
on the homogeneity of an ethnic group of consumers and the products adapted to their physical
and cultural characteristic [Cova.B et Badot.O., 1995] . According to these authors, the
principal of ethnic marketing is not based on the segmentation of skin colour, race or religion,
but it is the combination of all these factors, together with the culture that people share that
make them having common characteristics, similar attitudes and the same consumption.
However, later, many authors start to realize the importance of the difference that makes
up ethnic market. One of them is Geng Cui. Aware of the importance of ethnic groups in
marketing, Cui, G. indicates that “ethnic marketing strategy should be applied when minority
consumers have unique needs that cannot be fulfilled by the products designed for majority
consumers, and when they can not be reached through traditional channels” [Cui, G. 1997].
For him, “there are many ethnic enclaves in the country where immigrants maintain their
ethnic lifestyles and are not affected by the host culture”. Therefore, “when there is a culture-
driven demand for unique products and services, when ethnic groups differ in values,
consumption, and media use patterns, and when there are important variations in the

127
assumptions and perceptions in marketing activities”, also, “as the market place becomes
increasingly diversified and minority consumers’ purchasing power and ethnic consciousness
grow”, ethnic marketing should be taken in use “to adapt both product and advertising” [Cui,
G. 1997]. Always insisting the meaning of race, ethnic background, ethnic identification,
acculturation and their interaction with the marketing variables, Cui, G. argues that it is
necessary to differentiate marketing towards an ethnic group and “to treat ethnic consumers as
distinctive markets separate from the macro market and to reach them using differentiated
marketing mix strategies” [Cui, G. 1998]. This can be regarded as his definition for ethnic
marketing, which is a good approach to adjust marketing strategy to potential ethnic group.
In the context of the United States of America, according to Jonna Holland23
ethnic
marketing can be understood in simple manner: "Due to demographic changes in our country-
with the influx of various immigrant groups- as well as the increase in the African American
and Hispanic American populations in different parts of the country, marketers are finally
realizing that ethnic groups are a market power and a consumer segment worth targeting in
terms of their economic power. So many companies are attempting to use ethnic groups as a
variable to segment the market and to develop advertising campaigns or even specific product
groupings for them, and so ethnic target- marketing is exactly that24
” In addition, she insists
that the acculturation in this country is integration and remaining the difference, rather than
integration and assimilation as for her "If people have a strong ethnic identification, even if
they're third or fourth generation, and even if they don't speak their ancestral language or live
where the ethnic population is very dense, they may still have a strong attachment to their
ethnic heritage and they may interpret symbols or efforts to target their ethnic group different
than what you might expect25
”. Also, she considers this multicultural country as a "salad bowl",
rather than "melting pot" since there are still differences in variety although it is mixed up.
Nevertheless, ethnic marketing is an approach that takes into account the existence of a
market in parallel to the public named community market, in which the society is perceived as
an aggregate of communities that differ in their consumption patterns, their life styles, their
languages, their ways of dressing, as well as their leisure patterns. It is known that each ethnic
group has a unique way of consumption; therefore, it is necessary to launch products or
campaigns that reflect their desires and needs Referring ethnic marketing as the marketing of
the difference, Charles Croué uses the word "ethnomarketing" representing ethnic marketing,
23
Jonna Holland- Associate Professor at University of Nebraska at Omaha showing her points of view towards
ethnic marketing in an interview with the American Business Perspective
24
American Business Perspective, Mar/Apr 2000, issue 220, p.4.
25
American Business Perspective, Mar/Apr 2000, issue 220, p.4.

128
which, for him, should be applied to make an offer dedicated to a community of consumers
living in a close linkage and motivated by a desire to live or to survive their culture within the
country that hosted them since they are adopting the homogenous of consumer behavior and at
the same time distinct from the local behavior [Croue, C. 2004].
In another attempt of clarifying this concept, Lisa A. Guion et al. considers ethnic
marketing in relation with personal marketing as the following “Ethnic marketing is a method
that allows you to consider issues of ethnic diversity while conducting personal marketing”.
“Ethnic marketing means adjusting your marketing strategies to the values, beliefs, attitudes,
and practices of your target ethnic group(s)” [Lisa A. Guion et al., 2005].
Recently, Chantal Ammi describes ethnic marketing as an approach integrating ethnic
variables of all kinds during the segmentation procedure in order to (i) determine the target based
on ethnic characteristics; (ii) develop specific products and services responsive to the demands
and needs of the targeted ethnic group(s); (iii) and to apply appropriate communication and sale
policies (place and methods of sale) for certain products/services orienting towards the targeted
ethnic groups [Chantal Ammi, 2005, p. 56]. Meanwhile for Guilherme D.P. et al., ethnic
marketing is considered as a practical guide for the marketing of ethnic communities, particularly
in advanced and newly industrialising economies where there is an increase in cultural and ethnic
diversity and where ethnic minorities are trying to keep their own identity [Guilherme D.P. et al.,
2005].
As for Nguyen-Conan (2011), it is necessary to clarify ethnic marketing since it is
different to ethnic commerce. While ethnic commerce has been existed all the time, ethnic
marketing has just recently referred to. China town and Little Italy in New York, or Little SaiGon
in California, United States of America are vivid example of ethnic commerce which are owned
by ethnic people for the purpose of serving their own community or the dominant population in
that certain place.
Then, it is seen that ethnic marketing is a two-folded issue where both the factors of
homogeneity and difference have the same importance in the concept. While the difference of an
ethnic group compared to the major group in a certain society is detected, the homogeneity of
members in that ethnic group is also identified for the purpose of market segment and products
design and adaptation. What is more, two main aspects inseparable must be included in ethnic
marketing: ethnicity and culture. These two factors supplement and complement each other,
facilitating marketers to design strategy relevant and responsive to the needs, demands and
interest of target ethnic groups.

129
In short, ethnic marketing is based on the identification of an homogeneity of an ethnic
group of consumers, that differs themselves in a hosting culture in terms of physical
characteristics, cultural beliefs, symbols and practices to design appropriate marketing strategies
and to provide relevant products/services coinciding with their desires and needs as well as
respecting their values, belief, attitudes and practices. However, the ethnic market should not be
segmented according on the only factor like the skin colour, race, or religion but in combination
with other attributes, for instance the common in living style, language, make-up, entertainment,
etc. This consumer-focus marketing is specially increasing in importance in industrial and newly
industrialising countries with cultural and ethnic diversity. Moreover, it is very helpful for
enterprises to satisfy their clients and attracting loyal ones in long term. In order to have a deeper
understanding of ethnic marketing, it is vital to make it clear with other terminologies, and to
pinpoint some of its principles through the following figure.
Figure 12: Ethnic marketing as a component of identity marketing and its principles
Source: Synthesized from Lisa A. Guion, Heather Kent, and David C. Diehl (2005)
Identity marketing/ Community marketing
Multiculture
marketing
Marketing of the
diversity, focus
on the common
characteristics
Ethnic marketing
Marketing of the
difference, focus on
typical
characteristics of
ethnic community
Senior
marketing
Focus on
those older
than 50 years
old
“Gay”
marketing
Focus on the
homosexual
population
Identify the cultural uniqueness and typical characteristics of
target group
Cooperate and bridge-build with community leaders and
active organizations in the community
Based on information of immigrants and ethnic group
profiles, subcultures (focusing on cultural belief, symbols,
and practice like life style, language, entertainment; clothing,
consuming behaviour, etc.) of target group
Detect the differences in languages, accents, practices, and
social conduct of target group
Spred message via word-of-mouth and interpersonal
communication to spread message
Principles
“Handicap”
marketing
Focus on the
disable
population

130
IV.2.3. Factors of ethnic marketing
Incorporating ethnicity into marketing to develop ethnic marketing strategy, the
marketers have to take into account different elements constituting it. This section is to list out
some of the principal ones.
Profile of the ethnic group and level of ethnicity
Ethnic identification is the first and foremost factor of ethnic marketing: “Assessing a
minority ethnic group’s importance for marketing purpose requires the development of a clear
profile of the group” [Guilherme.P, et al, 2003]. Without it, it is impossible to develop an
ethnic marketing strategy. This include racial or ethnic background like age, gender, profession,
education level, family and social status, income, language speaking, location, etc.
However, this is not an easy task. Sills and Desai already showed this difficulty in the case
of the Council for Newham- England: “The size and diversity of Newham’s ethnic population,
together with the range of languages they speak, presents enormous problems for a Council
committed to listening to its public [Sills and Desai, 1996].
Yet, "when working with ethnic groups, it is vital to understand the level of ethnicity in the
target group, which depends on the degree to which your target group members identify
themselves with their respective ethnicities" [Lisa et al., 2005]. Then, it is easier to clarify their
profile. Lisa et al. also point out three main factors determining ethnicity and heterogeneity
among members of a group. The first is environment where the families bringing up their
members, where the ethnicity of community develops and where their neighbourhood grows up.
The second is economic factors concerning education level, income and status, etc. Lastly,
social factors contain place of birth, time of arrival, length of stay in the host culture, social
associations and affirmations, so on so forth.
Nonetheless, from the profile of ethnic group, it is very important that (i) from the point of
view of other groups, the target minority ethnic group is unique, and much different from them;
(ii) the group members themselves acknowledge their differences and uniqueness; (iii) these
members share activities based on their perceived similarity, whether this similarity is real or
imagined [Guiherme D. Pires et al. 2005:7].
Besides, such elements of ethnic profile as mother tongue, national origins, place of birth
help determining the ties of ethnic groups in their interaction with external entities, including
kinship and community ties. These social networks can not double provide valuable
information for investors and marketers focusing on ethnic communities.

131
By identifying ethnic profile, it is possible to understand the level of ethnicity of ethnic
group members, which allow to tailor ethnic marketing programs to the target group.
Acculturation
The level of acculturation can be considered as the second important factor for ethnic
marketing, after the ethnic profile. It is a useful tool to segment ethnic consumer market [Choe,
1987; Webster 1992; Cui and Powell 1993] and decide which media pattern to be used.
Normally, the first generation of immigrants much affiliate to their ethnic community, that i.e.
they prefer using their native language, participating in ethnic events and celebrities, consuming
products and services of ethnic identity, remaining ethnic lifestyle. Meanwhile their children
and grand children are likely to assimilate and integrate in the host culture since they grow up
and are educated there. By identifying acculturation degree, marketer could choose which
ethnic market segment deserved to develop ethnic products and advertisement [Geng Cui,
1997], which cultural factors should be emphasized, and which communication patterns should
be applied.
For example, in the case of the United State of America, Lisa et al. classify an ethnic group
into three levels, according to their acculturation and ethnicity degrees. According to them,
people with high degree of ethnicity usually have strong ties with their home culture and need
higher degree of ethnic marketing. Possibly they are first generation immigrants, grew-up
outside host culture, mostly speak native language rather than the one of the mainstream
culture, normally keep their heavy accent and live in high-density ethnic areas. Meanwhile, the
medium degree of ethnicity group belongs to both worlds when they speak both ethnic and host
culture's languages, live in moderately dense ethnic areas. They also have language accent, but
very little. Frequently they are the second-generation or acculturated first-generation, who have
spent from one-fourth to one-half of their life in the host culture. The last group includes the
ones with low degree of ethnicity and have very weak linkage with their original culture since
they are born and brought up in the host culture, bilingual but prefer the language of the host
culture, and prefer living in low-density ethnic areas. They are often the second-generation or
more.
Then, it is seen that the level of acculturation is very helpful for marketers to define their
efforts to tailor their products/services as well as marketing strategy to reach their target ethnic
groups.

132
Communication
Communication includes language and media patterns, network and methods. Ethnic
language is used as a means of communication, bridging marketers and ethnic consumers,
helping them transfer their messages more intimately and effectively to target minority group.
For example, the marketer may use the accents or insist on the differences in language to make
them much more easily to be recognized by ethnic consumers. Nevertheless, the use of this
technique must be very delicate, subtle and ingenious to avoid the so-call "discrimination".
Meanwhile media pattern is another element that marketers should care for whilst
developing marketing strategy to consumers of various ethnic backgrounds as ethnic consumers
is likely to use different interpersonal network and means of communication depending on the
level of their integration in the host culture. For example, while the first generation of
immigration depends mainly on ethnic interpersonal network and media for their choice of
products and services [Webster, 1992], the second and third generation immigrants tend fully
integrate into the mainstream population by using standard channels of communication and
receptive to standardized marketing strategies [Geng Cui, 1997].
The availability of ethnic media is also an important issue, which helps marketers take
advantage of useful ones or improve and create the new ones updated with their new life and
technology but still relevant with their preferences and culture as well as responsive to their
needs and demand. In addition, communication network and institutional completeness are
crucial in information diffusion within a certain ethnic groups. The reason is that different
ethnic groups show their preference of means of media, advertisement and promotion methods
[Durand, Teel, Jr. & Bearden, 1979; Hernandez & Kaufman, 1991].
However, in ethnic marketing; the word-of-mouth and interpersonal communication are
taken advantages to spread message due to their effectiveness in transferring information within
certain ethnic groups.
Religion and custom
It is undeniable that religion is a crucial factor affecting the consumption of many ethnic
consumers. As consequent, their choice of products, shopping periods, preferences towards sale
place and communication patterns, etc. make their purchasing decision process different to
others [Hirschman, 1981; Harnandez & Kaufman, 1991; Delener, 1994].

133
In addition, religion and custom usually has close linkage with ethnic groups. For
example talking about the Italy, it is the Catholic, mentioning the Thailand, we think
immediately about the Buddhist, or referring to the Arabian community, Muslim cannot be
neglected, etc. Why? Because the dominant religion of a country is often considered as a
representative unique characteristic of that country.
Hence, for instance in financial sector, acknowledging the big proportion of Islamic
population in the community, Great Britain has been the first European country allowing purely
Islamic banking since 2004. This special banking takes religion factors into account to design
relevant products and services. All the taboos of Islamic religion have been well taken into
consideration to become the principal of Islamic banking, for instance (1) the finance
institutions are not allowed to charge interest on loan and to offer a fixed rate on deposits; (2)
the finance institutions must share profits and losses with borrowers and with depositors; and
(3) no financing is applied for prohibited activities such as the production and trading of
alcohol, pork, pornography, interest based banks, etc. As a result, five main kinds of products
have been designed to serve Islamic clients, including (i) Mudaraba; (ii) Musharaka; (iii)
Murabaha; (iv) Ijara and (v) Takaful26
.
Value, attitude, perception and preference
According to the authors Valencia, Lee and Delener, since different cultures places
different value on the same thing, since attitude have been found to influence behaviours and
since the consumer behavior, consumption pattern and product preference are in line with
culture; value, attitude and perception have shown their importance in the design of marketing
strategies for different ethnic groups of subcultures. However, to some extent, it should be
understood that the variation in value, attitude and perception are likely to reflect demographic,
socio-economic and experiential differences of ethnic members, rather than their beliefs.
26
(i) Mudaraba: similar to loan, whose value is equal to the total capital needed by entrepreneurs that a finance institution
offered to an entrepreneur. However, the finance institution invests capital and the entrepreneur invests labor. Then the finance
institution plays the role as the only shareholder of the micro-enterprise and receives a pre-determined share of the
profit of that investment. However, the entrepreneur buys back the shares with each loan installment so that gradually he
becomes the only owner of the enterprise; (ii) Musharaka: the same like Mudaraba loan, however, not fully provided with
capital, the entrepreneurs adds some of his own capital to the loan supplied by the investor and agree to share the profits or
losses according to a predetermined ratio with the finance institution;(iii) Murabaha: close to deferred payment sale when the
finance institution buys the goods, which its client wishes to purchase, then transfers ownership to its client by selling it
to the borrowers at the price of that goods, plus a markup. It is considered “pure” for the Quran because the finance takes
ownership of that goods for some time, exposing itself to risk;(iv) Ijara: similar to leasing when the finance institution rents an
asset, such as a small machine, to its end user for a specified period of time at a mutually agreed rental rate. This lessee
may have the option of repurchasing the asset or not; and (iv) Takufa: similar to mutual insurance when the members
make their own contribution to a mutual fund, which is used for the purpose of supporting the group in case of need, for
example death, crop loss, or accidents. However, the premiums are paid and invested in a Sharia-compliant manner to avoid
interest.

134
In terms of values, the value system of an ethnic group includes some basic
determinants. First of all, it is the family structure, a basic unit of culture
In terms of preference, in psychology, preference is interpreted as attitude of an
individual to a set of objects and typically reflected in an explicit decision-making process
[Lichtenstein & Slovic, 2006]. In marketing, it is a must to think about for marketers in general
and particularly for those dealing with ethnic groups. It results in the value, belief, culture and
custom of ethnic consumers, in age, sex. It shows what people like and dislike, and is reflected
in decision-making process, and in their choice of products or services.
Nevertheless, the preference of an individual or a group is not stable but changing over
time due to the changes of such factors as value, belief, attitude, perception, culture and custom
at different periods, and especially with accuturation. Therefore, each generation of a customer
group has its own preference that can be totally different from the previous generation's, or just
a modification based on their preference. The preference can be seen in the types and
characteristics of products or services, colours, selling place, communication patterns, or types
of brands.
For example, there is difference in colour preference among Asian, Africa, Latin
American and European people. This is shown in the clothes, shoes, jewerlery they wear, in the
house painting and decoration, in their make-up, in the bags they choose, etc., anything people
buy for personal use or for presents. Just taking the Asian, African, Hispanic and (those
considered as ethnic minority in the American host culture), their colour preference might be
different from the one of Caucasian Americans or those living in their mother land, because
they have interaction with other culture and influenced by it.
Hence, for ethnic marketing, preference is very important since it is an attribute of the
ethnic identity, which is the base for marketer to develop their ethnic marketing campaigns.
Location, concentration, demographics
With the same target ethnic group but in different countries or places, adapted marketing
strategies should be applied. The reason lies in the fact that these groups differ in characteristics
and behaviour due to their interaction with different host cultures and under different legal,
social, economic and geographical situations. That is why location is so important to ethnic
marketing.

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Together with the concentration of ethnic minorities and their demographic
characteristics in certain location, marketers could identify which ethnic minorities are
underserved and, which location could become potential market for them, as a result decide
which ethnic minority should be targeted and how ethnic marketing should be designed to best
satisfy their demand. Take the case of McDonald in the United States, its marketing strategies
are much different in San Francisco, California where located great proportion of Asian
American, and in Dearborn, Michigan where most of the Arabian are situated. The difference
are shown in the items in its menu with adapted products and services to the ethnic preference
and demand, in the communication patterns preferred by target ethnic group, in the decoration
of the restaurants, etc.
For marketing in general, the location, concentration, demographics are important,
nevertheless, it seems much more crucial for ethnic marketing due to special characteristics of
different kinds of ethnic groups in different places like ethnicity factors (Turkish and Asian
Germany in German; Arabian, Asian and African French in France; Hispanic, Asian and
African American in the US, etc.), education level, family members, social status, profession,
so on so forth and other particular issues related to ethnic area.
Consumption pattern
After all, consumption pattern is the last factor that ethnic marketing should care for. It
is, in fact, the combination of qualities, quantities, acts and tendencies characterizing a
community or human group's use of resources for survival, comfort and enjoyment27
. For each
ethnic minority group, it is believed to have a particular consumption pattern, depending on
many of its unique factors mentioned above, for instance, its profile, religion, rituals, events,
traditional custom, habit, value, preference, location, concentration, demographics, and so on so
forth.
To sum up, ethnic marketing should be put in memory with the following principal
factors:
27
Source: ODE / RHW

136
Figure 13: Principle factors of ethnic marketing
IV.2.4. Effective ethnic marketing strategies
Guiherme D. Pires et al. point out that an ethnic marketing approach is vital or not,
depending on whether the following three main questions having affirmative answers
[Guiherme D. Pires et al., 2005:6]:
Are the consumption needs and preference of the consumers belonging to a minority
ethnic group is distinguish and different from those of other minority ethnic groups or
those of the host culture's consumers?
Do their information sources and communication channels also differ to those of other
groups?
Is it worth and profitable for businesses to target these differences?
The answers for the three above questions are somewhat equivalent to a feasibility study
of an ethnic marketing strategy. The first question helps understanding target consumers, their
needs, their wants and at the same time their differences to the mainstream market. Meanwhile
with the second question, it allows seeing whether it is possible to use the same communication
media, and the same message for both ethnic and mainstream communities, or it should be
better and more effective to engage to traditional, special ethnic media, as well as their social,
cultural, religious and business network. In order to answer these two questions, a market study
and cultural assessment may be required. However, with the third question, it is totally the
economical and financial assessment, as well as business sustainability.
Once the method of ethnic marketing is chosen, all the factors mentioned in the above
section must be taking into account. In addition, in order to design a good ethnic marketing
strategies, the marketers need to take into account four fundamental and unique issues of the
Profile of ethnic group
and level of ethnicity
Principle factors
of ethnic marketing
Acculturation
Communication
Religion and custom
Value, attitude, perception
and preference
Location,
concentration,
demographics
Consumption
pattern

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marketing to ethnic groups as revealed in the Ethnic Marketing: Best Practice in Marketing to
African, Hispanic and Asian Americans of the Stages of Innovation, which could be
recommended with the do and don't. The first is the diversity among minority groups. So don't
"oversimplifying minority population"!, instead please identify the "differences in culture,
education, values and languages". Secondly, each of the diverse groups may have cultural
differences. Then, don't just "deal with the unique values and habits of diverse groups", but do
address fundamental and profound level of cultural differences. The third but very important
issue is the sensitivity, including which is considered as offensive, stereotypes, prejudice,
discrimination, unintentional insult, etc. Don't "take offense" by do pay attention to the history
of prejudice, negative stereotype and discrimination of target ethnic group as well as "the
taboos and idiosyncrasies" that can result in "an unintentional insult" . Last but not least,
dynamic ethnic population should be on the focus to develop marketing strategy. In order to do
this, don’t neglect "social, political and economic forces" of ethnic populations, but do take
these factors into analysis, together with their cultural adoption and rate of immigration.
Furthermore, take a look on the continuous immigration that may affect the target ethnic
groups, or potentially become dynamic ethnic population. These fundamental issues can also be
regarded as stages for an appropriate marketing strategy targeting a certain ethnic group.
Sharing the same idea but specifying into concrete steps, Lisa A. Guion et al. (2005)
suggests basic steps, which are considered to be useful when designing effective ethnic
marketing strategies as follows:
- Step 1: Consider ethnic diversity when selecting personal marketing strategies by
adjusting marketing strategies to the values, beliefs, attitudes, and practices of the target ethnic
group
- Step 2: Determining the level of ethnicity of the target group based on environmental,
economic and social factors to choose either the marketing approach in lines with mainstream
culture or in tune with values and beliefs of the target ethnic culture
- Step 3: Launching ethnic marketing by identifying the communities, values and beliefs
of targeted community, then personal marketing strategies that match the values and beliefs of
that community
In addition, it is necessary to mention that normally there are two main models of ethnic
marketing chains. The first connects ultimate ethnic consumers with ethnic suppliers. The
second attempts to link them with the mainstream suppliers, but in this case, ethnic products or
service are only one among their diversity of products or services supplied to the market.

138
As a synthesis of the ideas mentioned above, a suggestion towards the development of
ethnic marketing strategies should be presented in the following figure.
Figure 14: Steps to define effective ethnic marketing strategies
Source: Synthesized from Lisa A. Guion et al. (2005)
IV.3. Ethnic marketing in comparison with tribal marketing
IV.3.1. General concept of tribal marketing
The postmodern definition of tribalism is quite different to previous one, it is not within
the frame of an archaic vision of a tribe conditioned by the rules and organized in familial
manner because in modern society where individualism becomes popular, there is an emerge of
dissolute social tissue and fragmentation of society and consumption. However, it is undeniable
that tribal experience has existed for a long time and still in the ongoing development, but in
Steps to
define
effective
ethnic
marketing
strategies
Step 1-
Market
segmentation
Step 2-
Choice of target
segment
Step 3-
Choice of
marketing strategy
Identifying
- Ethnic diversity,
- Cultural differences among ethnic groups
- Their distinguished needs and preferences
- Their communication channels
Choosing dynamic ethnic group with regards to:
- Their level of ethnicity based on environmental,
economic and social factors
- Their social, political, and economic force
- Their continuous immigration and cultural adoption
Choosing relevant marketing strategy for the target
ethnic group, either:
- In lines with mainstream culture or
- In lines with specific values and beliefs of target
ethnic culture
Step 4-
Launch of ethnic
marketing strategy
Launching appropriate marketing strategy for the
target ethnic group, which:
- Match the values and beliefs of the ethnic
community
- Pay attention to what is considered as offensive,
taboos, prejudice, negative stereotypes,
discrimination in the target ethnic culture
- Continuously adapt to the changes in their value
and beliefs as well as the consumption needs,
behaviour and preference

139
different ways as Maffesoli’s statement "the social dynamics, characteristics of our era, are
made up of a multiplicity of experiences, representations, and daily-lived emotions that are very
often not properly understood. Although most of the time such dynamics are explained by
individualism, we can stress the tribalism that is developing more and more" [Maffesoli, 1988&
1996]. This tribalism with powerful force in creating identity, family, community, teams, and
especially the notion of belonging has two side effects, positive side driven by passion for a
better world, and negative side leading towards violence, discrimination, separatism, genocide
and wars. Tribal marketing derives from this experience, and has marked its appearance since
1998s.
There are two main schools in tribal marketing theories, one from Anglo-Saxons and the
other from Latina. For the Anglo-Saxons, they use this concept to explain the "community of
trademark" in a privilege of individual. This means tribe is used to segment the market and is
the reason for high demand of consumers in the individualization and personalization of
trademark. In this sense, tribal marketing serves to differentiate a product or service to other
competitive ones; create customers loyalty towards a brand based on emotional sense of
belonging to a community/tribe, and idealize a brand image allowing the customers to feel
valued.
Nevertheless, Latina school emphasizes on the social link that the individuals, who have
different living styles compared to the mainstream one, seeks for through the use of a product
or service, the loyalty towards a trademark, or their common passion. Many scholars support
this Latin school. Some indicate that it is possible to build up a view of marketing as a vector of
tribal link [Cova, 1997a & 1999; Rémy, 2000]. Others see that the consumers seeks products
and services that facilitate their linking value to the communities [Godbout & Caillé, 1992;
Godbout, 2000], facilitate and support the communion like a site, an emblem, or recognition
and support of a ritual, etc. [Thomspn & Holt; 1999], or create social groups (tribes) around a
service or a product [Marc Vandercammen, 2006:95]. In this Latin school of marketing, the
notion of "consumer tribes" become popular as "group of people that possess a common interest
in a specific brand and create a parallel social universe (subculture) rife with its own myths,
values, rituals, vocabulary and hierarch" [Cova & Pace, 2006: 1089]. This may leads to the
confusing of "consumer tribes" and "brand communities". Yet, for Cova & Cova, there are two
main differences; one is that consumer tribes are more ephemeral since tribe members' bonds
are not very strong, the other is the less commercial purpose of consumer tribes compared to
brand communities [Cova & Cova 2002]. Nevertheless, Pace et al. see that despite of
differences, their main traits remain the same [Pace et al. 2007]. Within the Latin school, most

140
authors do not see big differences between these two concepts; therefore, use them without
differentiation [Cova & Pace, 2006].
Therefore, the logic of tribal marketing is that, instead of segmenting market by
consumers, client, user or buyer, this marketing approach segments the market according to
tribe with members, fanatics, adepts, connoisseurs, etc., with enthusiasts, and feedbacks.
Tribal marketing regroups "all activities of designing, and launching of products and
services destinated to facilitate the co-presence and the communal gathering of individuals in
the time of the tribes...Consumers are not only looking for products and services which enable
them to be freer, but also products, services, employees and physical surroundings which can
link them to others, to a tribe" [C<ova, B. & Cova, V., 2002]. In other words, tribal marketing
represents a marketing strategy allowing focusing on products or services capable to create and
link members of tribes (social groups or communities) together as well as each individual with
the whole tribe. It is usually based on social behavior of consumer groups to promote products
or services, but generally develop around common lifestyle interests as well as tribal culture,
including values, rituals, behavior, styles, media, brands, etc.
Tribal marketing is closely associated to the marketing of the brands since it allows
tribes actively create, curate and develop their cultural meanings when establishing their
communication and media networks serving for this purpose, and these networks, from its part,
facilitate the involvement of new tribe members, as a result increase tribal influence. What is
more, within the tribal networks, tribes members become strong promoters and participants of
brand development. They consider brand as part of their culture and become loyal supporters of
the brands.
Three core implications that should bear in mind with tribal marketing is that: (i) It is a
co-creation strategy allowing the companies to build lifestyles, loyalty and brand meaning with
their consumers through the network of tribal group united by shared passion; (ii) It requires
company brands and the communities together share core values for long-term cooperation; and
(iii) It enriches the communities with additional values and cultural assets.
In addition, whether Anglo-Saxons or Latina school, it is easy to see the two crucial
relationships between client vs. brand, and between clients vs. enterprise. In the first
relationship, the brand and its personnel play important role in enriching the relationship with
the clients as well as strengthening the cognitive loyalty. Tools used here usually include cards
of loyalty, information letter, or newsletter, etc. Meanwhile in the second relationship, not only

141
the brand and its personnel, but also all kinds of physical support such as communication,
products… contribute to reinforce the relationship between them.
This marketing approach is the concern of not only the young, but also others of all
ages. However, if it is attributed to the young, it usually involves the utilization of internet with
new kinds of support such as forums, tchats, blogs, and social networks online, etc., as well as
give them more freedom and power. In addition, a person can belong to different tribes, which
change totally the way of traditional segmentation in marketing.
IV.3.2. Key rules of tribal marketing
Tribal marketing approach has some main rules to respect, considered as the principles.
These key rules are presented in this section.
Recognition and identification of tribe to support
Tribal marketing require the tribe to lead, follow and get out of the way. The
identification of a tribe to support is the key concern of tribal marketing. It must be a network
of heterogeneous persons in terms of age, gender, and income, so on so forth, linking together
for a common passion or emotion, holding collective action. It must have trace of identity
shared among its members providing helpful hints and mutual understanding [Cova, B. & Cova,
V., 2002]. The tribe, then, can form around any leisured-based activity, interest, hobby or
passion. They can be formal or informal. And the inter-linkage of individuals could be
established, developed and reinforced, through their shared emotion towards the community
sense and flavor [Cova B. & Roncaglio M., 1999].
Further, tribe members, as characterized by Bernard Cova and Veronique Cova (2001),
include four main kinds: (i) adherents or devotees (like members of an institution, or an
association…), (ii) practitioners (those involve in tribal activities frequently or daily), (iii)
participants (who take part in informal events of a tribe such as a demonstration, a gathering…),
and (iv) sympathizers (fellow travelers supporting and moving towards the vogues and trends of
the tribe and either marginally or virtually integrated to the tribe). These tribe members can be
all at the same time, or just one of their cross-sections, the focus of tribal marketing. In
addition, in tribal marketing, they do not only play the role as the buyers, the consumers, but
also advocates [Cova, B. & Cova, V., 2002]. They are considered as experts of particular
products or services simply because what links them with the products/services is just their
passion. They always belong to a vast and informal community [Maffesoli, 2000], but the
relationship among them is one of the focus of tribal marketing.

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In terms of recognition of tribes, this requires a different and special efforts [Maffesoli,
1996b], including desk research of oral or written documents about the tribe, semi-structured
interview or non structured interviews with tribe members, either individually or as focus
group, and observation of the gatherings of tribe members [Cova, B. & Cova, V., 2002]. Also,
tribe members are recognized and recognized themselves as members of a group thanks to their
gathering and performance of ritual acts in public places, or "anchoring events" in other words
[Aubert-Gamet & Cova, 1999], that allow them to bring together, bond tribe members, and
demonstrate their attachment and loyalty towards the tribe they belong to for the purpose of
reaffirming and strengthening their shared values.
For tribal marketing, tribes are useful in establishing communication networks and
media totally devoted to their cultural development, in influencing their tribe members with
their activities, their voice, their powers, and in promoting brands as loyal supporters.
Therefore, the recognition and identification of tribe to support is placed on importance as one
of key rules to develop tribal marketing approach.
Favor of products and services with linking value
Products and services with linking values are preferred since the value of usage of a
product/service does not play essential role here, instead, the link created is much more
important. As already discussed by Cova, B. and Cova, V, an offer of tribal products/services
with tribal communication is not enough if it is not accompanied with a lining value,
representing the presence of the target brand and people that are always at the heart of tribal
mouvements [Cova, V. & Cova, B., 2001:60]. Moreover, "linking values" of the products or
services contributes to establish as well as reinforce bonds between individuals. The greater the
contribution and strengthening do for the tribal bond, the greater the linking values will be
[Cova, B. & Cova, V., 2002].
Then, it is seen that, there are two kinds of value here, one is the commercial offerings,
and the others include social interactions and communal relations. For tribal marketing, what is
more concerned are the second values, which are usually created by the consumers, for the
consumers, and independent of the companies.
It should be noted that for the consumers, the linking values can be achieved from
communal relations, fostering their relationship, and expressed through the satisfaction,
pleasure, usefulness, sociality, so on so forth. For the products/services suppliers, the linking
values are those contributing to the establishment, development and maintenance of communal

143
relations. Very seldom, linking values are intentionally embedded in products or services. In
fact, they cannot be produced by the companies without the support of tribe members.
However, many companies now invest to produce and incorporate them into their
products/services. Yet, the survival of linking value depends completely on the consumers, who
are considered as creators and users of linking values.
Enterprise as a supporter
In tribal marketing, enterprise has much more difficult function and task because it plays
the role as a supporter, an activist, who facilitates the socialization and communication among
tribe members, creates event for resemblance and strengthens linkage of tribe members while
centering on particular products/services for the purpose of obtaining their loyalty, and
credibility. In addition, it is also considered as a member of the tribe and engages in all
activities of the tribe. As pointed out by Algesheimer, Dholakia and Hermann "It is not a matter
of attempting to directly influence consumers, but of providing them support in interacting with
each other through activities of their community, which, in turn increases their level of
engagement and loyalty" [Algesheimer et al., 2005].
Furthermore, it is recommended to strengthen the relationship between companies and
their consumers in the sense of collaboration to co-produce better products/services, co-create
their real values and their linking values as well as co-develop the brands. The reason is quite
simple: with the knowledge, experience and interest, the consumers may know more about the
products/services and the brands than the companies.
With this role, the enterprise is obliged to modify their products/services, rules towards
the demand of the tribe and spends much time with the tribe. Otherwise, they can be rejected,
risky to lose their control of their trademark, products or services, even their credibility.
Actively participate in tribal events
The tribal events are quite diversified, encompassing the gathering and performance of
ritual acts in public places, such as music events, sport events, brand festivals, etc. Sometimes
they can be PR events, but the PR message must correspond to the tribes believes. These events
support tribal interaction, or social interaction in larger meaning, allowing tribe members to
gather sharing their experience and bringing them with much communal and social experience;
together creating new "we meaning" by reaching a community consensus and spreading it

144
beyond tribal network as cultural meanings . As already indicated above, they bond tribe
members, and demonstrate their attachment and loyalty towards the tribe they belong to for the
purpose of reaffirming and strengthening their shared values. Normally, live events have great
contributions to communal storytelling, and connecting to core influencers.
Nevertheless, tribal events must bring tribe members such feeling as gathering for tribe
membership that means not including too many outsiders. They should be promoted through
tribal communication channels. Importantly, tribal events must involve the tribe leaders to
spread meaning with the most credibility and reach in respect to their opinion and influence in
the community. For example, with the young, tribe leaders could be the curators, or bloggers
with active and influential voice in the group. Besides, tribal events must include a diversity of
participation activities so as to involve more tribe members as well as keep them active.
The other importance is the value of the tribe. Tribal events must bring the feeling of
celebrating tribal culture, rather than the brand. They should create strong tribal motives for the
events by basing to their real needs, rewarding involvement, tribe affection, tribe leadership,
and interest-based skills.
Last but not least, tribal events have other meaning beyond the celebrities of culture and
common interest, they contribute to the establishment and development of tribe culture by
proving the understanding of tribe culture with relevant cultural cues; enriching tribal cultural
capital with additional cultural meaning (language, symbolic...), and compelling stories about
tribe, as well as inspiring the values of tribal participation with motive inspired stories (such as
slogans, video, music...).
IV.3.3. Important factors of tribal marketing
In addition to key rules mentioned above, there are some important factors. First and
formost, tribal marketing focuses on the collective identification, simply because it involve a
group of inter-linked people sharing emotions and experiences, and capable to take collective
social action within tribe activities rather than elsewhere. In addition, tribal marketing means
working with tribes, partners with tribes, create collective meaning with tribes, and spread
meaning together as a community effort. The collective meaning here implies the "we
meaning", or "we-ness", expressing: (i) who we are; (ii) how we behave, (iii) what we care
about, and of course (iv) why we need to be together, to be valued, and to be inspired. The "we-
ness" is usually created efficiently through tribal events, which is already discussed in the above
section.

145
Secondly, tribal affiliation and relationship are two crucial elements. Tribal affiliation is
very important in tribal marketing as it shows the attachment of a member to his/her tribe; as a
result, decide the involvement, or participation of that individual in tribal activities. One can
belong to different tribes at the same time. Hence, by taking into consideration of tribal
affiliation, it is possible to make assessment whether a certain tribal affiliations have more
significance and meaning for tribe members than others at different moments in time. Whereas,
tribal relationship represents linking values that could be created among tribe members, even
without the participation of companies. It sustains and stimulates the participation and
contribution of the members to the group, and increase the level of tribal affiliation. The
sustainability of tribal relationship is one of decisive factors for the survival of a tribe, as well
as the application of tribal marketing. Both tribal affiliation and relationship could be
developed in many ways, in which both parties give and receive. One of effective ways is
brandfest.
The third important component includes consciousness of kind, rituals, tradition, moral
responsibility, brand-fests, and sacred places. Since brands are affixed with some certain
meanings related to societal occurrences and social ties, rituals are excellent opportunities to
recount, re-affirm and revise these meanings [Cova, 1997]. Whether they are simple or
complex, it reinforces the identification of community members, enhances the bonds among
them, and propagate consciousness of kinds [Koh and Kim, 2004; Muniz & O'guinn, 2001].
Hence, “marketers may also take an active role in establishing the shared rituals, traditions,
and meanings that foster consciousness of kinds [McAlexander J. H., Schouten J. W., Koenig
H. F., 2002]. In addition to rituals, celebrating or sharing brand history contributes to the
reinforcement of consciousness of kinds and shorten the gap among members by bringing them
close to each other [Muniz & O'Guinn, 2001]. Moreover, the sense of moral responsibility in
tribe members- the intrinsic feeling of commitment towards group in general and individual
members- is the driving force for collective action, especially in case of threats, which has
demonstrated in abandoned brand communities [Muniz & O'Guinn, 2001; Muniz & Schau
2005]. That is why both the marketers and the owners have incentives to exercise moral
responsibility to brand and community [McAlexander J. H., Schouten J. W., Koenig H. F.,
2002].. Among these characteristics of brand community, ritual plays a pivotal role in
strengthening the bonds and commitment of tribe members to the group.
However, there must be opportunities for consciousness of kinds, rituals, tradition, and
moral responsibility to be brought into play. Current literature shows that these characteristics
represent already in the members of tribe/brand community while McAlexander et al. suggest

146
that these characteristics are usually developed after their participation in brandfests events
“…these characteristics of brand community did not all and equally exist before the brandfest
events [McAlexander J. H., Schouten J. W., Koenig H. F., 2002: 42]. Whether they already
exist before or develop after the brandfest events, it is undeniable that brandfest events create
opportunities for these characteristics to be developed, maintained, strengthened, and enriched.
For some scholars, “brandfests, in essence, provide for geotemporal distillations of a brand
community that afford normally dispersed members entities the opportunity for high-context
interaction [McAlexander J. H., Schouten J. W., Koenig H. F., 2002].
The fourth factor concern types of communication used by tribe. Tribal communication
exists in different kinds: word of mouth, press and media, events, Internet surfing (emails,
forums, social media sites), gatherings… Whatever the communication channels are, effective
communication depends on the nature of the tribe and the channels works best for the members.
Nevertheless, it is considered that social media is now a powerful tool that brings many benefit
to tribes. First, it allows the democratization of leadership, meaning that everybody can connect
together to share common interest and become the leaders of the interest group. Second, it
paves out the way for the connection throughout the world without caring for physical
proximity and time zone. Last but not least, social media tools enable tribe members to connect,
share their knowledge and experience, extend their outreach, and ensure their equal voice
within the tribe. The communication channels are open, allowing to build and improve as many
connections between tribes members as possible. Like that, tribal organization is spread
laterally.
In fact, the tribal communication can be done in four kinds, from the leader to tribe
members, from tribe members to leader, from tribe members to tribe members, and from tribe
members to outsiders. With the support of Internet, tribe leaders help developing the tribe more
effective by transforming the shared interest into a passionate goal and desire for change;
providing tribe members with tools allowing them to focus on their communications and share
message; and leveraging the tribe with the growth of new members, effective change and
momentum.
Last but not least, tribal social interactions, as well as affective loyalty are key factors of
tribal marketing. Without these factors, tribal marketing make no sense.

147
IV.3.4. Step to design tribal marketing strategy
For Cova, V. and Cova, B., (2001), in order to design a tribal marketing approach, it is
necessary to pay attention to plenty of key factors: linking value of products/services, common
interest/passion/practice, common rituals, brand, collaboration with tribe members, human
resource recruitment. All of these factors should be classified into five main big steps, including
(i) ethnographic study; (ii) co-design of tribal marketing approach; (iii) intensive tribal mixture;
(iv) extensive tribal mixture; and (v) tribal marketing organization [Cova, V. and Cova, B.,
2001:61]. These steps are briefly introduced in the below diagram.
Figure 15: Tribal marketing design steps
Source: Cova, V. and Cova, B., 2001:61
I. Ethnographic study
II. Co-design
III. Intensive tribal mix
IV. Extensive tribal mix
V. Tribal marketing organization
Step 1: Study the linking value of products/services susceptive creating and maintaining the
linkage among group members
Step 2: Link the tribal group with a common interest/passion/practice susceptive to create an
interesting market
Step 3: Respect the ritual and implicit code of tribal activities
Step 4: Give the tribe enough time to acknowledge the brand and enterprise owning it without
developing commercial activities
Step 5: Collaborate with tribe members to elaborate offer(s) (products, service, place,
communication…) capably supporting their rituals
Step 6: Offer the linking value, rather than the usage value!
Step 7: Remain humble and non-commercial spirit
Step 8: Integrate the tribe into communication to legitimate the tribal linking value of the offer
Step 9: Create loyalty in the tribe with emotional reference and tribal imaginary
Step 10: Manage tribal dimension of the personnel, for instance recruiting tribal members,
acknowledging tribal implication,...

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IV.3.5. Tribal marketing practice
Tribal marketing is mainly applied to foster trade market of mode (clothing and
accessories), sports, high-tech products and cultural products (Nike, Adidas...). Yet, which
advantages that tribal marketing may bring to the practionners? Evidently, it could make great
contribution to them. Cova, V. and Cova, B (2001) already discussed it at three levels: (i)
research of the differentiation of products/services; (ii) research of clientele loyalty; (iii)
research of image. Accordingly, at the first level, contribution can be done by focusing on the
functional linking value of products/services or the sign of the linking value to activate effective
link and relationship between or among tribal people. Whereas the second level allows
developing loyalty effectively based on the sense of belonging to a community; which helps
double cognitive loyalty thanks to personal marketing and cards of loyalty. The third one can be
done by attaching the brands of enterprises with solidarity activities. All of these three
marketing actions are for the purpose of making enterprises and their brands acknowledged,
alive and developed by community. However, in order to do this, it is necessary for them to
understand the linking value of their products and services, the tribes supporting the linking
value, whether existing, emerging or potential.
In terms of the tribe members, Yohan Gicquel (2006) divided them into three kinds. The
first one called “the natives”, who invest much of their time, effort and money on the tribe.
They are the most important members in forming and maintaining tribe as they engage in tribe
activities not only frequently but also actively and loyally. The second one includes the
adopters; spend less of time, money and effort on tribe activities but their contribution to tribe
counts moderately. Their participation in tribe events takes place in occasional manner, may be
due to the fact that they are natives to other tribes. The last one are “the followers” who follow
and support tribe movement and activities but not in physical manner. What they follow and
support are the thinking and the value of the tribe, however, they do not really practice them.
These three sorts of members represent tribe
The terms tribal activities now differ much from its original terminology, simply
because it is associated to the concept of post-modern tribe. As a result, mentioning tribe, it
refers to the style of a particular group of person, which can be very unique and distinguishable,
for instance fashion, look, clothing, behavior, entertainment (music, film,…), language used
(gesture, vocabulary, accent,…), so on so forth. Among these factors, language is considered as
a kind of internal code for members to recognize each other as well as creating tribe identity
while the rest factors are signs that characterize the tribe. For tribe activity, it means all kinds of
gatherings and events organized by tribes for the purpose of practicing their rituals or getting

149
closer to tribe leader such as concert. In terms of place celebrating tribe activities, normally it is
physical. Nevertheless, due to the modern technology nowadays, it can be virtual, under the
kind of forums, or blog, or any virtual means [Yohan Gicquel, 2006: 26].
Synthesis
In short, tribal marketing is one kind of alternative marketing approaches useful to
market products and services to the customers while stimulating the linkage among them, and
create their loyalty towards focus brands. It can be resumed with simple information as
synthesized in the below diagram.
Figure 16: Important factors of tribal marketing approach
Source: Synthesized from Cova, V. and Cova, B., 2001
Enterprise as a supporter, together with the
consumers to co-produce better
products/services, co-create their real
values and linking values as well as co-
develop the brands, integrate its personnel-
brand developpers- as tribe members
Recognition and identification of tribe to
support in which tribe members are the
buyers, the consumers, and also advocates
Favor of products and services with
linking value setting, developing, and
fostering communal relation and social
interaction
Actively participating in tribal events
reaffirming and strengthening the shared
values among tribe members
Collective identification,
the "we-ness"
Tribal affiliation and relationship
Consciousness of kind, rituals,
tradition, moral responsibility,
brandfests, and sacred places
Tribal social interactions
Step 2
Co-design and testing of
products and services in
collaboration with the
tribe.
Step 1
Analysis of the tradition, rituals
and practices of the tribe by
observing and participating in
their tribal events
Step 3
Promotion and support of
the practices of the tribe
Tribal marketing approach
Focusing on products or services capable to create and link members of tribes
together as well as each individual with the whole tribe
Key rules Principal components
Tribal communication
Affective loyalty

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IV.3.6. Tribal marketing vs. ethnic marketing
There are some principal similarities between tribal marketing and ethnic marketing.
First of all, they do belong to community marketing and considered as an alternative approach
of traditional marketing so as to approach the individuals. They cannot work independently or
separately to other marketing approaches but in combination with others, for example with viral
marketing, or cultural marketing. The aim is to optimize marketing approach. In addition, tribal
marketing also apply ethno-marketing approach to analyze the rituals of post-modern tribe’s
consumption.
In terms of the difference, it is found that tribal marketing is usually used as one kind of
brand marketing strategies for the purpose of (i) making differentiation of products and
services; (ii) promoting client loyalty; and (iii) developing image [Cova, V. and Cova, B, 2001].
Meanwhile, ethnic marketing is used as one strategy of market segment, attemping to treat
ethnic consumers as distinctive market segment in addition to the marcro market to develop
specific products and services responsive to the demands and needs of the targeted ethnic
population. Tribal marketing mainly serves the trade market off fashion, entertainments, high-
tech products and cultural products. In terms of ethnic marketing, it is employed in all life
aspect, including fashion, cosmetic, food, finance, communication, tourism, real estate, so on so
forth.
IV.4. Ethnic marketing in comparison with community marketing
IV.4.1. What is community marketing?
Community marketing is a marketing approach engaging all kinds of connections
among existing customers, for example between customers and a company and between these
actors with prospects, while focusing on the needs of existing customers with the main
objective of promoting solidarity, solidify loyalty, and improve product adoption and
satisfaction. It can be either manipulated by the user without intervention of the company or
hosted and supported by the company under sponsoring activities.
This marketing approach is developed based on the categorization of groups existing in
the community, which can be known in other terminology as subcultures. Therefore, it can be
the communities of gay, of lesbian, of women… in case grounded on gender, or the
communities of senior, of teenager, middle age in case of age basis, the communities of the
French, Germany, Chinese, etc. in case using nationality as tools for categorization, or the
communities of Asian, African, Hispanic, Caucasian in case based on ethnicity, the

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communities of cancer, of handicap, of HIV in case of health and physical basis, the
communities of jazz, of fiction cinema, of Iphone, of BlackBerry, etc. in case of different
interests, so on so forth.
However, the most important here is that community members share their common
interest, well respected hierarchy and values set by the community, and actively integrate in it.
It is the community sharing the sameness, which plays the role as the entree for community
marketing to build sustainable relationship and to satisfy community needs. It is the interaction
among members and their level of interest as members of the community they belong to that
decide the survival of marketing community. In case these elements are weak, the marketing to
target community is ineffective. In contrast, the marketing is useful in either satisfying their
concrete needs, or strengthening the business with corporate social responsibility, as a result,
increasing their adoption and satisfaction towards products or services offered. So, the
traditional market segmentation seems not so important, the more important is the behaviors of
group members, a decisive factor of community marketing.
Community marketing keeps four elements of community as the principles to design
appropriate marketing strategies of mutual understanding and cooperation, including feelings of
membership; interaction and influence among group members; integration and fulfillment of
members’ needs with group resource; and their shared emotional connection [McMillan and
Chavis; 1986].
To synthesize all the factors of community that affect community marketing, the figure
below is created.

152
Figure 17: Factors of community affecting community marketing
- Derive from the community boundaries
created with sense of belonging to and
identification with
- Perception of emotional safety, allow both
personal and group expression
- Use of common symbols, language, ...
- Able to make friends and invite others to
similar interest group
Community
Individuals
Companies
Prospects
Connections among
existing customers
Needs of existing
customers
Community
marketing
Promoting solidarity, solidify loyalty
Improve product adoption and satisfaction
Interaction and
influences among group
members
Feelings of membership
Integration and
fulfillment of needs
Shared emotional
connection
Community
factors
affecting
community
marketing
- Feedback responsiveness
- Able to influence group and be influenced by
group
- Enforcement and creation of norms and rules
within the group
- Feeling of being supported
- Shared values, knowledge, experience
- Feeling of competence within group and
reward of being a member such as status,
expertise
- Relationships based on high quality and
frequent interaction, shared history &
experience, discrete/shared events/history and
crisis
- Personal investment of time and resource
- Effect of honor and humiliation
- Spiritual bonds

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IV.4.2. Community marketing tools
The following tools are usually taken in use in community marketing:
Online social networking
Social networking is an effective means of communication nowadays. Talking about it,
people think of social network in the neighborhood, at school, or at work, and especially online
social networking. This is the most popular communication tool, in which websites play the role
as online communities of millions of internet users- individuals or organizations- and linking
community members by their rich and diverse shared interest according to their hobbies,
religion, and political point of view, etc. regardless border of land, or of economic situation.
Online social networking is developed upon computer based information technology
specifically designed to serve virtual community, centered upon communication and interaction
of members of a particular virtual community for the purpose of activating their membership
and generating member-driven content towards the goodness for its members. For instance,
these online communities include individuals possessing personal homepages with personal
content and profile, able to interact with others' contents, make friends and share their personal
contents.
However, this tool is strongly influenced by political situation, particularly in
communist countries due to its great community force. This can be seen in some cases of
communist countries, social networking that connects local citizens to worldwide network have
been stopped simultaneously or limited to discourage the users, especially with such social
network as Facebook or Yahoo 360°. What have happened to political world in Tunisia, Libya,
Greece, etc. recently are vivid evidences of the force of online social networking. In some
countries like China, instead, they tend to develop their own local social networking. This is
necessary to be cared for in order to find relevant and useful tools for an efficient community
marketing strategy.
Sometimes language and culture can be barriers to connect the community members, but
these elements may also stimulate them to learn new cultures and languages to integrate in the
community of interest. As main means of communication in community marketing, online
social networking takes advantage of Web 2.0 associated with web applications facilitating the
users sharing information, generating user-centered content, interoperating, interacting, and
collaborating with each other. There are many kinds of online social networking, for instance
social networking sites, blogs, internet forums, wikis, video sharing sites, hosted services, web

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applications, mashups, folksonomies, and other related syndication (RSS). Some of the online
social networks popularly used recently include Twitter, Google+, LinkedIn, Yahoo 360,
Youtube and Facebook.
Partnership
Partnership used in community marketing represents the communication and
relationship among community members, both individuals and organizations, to express their
point of view towards specific topic of interest. The purpose is to analyze the trends, predicting
the consequences, providing advices and promoting goodwill and public interest in the
community. In addition, it also involves the participation of non-profit advocacy organizations
serving consumers as community marketing effort. Without partnership, community marketing
cannot work effectively. Therefore, there is a strong need in cultivating partnership by figuring
individuals and organizations in the community that share the same interest, teaming up with
them as well as identifying ways for cooperation, for example sponsorship, membership, etc.
Yet, two principles should be respected: one is that the partnership here must show an
affiliation to benefit members, the other is that it should mirror and support fair competition.
In community marketing, partnership is useful in plenty ways. First of all, it makes the
community group and business much more aware in the market, particularly with impressive
corporate social responsibility, and especially when it has partnership with well-known
individuals and organizations. As a result, it can increase the number of members and their
involvement in the group and at the same time the awareness of the customers and clients
towards the business. Second, with active and vibrant groups, it creates new ideas and
innovations for the sake of better products/services for the community. These ideas and
innovations together with the active group can then generate more partnership, attracting more
potential customers and clients, richen and expanding knowledge and experience. Third, it is
crucial that partnership in community marketing can foster brand differentiation, making a
certain active and vibrant group become more attractive than others, also promoting the
business, its services/products, and its brand in a more convincing way. Last but not least, all of
the preceding factors help strengthen the community group and its business.
In short, partnership is a driving force of community marketing, the more content
(information and communication) a community has, the more members it will get. On contrary,
the more members it involves, the more content it will obtain. The better the content and
members that match to members' needs, the more members and content it will acquire. Then, it

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can attract more and more members when the transactions are easy with more awareness and
trust of people on the business and community.
Community infrastructure and governance
Community infrastructure here comprises technology and social infrastructure. While
the technology infrastructure is important, the social one seems more crucial. What is
interesting with the community marketing is that it engages its customers in the community as
advisory board members, elected officials or volunteers. By this way, their role becomes more
and more important and this involves them in community activities. The brand loyalty,
product/service consumption, participation, partnership, membership, creation and innovation,
social responsibility, knowledge base, skills, etc. or goodwill of community and business in
short are developed, fostered, and protected by the customers themselves. Hence, community
infrastructure and governance in community marketing put the customers in the center, consider
them as a tribe with close relationship and hierarchy, and then make them work for the
community group and community business.
Community specific tools and features
The community tools and features are specifically designed for the members of
particular community for the objective of diffusing user-valuable message like tips, tricks,
support, useful information, etc. These include webcasts (streaming media broadcasting over
the Internet), podcasts (digital media files like audio or video), or email bulletins. Hence, for
people of the same interest, these tools and features mean for them to become members,
gradually engaging them in group activities
IV.4.3. What makes community marketing different?
Grounded on marketing 2.0 world, there are at least four things making community
marketing different to other marketing approaches. The first is that it does not follow the
traditional way of market segmentation like based on age, income, region, etc. but on the
manner that community members behave with one another. Second, social network is
considered as effective communication channel that have influence on buying decision of an
individual. The third is that it put the customer in the center, but not the product or the service,

156
neither brand, nor the company. Lastly, community marketing usually takes advantage of useful
messages diffusing to customers/clients, not promotion.
Behaviors of consumers in the community
In community marketing, the behavior of the community members has more meaning
than their characteristics. Why? There are many reasons explaining this. Just first taking an
example with virtual community interacting with web 2.0 infrastructure, the members may not
show their information related to age, profession, region, etc., or in case these informations are
shown, no one knows whether they are correct or not, except the user himself. In such virtual
world, traditional market segments based on age, profession, region, etc. seems not relevant,
what people care most is the behavior among group members.
Secondly, as mentioned by Francois Gossieaux- Partner of Beeline Labs- in the
emergence marketing28
, if only based on group characteristics as traditional marketing segment,
a health club may target health conscious people desiring a balance between mind and body and
improving their life quality to leverage their communities as part of their business. Alternatively
this includes, for instance, two groups of people: weightlifters and housewives. While the first
shows the behavior of competitive, showing off their achievement, their goals and enjoy an
audience, the second prefers to practice gym in the middle of the day, at club with fewer people
and preferable women, talking about the issues of their children and community. Then, it is
seen that it is not able to have a community based on the market segment, instead, behaviors of
the groups are more efficient.
Hence, the matter here is not who the customers are, but is how they behave in the
community they belongs to. Because the behaviors of different group members reflect their
feelings, their willing to share emotional connection, their integration and involvement, depict
in their interaction with other members and may have mutual influence among group members.
Social network
Social network made up of individuals and/or organizations and tied by common
interest, shows it is important in flowing information and recommendations, as well as in
influencing buying decision of customers in community marketing. This is totally different to
traditional marketing which use communication channels and product distribution channels to
28
http://www.emergencemarketing.com/2009/03/05/in-communities-forget-market-segments-embrace-consumer-
tribes/

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affect customer's purchasing decision. For this reason, community marketer have been taken
advantage of social networks and all kinds of tools facilitating the development and linkage of
social network such as online social networking to chuck up or social mediafy their content so
as to diffuse the content as part of network conversations that matter the community29
.
Customer centricity
In addition, the community marketing is different in the sense that it is a proprietary
marketing approach merging traditional and non-traditional tactics by leveraging key insights
about target community and putting the customers at the center of all activities. What
community marketing focus is learning what the consumers want and need, rather than trying to
persuading them to buy what have been produced, under which brands or by which companies.
For example, it goes inside community of customers to understand them, instead of focus
group. Then it sees which functional requirements a product or service should have to meet
their basic needs. It proposes value with customer centric. It develops brands based on the
customers' feeling, satisfaction and comfort.
Although acknowledging the importance of product platform, the customer becomes the
central platform, where all of their points of views have weight, are viewed, respected and
considered by a company or an organization, deciding its operation and decision. By aligning
products and services with the wants and needs of their valuable customers, the organization
can build crucial relationship with internal and external customers (meaning the on-going
customers and potential ones) so as to maximize profit for the long term.
Branded content
It is necessary to refer to branded content as another element differentiating community
marketing to others marketing approach as this technique is widely used and has shown its
power in community marketing, replacing promotion in traditional marketing. In fact, this is the
medium incorporating advertising and entertainment, albeit with a highly branded quality
diffused to international audience for the purpose of boosting both brand favorability and
awareness and improving purchase intent. It can be done on television, radio, online or events
platforms. It can be understood as sponsorship plus since it allows the owning company having
the same benefits as sponsorship and at the same time putting their brands in the central part of
29
http://www.emergencemarketing.com/2009/03/10/community-marketing-three-things-to-do-differently/

158
a project or event, tailoring content to fit the message of that project or event for public relation,
for direct mail and for point of sale marketing.
IV.4.4. Community marketing as a larger concept and practice of ethnic marketing
As can be seen in the figure 12 of "Ethnic Marketing as Component of Community
Marketing and Its Principles", community marketing is considered as the larger concept, which
includes the marketing to different subcultures, different community groups like ethnic groups,
senior group, teen group, group of gay, or group of handicap, etc. With ethnic marketing, the
target market here is only the community of ethnic people, and ethnicity is one element to
categorize the community; Whereas with community marketing, target group is a particular
community, it may coincide with ethnic marketing in case focus group is an ethnic group, it can
be different in case target group is others, for instance community of professors and researchers,
community of the senior, community of I-phone users, so on so forth. In short, ethnicity is just
one way of community classification, and ethnic community is just one component of
community as a whole.
In practice, the community marketing activities can include promotions around key
activities and festival of target community, or sponsorship of major and community based
events as well as key business events, or special support for target community like the
handicap, the senior, the gay, etc. In terms of ethnic marketing, these activities remain the same,
but the key activities, events, support and business must involve ethnic population, the festival
must be their cultural and traditional ones. In addition, ethnic marketing activities may also
engage in providing bi-lingual staffs in their branches and contact centers, bilingual or in-
language press advertisement to facilitate the communication of ethnic people in a particular
host culture.
IV.5. Ethnic identity and ethnic consumption in academic research
IV.5.1. Ethnic identity research
In academic research, ethnicity is usually studied using two types of approaches. As
already mentioned, the first is objective, dealing with etic measures allowing the outsiders to
identify an individual's ethnicity or a group's ethnicity, including both ethnic identity and
similarity, based on their upbringing and background like common history, traditional culture,
social capital, religion, geographical origin, written and oral literature; language spoken; skin

159
color; surname; social interaction, and even ethnic identification of the spouse, etc. [Hui and
Kim, 1997]. The second is subjective method conerning emic measures assuming that the self
description and the strength of ethnic identification are clearly understood by each ethnic
individual [Cohen, 1978; Hirschman, 1981]. This approach allows the evaluation of the
difference and uniqueness of a particular group, or allowing its members perceiving their
difference compared to others and acknowledging the group that they should belong to and at
different levels. These two approaches are not contradictory but complement each other,
allowing defining characteristics of an ethnic group and its members correctly [Isabelle Barth &
André Boyer, 2008].
In terms of the research on ethnic identity, among several researchers, Phinney's
methodology on multi-group ethnic identity measure is the most acknowledged applied. In fact,
the measures of ethnic identity proposed by Phinney (1992) have been adapted and adopted by
several researches. The table below synthesizes some of the constructs that have been used to
measure ethnic identity.
Table 16: Synthesis of constructs measuring ethnic identity
Construct Source
Ethnic self-identification/
affirmation
Atkinson, Morton, & Sue (1993)
Ethnic Language Use Laroche et al. (2009)
Ethnic Language Media Laroche et al. (2009)
Ethnic Attachment Laroche et al. (2009)
Sense of group membership Tajfel & Tuner (1986), Cross (1991), Helms (1990), Atkinson,
Morton, & Sue (1993), Phinney (1989, 1993), Phinney (1989,
1992, 1993, 1998), Belgrave et al (1994)
Exploration factors (activities
to learn about the person’s
group)
Erickson (1968), Tajfel & Tuner (1986), Cross (1991), Helms
(1990), Atkinson, Morton, & Sue (1993), Phinney (1989, 1992,
1993)
Commitment factors (a clear
understanding of the person’s
ethnicity)
Erickson (1968), Tajfel & Tuner (1986), Cross (1991), Helms
(1990), Atkinson, Morton, & Sue (1993), Phinney (1989, 1992,
1993, 1998)
Ethnic identity achievement Phinney (1989, 1993)
Self-esteem Erickson (1968), Tajfel & Tuner (1986)
Perceived parental
acculturation and cultural
identification
Xu J. et al. (2004
Ethnic-friendship orientation Xu J. et al. (2004), Phinney (1992)
Outgroup orientation Phinney (1992)
Culture-specific consumption
behavior
Xu J. et al. (2004

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IV.5.2. Ethnic consumption behavior research
In the literature review of marketing research on ethnicity and consumption behavior,
several empirical researches imply ethnicity as "a reliable and valid indicator to help explain
variance in consumer behavior patterns" [Nexhmi Rexha, & Russel P.J., 2001]. The research
on this topic is much diversified, each one propose a model explaining a type of ethnic
consumption pattern. Withn this thesis, it is impossible to list them all, just present some of
them, which can be synthesized in the table below.
Table 17: Ethnic identity perspectives in consumer research
Researchers Consumption
patterns
Findings Target
population
Hirschman
(1981)
Product
innovativeness
and product
information
transfer
Ethnic affiliation as a source of social
interaction offering a useful guide for
marketing strategy
Jewish
population
in the U.S.
Donthu &
Cherian
(1994)
Retail
shopping:
brand loyalty,
sale promotion
and coupon
usage
Strong ethnic identifiers are more likely to
shop at their own ethnic stores, which are
smaller community outlets rather than the
larger for their comfortable interaction. They
are also more loyal to brands used by family
and friends, to be influenced by targeted
media and to be less concerned about
economic value.
Hispanic
population
in the U.S.
Nexhmi
Rexha &
Russel P.J.
Kingshott
(2001)
Consumption
patterns
- Strong ethnic identifiers are likely to shop in
smaller retails outlets and their own ethnic
retail stores; tended to be more generous
towards their ethnic institutions than weaker
identifiers; are likely to opt for more practical
modes of personal transport, and rely more
on public transport while weaker identifier are
likely to personalize motor vehicles.
- Ethnicity should be use as a base for market
segmentation.
Asian,
Keyans and
Australians
students in
Australia
Hamlett J. et
al. (2008)
Food shopping
patterns
- Ethnicity should not be singled out as a
variable to explain the shopping habits of
consumers, but together with acculturation
and religion.
- Education, age and socio-economic
background have impact on shop engagement
with the shops.
Early South
Asian
immigrants
on arrival in
Britain in
the period
1947-1975
Laroche M et
al. (2009)
Similarities in
Italian and
Greek
multidimensio
nal ethnic
identity and
their food
consumption,
In the proposed a three-dimensional structure
of ethnic identity, including (i) ethnic
language use with family members; (ii) ethnic
language media exposure; and (iii) ethnic
attachment; structural equation modeling
showed positive relationship between ethnic
identity dimensions and the consumption of
traditional foods for both ethnic groups
Italian and
Greek
community
in Canada

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Conclusion
To sum up, the theories on social identity, identity, ethnic identity, culture, marketing
for ethnic population and synthesis of researches on these issues are depicted as grounded
knowledge for this research.
For the social identity theory, it allows to define four important elements helpful to
design relevant ethnic marketing strategies: (i) common identity and behavior of an ethnic
group; (ii) the level of ethnicity; (iii) level of membership of an ethnic person towards a
particular ethnic group, and (iv) negative factors that may influence ethnic members, such as
prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination... All these factors serve the purpose of understanding the
self and the group of a particular ethnic population. However, this theory is limited in
understanding why and how ethnic identity derives.
Supplementing the theory of social identity, which explains the self concept,
membership, value and emotional significant attached to that membership [Tajfel, 1981:255],
theory of identity development is helpful in clarifying the development process of ethnic
identity. This involves the theory of ego identity including acquisition of an ego, and the
exploration of identity issues [Erikson, E. 1950] in which the crisis in the life helps forming an
ego-identity with clear sens of who one is, what his place in the world is, what he wishes to do
with his life, what he believes, etc. The ego identity, stages of life and ego identity status in the
theory of ego identity are useful in defining identity of ethnic individuals of different age and
with different time of residence in host culture. It also helps understanding the origin of
measuring items or constructs used in several academic researches on ethnic identity and ethnic
consumption. Theories on identity development also involve the empirical work on personam
identity development of James Marcia clarifying how ethnic individuals determine their
uniqueness and similarities to other. The sense of ethnic identity, therefore, depends on the
choices and commitments with regards to certain personal and social traits. Based on
commitments of ethnic individuals, their ethnic identity can be well developed or not.
Combining ego identity process and personal identity development, Phinney and Ong propose a
particular process for ethnic identity formation.
However, referring to ethnic population, ethnic identity and ethnic consumption, the
theories on identity and identity development is not enough, because another factor also shows
its crucial role influencing ethnic identity and ethnic consumption. Theoretical background on

162
culture is therefore discussed. Ethnic marketing takes all cultural factors mentioned above into
play. It starts by "recognizing culture as the frame and the essence driving contemporary
business". Then, it "discovers the hidden predominant values and beliefs supported by an in-
depth underlying world located at the heart our cultural roots", where «products are charged
with symbolic meanings" and market agents (consumers, customers, clients, entrepreneurs,
employees, competitors, distributors...) [Dagoberto Paramo Morales, 2005].
In addition, ethnic related issues and ethnic maketing have been discussed. With ethnic
related some definitions have been clarified, including ethnicity, community, race and tribe as
well as ethnic identity, national identity, and racial identity. Meanwhile, ethnic marketing is
systematically analyzed, and indepth camparison between it with tribal marketing and
community marketing is made. This contributes providing a profound knowledge on this issue.
Last but not least, the chapter also makes a short summary of researches conducted so
far on ethnicity, ethnic marketing, and ethnic consumption in academic research.
The chapter of theoretical background is essential in presenting a basic and profound
knowledge on the topic of ethnicity, ethnic marketing and ethnic consumption. Based on the
theory of identity and culture, as well as knowledge on ethnic related issues and ethnic
marketing, this research is supposed to develop a model measuring three dimensions: (i) ethnic
identity; (ii) ethnic consumptionbehavior in general; and (ii) ethnic food consumption.
The next chapter is supposed to present conceptual model of the research, developed
based upon the part of theoretical knowledge in which there are different latent variables,
measured by different manifest variables and these latent variables interacts with each other,
creating relationships among them. Hypotheses are then developed based on their interactions.

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CHAPTER 3
CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

164
Introduction
Based on theoretical background and knowledge on identity, ethnicity, culture, and
ethnic consumption, ethnic marketing, the research has orientations towards its conceptual
model, which includes latent variables, manifest variables, and moderator variables, as well as
shows the correlations among the constructs. Hypotheses are then developed for the purpose of
clarifying these relationships.
Therefore, this chapter is crucial in presenting conceptual model and research
hypotheses. It consists of two sections. The first one introduces the formulation of the
conceptual models, and its components. All the latent variables and four moderator variables
are discussed in detail in terms of definition, measuring items and how they are built. The
second one groups all hypotheses into four cetegories according types of effects. These concern
respectively the influence on (i) ethnic identity; (ii) ethnic consumption behavior; (iii) ethnic
food consumption; and (iv) interaction effects.

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I. Conceptual model of the research
The study is designed to identify factors establishing and influencing ethnic identity,
ethnic consumption behavior in general and ethnic food consumption in particular. To better
understand this, a model with theoretical constructs is formulated. It is in fact a diagram which
shows a set of relationships between factors, which are believed to impact and lead to the
identification of ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption. The
purpose of this chapter is to present conceptual model of this research, including the way
formumating it such as justification of theories applied, the components of the model and the
relationships among these components.
I.1. Formulation of conceptual model
The conceptual model is developed based on four principal factors: (i) observation; (ii)
desk-study concerning theoretical and empirical researches on ethnicity, ethnic identities, ethnic
consumption behavior, and ethnic food consumption conducted so far; (iii) consultation of
experts and practitioners in ethnic marketing; and (iv) pre-test with ethnic consumers in France.
This model includes three sub-models, one concerns factors influencing ethnic identity.
The other model involves factors having impact on ethnic consumption behavior. The rest sub-
model focuses on effect of different factors on ethnic food consumption. All the three sub-
models are confimatory models adapted from Phinney (1992), Xu J. et al (2004) and by Mich
C.C. & Keillor B.D. (2011).

166
Figure 18: Proposed model of ethnic identity, socialization factors and their impacts on
ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption
The model is constituted by the following measures:
(i) Three measures from the multi-group ethnic identity measure (MEIM) model (Phinney J.S.,
1992), which serves the purpose of assessing respondents' levels of ethnic identity, including
ethnic identity, out-group orientation and ethnic consumption behaviors. To gauge the two first
measures, multi-group ethnic identity measure scale is adapted in which respondents are asked
to which extend they agree with each of the statements based on 5 point scale of agreement (1=
strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree). In addition, the likert point scale is modified so that it is
not only based on agreement but also on feeling (1= It is totally not me, 5= It is exactly me).
For ethnic consumption behaviors measure, likert-type questionnaire of Xu J. is applied and
adapted to identify the behaviors of respondents in terms of food style, entertainment like
movies, music, cultural performances, etc. These behaviors is based on the 5 degree of
frequency (1= never, 5= always).
Gender Age
Duration of stay
in host country
H1
In-group
factors
Out-group
factors
Out-group orientation
Personal factors
Situational
factors
Situational orientation
H5
Ethnic food
consumption
H4
H8
Parental orientation towards
ethnicity
Ethnic friendship orientation
H2
H3 H10
H9
Moderator variables
Profession
integration in French society
H6
H7
Ethnic
consumption
behavior
Ethnic identity
H11
H12

167
(ii) Four measures from the model analyzing ethnic identity, socialization factors, and culture-
specific consumption behavior (Xu J. et al, 2004), such as parental orientations towards
ethnicity, parental orientation towards integration in French society, ethnic friendship
orientation and situational orientations. The three first measures are considered as the factors of
the in-group that have influence on the establishment and development of ethnic identity,
behaviors and consumption. While both of the two parental orientations are measures of the
perceived parental acculturation, of parental influence that may have impact on respondents'
ethnic identity, the friendship orientations aim at defining their friendship impact. To do so, the
two scales of Jun at al. (1993) are adapted to define the respondents' perceptions of their
parental acculturation and cultural identity by using Likert-type questions (1= never, 5=
always). Similarly, the assessment of ethnic friendship orientations adopts Ting-Toomey's 5-
point Likert-type questions to find out their preference towards friends of certain ethnicity, the
importance of their friends' ethnic background as well as their belief of relationship between
ethnicity and friendship's closeness. However, it is not based on the agreement (1= strongly
disagree, 5= strongly agree), instead, it is based on their feeling (1= It's totally not me, 5= It is
exactly me). Meanwhile, situational orientations adapt questions of Xu J. et al. (2004) but focus
on only favorable conditions. They include socio-political and market orientations, which serve
the purpose of identifying the impact of favorable situations on ethnic related activities thanks
to Likert scale answers (1= strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree).
(iii) Ethnic food consumption measure has the main objective of identifying the consumption
behavior of ethnic food as well as the importance of ethnic food for respondents and their
consumption in terms of frequencies, budget, types of ethnic food consumed, etc. Questionnaire
in use is adapted from questionnaire on food consumption used by Mich C.C. & Keillor B.D.
(2011) in terms of food eaten out, homemade, or frozen/prepared food, but adding several items
to find out their preference and agreement in terms of service in native language, with ethnic
patronage, proximity and budget, using multiple choice questions and Likert questions (1=
strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree)
(iv) Moderator variables comprise of four elements: gender, age, profession, time of residence
in host country. These moderators help discover the influence of these factors in the overall
model. Gender and age are moderators already used in several ethnicity studies of French et al.
(2006), Phinney and Ong (2007), Xu J. et al (2004)... However, profession derives from the
researches of Ray (1990), Rose (1985), Hamlett J. et al (2008) and the moderator of time of
residence comes from the researchs of Kim (1978), Eric Fond & Wsevolod W. Isajiw (2000),
Wim Verbeke & Gisela Poquiviqui Lopez (2005).

168
I.2. Constructs and measuring items
The construct developed in the conceptual model involve three main aspects: (i) ethnic
identity formation; (ii) ethnic consumption behavior in general; and (iii) ethnic food
consumption in particular. For ethnic identity aspect, based on the social identity theory and
culture theory, determinants with important influence on the identification and development of
ethnic identity have been pinpointed and classified into four groups: personal factors, in-group
factors (those belonging to ethnic group such as parents and friendship), out-group factors
(those belonging to other groups), and situational factors (those belonging to general socio-
economic context and situational one). In addition, on the basis of identity development theory,
some important factors that can influence ethnic identity formation, as well as behavior and
food consumption are pointed out. They are in fact moderators that have impact on the above
factors, including gender, age, profession and duration of stay in France. Hence, in total, there
are 7 measures in the conceptual model and 4 moderator variables that have general impact on
this model.
I.2.1. Ethnic identity
Ethnic identity is a construct of ethnicity, identity, and acculturation level. As "Ethnic
identity is many faceted...distinct in some ways from other group identities, such as racial
identity, but it also shares aspects of both personal and group identities" [Phinney J.S. & Ong
A.D., 2007], the measurements of ethnic identity try to measure all of its faces.
Therefore, ethnic identity in the conceptual model is divided into three sub-categories (i)
ethnic personal information; (ii) ethnic identity affirmation and belonging; (iii) ethnic identity
pride and activation.
The first is in fact the self-identification, self-categorization and self-labeling in terms of
ethnicity and culture that an ethnic person thinks he/she belongs to and often practice.
The second represents his/her feeling and commitment, depicted (i) by the exploration
of ethnic identity while seeking of information and experience related to his/her ethnic identity
like ethnic history, traditions and customs; (ii) via the sense of belonging to ethnic group; and
(iii) through ethnic salience for him/her.
The last sub-category demonstrates ethnic individuals' satisfaction being ethnic
members; their active participation in ethnic activities; their pride of ethnic background and
their activation in involving themselves and others in cultural practices of ethnic group.

169
Measuring items are designed for each of the sub-categories. With the identification of
the self in terms of ethnicity, nationality, language and religion practised, respondents are given
multiple choice questions to choose appropriate answers. Whereas Likert-type questions of
Multi-group Ethnic Identity measure scale (Phinney J.S., 1992) are adapted to measure the
second and third sub-categories. With this type of questions, respondents are asked to indicate
their agreement based on 5 Likert scale (1= strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree; and 1= It's
totally not me, 5= It's exactly me).
Within this construct, the category of ethnic personal information is indispensable, but is
used as the base for individuals to identify their ethnic identity. Therefore, the variable of ethnic
identity is supposed to be officially measured on the basis of ethnic identity affirmation and
belonging, as well as ethnic identity pride and activation.
Definition Code Question/Item Theoretical
justification
Basic
information
serving to
identify ethnic
identity
Ethnic Personal Infomation
(Phinney J.S.,
1992)
ORG My ethnicity is:
(1) Asian or Asian French, including Chinese,
Japanese, and others
(2) African or African French
(3) Hispanic or Latino
(4) Caucasian, Anglo, European; not Hispanic
(5) Mixed (Parents are from two different
ethnic groups)
(6) Other (write in): __________
NATI My nationality is __________
LANG Language I use daily is:
(1) My native language
(2) French
(3) Both
(4) Other (write in): ______
RELI I usually practise the following religion:
(1) Christianity
(2) Jew
(3) Muslim
(4) Buddhist
(5) Hindu
(6) Other (write in): __________
Items measuring ethnic identity include:

170
Measure Definition Code Question/Item Theoretical
justification
1: Ethnic
Identity
(EI)
Measuring
ethnicity,
identity, and
acculturation
level
Ethnic Identity Affirmation and Belonging
(Phinney J.S.,
1992)
EI1 I have spent time trying to find out more about
my own ethnic group, such as its history,
traditions, and customs.
EI2 I have a strong sense of belonging to my own
ethnic group and understanding its meanings in
my life.
Ethnic Identity Pride and Activation
EI3 I am proud of my cultural or ethnic background
and happy to be a member of the group I belong
to.
EI4 I actively participate in cultural practices of
organizations or social groups that include
mostly members of my own ethnic group.
EI5 I often talk to other people about my ethnic
group, or invite my friends to participate in
cultural practices of my group, such as special
food, music and customs.
I.2.2. Parental orientations
In this study, parental orientations are among in-group factors with main objective of
measuring the perception of belonging to an ethnic group and the level of integration in host
culture that individuals inherit from their parents. The reason lies in the fact that several studies
have shown the importance of parental Orientations in transmitting values, attitudes, and
practice to their children [Hostede, 1980; Rotheram-Borus & Wyche, 1994, Moore-Shay &
Berchmans, 1996; Gregory & Munch, 1997; Palan & Wilkes, 1997; Flouri, 1999], especially at
the early age like adolescence [Yinger, 1986; Phinney, 1992]. However, the importance of this
factor may be different according to diverse ethnic populations. In the conceptual model, this
construct consists of two sub-categories demonstrating two sides of influences. One is the
influence on individual’s ethnic background and the other is the influence on acculturation in
host country. Relatively the sub-category entitled perceived parental cultural and ethnic
identification represents the sense of ethnic identity of an individual that his/her parent transfer
to him/her while perceived parental acculturation is the sub-category showing the degree of
acculturation of individual’s parent, their integration in host culture in terms of language usage,
entertainment, and social activities that creates a crucial environment for ethnic identity
development and changes. As a result, the first sub-category attempts to measure parental
orientations towards ethnicity, while the second is the measure of parental orientations towards
integration in French society.

171
With this variable, both the measurements of Jun at al. (1993) and Xu J. et al. (2004) are
adapted to define the respondents' perceptions of their parental acculturation and cultural
identity by using Likert-type questions (1= never, 5= always).
Measure Definition Code Item Theoretical
justification
Parental
Orientatio
ns towards
Ethnicity
(POE)
Measuring the
perception of
belonging to an
ethnic group that
individuals inherit
from their parents
Perceived Parental Cultural and Ethnic
Identification
When I was growing up, my parent:
Jing Xu et al
(2004), Jun et
al. (1993)
POE1 Participated in ethnic group activities.
POE2 Talked to me about our cultural
background.
POE3 Wanted to be recognized with our ethnic
origin in public.
Parental
Orientatio
ns towards
Integration
in French
society
(POI)
Measuring the
level of
integration in host
culture that
individuals inherit
from their parents
Perceived Parental Acculturation Level
POI1 Enjoyed French culture and entertainment
such as watching French television
programs, listening to French radio and
music, or reading French
newspapers/magazines
POI2 Socialized with their Caucasian-French
friends
POI3 Spoke French at home.
I.2.3. Ethnicfriendship orientation
In addition to familial influence, ethnic friendship orientation is the second factor of in-
group aiming at measuring ethnic identity. It is shown that ethnic friendship depicts its
powerful influence on attitudes and behaviors of young ethnic adult [Ting-Tommey, 1981]
while peer communication with friends has significant impact on attitude and consumption
behaviors of adolescents [Moschis & Moore, 1979]. With this construct, the strength of ethnic
identity is assessed through the preference towards friends of certain ethnicity, the importance
of their friends' ethnic background as well as their belief of relationship between ethnicity and
friendship's closeness.
The three 5-point Likert-type questions adopt Ting-Toomey's questionnaire (1981) and
adapt items to measure Ethnic Friendship Orientations used by Xu J. et al (2004). Accordingly,
respondents indicate their level of agreement and feeling (1= It's totally not me, 5= It's exactly
me) for each statements regarding the ethnicity of their friends, their preference to make friends
and hanging out with in-group members.

172
justification
Ethnic
Friendship
Orientation
(EFO)
Measuring the
perception of
belonging to an
ethnic group and the
level of attitude and
behavior that
individuals are
influenced by their
in-group ethnic
friends
EFO1 Most of my friends are from my ethnic
group.
Jing Xu et al
(2004)
EFO2 I see more commonalties between me
and friends from my own ethnic group,
rather than friends from other ethnic
groups.
EFO3 I prefer to hang out with friends from
my own ethnic group rather than friends
from other ethnic groups on social
occasions.
I.2.4. Other group orientation
As indicated “Attitudes towards other groups are not part of ethnic identity, but they
may interact with it as a factor in one’s social identity in the larger society [Phinney, 1992:
161], and that "this interaction was particularly important for minority groups" [Worrel, F.C. et
al, 2006: 37], other group orientation is supposed to show the attitude of an ethnic group
member toward other groups and their participation in out-group activities.
This can be measured at different levels. The first and most simple is just the preference
or desire to make acquaintance with those belonging to groups other than their own, and their
discovery of other cultures and customs. The second degree shows their enjoyment with out-
group members, their exploration of other cultures and customs, and their active participation in
other-group activities. The third and also the strongest level depicts their high involvement
when motivating their in-group members taking part in out-group activities. Through these
three levels, not only the attitude of ethnic group members towards the other groups is
manifested, but to some extent, their acculturation and integration in a multi-cultural society is
shown.
The 6-item questionnaire of Phinney J.S. (1992) is adapted and shorten into three Likert-
type question (1= strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree; and 1= It's totally not me, 5= It's totally
me) to measure attitudes of ethnic individuals towards the out-group and their involvement in
out-group activities.

173
justification
Other Group
Orientation
(OGO)
Measuring the
attitude of an
ethnic group
member
toward other
groups and
their
participation in
out-group
activities
OGO1 I like meeting, and getting to know people
from other ethnic groups, as well as their
culture and custom.
Phinney J.S.
(1992)
OGO2 I often spend time with people from other
ethnic groups, involve in activities and enjoy
being around them.
OGO3 I often encourage my family and friends to
engage in cultural practices of other ethnic
group, such as their special food, music and
customs.
I.2.5. Situational orientation
The variable of situational orientations is inspired by "felt ethnicity", which is defined as
a transitory psychological state of individuals expressed in different ways and in different
situations by Stayman and Deshpande (1989). This concept of dynamic ethnicity is supported in
the argument implying ethnicity is not just who one is but also how one feels in different
situations by both sociologist Yancey et al. (1976) and psychologist McGuire et al. (1978).
According to Belk (1975), situational factors are independent of individual
characteristics of consumer. It can be specific time, or place, or other social situations.
Evidences have been showing situational variances in ethnic identity. For several theorists,
situational orientations in ethnicity are discussed as strategic or symbolic manipulations [Stein
& Hill, 1977; Gans, 1979; Padilla , 1985].
In the studies of ethnicity, situational factors have been taken in use as one of the factors
influencing ethnicity and ethnic consumption behavior. For instance, the strength of one's felt
ethnicity and ethnic consumer behavior are different according to relative social situations,
whether with the presence of parents, or business associates [Stayman & Deshpande,
1989:361]. For Forehand and Deshpande (2001), the salience of ethnic self-awareness is under
great impact of immediate social situation, which then has effect on the strength of ethnic self-
awareness. Meanwhile, Zmud J. and Arce C. (1992) precised situational factors as social
surrounding and confirmed that behavior is a function of felt ethnicity, cultural identity, social
surroundings and product type.
Similarly, Xu J. et al. (2004) proved that there were interaction effects between
situational factors and ethnicity. The first was that ethnic members (in this case it is Asian
American young adult) engaged in culture-specific consumption to a greater degree when they

174
were with friends of the same ethnicity than when they were with those of host culture
(Caucasian American friends in this case). The second was that the situation factor produced "a
stronger effect on culture-specific consumption among those with a greater sense of ethnicity
than among those with a lesser sense of ethnicity" [Xu J. et al., 2004].
In terms of Sekhon and Szmigin (2005), these authors integrated the situational
expression of ethnicity adopting the concept of emotional and situational ethnicity to explore
the influence of different contexts on the degree of ethnic affiliation and the variation of
consumption behavior.
Therefore, in this study, situational factors are improvised as a construct to see whether
ethnicity, ethnic food consumption and the socialization with ethnic friends are oriented or
influenced by favorable situations or not.
The measurement of this construct comprises three questions, in which one comes from
the questionnaire of Xu J. et al (2004) referring the situations with friends from the same ethnic
group. The rest shows social situation with stereotypes and/or regulations in the society that
restrain the participation in ethnic concerning activities or not or the availability of ethnic
products and services around living place of ethnic individuals. All of these questions are Likert
type ones, which offer respondents five level of agreements to choose appropriate answers (1=
strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree).
Measures Definition Code Item Theoretical
justification
Situational
Orientations
(SO)
Measuring the
strength of
favorable
situations’
influence on
ethnicity and
ethnic food
consumption
SO1 The stereotypes and/or regulations in this
society do not make me hesitate to
involve in ethnic concerning activities.
Jing Xu et al
(2004),SO2 I enjoy ethnic related activities with
friends of my own ethnic group.
SO3 Ethnic products and services are available
in my living place.
I.2.6. Ethnic consumption behavior
Ethnic identity is embodied with two parts, interior and exterior. The interior represents
identity with sense of the self, on contrary the exterior is defined as the attitudes and behaviors
closely associated with that sense [Xu J. et al. 2004; Mich C.C. & Keillor B.D., 2011]. The
behavior in general of different cultural groups, or different ethnic group have been studied as
one dimension related to acculturation and separate from ethnic identity by Berry at al. (2006)
and Hamlett J. et al (2008) or as a measure of ethnic identity by Phinney J.S. (1992).

175
Nevertheless, for consumption of ethnic group, many researchers have found great
impact of ethnic identity on consumption pattern of ethnic individual or on ethnic consumption
behavior [Hirschman, 1981; Wallendorf & Reilly, 1983; Valencia, 1985; Penaloza, 1994;
Deshpande & Stayman, 1994; Xu J. et al., 2004, Hamlett J. et al., 2008]. The consumption
pattern and behavior are much diversified, and include various measurements. They can be
knowledge of practice ethnic languages, associating with group members [Phinney J.S. & Ong
A.D., 2007], eating ethnic food [Xu J. et al., 2004; Phinney J.S. & Ong A.D., 2007], shopping
practice [Hamlett J. et al, 2008], or ethnic-type entertainment [Xu J. et al., 2004]. For this study,
the construct concentrated is ethnic consumption behavior, which attempts to be measured
through such important consumption behaviors as entertainment (ethnic movies, ethnic music,
ethnic press, cultural performance, ethnic festival or events...), and ethnic food in general.
Four items questionnaire to measure ethnic consumption behavior of Xu J. et al. (2004)
are taken in use, but adapted and merged into three questions according to the types of
consumption: entertainment with movies, music, radio, and/or newspaper related to ethnicity;
food eating; and enjoyment of ethnic and cultural performance and festivals. Likert questions
(1= never, 5= always) are applied for respondents to show their frequency of each consumption
type.
Measures Definition Code. Item Theoretical
justification
Ethnic
consumption
behavior
(ECB)
Measuring
the ethnic
consumption
behavior
ECB1 I watch ethnic movies or movies that portrait
my ethnic culture in my language or with
French subtitle, and/or listen to my ethnic
music or music that is closely related to my
ethnic origin, and/or listen to radio in my
language, and/or read newspaper in my
language
Phinney J.S.
(1992), Jing
Xu et al
(2004),
ECB2 I eat my ethnic food or food with similar
origins.
ECB3 I attend my ethnic cultural performances,
festivals or events related to my ethnic origin.
I.2.7 . Ethnic food consumption
Given the close relationship between ethnic identity and food, several studies on
ethnicity have taken ethnic food consumption into account to measure ethnic identity and ethnic
consumption behavior of different targeted population [Wallendorf & Reilly, 1983; Stayman &
Deshpande, 1989, Laroche, 1998; Brunso & Grunert, 1998; Carol M. Devine et al., 1999; Xu J.
et al., 2004; Bojanic & Xu, 2006].

176
Laroche et al. (1998) found that ethnic identities were more salient under certain
conditions like cultural events or religious holidays. In addition, acculturation and food
consumption were correlated, and this relationship varied according to food type.
From the point of view of several researchers, ethnicity is one of the many factors that
play important role in food choice. There were correlations between ethnic group affiliation and
ideals, identities and roles and these factors interact with food and eating context to influence
food choice [Carole M. Devine et al., 1999].
In addition, both Xu J. et al. (2004) and Phinney J.S. & Ong A.D. (2007) simply used it
as one item measuring culture-specific consumption behavior in general or ethnic behavior in
particular. Meanwhile, Mich C.C. and Keillor B.D. (2011) considered ethnic food consumption
as a variable, together with ethnic identity depicting the identification of one individual with
his/her ethnic culture and with national culture.
According to Wim Verkebe and Gisela Poquiviqui Lopez (2005), because the awareness
and consumption of ethnic food have increased as consequence of the growing international
trade, migration, tourism and globalization, ethnic food is an interesting topic to discuss. When
investigating the attitude and behavior of the Hispanic living in Belgium towards Belgian foods
and vice versa, they found that Latin American food consumption and attitude of Belgians were
negatively correlated with food neophobia and positively correlated with the openness to new
culture. For the Belgium, taste and appearance were key attributes determining their
consumption of ethnic food while the Hispanic population was favourable to the mainstream
cuisine. Although food habits of the Latin-American in Belgium depended on food availability
and time of residence, it did not determine Hispanic’s dietary acculturation to mainstream food.
In this study, only the consumption of ethnic food of ethnic people living in France is
studied. Accordingly, the four-item food consumption questionnaire of Mich C.C. & Keillor
B.D. (2011) is adapted. However, it is not just the styles and types of food consumption as
mentioned by those authors (eating out, use of prepared foods, eating at home, food from
scratch). It goes much in detail in terms of preference of food origin, budget, proximity of food
supply, special services along with food distribution such as ethnic language speaking and
labeling, or support for ethnic patronage and ethnic community. The purpose of this construct is
to measure (i) ethnic food consumption style; (ii) partly ethnic food types (ready-to-eat food,
prepared food or raw material); (iii) preference in terms of food origin, proximity with
distribution channels, special services for ethnic community or in native language; (iv) and
ethnic food budget.

177
Measuring items of this variable adapt questionnaire on food consumption of ethnic
members designed by Mich C.C. & Keillor B.D. (2011), and Likert-type questions based on 5
point scale are applied.
Measures Definition Code Item Theoretical
justification
Ethnic food
consumption
(EFC)
Measuring
food
consumption
of ethnic
members
EFC1 In terms of ethnic food consuming style, I
often:
(a) Eat out/order ethnic food.
(b) Eat homemade food self processed and
cooked in traditionally ethnic style.
(c) Buy prepared ethnic food, then cook at
home
Mich Clauda
C. & Keillor
B.D. (2011)
EFC2 In terms of ethnic food origin (place of
production), I prefer:
(a) Consume only food products originated
from my place of origin.
(b) Consume any food products regardless
their places of origins
EFC3 I spend most of my food budget for my own
ethnic food.
EFC4 I prefer special services, either
shops/supermarkets specifically serving my
ethnic group/community, or the service
providers from my ethnic groups, or the
people working in
shops/supermarkets/restaurants can speak my
native language, or the products are labeled
in my ethnic language.
EFC5 I like to go to shops/ supermarkets/
restaurants near my living place to buy or eat
ethnic food.
I.2.8. Moderator variables
While all of the constructs mentioned above are dependent variables that are observed
and measured to determine the identification of ethnic identity and its effect on ethnic
consumption behavior in general and ethnic food consumption in particular of different ethnic
groups in France, in this study, several moderators have been identified, including age, gender,
profession and duration of stay in host country. They are in fact special independent variables
selected to discover whether they modify the relationships between the seven constructs and
different groups of ethnicity.
Age and gender are two common moderators in ethnicity studies. French et al. (2006)
finds that ethnic identity increases with age while ethnicity in the Multigroup Ethnic Identity
Measure model of Phinney and Ong (2007) is likely to be shown differentially in accordance
with three periods of adolescents (early, middle and late adolescents). Also, some studies show

178
that immigrants of first generation keep very close contact with the institutions, culture and
members of their communities and are likely less acculturated than their offspring [Sodowsky
et al., 1991]. Furthermore, they are generally more conservative and patriotic than younger
generations [Han, 1988].
In terms of gender in ethnicity studies, although this factor has been taken into account
by Phinney and Ong (2007), due to the lack of men's participation in the study, invariance of
the factor structure across gender could not be examined. On the contrary with the study of Xu
J. et al (2004), despite the involvement of female and male students (64% of female
respondents and 36% of male respondent), none of the result concerning ethnic identity and
consumption was endorsed across gender. However, some researchers have shared the same
results that females are more patriotic, more conservative, more collectivistic, and more
concerned about preserving social harmony and promoting positive feelings among group
members than males [Eagly, 1978; Han, 1988; Triandis, 1994]. Therefore, it is possible that
female may tend to be less acculturated and preserve more their ethnic and cultural identity than
males do. Hamlett J. et al. (2008) also took age and gender into account to explore their
interaction with ethnic identities to produce variations in shopping patterns.
The length of time that a family or an individual has been staying in host country is
considered as an important aspect of acculturation [Olmedo & Padilla, 1978]. It is shown that
the level of immigrants' attitudes and satisfaction towards host country increase steadily over
the years in linear manner [Kim, 1978] and the longer their length of residence in host country,
the more they assimilate in host culture [Hurh & Kim, 1984]. Sharing the same result, it is
anticipated that "with longer duration of stay in the country and continued increase in education
levels, combined with the increase in individuals income levels, immigrants may gradually
expand their social circle and integrate into the mainstream society" [Eric Fond & Wsevolod W.
Isajiw, 2000:268]. Also, when studying the attitude and behavior of Beliguans (mainstream
population) towards Latin-American ethnic foods, and of Hispanics living in Beligum towards
mainstream Belgian food, Wim Verbeke and Gisela Poquiviqui Lopez (2005) found that
Hispanics’s adoption of traditional Belgian cuisine is positively correlated with time of
residence in Belgiam and negatively correlated with maintenance of native social interaction
and language use. Hence, possibly, the length of stay in host country has negative effect on
ethnic identity and ethnic food consumption.
In addition, together with age, the length of residence in host country helps identify an
ethnic individual's age at his/her arrival in host country, which, in turns contribute to measure
the degree of acculturation and ethnic identity. In fact, these degrees are different between those

179
immigrating to host country at adult age and those moving to host country at younger age since
the former have been socialized in another country [Alba & Nee, 1997] while the later tend to
have greater contact with host culture, its institutions and members and those culturally
diversified are less ethnically aware and less ethnocentric [Song H.H. & Shin E.H, 2004].
Profession is in fact indirect factor of education level. With this variable, not only
education of individuals is shown, but also their socio-economic position in host country. It is
manifested that the more educated, the less conservative and people are less likely to have
ethnic prejudices [Ray, 1990; Rose, 1985]. In the study of ethnic and consumption, Hamlett J.
et al (2008) pointed out that socioeconomic status has interaction with ethnic identities and food
shopping patterns of early South Asian immigrants in Britain.
In fact, several other socio-demographic factors such as socio-economic status,
generation status, gender, class standing, income, education etc. are recommended for further
researches. Therefore, this study aims at examining the factor structure across not only popular
variables such as gender and age, but also other important elements like profession and duration
of stay in host country of ethnic individuals. With profession, hopefully that it might indirectly
show education level and socio-economic status of respondents. Similarly, together with age
and duration of stay in host country, arrival time in host country as well as acculturation could
partly be demonstrated.
All of the moderators are identified based on concrete answers of respondents in terms
of gender, age, profession and duration of stay in host country. That means the respondents are
allowed to freely answer and fill in the blank. However, later all of their answers are supposed
to be classified into categories to facilitate data processing.
For instance, based on Erik Erikson's stages of human development, the ages of
respondents are divided into four groups: adolescent (13-19 years old), young adult (20-40
years old), middle age (40-64 years old) and old age ≥65 years old).
Similarly, based on the professions and socio-professional categories in France,
respondents' professions are classified into 8 main groups: artisans, merchants and
entrepreneurs; cadre and intellectual profession; intermediate profession; employee; worker;
retired; without professional activities; and students.
In terms of the length of time living in France, it comprises four categories, short time
for those living in France less or equal to 5 years, medium time for the duration between more
than 5 years and less than or equal to 10 years, between 10 years and 20 years for long time,

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and over 20 years for extremely long time. The purpose of this is to avoid the feeling of stigma
or embarrass for respondents.
Measures Definition Abb. Item Theoretical
justification
Moderator
variables
Measuring the
gender of ethnic
members
SEX Gender
V1: I am
(1)Male
(2) Female
- Moderators of gender
and age: French et al.
(2006), Phinney and
Ong (2007), Xu J. et al
(2004)
- Moderator of
profession: Ray (1990),
Rose (1985), Hamlett J.
et al (2008)
- Moderator of time of
residence: Kim (1978),
Eric Fond & Wsevolod
W. Isajiw (2000), Wim
Verbeke & Gisela
Poquiviqui Lopez
(2005)
Measuring the
age of ethnic
members
AGE Age
V2: I am at the age of __________
Measuring the
profession of
ethnic members
PRO Profession
V3: In France, I work as a
_________
Measuring the
duration in
terms of time
that ethnic
members have
lived in France
EFC4 Time of residence in France
V4: I have been living in France
Measuring the gender of ethnic
members for___________ years
Synthesis
In conclusion, the constructs and moderator variables play pivotal role in a conceptual
model of a research. In the frame of the research on ethnic identity, socialization factors and
their impacts on ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption, several variables
have been identified and corresponding items have been developed to measure the entire
constructs. This is synthesized and presented in the following table, including measures, the
objectives of the measures, items to measure, and short explanation concerning its origin,
purpose and methods applied.
Table 18: Synthesis of constructs and measurements used in conceptual model
Measures Item Explanation
Ethnic
Identity (EI)
Ethnic Identity Affirmation and Belonging
EI1: I have spent time trying to find out more about my
own ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and
customs.
EI2: I have a strong sense of belonging to my own
ethnic group and understanding its meanings in my life.
Ethnic Identity Pride and Activation
EI3: I am proud of my cultural or ethnic background
and happy to be a member of the group I belong to.
EI4: I actively participate in cultural practices of
organizations or social groups that include mostly
members of my own ethnic group.
EI5: I often talk to other people about my ethnic group,
or invite my friends to participate in cultural practices
of my group, such as special food, music and customs.
- Adapting the Multi-group
Ethnic Identity measure
(MEIM) scale (Phinney J.S.,
1992), which serves the
purpose of assessing
respondents' ethnic
identification and levels of
ethnic identity, using Likert-
type questions but at 5 Likert-
scale (1= strongly disagree, 5=
strongly agree).

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Parental
Orientations
towards
Ethnicity
(POE)
Perceived Parental Cultural and Ethnic Identification
POE1: Participated in ethnic group activities.
POE2: Talked to me about our cultural background.
POE3: Wanted to be recognized with our ethnic origin
in public.
- Apply the measure of
Parental Orientations used by
Xu J. et al (2004)
- The two scales of Jun at al.
(1993) are adapted to define
the respondents' perceptions of
their parental acculturation and
cultural identity by using
Likert-type questions (1=
never, 5= always).
Parental
Orientations
towards
Integration in
French
society (POI)
Perceived Parental Acculturation Level
While I was growing up, my parent:
POI1: Enjoyed French culture and entertainment such
as watching French television programs, listening to
French radio and music, or reading French
newspapers/magazines
POI2: Spoke French at home.
POI3: Socialized with their friends of other ethnos
Ethnic
Friendship
Orientations
EFO1: Most of my friends are from my ethnic group.
EFO2: I see more commonalties between me and
friends from my own ethnic group, rather than friends
from other ethnic groups.
EFO3: I prefer to hang out with friends from my own
ethnic group rather than friends from other ethnic
groups on social occasions.
- Apply the measure of Ethnic
Friendship Orientations used
by Xu J. et al (2004)
- Adopts Ting-Toomey's 5-
point Likert-type questions (1=
strongly disagree, 5= strongly
agree)
Other Group
Orientations
OGO1: I like meeting, and getting to know people from
other ethnic groups, as well as their culture and custom.
OGO2: I often spend time with people from other
ethnic groups, involve in activities and enjoy being
around them.
OGO3: I often encourage my family and friends to
engage in cultural practices of other ethnic group, such
as their special food, music and customs.
- Taking in use the measure of
Other Group Orientations
proposed by Phinney J.S.
(1992)
- Adopt Phinney J.S.'s 6-item
questionnaire based on 5-point
Likert scale (1= strongly
disagree, 5= strongly agree)
Situational
Orientations
SO1: The stereotypes and/or regulations in this society
do not make me hesitate to involve in ethnic
concerning activities.
SO2: I enjoy ethnic related activities with friends of my
own ethnic group
SO3: Ethnic products and services are available in my
living place.
- Adopt and adapt the measure
of situational orientation used
by Xu J. et al. (2004) and
method using Likert questions
(1= strongly disagree, 5=
strongly agree)
Ethnic
consumption
behavior
ECB1: I watch ethnic movies or movies that portrait
my ethnic culture in my language or with French
subtitle, and/or listen to my ethnic music or music that
is closely related to my ethnic origin, and/or listen to
radio in my language, and/or read newspaper in my
language
ECB2: I eat my ethnic food or food with similar
origins.
ECB3: I attend my ethnic cultural performances,
- Apply the measure used by
Phinney J.S. (1992) and Xu J.
et al. (2004)
- Adapt four items
questionnaire to measure
ethnic consumption behavior
of Xu J. et al. (2004), but adapt
it in three questions using
Likert question (1= never, 5=
always).
M8: Ethnic
food
consumption
In terms of ethnic food consuming style, I often:
EFC1a: Eat out/order ethnic food.
EFC1b: Eat homemade food self processed and cooked
in traditionally ethnic style.
EFC1c : Buy prepared ethnic food, then cook at home
In terms of ethnic food origin (place of production), I
prefer:
EFC2a : Consume only food products originated from
my place of origin.
.
- Adapt questionnaire on food
consumption used by Mich
Clauda C. & Keillor B.D.
(2011) and Likert questions
(1= strongly disagree, 5=
strongly agree) to measure the
consumption of ethnic food

182
EFC2b : Consume any food products regardless their
places of origins
EFC3: I spend most of my food budget for my own
ethnic food.
EFC4: I prefer special services, either
shops/supermarkets specifically serving my ethnic
group/community, or the service providers from my
ethnic groups, or the people working in
shops/supermarkets/restaurants can speak my native
language, or the products are labeled in my ethnic
language.
EFC5: I like to go to shops/ supermarkets/ restaurants
near my living place to buy or eat ethnic food.
Moderator
variables
Gender
MV1: I am
(2) Male
(2) Female
(3) Other (write in): __________
Age
MV2: I am at the age of __________
Profession
MV3: In France, I work as a _________________
Time of residence in France
V4: I have been living in France
for___________________ years
- Moderators of gender and
age are already used in several
ethnicity studies of French et
al. (2006), Phinney and Ong
(2007), Xu J. et al (2004)... but
only age variable has been
endorsed by French et al.
(2006), Phinney and Ong
(2007). However, profession
and duration of stay in host
country are two new variables
taken into account due to its
social importance.

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II. Hypotheses of the research
Since well grounded hypotheses indicate sufficient knowledge in the area to undertake
the investigation, give direction to the collection and interpretation of data, as well as provide a
framework for reporting conclusion of the study, this section attempts to present in detail all the
hypotheses in the frame of the research on ethnic identity and its influence on ethnic
consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption.
These hypotheses are statements expressing the relations between two or more
measurable variables that have been developed in the above section. In addition, they are
considered as working instrument of theory and tentative explanations that account for a set of
facts and can be tested by further investigation. Most of them are alternative, directional and
quantitative hypothesis used to relate and describe the variables.
The hypotheses may derive in inductive or deductive manners. For inductive way, the
research starts with observations of behavior, thinking of problem, turning to literature for
clues, making additional observation to establish probable relationship, and hypothesizes an
explanation. On contrary, deductive manner allow forming hypothesis by selecting a theory
first, then derives hypothesis leading to deductions presented in the form of statements
accompanied by an argument or a rationale for the particular proposition.
Developing in deductive manners, the hypotheses concentrate on the explanation of
determinants influencing three factors: (i) ethnic identity; (ii) ethnic consumption behavior; and
(iii) ethnic food consumption. Hopefully through the power of hypothesis, the research could be
better conducted to achieve knowledge on this subject.
II.1. Factors influencing ethnic identity
Ethnic identity is not just identified by the self, but influenced by several factors. These
factors are divided into three groups. In-group factors are those from the same ethnic group: at
family level, they are mainly parental orientations whereas at society level, they mostly come
from friendship. Out-group factors represent influences coming from individuals of groups
other than one's ethnic group. Finally situational factors such as socio-economic environment or
concrete circumstances with or without certain types of friends may have impact on the strength
of one's ethnic identity.

184
II.1.1. Parental orientations
As "ethnic identity is, first and foremost, a matter of ancestry, of self definition that is
both handed down within the family and created on the basis of family history" [Alba,
1990:164], and it is transmitted through family, which are "communities of memory" [Bellah et
al., 1996:21], there is a close connection between family and ethnic identity. Based on literature
review, it is seen that family has significant roles in two aspects, one is in shaping ethnic
identity and the other is in maintaining ethnic identity. Particularly with ethnic identity
formation, it helps (i) diffusing and transmitting information about ethnic origin; and (ii)
socializing family members into ethnic group. Waters (1990:62) indicated "Certain family
structures and living arrangements may promote both the passage of information about ethnic
origin and the interest in socialization of children into a particular ethnicity".
The concept of socialization should be clarified due to its importance. It is a lifelong
process where social roles and behaviors are learned by different individuals to participate
effectively in society [Brim, 1968], and by which individuals develop their self-identities
[Moore E.S. & Bowman G.D., 2006].
The function of family ethnic socialization has been insisted by many researchers.
Particularly, it is a primary context in which children's ethnic identity is shaped [Rotheram and
Phinney, 1987:11; Phinney, 1996]. It is the key influencers of the identity formation [Lindridge
et al., 2004]. And it is the process where "children acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values,
and attitudes of an ethnic group, and come to see themselves and others as members of such
groups" [Rotheram and Phinney, 1987:11].
Together with experiences within the family, familial ethnic socialization is of primary
importance in creating children's identity [Moore et al., 2002], or forming ethnic identification
[Gonzalez et al., 2006:187]. In addition to ethnic identification shaping, the ability of the family
to socialize its members into the ethnic culture and future behavior is one of the roots of the
maintenance of ethnic identification and solidarity [Mindel et al., 1998:8]. However, "the
importance of family as transmitters of ethnicity are most significantly related to the strength of
ethnic identity" [Smith W.L. & Hendry W. 2007: 112].
Furthermore, scholar review shows that although some have studied the relationship
between parenting styles or socialization practices with ethnic identity transmission in children,
teenagers or young adults [Marshal, 1995; Quintana & Vera, 1999; Okagaki & Moore, 2000;
Cheshire, 2001, Xu J. et al. 2004], little research has specified types of parenting practices that
cultivate and transmit ethnic identity to the next generation in optimal manner [Phinney &

185
Chavira, 1995; Davey M. et al, 2003], as well as compared the effect of parental socialization
practices on different ethnic groups.
Therefore, this study is supposed to test the relationship of parental factors and ethnic
identity through socialization practices within ethnic group/culture as well as their practices as
integration in host country/culture. It is divided into two different impacts, one is the impact of
parental orientation towards ethnicity, and the other is the impact of parental orientation
towards integration in French society. It adapts hypothesis of Xu J. et al. (2004), but not for just
one ethnic group, instead it aims at dealing with several ethnic groups.
H1: Parental orientation towards ethnicity has positive and significant effect on ethnic
identity.
H2. Parental orientation towards integration in French society has negative and
significant effect on ethnic identity.
II.1.2. Ethnic friendship orientations
Several researches have studied the effect of friendship ties among different ethnic
groups [Jackson & Crane, 1986; Robinson, 1980; Singelman & Welch, 1993; Powers &
Ellison, 1995] as well as its relation to ethnic identity as a crucial component of ethnic identity
formation [Ting-Toomey, 1981; Bearden & Randall, 1990; Phinney, J.S., 1992; Xu J. et al.,
2004]. It is anticipated that ethnic tolerance increase in relation with close relationship among
ethnic groups [Powers & Ellison, 1995] and the communication with friends helps maintain
group identity [Bearden & Randal, 1990]. Particularly, it is proved that ethnic friendship
orientation has a positive effect on ethnic identity [Xu J. et al. 2004].
However, either this effect is proved in only young ethnic population like in the case of
Phinney (1992) or Jing-Xu et al. (2004), not ethnic population of different ages; or only for one
ethnic group like Asian American young adults in the study of Xu J. et al. (2004), not including
other ethnic groups. Hence, it is expected that there is a positive relation between ethnic identity
and ethnic friendship orientations in a diversity of ethnic groups as well as in population of
different ages. As a result, a hypothesis is developed based on this expectation as the following.
H3: Ethnic friendship orientation has positive and significant effect on ethnic identity.

186
II.1.3. Other group orientations
Despite the fact that individuals are more likely to interact with in-group members than
with out-group members [Quattrone & Jones, 1980; Mullen B. & Hu L., 1989; Thomas M.
Ostrom et al., 1993], the role of out-group could not faded for this reason. Instead, it should be
taken into consideration, especially in multi-ethnic societies, and particularly in ethnicity and
ethnic identity study where in-group involves ethnic group whereas out-group usually concerns
with mainstream group.
Over the past decade, in-group and out-group factors have been studied [Goethals et al.,
1979; Johns et al., 1981; Manstead, 1982; Park & Rothbart, 1982; Quattrone & Jones, 1980,
Mullen B. & Hu. L, 1989]. There is evidence showing the influence of out-group orientations
on ethnic identity in previous researches. The effect of other group orientation on ethnic
identity has been intensively developed by Phinney J. S. (1992) due to its importance to ethnic
minority groups. Phinney explained that "the attitudes toward other groups are not part of
ethnic identity, but they may interact with it as a factor in one's social identity in the larger
society" [Phiney, 1992: 161]. Many other studies have taken in use Phinney's measure of
out-group orientation. Take Juang et al. (2006) as an example, their study found that out-group
orientation was linked to higher self-esteem and lower rates of depression. Other researches
show that for ethnic individuals who have initial contact with other groups, their level of
tolerance may increase toward other groups [Power & Ellison, 1995] and the fact of fostering
mixed racial and ethnic environments for children may have significant impact on their future
interethnic relations [Fond, E. & Isajiw, W.W. 2000].
For those who socialize with members of other ethnic groups and have positive past
experiences in interethnic friendship, it is more likely for them to maintain current interethnic
contact. This is particularly true for those growing up in an environment of racial and ethnic
diversity, and those having close interethnic friends at young age [Singelman et al., 1996]. On
contrary, for minority members with negative intergroup contact such as racial or ethnic
discrimination, they are less likely to interact with the majority group [Power & Ellison, 1995].
In another aspect, it is found that cultural security strongly correlated with favorable attributions
of other groups [Lambert et al., 1986], and ethnic members with more secure group identity had
more positive inter-ethnic group attitudes [Berry et al., 1977].
Thus, this implies a relationship between other group and ethnic identity. Nevertheless,
to which extend does it influence the formation and maintenance of ethnic identity? In this
study, it is expected that ethnic members with higher ethnic identity degree, meaning more
secure sense of ethnicity, would have less interactions and socialization with other groups. A

187
hypothesis is therefore set up to see whether ethnic identity is negatively related to other group
orientations.
H4: Out-group orientation has negative and significant effect on ethnic identity.
II.1.4. Situational factor
Situational influences on ethnic identity and ethnic socialization have been supported by
several researchers [Baldassare, 1976; Massey & Mullan, 1984; Fond E., & Isajiw, W.W.,
2000; Xu J. et al, 2004]. From ethnic identity perspective, situational factors include not only
place and time, but also momentary situation, such as presence of friends from same ethnic
groups or from out-group friends, that create different conditions for the interaction and the
socialization of ethnic population as well as generate different motions in individuals towards
the sustainment and enhancement of their selves and their ethnic identity. This presence
involves the phenomenon of "code switching" in which people switch languages according to
the social context. Previous researches have associated situational factors with "code switching"
and found that code-switching is in fact a function of changes in an individual's strength of
ethnic identity which may vary according to social context [Gumperz, 1976, 1978; Valdes
Fallis, 1980].
Situational factors might be as important as such factors as acculturation and identity in
explaining linkage between ethnicity and consumption. According to Forehand and Deshpande
(1989), ethnic self-awareness is only a temporary state, considered as a transitory psychological
one that is manifested in different ways in different situations. In other words, an individual
feels more sensitive to his/her ethnic group membership in different situations. Hence, situation
influence on ethnic identity involves three aspects: time, place and motion.
In this study, these three dimensions of situational factors are taken into consideration.
To measure the strength of ethnic identity, two types of situations have been shaped: favorable
and unfavorable. The unfavorable situations include: (i) unfavorable situation with stereotypes
and unsupportive regulations for ethnicity subject (time and place); and (ii) enjoyment of ethnic
activities with friends of other ethnies (motion). The supportive condition precises the
enjoyment of ethnic activities either with friends from the same ethnic group (motion). These
situations are supposed to prove the following hypothesis.
H5: Situational orientation has positive and significant effect on ethnic identity.

188
II.2. Factors influencing ethnic consumption behavior
Ethnic consumption behaviors are actions possibly expressing identity [Phinney & Ong,
2007]. So far, there are two schools studying ethnic consumption behavior. On one hand, it has
been included as measures of ethnic identity [Phinney, 1992]. On the other hand, it have been
separated to ethnic identity, but studied as acculturation aspect [Berry et al. 2006].
It is seen, therefore, that taking into account ethnic consumption behavior is in fact the
examination of a paradigm in consumer behavior labeled ethno-consumerism by Alladi
Venkatesh (1995). This is the intersection of three aspects, including "consumer behavior as a
cultural phenomenon, ethnic studies and comparative and cross cultural research". "It is the
study of consumption from the point of view of the social or cultural group... Ethno-
consumerism begins with basic cultural categories of a given culture. It studies action,
practices, words, thoughts, language, institutions, and the interconnections between these
categories." [Alladi Venkatesh, 1995: 29-30].
In addition, since social influences, including social environment and social agents, play
a pervasive role in shaping consumers' affect, cognitions, and behaviors [Dahl. et al., 2001;
Ratner & Kahn, 2002; Argo et al. 2005; Didem Kurt et al., 2011], behavioral researchers have
studied the impact of several social agents like parent, spouse, friends, colleagues, so on so
forth on the consumption behavior in general, and on the ethnic behavior in particular. The
reason is simple: "people live in a world in which they are interconnected, information is
shared, recommendations are made and social acceptance is important" [Yang & Allenby,
2003:291], and "in purchasing and using products, people are social actors whose behavior is
open to observation of other... Individuals use products as a form of impression management to
influence the ascriptions others might make about them (i.e;, form favorable attributions)."
[Netemeyer et al., 1992:381]. .
Similar to ethnic identity, the ethnic consumption behavior is oriented by several factors
through consumer socialization process by which people acquire skills, knowledge, and
attitudes relevant to their functioning as consumers in the marketplace [Ward, 1974]. This
process involves different agents including family members, peers, and institutions other than
the family, media and other marketing sources [Reshma H. Shah & Banwari Mittal, 1997]. As a
result, this part is supposed to discuss the impact of these agents on ethnic consumption
behavior by selecting some remarkable agents such as parents, friends within ethnic group, and
members of out-group. However, it also involves ethnic identity as personal factor of the self
that contributes to orient ethnic consumption behavior. Furthermore, socio-economic factor is

189
taken into account as an umbrella, an overall environment covering market place influencing
the consumption.
These influences are categorized into two groups: interior factors and exterior factors.
While the first come from ethnic individuals' own group such as ethnic identity (self-identified
ethnicity and felt ethnicity), parental influence, and friendship impact, the later comprises of
influences of out-group and different socio-economic contexts.
Since consumption is a part of social activities, consumption behavior study usually
takes familial relationship into account for better understanding consumption behaviors and
patterns, especially parental effect on children's consumption. This has known as
intergenerational influence in terms of transfer of values, attitude, skills, preferences, and
behavior. In consumption behavior, it is the influence of a generation to others within a family
when acquiring skills, attitudes, preferences, values, and behavior related to the market place
[Heckler et al., 1989; Childers & Rao, 1992; Reshma H. Shah & Banwari Mittal, 1997].
The intergenerational correlation and parental effect in the socialization of offspring can
be shown with regards to a range of consumer behaviors, including information search, brand
preference and loyalty, product category, store selection , price sensitivity, reliance on mass
media, evaluative criteria, etc. [Amdt, 1971; Ward, 1974; Woodson et al., 1976; Moschis, 1987;
Moore-Shay et al. 1988; Childers & Rao, 1992; Donthu N. & Cherian J., 1994; Reshma H.
Shah & Banwari Mittal, 1997; Sekhon Y.K., 2007] as well as in several important sources:
drinking behavior [Grace M. Barnes et al., 1986; Bruce J. Biddle et al., 2001; Maldonado-
Molina, Mildred M. et al., 2011]; financial behaviors [Hill, 1970; Woodson et al., 1976; Cox D.
et al., 2000]; food and entertainment [Xu J. et al., 2004], so on so forth. Via socialization
approach, it is assumed that children learn consumer behavior by two ways: the first is through
observation of their parent's behavior, and the second is directly being taught by their parent(s).
Both of these two ways involve the importance of communication, either explicit or implicit,
and actions as a signal for the learning process. Alternatively, parental influence on
consumption behavior is shown through both of these ways.
Ethnic studies confirm the influence of parental factors on ethnic consumption behavior.
For instance, it is implied that parental acculturation apparently influences consumption
behavior of the Asian American young adult in direct and negative manner [Xu J. et al., 2004].
Another example can be seen in the study of ethnicity, consumption and intergenerational

190
influences on the consumption of Asian Indians in the United Kingdom where the consumption
of ethnic population is found multifaceted and is directly affected by intergenerational
influences, notably parental choices and experiences, and this influence is real and forceful in
nature [Sekhon Y.K., 2007].
There are, therefore, many channels through which the consumption of children and
their parental orientations might be linked. Within this study, it is intended to include two types
of consumption especially associated to ethnic population: ethnic food and ethnic
entertainment. Furthermore, the intergenerational correlation here focuses on parental factors to
see this impact on the consumption behavior of ethnic members in one way, not involving other
family agents.
II.2.2. Friendship orientation
It is likely that all the values, attitude, skills, preferences, and behavior of the next
generation depend not only on parental inputs, but also on other agents of the ethnic
environment, one of which is ethnic friends. As Kandel indicated (1996) family and peers have
traditionally been considered as the two most important social forces and competing and
dissonant influences. Accordingly, like parental impact, friendship influence on the
consumption behavior can be seen in different aspects: shopping, brand loyally and preference,
product categories, communication patterns, entertainment, education, food and drinking
consumption, etc. Nevertheless, these influences may exert in different levels depending on
private or public consumption of a certain product [Childers & Rao, 1992].
If parents influence the rational aspect of consumption, peers are likely to have affective
impact, for instance consumption styles and preferences [Rieasman & Roseborough, 1955].
Scholar review confirms this point of view with two main empirical findings. One shows that
parents provide information sources preferred for purchase decision related to three factors:
price, product performance, and social acceptance whereas information furnished by peers is
preferred for buying decision primarily associated to social acceptance [Moschis & Moore,
1979]. The other proves that family communication is useful in motivating consumption
economically while peer communication affects consumption socially and materially [Moschis
& Moore, 1979]. Take eating behavior as an example, in addition to parents, friends provide the
most important social influences on youth's eating behavior [Birch L.L. & Davison K.K., 2001;

191
Story M. et al., 2002]. Some researchers have studied and made comparison of the influence of
friendship and other social relationship on food consumption finding that (i) certain eating
patterns appeared to be socially transmissible across different kinds of relationships [Pachucki
M.A. et al. 2011]; and (ii) food selection is differentially influenced by the source of social
influence [Sarah-Jeanne Salvy et al., 2011]. Most of these studies have put the youth on focus.
In ethnic consumption behavior study, relationship between friendship orientations and
consumption behavior has also been supported by several empirical studies, for instance the
studies of ethnic identity impact on Hispanic shopping behavior conducted by Donthu N. &
Cherian (1994), and the study on linkages among ethnic identity, socialization factors and
consumption behavior in Asian Americans of Xu J. et al. (2004), etc. In this correlation, direct
and positive peer effect of ethnic friendship orientation on ethnic consumption behavior has
been proved. Yet, as can be seen, these studies were conducted on one group of ethno, not
several ethnic groups at the same time.
In an attempt of studying the relationship between friendship orientations and ethnic
consumption behavior, the focus is made on friendship of the same ethnic group, and concerned
consumption patterns include food and entertainments, hypothesizing those ethnic friendship
orientations are positively related to ethnic consumption behavior. In addition, it aims at
discovering different levels of ethnic peer influence in a diversity of ethnic population.
H7: Ethnic friendship orientation is positively and significantly related to ethnic
II.2.3. Ethnic identity
As ethnicity is considered as a cultural condition with profound consequences to the
nature of consumption among different people [Venkatesh, 1995: 36], studies on ethnic
consumption usually consider ethnicity and its role in the consumption process [Penazola,
1994; Zmud & Arce, 1992, Venkatesh, 1995]. It is found that ethnic identity and ethnic
consumption behavior are interrelated [Zmud J. & Arce C., 1992; Phinney; 1990; Xu J. et al.,
2004]. For instance, in marketing and consumer behavior perspective, ethnic consumption has
usually described as a consequence of changing identity [Hoyer & Deshpande, 1982;
Wallendorf & Reilly, 1983; Schaninger et al., 1985], or an aspect through which ethnic
individuals seek to hold on certain patterns of their culture as well as their identity perceived to
link them to their culture of origin [Askegaard, S.& Arnould, E. 1999:335].

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In addition, it is proved that ethnic identity has influence on culture-specific
consumption behavior [Hirschman, 1981; Wallendorf & Reilly, 1983; Valencia, 1985;
Deshpande & Stayman, 1994; Penaloza, 1994; Xu J. et al., 2004], such as the consumption of
ethnic food, ethnic entertainments, cosmetics, financial products, etc.
However, the study of Zmud J. & Arce C. (1992) suggested that cultural identity might
have greater influence on consumption behavior than felt ethnicity and its strength of influence
was dependent upon the importance placed on that cultural identity. In this research, these
authors considered ethnic identity with two dimensions: (i) cultural identity and (ii) felt
ethnicity. While cultural identity was defined as what people have inherited such as race, origin,
history, religion, language... and what they have acquired, like language and nationality [Isaacs,
1975], felt ethnicity was defined as a transitory psychological state of individuals expressed in
different manners and in different conditions.
In this study, ethnic identity is not divided like that to see the influence of its different
components on consumption behavior. Instead, it keeps both the senses of cultural identity and
felt identity to explore the impact of ethnic identity as a whole on ethnic consumption behavior.
The ethnic consumption patterns focus on ethnic food and ethnic entertainment only.
H8: Ethnic identity has positive and significant effect on ethnic consumption behavior.
II.3. Factors influencing ethnic food consumption
Ethnic food consumption refers here to the food habits, the consumption of traditional
food and meals from the country of origin. Scholars usually use ethnic food consumption item
in the measure of ethnic identity, incorporate it to ethnic consumption behavior in general
[Driedger, 1975; Phinney, 1990; Rosenthal & Feldman, 1992; Xu J. et al. 2004; Laroche M. et
al., 2005], or investigate the relationship between ethnic identity and ethnic food consumption
[Rodrigo, Romo & José M. Gil, 2009].
However, this study use it as an independent and separate item to ethnic identity in an
attempt of identifying different influences on the consumption of ethnic food, including the
impact of not only ethnic identity, but also situation factor. The objective is thereby twofold: (i)
to measure the influence of ethnic identity on ethnic food consumption; and (ii) to find out
whether the consumption of ethnic food depend on situational factors.

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II.3.1. Situational factor
In the study of ethnicity and consumption behavior in general, there are two directions
of research. One focuses on consumption behavior with influence of ethnic identity and
acculturation of consumers, developing such indicators as national origin, spoken language,
demographic variables, language preferred in purchasing, etc. like the case of O'Guinn and
Faber (1985), Jamal & Chapman (2000), or Chaw M.J. & Ali M.Y (2002), so on so forth, while
the other integrate situational factors believing that it does not have only impact on ethnic
affiliation but also specific ethnic behavior [Stayman & Deshpande; 1989; Zmud J., 1992; Xu J.
et al., 2004; Sekhon & Szmigin, 2005].
As discussed above, situational factors include time, place, and momentary situation
creating different socio-economic and emotional contexts for ethnic individuals. They are one
of the components of social influences on consumption behavior. For instance, social
environment have been found to shape and even sometimes misconstrue consumers' attitudes,
opinions, preferences, and choice behavior as they strive for social acceptance [Bearden &
Etzel, 1982, Dahl et al. 2001; Ratner & Kahn, 2002; Argo et al., 2005]. For different
consumption contexts, Urbany et al. (1989) addressed that the presence of friends could be
highly influential consumption decision as they played the role as a source providing their
friends with product information. Similarly, as activators of impression, the context with friends
has effect on consumers' decision and choice [Childers & Rao, 1992]. In addition to the
literature on social influence in the marketplace, Jurt et al. (2011) focused on impression
management-related spending implications of the orientations and found that the presence of a
friend affects consumer spending because it motivates consumers to engage in impression
management in case of (i) behavior consistent with stereotypes that would present a person
from standing out; and (ii) high levels of self-moniroting that individuals are likely to adapt and
change their bahaviors in the presence of others.
Particularly in food consumption, previous researches have supported the correlation of
ethnicity and food consumption. For Stayman & Deshpande (1989), social surroundings, one of
situational factors, plays the role as a moderator in the interaction between ethnicity and food
consumption. Based on social context, different ethnic groups (Hispanic, Asian and Anglo)
switched their choice in terms of type of food (including Mexican food, Chinese food, and
Amercican food) [Stayman & Deshpande, 1989]. In addition, eating with others affects what
an individual consumes [Christakis N.A. & Fowler J.H., 2007]. Also, Xu J. et al. (2004) proved
the effect of situational factors on ethnic food consumption. Firstly, situational factors and
ethnic food consumption were correlated. The extent to which Asian American young adults

194
engage in culture-specific consumption behavior changes significantly in case in the company
of ethnic friends versus in case with Caucasian American friends. Secondly, if taking the degree
of ethnicity into consideration, it is found that those with stronger sense of ethnic identity,
situational factors have stronger influence on their food consumption. Thirdly, if excluding the
degree of ethnicity, it is implied that regardless of the strength of ethnic identity, Asian
American young adults tended to consume more ethnic food when they were with ethnic friends
than when they were with American mainstream friends.
Adapting and adopting previsous research, situational orientation in this research focus
only on favorable situations, and considered as a construct of the model, not a moderator
variable. The purpose is to prove that situational factors plays the role of influencing ethnic
food consumption and favorable situation positively and significantly ethnic food consumption
no matter the ethnic identity is strong or weak.
H9: Situational orientation has positive and significant effect on ethnic food consumption.
II.3.2. Ethnic identity
Ethnic identity dimension tend to be closely related to the consumption of traditional
ethnic food. Past researches have sometimes included food preference and consumption in the
structures of ethnic identity [Driedger, 1975; Phinney, 1990; Rosenthal & Feldman, 1992] and
agreed that those with high degree of ethnic identity and feeling of belonging had high
consumption of ethnic food [Laroche M. et al., 1998; Xu J. et al., 2004; Carrus.G. et al., 2009;
Rodrigo Romo & José M. Gil, 2009; Laroche M. et al., 2009]. In addition, it is revealed that for
multiethnic environment, the inclusion of traditional ethnic food consumption items in the
measures of ethnic identity may be useful in differentiating different ethnic groups.
Adopting this, ethnic food consumption is supposed to be investigated in different ethnic
groups. Yet, different to the above researches, ethnic identity and food consumption in this
study are two separate items. Ethnic food consumption here is put in the center of all influences
coming from ethnic identity, and other socialization factors such as parents, friends, members
of out-group, as well as under social environment in general. Furthermore, food consumption
goes in much detail in terms of distribution channels of ethnic food, type of ethnic food, special
services for ethnic food, so on so forth.
It is acknowledged that in reality, food consumption has become powerful symbol of
who people are. Through this particular consumption, habit, tradition, belief, level of
attachment to an ethnic community as well as level of socialization and integration in different

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culture are shown. As a result, this academic research attempts to examine the correlation
between ethnic identity and ethnic food consumption in the context of different ethnic groups in
France. A hypothesis is developed to test this relationship as the following.
H10: Ethnic identity has positive effect on ethnic food consumption.
II.4. Factor influencing ethnic friendship socialization
There is a close connection between family and friends in a life-long process of
socialization and self identity formation [Brim, 1968, Moore E.S. & Bowman G.D., 2006]. If
family is the first and formost actor that a person contacts, following are friends, in which
ethnic friends plays an important role. In this study, ethnic friendship orientation is a construct
measuring the perception of belonging to an ethnic group and the level of attitude and behavior
that individuals are influenced by their in-group ethnic friends. It is believed that even this
factor is influenced by family orientation, meaning that family contributes to decide whether a
person socializes with friends of the same ethnic group or not. As indicated Waters (1990:62)
"Certain family structures and living arrangements may promote both the passage of
information about ethnic origin and the interest in socialization of children into a particular
ethnicity". Therefore, a hypothesis is developed on the relationship of these factors.
friendship socialization
II.4.2. Situational orientations
As the variable of situational orientations is inspired by "felt ethnicity", which is defined
as a transitory psychological state of individuals expressed in different ways and in different
situations by Stayman and Deshpande (1989), it is believed that who a person socialize in a
particular society is partly decided by situational factor. In theory, situational orientations in
ethnicity are discussed as strategic or symbolic manipulations [Stein & Hill, 1977; Gans, 1979;
Padilla, 1985]. The salience of ethnic self-awareness is under great impact of immediate social
situation, which then has effect on the strength of ethnic self-awareness [Forehand and
Deshpande, 2001]. Ethnic affiliation is influenced by situations [Sekhon and Szmigin, 2005].
The fact that an ethnic members socialize with friends of the same ethnic group convey
his/her ethnic self-awareness and ethnic affiliation. As a result, it is, to some extend, affected by

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situation factors. In case of favorable condition, the socialization with ethnic friends is
stimulated, and vice versa. Within this study, situational orientations include favorable
conditions for ethnicity development, therefore, it is hypothesized that ethnic friendship
socialization is positively and significantly influenced by situational factor.
H12: Situational orientation has positive and significant impact on ethnic friendship
socialization.
II.5. Interaction effects
The hypotheses of interaction effects are developed based on the researches of ethnicity,
and ethnic consumption behavior that incorporate the effect of such moderators as age, gender,
profession, and length of residence [Eagly, 1978; Olmedo & Padilla, 1978; Kim, 1978; Hurh &
Kim, 1984; Rose, 1985 Han, 1988; Ray, 1990; Triandis, 1994; Sodowsky et al., 1991; Alba &
Nee, 1997; Eric Fond & Wsevolod W. Isajiw, 2000; Song H.H. & Shin E.H, 2004; French et
al., 2006; Phinney and Ong, 2007; Hamlett J. et al., 2008]. The details of these moderators
have been presented in the above section. Meanwhile, eight hypotheses related to the effect of
moderator variables are formulated are the followings.
Table 19: Hypotheses on moderators’ effect
Influence of gender
HM1a Gender moderates the relations between ethnic identity and ethnic consumption
behavior
HM1b Gender moderates the relations between ethnic identity and ethnic food consumption.
Influence of age
HM2a Age moderates the influence of parental orientation towards integration in French
society on ethnic identity
HM2b The relationship between situational orientation and ethnic food consumption is
moderated by age.
Influence of profession
HM3a Profession moderates the relations between ethnic friendship orientation and ethnic
identity
HM3b The influence of ethnic friendship orientation on ethnic consumption behavior is
moderated by profession.
Influence of time of residence in France
HM4a The length of residence in France moderates the relation between parental orientation
towards ethnicity and ethnic identity
HM4b The length of residence in France moderates the relation between parental orientation
towards ethnicity and the socialization with ethnic friendship.

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Conclusion
Based on the theories and empirical researches on identity, culture, ethnicity, and ethnic
marketing, the conceptual model is developed with 7 latent variables, 28 manifest variables, and
4 moderator variables. Seven latent variables include parental orientation towards ethnicity,
parental orientation toward integration in French society, ethnic friendship orientation, out-
group orientation, situational orientation, ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior and
ethnic food consumption. Meanwhile, age, gender, profession and time of residence in France
are the four moderator variables.
With such complex model, twelve hypotheses are developed concerning the relationship
among the seven latent variables to find out influent factors of ethnic identity, ethnic
consumption behavior, and ethnic food consumption as well as the relationship among these
variables; and eight hypotheses deal with the interaction of four moderators on the relationship
of some main factors such as ethnic friend socialization, ethnic identity, ethnic consumption
behavior and ethnic food consumption.
These hypotheses are synthesized in the following table.
Table 20: Synthesis of hypothesis
Hypotheses
Factors influencing ethnic identity
H1 Parental orientation towards ethnicity has positive and significantly effect on ethnic
identity.
H2 Parental orientation towards integration in French society has negative and significant
effect on ethnic identity.
H3 Ethnic friendship orientation has positive and significant effect on ethnic identity.
H4 Out-group orientation has negative and significant effect on ethnic identity
H5 Situational orientation has positive and significant effect on ethnic identity
Factors influencing ethnic consumption behaviors
H6 Parental orientation towards ethnicity has positive and significant effect on ethnic
consumption behavior
H7 Ethnic friendship orientation is positively and significantly related to ethnic
H8 Ethnic identity has positive and significant effect on ethnic consumption behavior
Factors influencing ethnic food consumption
H9 Situational orientation has positive effect on ethnic food consumption
H10 Ethnic identity has positive and significant effect on ethnic food consumption

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Factors influencing ethnic friendship socialization
H12 Situational orientation has positive and significant impact on ethnic friendship
socialization.
Effects of moderator variables
behavior
moderated by age.
identity

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PART II
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

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Introduction
All the theoretical background, conceptual model and hypotheses presented in the
previous parts serve the purpose of being tested with data collected on ethnic population
residing in France. Within the part of experimental research, three crucial issues are discussed,
categorized in three chapters.
The first presents epistemology and methodology of the research. With epistemology, it
includes epistemology position and research design. With methodological approach, it
discussed the application of quantitative or qualitative approach, measuring instrument to
conduct the research and sampling approach. In addition, Churchill paradigm is discussed in
detal as methodology to develop and validate variables and construct while structural equation
modeling is chosen to verify the conceptual model and hypotheses.
The second section shows all the research results in terms of sample analysis, factor
analysis, and hypothesis validation. This concerns not only the global sample but also different
ethnic groups. Furthermore, this section alsor discusses research results and findings.

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CHAPTER 4
EPISTEMOLOGY AND
METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH

202
Introduction
This part is supposed to discuss the research epistemology and methodology, which
describe how knowledge is known and attained. These two terminologies are intimately related,
the former can be understood as the philosophy of knowledge while the second is concerned
with practice.
With epistemology, not only knowledge grounds, nature and origins are studied, but also
the limits of understanding are identified. In this section, three of the following questions need
to be answered: (1) What is knowledge?; (ii) How is knowledge acquired?; and (iii) How
should knowledge be tested and validated?.
In terms of methodology, it is means used to conduct a research that helps researchers to
answer two important questions:
(i) Which methodologies and methods are applied in the research?
(ii) Why these methodologies and methods are taken in use?
According to Evrard et al., there are several types of researches, which can be
exploratory, descriptive, analytic or predictive. These types of research can employ qualitative
or quantitative approach [Evrad et al., 2009]. Whichever types of researches and approaches,
the research must clarify those two questions above. In this chapter, several issues of
methodology are discussed, including epistemology position of the research, research design,
Churchill paradigm as methodology to develop and validates constructs and variable, and
structural equation modeling as methodology to verify conceptual model and hypotheses.

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I. Epistemological position and methodological approach
I.1. Epistemology
I.1.1. Positivism versus constructivism
Epistemology position of the research should be firstly mentioned since it is the
philosophy of knowledge, investigating the origin, nature, methods and limits of knowledge or
human understanding. It helps dealing with the interactions of knowledge with truth and belief
by using a set of rules to describe what reality is. Therefore epistemology is in fact the rules
that individuals use to inteprete their world [Hoffmann, 1981]. According to Piaget (1967),
it is an indispensable part closely associated to the steps of research and practice.
In management science, particular epistemology and methodology are taken in use.
David A. (2002) precised grounded theoretical knowledge in the management sciences by
refering and analyzing some important approaches via researches of several researchers, namely
Lewin (1951); Checkland (1984); Argyris, Putnam and Smith (1985); Hatchuel and Molet
(1986); Roy (1992), Hatchuel (1994); and Koenig (1997). It is recognized that in management
science, two kinds of epistemologies are often applied, constructionism and positivism.
The first epistemology, constructionism, exerts that knowledge is constructed internally,
rather being discovered externally. Furthermore, it is very complex since there is not "one true
knowledge" about things, as it is layered with meaning, and since each person can interpret the
reality by the own ways and based on their own knowing. That is why Watzlawick (1984),
VonGlasersfeld (1988), and Jonassen (1991) share the same opinion that the observer creates
reality by giving the meaning to what they observe while Dickerson & Zimmerman (1996)
support that all interpretations are equally valid as long as it is conditionned in particular
context.
It is important to mention that at first, the effect of social reality having impact on the
making sense of the world was excluded in constructivism [Held B.S., 1990], then social
constructionism have been developed incorporating the role of social and cultural factors in the
creation of meaning of individual. Owen (1992:386) then pinpoints that this epistemology
shows the claim and point of view of individuals under the influences of their living culture and
society. Cambell B. (1998) indicates three major components of constructivism: (i) individual
psychology versus public discipline; (ii) humans the creator versus nature the instructor; and
(iii) physical activity versus mental activity. The first involves individual and how knowledge is
constructed by individual. The second concernes whether knowledge is constructed by

204
intelligence of the knower or imposed by outside factors. The third discusses whether
knowledge is constructed by a combination of physical and mental activities [Campbell B.,
1998].
The second epistemology, positivism, views knowledge as a key goal of scientific
approach. However, this knowledge is objective, and value free, or neutral [Breen L. &
Darlaston-John D., 2008], merely attained through controlled study and management of facts,
which are proven logically and considered as true pieces of knowledge, regardless of politics,
morals, values, etc. The world must be seen as it really is, without any effect of biases and
beliefs. The holy grail of positivists is the identification of generalized laws of the universe
while its aims include (i) description, (ii) explanation, (iii) prediction; and (iv) control of
phenomena that we experience
The positivists believe in empiricism, which considers observation and measurement as
the core of scientific endeavor. As a result, experiment is the central research methodology of
positivistic research, attempting to discern natural laws through observation, direct
manipulation, and measurement, and through rational deduction.
This epistemology has been criticized in the sense that there is no neutral knowledge;
dualistic is inadequate since the thinking must be either “black” or “white” and ethnical aspect
of the research should be a focus. Despite these challenges, positivism is still dominant for
research.
In this study of ethnic identity and consumption in France, positivism is considered as
backbone of this research.
In addition, hypothetico-deductive approach is used to understand the world and thanks
to several variables, some are defined operationally, some are controlled and others are
manipulated [Patton, 2002]. Data then rely on and are validated by the replication of the
experiment and generalisability of the findings [Breen L. & Darlaston-John D., 2008]. This
deductive reasoning is also to postulate theories that we can test. Based on the result of
empirical study, it might be that the theory does not fit the fact well and need to be revised to
better predict reality.
I.1.2. Choice and justification of epistemology
The main objective of this research is making contribution to the paradigms of
identification of ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption. The

205
nature and expected constribution of the research help deciding its epistemology [Le Moigne,
1990; David, 2001]. Dealing with the research on ethnic identity and consumption, the research
involve some of the theories and grounded knowledge as the followings:
Theory of identity
Social identity theory: The social identity theory, developed by Henri Taifeil and
John C. Tuner, is discussed since it creates pivotal link between ethnic identity and social
identity. As indicated Rosenberge social identity refers to the identification of an individual
with "the groups, statuses, or categories to which a person is socially recognized as belonging",
for instance racial, ethnic or religious groups [Rosenberg, 1979: 9-15]. This implies not only the
role of individual within group, but also his/her sense of belonging, attribution and
internalization of shared expectations or traits associated with a specific group [White C.L.,
1989]. In addition to better understanding the identity, social identity theory is useful in
mastering the knowledge of behaviors and cognitions of particular ethnic group.
Theory of identity development: In addition to the theory of social identity,
which explains the self concept, membership, value and emotional significant attached to that
membership [Tajfel, 1981:255], theory of identity development is helpful in clarifying the
development process of ethnic identity. It involves the psychological study on ego identity
model by Erik Erikson (1968) as the foundation of this process, and empirical study of personal
identity by James Marcia (1980) with two identity development steps: exploration and
commitment. At the end, it comes up with a proposed process of Phinney J. S. and Ong A.D.
(2007) as the combination of the two above theoretical foundation.
Theory of culture: Theory on culture and its influences on ethnic identity and marketing
are presented as each ethnic group hold their own cultures, and differs each other according to
time and context. Within this, comprehensive studies on culture and value influences of
Professor Geert Hofstede are cited. It is necessary to note that cultural groups tends to preserve
key elements of their ancestral cultures, which are then expressed in their behavior and make
them different to other ethnic groups as well as the mainstream group. In addition, acculturation
is the key process that changes the behaviors of different ethnic consumers. This theory attemps
to clarify culture, subculture, counterculture and other related cultural focusing on minority
ethnic groups, as well as studies on ethnicity and consumption in the perspective of culture.
Ethnicity, ethnic identity and the marketing to ethnic groups: Together with the beyond
theories, the issue of ethnicity, ethnic identity and ethnic marketing are addressed for the
purpose of providing foundation knowledge for the study on ethnic identity and ethnic

206
consumption. Within the part of ethnicity and ethnic identity, not only the knowledge on these
two concepts are manifested, but also comparisons of ethnicity, community, race and tribe, as
well as ethnic identity, national identity and race identity are shown. In addition, comparisons
are made between ethnic marketing and community marketing, as well as between ethnic
marketing and tribal marketing to avoid confused understanding on ethnicity related issues.
I.1.3. Design of the research
Given the importance of research design as a structure of any scientific work, which
gives direction and systemizes the research, this section is supposed to discuss its functions, and
relevant research design for this study.
Research design is an important tool with regards to the planning, substantiation and
practical guidance of research procedures. For Thiétart (2007), it allows to identify logically
four main issues: (i) research questions or problematic; (ii) theoretical corpus; (iii) relevant data
to collect; and (iv) ways to analyze and interpret data.
De Vaus D.A. (2001) argued that research design is a" logical task, undertaken to
ensure that the evidence collected enables to answer questions or to test theories as
unambiguously as possible" [De Vaus D.A., 2001:16]. However, in research design, it is
necessary to identify type of evidence required to answer in a convincing manner, not simply
the one consistent with a particular theory or explanation. In other words, evidences obtained
should include not only the ones supporting our favorite theory, but also potentially disprove
our preferred explanations [De Vaus D.A., 2001].
Methodologically, the study follows hypothetico-deductive research process proposed
by Sekaran and Bougie (2011), including 8 steps in which the first five steps can be improvised
to better serve the identification of research problematic, theoretical corpus and field study. It
begins with observation, considered as first contact with the field in terms of topic, data to
better understand the problem of the research.
After that, it deals with the synthesis of theoretical knowledge and research concerning
the research topic in order to think of possible variables, hypothesis and propositions.
Then, the step of pretest allows to have second contact with the field, collecting
quantitative and qualitative for the purpose of purifying hypothesis and better set up
propositions.

207
After defining problematic for the research, developing conceptual model and variables
constituting hypothesis, the study is supposed to formulate hypothesis with relevant measures
(questionnaires) to test in the field study.
Third contact with the field is to collect data while using measures identified in the
above step.
Next, for data analysis, the study uses a set of mathematical tools and different
techniques to evaluate the quality of measures instrument as well as the prior hypothesis.
It then ends up with presentation of the results concluded from the step of data analysis.
This process can be drawn out through the following figure.
Figure 19: Hypothetico-deductive research process
Source: Synthesized from "Research Methods for Business: A skill Building Approach" [Sekaran and Bougie, 2011]
1.
Observation
2.
Literature review
3.
Pretest
4.
Problematic and
research questions
5.
Hypothesis
6.
Data collection
7.
Data analysis
8.
Interpretation of results
First contact with the field in terms of topic, data to better
understand the problem of the research
Synthesis of theoretical knowledge and research
concerning the research topic in order to think of possible
variables, hypothesis and propositions
Second contact with the field collecting quantitative
or/and qualitative for the purpose of purifying hypothesis
and better set up proposition
Define problematic for the research, develop conceptual
model and variables constituting hypothesis
Formulating hypothesis with relevant measures
(questionnaires) to test in the field study step
Third contact with the field to collect data while using
measures identified in the above step
Using a set of mathematic tools and different techniques
to evaluate the quality of measure instrument as well as
the prior hypothesis
Presentation of the results concluded from the step of
data analysis

208
This study follows hypothetico-deductive research process. It starts with observation to
identify the topic as ethnic population in France, including foreigners30
and immigrants31
, their
identity, their consumption behavior in general and their consumption behavior in terms of
food. This leads to the choice of research in ethnic identity, socialization factors and theirs
impacts on ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption. Problems of the
research are also defined at this stage.
Once the topic and research problems are identified, theories and researchs on this topic
are studied. In terms of theories, they concerns theories on identity, on culture, and on the
marketing for ethnic population. In terms of researches, they include research on ethnic identity
formation, on cross-culture, on consumption behavior of ethnic groups. Based on the fruits of
theoretical background, a conceptual model is developed with the correlations of variables, and
constructs. Also, several hypotheses are established and a questionnaire is set up for the purpose
of getting enough information to measure variables, and constructs.
However, in order to better variables, purify hypothesis and clarify the conceptual
model, second contact with the field are conducted, including two pretests.
For the first pretest, it deals with practical experts and professors on ethnic related
issues, for example ethnic marketing, ethnic population, ethnic consumption, ethnic food, ethnic
researches… to get their comments, their reactions, and their advices.
For quantitative pretest, the questionnaire, which has been designed at the previous test
is conducted on ethnic people living in France for the purpose of (i) testing an online
questionnaire and choosing effective and appropriate tool to launch a web survey; (ii) finding
the reflexion of respondant on research topic; (iii) collecting quantitative data to test variables,
models, hypotheses, as well as to test software for data analysis. Several interesting comments
and advice from experts are collected; fifty anwers are counted in quantitative test. Thanks to
this step, research problems are clarified, conceptual models and variables are modified,
hypotheis with relevant measures are purified, and relevant web-survey tool is chosen. All of
these works serve the objective of a better data collection in the next stage.
The rest of the work is data analysis and interpretation. This is done with the help of two
statistic software packages, including structural equation modelling and path analysis resources
30
Foreigners are those residing in France without French nationality. They can be born either oversea or in France,
but do not have French nationality.
31
Immigrants are defined as those born over sea but living in France. This includes French by acquisition, and
foreigners born outside France.

209
of Smart Partial Least Square (Smart PLS 2.0 M3) and statistical product and service solutions
(SPSS version 21)
I.2. Methodological approach
This section is supposed to present in detail methodological approach and the choice for
this research. It deals with the use of quantitative approach, online questionnaire and targeted
sample to collect data.
I.2.1. Quantitative versus qualitative approach
There are two main methods for investigation: quantitative and qualitative. Both types
of research are useful and valid and it is totally possible for a single investigation to use both
methods [Best & Khan, 1989:89-90]. Firstly, dealing with quantitative approach, it concernes
with the collection and analysis of data in numeric form. It can be used for a large-scale of data
set. John W. Creswell (2003) defined “Quantitative approach is one in which the investigatory
primarily uses postpositive claims for developing knowledge (i.e. cause and effect thinking,
reduction to specific variables and hypotheses ard questions, use of measurement and
observation, and the test of theories), employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and
survey, and collect data on predetermined instrument that yield statistic data”. Therefore,
quantitative research has positivist features when it tries to link variables, test theories or
hypotheses, make predictions, isolate or predetermine categories before starting research, and
identify the relationship between these categories.
On the other hand, qualitative approach is the application of data collection in as many
forms as possible without the use of numeric data. It tends to focus on exploring and analyzing
much in detail, with smaller sample (compared to quantitative research) which the researcher
find more interesting or immuminating. It values and relies much on participants’ words. With
this approach, categories are isolated and defined during research process, not before
conducting the research like quantitative approach. Furthermore, significant phenonmena are
supposed to be interpreted historically or culturally. In general, this approach aims to achieve
the depth rather than the breadth [Blaxer et al., 1996:61]. Therefore, it is usually more open and
responsive to its subject, but harder and more time-consuming than quantitative one.
“Alternatively, a qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer often makes knowledge
claims based primarily on constructivist perspectives (i.e., the mulplle meanings of individuals
experiences meanings socially and historically constructed, with an intent of developing a
theory or pattern) or advocacy/participatory perspectives (i.e., political, issue-oriented,

210
collaborative, or change oriented) or bot. It also sues strategies of inquiry such as narratives,
phenonmenologies, ethnographies, grounded theory studies, or case studies. The researcher
collects open-ended, emerging data with the primary intent of developing thems from the data”
[John W. Creswell, 2003]. A table resuming the strength and limitations of these two
approaches can be shown as the follows.
Table 21: Main strengths and limitations of qualitative and quantitative approaches
Quantitative approach Qualitative approach
Strength - Precision through quantitative and
reliable measurement
- Control through sampling and design
- Ability to produce causality
statements through the use of controlled
experiments
- Statistical techniques allow for
sophisticated analyses
- Replicable
- Have an insider’s view of the field
thanks to close involvement of the
researcher and therefore help find
issues that are often missed
- Suggest possible relationships,
causes, effects and dynamic processes
- Have new insight of knowledge
thanks to descriptive and narrative
style
Limitation - Difficult to control all variables
because of complexity of human
experience
- It can lead to the assumption that facts
are true and the same for all people at
all time
- Not totally objective because research
problems and results interpretation are
subjectively chosen by the researcher
- Problem of adequate validity and
reliability
- Imppossible to replicate and
generalize
- Time consuming in terms of data
collection, analysis and interpretation
- Problem with anonymity and
confidentiality when presenting
findings
Source: Adapted from Burns, (2000:9-14)
In terms of mixed method, the data collection is conducted either in simultaneous or
sequential manners. Collected data involves not only numeric information but also text
information. Hence, database represents both quantitative and qualitative information. With this
kind of approach, knowledge claims are based on pragmatic grounds, such as consequence-
oriented, problem-centered and pluralistic [John W. Creswell, 2003].
Taking into account of all the strength and limitations of quantitative and qualitative
approaches, as well as the knowledge on mixed method, quantitative approach is chosen to
conduct this research. The reason for this choice is that it allows measuring and describing
opinion and behavior of the respondents as well as produce causality statements by testing
model with the correlations among variables and by verifying hypotheses thanks to statistical
techniques. Furthermore, it helps illustrating theories by creating correlation among variables. It
is much easy to confirm the validity and reliability of the variables, of data collected, and of the
research. The result of the research can be then replicated in other context and period of time.

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I.2.2. Measuring instrument- Online questionnaire
Questionnaire is usually used to collect quantitative data. It can be done by post, by
telephone, on Internet or by face to face. Which ever the questionnaire is, the researcher must
take into consideration type or means to conduct it as this influences cost, time, quality, number
of responses, as well as the risk of biais, etc. [Tse, 1998; Evrard et al., 2000]. In this research,
Internet is taken in use. The simple reason is that it can optimize all the factors concerning the
cost, the time, the quality, the number of responses and reducing the risk of biais [Edmonson,
1997; Couper, 2000, Szymanski and Henard, 2001; De Meeuw, 2005], as well as allowing
better interaction with the respondents and following real time of response [Ganassali S.and
Moscarola J., 2009].
Galan and Vernette (2000), and Gueguen and Yami (2007) precised two types of
Internet investigation, static and dynamic methods. The first uses electronic mail, email in other
words, to diffuse the questionnaire. In fact, the questionnaire is inserted in the email text or in
attached file. Although this way of diffusion is simple, it implies many weaknesses. Kittleson
(1995) pinpoints that email questionnaire has the risk of being deleted because it does not
attract potential respondents’atttention or because of anonymity problem. Furtheremore, it may
not reach the respondents because of being blocked by antivirus softwares or in case of full
inbox. It can lead to a very hard work in managing responses received, extracting information
and entering data for statistical purpose.
The second- dynamic method- uses Internet to diffuse the questionnaire. However, the
questionnaire is posted on a server, and then its address of uniform resource locator (URL) is
sent to targeted respondent by several ways, either by email, social network, website, etc. The
respondents can open the questionnaire by using such web navigators as Internet Explorer,
Firefox, Google Chrome. Result is finally sent to questionnaire manager electronically and
automatically [Alvarez & Van Beselaeree, 2003]. This kind of web survey is very interactive
and rich [Stanton, 1998]. This kind of method allows collecting data on a high number of
persons within short time and at low cost. In addition, it facilitates the management of collected
data as all the responses are saved on the server and can be extracted easily to feed several types
of statistic software. Analyzing different ways to conduct Internet survey, dynamic method is
chosen for its convenience.
In terms of website to base the questionnaire, Lime Survey and Google Survey is taken
into consideration. The questionnaire has been put on these two websites to see the difference.
As for Lime Survey, although this tool helps survey manager much in stocking the data,
extracting the data, and some raw analysis of data, it is found that the appearance of the

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questionnaire is not so attracting to the respondents. If desiring to make it more attracting, for
instance with themes, it is necessary to spend money. In addition, it takes much more time to
master tools and to post questionnaire online with Lime Survey compared to Good Survey.
With Google Survey, it is much easy for survey manager to create an online questionnaire.
Moreover, there are many themes to make questionnaire more beautiful, more attracting and for
free. It also helps saving and extracting the data, as well as providing graphic analysis of the
data. As a result, Google Survey has been chosen to locate the questionnaire.
In terms of the processus to collect the data from web survey, this research applies the
one proposed by Gueguen and Yami (2007) as described in the figure below. The website
address of the questionnaire, in other words the link of the questionnaire, is sent to the targeted
respondents by several types, either by mail, email- including the sending one by one, or to
mailing list- or by embedding its link on forums of targeted audience, or other kinds of social
network. With Internet connection, the respondents can open the questionnaire, and answer it
online at any time suitable for them. In case of interruption, they can save what they have
anwered to fill in the questionnaire later. What is more, to avoid uncompleted answers that can
lead to missing data in statistic software, only completed answers are saved in the database.
Last but not least, it is necessary to mention that, to facilate different ethnic communities in
France in answering the questionnaire, the questionnaire is avaible both in English and in
French.
Figure 20: Processus of web-based questionnaire diffusion
Source: Adapted from Gueguen and Yamo (2007)
I.2.3. Sampling approach
The importance of sampling techniques should be stressed so as to choose appropriate
samples for this study. Sampling methods could be classified into two types. The first is
probability sampling in which each member of the population has a known zero probability of
being selected, or the same probability of being chosen, and to some extend involve random
selection. The advantage of this method is that the exact possibility of selecting each member of
Website basing the questionnaire
Answer online and validing the anwer
Receiving anwers in letter box or in database
Invitation to answer the
questionnaire
- By private mail/email
- By mailing list
- By invitation posted on
social network or
websites…

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the population is known, and the sampling errors (degree to which a sample might different
from the population) can be calculated. The second is non-probability sampling method in
which members are selected from the population in non-random manner. Different to
probability sampling, with this method, chance of being included in the sample is not known
and the degree to which the sample differs from the population also remains unknown.
However, non-probability samples tend to be less complicated and less time consuming than
probability samples. There are many types of probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. Some of the common methods are discussed as the follows.
With probability sampling, they include:
(i) Simple random sampling: Random sample from whole population. This is the purest
form of probability sampling, choosing representatives randomly so that they all have the same
possibility of being to the sample. It is best used when the whole population is available. Hence,
the disadvantage is that it is impossible to be taken in use without the participation of the whole
population members, and potentially uneconomical to achieve.
(ii) Stratified random sampling: Random sample from identifiable groups and
subgroups. It is necessary to split the population into categories by identifying the relevant
stratums (a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic) and the
actual representations in the population first, then use random sampling to select a sufficient
number of subjects from each stratum so that sample size is large enough to represent the
population. It is in fact random method within target group. It is ideal to apply this method
when there are specific sub-groups to investigate such as demographic groupings. This method
possibly ensures the representation of specific groups, even proportionally. In addition, more
precise information inside the subpopulations about the variables studied could be got and the
precision of the estimators of the variables of the whole population could be raised. Yet, this
method is more complex and need more effort required than simple random since it may be
difficult in some population to divide into strata.
(iii) Cluster sampling: It is in fact all-in-limited-groups method. In this selection,
population is divided into units or groups, called strata, which should be as representative as
possible for the population. It is usually used when population groups are separated and it is
difficult to access them all, like the case in distant cities. This kind of sampling is similar to
stratified sampling because the population to be sample is subdivided into mutually exclusive
groups, however, in cluster sampling; the groups are defined so as to maintain the heterogeneity
of the population. The advantage is that it simplifies the collecting of the sample information,

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but if the clusters are not homogeneous, the final sample may not be representative of the
population.
If all the elements/members of the cluster are sample, the sampling procedure is defined
as one-stage cluster sampling. In case a random sample of the elements of each selected cluster
is drawn, it means two-stage cluster sampling is applied. This two-stage cluster sampling is a
particular case of cluster sampling in which clusters in the first stage are primary units but only
considered as secondary units in the second stage. In addition, not all the elements of the cluster
are chosen in the second stage. Cluster sampling is commonly implemented as multistage
sampling.
(iv) Systematic sampling: Selecting a specified number of records from a computer life.
It is a form of one-stage cluster sampling, but equivalent to random sampling in case the
elements are numbered in a random way. In this method, every nth member is selected after
randomly selecting the first through nth elements as the starting point. It could be best used
when a stream of representative people are available, for instance in the street. Its advantages
include the possibility to extend the samples to all the population and the easiness to apply.
However, it may increase the variance in case of periodicity in the numbering of the elements,
appearing a bias due to selection, as well as there might be problems when estimating the
variance.
(v) Matched random sampling: population is divided into pairs based on a criterion and
then randomly assigned to groups
(vi) Panel sampling: selecting a group of participants using random sampling method,
then asking them the same information repeatedly over a period of time. Data collection of each
period represents a "wave", used for comparison objective, for example weekly food
expenditures, health changes over periods, etc. Different to matched random sampling, it
applies the same test over time to randomly selected groups
In terms of non-probability sampling, some of the popular methods can be listed here.
(i) Convenience sampling: selecting samples or respondents at the convenience of the
researcher. It is used in exploratory research to get a gross estimate of the results without
incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample. This can be known as grab,
volunteer, accidental or opportunity sampling. It is an inexpensive way of ensuring sufficient
numbers of a study but can be highly unrepresentative.
(ii) Judgmental sampling/purposive sampling: selecting the sample based on judgment
or opinion of an expert, a common non-probability method, can be understood as an extension

215
of convenience sampling. Due to judgment sample, results obtained are subject to some degree
of bias since the population and the list of all units, items or people that define the population to
be studied are not identical.
(iii) Quota sampling: identifying the stratums and their proportions as they are
represented in the population, then selecting the required number of subjects from each stratum
thanks to convenience or judgment sampling. It is equivalent to stratified sampling, but differs
in the sense that the stratums are filled by random sampling. Proportionate quota sampling
could be applied in case the population distribution across groups is known and when normal
sampling may not give enough in minority groups. However, non-proportionate quota sampling
could be used in case there is likely a wide variation in the studied characteristic within
minority groups. It is in fact the choice of minimum number from each sub-group. The
advantage is this sampling is that it ensures the selection of adequate numbers of subjects with
appropriate characteristics. Nevertheless, it is impossible to prove that the sample is
representative of designated population.
(iv) Snowball sampling: relying on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional
subjects. It is used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It is, therefore, possible to
include members of groups where no list or identifiable cluster even exist, and it helps reduce
search costs. However, it also reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross
section from the population in case of bias.
In addition, no-rule sampling can be taken in use in case the population is homogeneous
and there is no selection bias.
In short, sampling is a powerful tool to measure opinions and characteristics of a
population in accurate manner. Each of sampling methods has two sides, advantages and
disadvantages. However, it helps interpreting the results of the research correctly. For instance,
with probability samples, it is encouraged to calculate statistics indicating the precision of the
data whereas it is not the case with non-probability samples. Furthermore, it is impossible to
generalize the results to a larger population even when non-probability sampling techniques can
provide valuable information.
Acknowledging the characteristics of the above sampling methods, this study applies
convenience sampling method. Accordingly, the research it tries to approach relevant people of
different ethnicities in France. As its empirical study is conducted in France, the study involves
only populations of immigrants and foreigners originated from countries other than France. The

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purpose is to analyze the link between their ethnicity of origin and their consumption behavior as
well as their ethnic food consumption.
However, due to the diversity of ethnicities in France, the study puts its focus on such
main ethnic groups in France as those coming from Northern Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, and
Middle East, Eastern Asian, Middle Asian, Caribbean countries and Latin Amercia. This ethnic
population represents approximately 25% of the total population in France. This is based on the
statistic data of immigrants and foreigners provided by the French National Institute of Statistics
and Economic Studies as illustrated in the below table. The other groups such as population from
other European countries, Occidental America and Ocean countries are not the concern of this
study because members of this groups share the same occidental culture and may not have much
distinguished and unique characteristics, compared to the mainstream population.
Hence, several forums and mailing lists for such ethnic communities are chosen to launch
the questionnaire. Thirdly, it involves different types of ethnic people in terms of gender, age,
profession, and duration of time living in France. Therefore, forums and mailing lists selected
include those for the new comers, populations that have long time lived in France, those of
different genders, ages and professions. Last but not least, for the reason of best saving the cost
and time, online survey is applied. Accordingly, appropriate forums and mailing lists for
different ethnic communities are taken advantages to approach respondents.
Table 22: Origin of foreigners and immigrants in France
Origin of foreigners and immigrants in France Population In percentage
Other European countries 1 483 965 39.35%
Northern Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya,
Egypt, Sudan)
1 079 566 28.63%
Sub-Saharan Africa 454 814 12.06%
Middle east (Turkey, Gulf countries, Georgia, Israel,
Jordan, Palestinian territories, Occupied Palestinian
Territory, Syria, Yemen,...)
260 750 6.91%
Middle Asian (Indians, Srilanka, Pakistan,...) 65 994 1.75%
Eastern Asian (China, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Indonesia,
Philippin, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, …)
193 665 5.14%
Caribean countries (Martinique, Guadelop, Reunion,
Haiti, Cuba…)
108 281 2.87%
Occidental America (America, Canada) 44 579 1.18%
Latin America 74 191 1.97%
Ocean countries (Australia, NewZealand and others) 5 335 0.14%
Total 3 771 141 100%
Source: Calculated from data of INSEE, recensement 2009, principal exploitation

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II. Churchill paradigm- Methodology to develop and validate variables and constructs
This section is supposed to discuss methodology to develop and validate variables and
constructs of the research. Firstly, Churchill paradigm is presented as suggested procedure for
developing better measures, which includes definition of conceptual domain, exploratory and
confirmatory phases. Secondly, procedure applied to develop and validate variables and
constructs in this research is elaborated in detail, step by step.
II.1. Presentation of Churchill paradigm
To elaborate measuring items for constructs developed in the conceptual model, this
research applies a methodology proposed by Churchill (1979), which is known as Churchill
paradigm. This paradigm allows integrating theoretical background in measuring items of
construct, and technical approach in order to systematically develop multi-items measuring a
factor. It is much recommended in marketing research and is taken in use by several marketing
researchers [Igalens & Roussel, 1998; Bearden O.W & Netermeyer.R.G.., 1999; Evrard et al.,
2000]. Due to the fact that this research is in marketing, and multi- items are used to measure
constructs in the model conceptual, Churchill paradigm is an appropriate choice.
This paradigm includes eight steps, but can be categorized into three phases.
The first involves the definition of conceptual domain or topic.
Once this definition is clear, exploratory phase follows with the management of the
entire items used to measure constructs, and purification of measuring items based on
the first data collection. The analysis of Cronbach’s Alpha and confirmatory factorial
analysis are taken in use to do this.
Then it passes to the third phase, which is the phase of validation, of confirmation in
terms of Cronbach’s Alpha, reliability, construct validity, internal coherence,
correlation with other constructs, score distribution, etc.
However, there are interactions among the definition of initial construct, result of data
collection, and analysis of measuring items, meaning it is always possible to come back to
previous phase for the purpose of confirmation and purification [Rossiter, 2002].
The creation and purification of measuring items and measuring tools proposed in
Churchill paradigm was then enriched by several researchers, especially Gerbing and Anderson
(1988), Roehrich (1993) and Evrad et al (2000). With Gerbing and Anderson (1988), a two step
approach is recommended for structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and
development. The two steps are exploratory and confirmatory analyses that allow tests of the

218
significance for all parttern coefficients and assessment of model fit. This will be further
discussed in the next section as it is the methodlogy used to test and validate hypotheses. With
Roehrich (1993) and Evrad et al (2000), reliability and validity of constructs are suggested as
basic criteria ensuring the quality of measuring instrument. While reliability shows the
confidence placed on the measuring instrument that should give the same numeric value when
being repeated on the same object, validity refers to the appropriateness of the measuring
instrument, which measures the property it is supposed to measure. Roehrich (1993) use these
criteria to propose measuring errors. Evrard et al. (2000) summarise that the measure obtained
is equal to the true numeric value together with random errors and systematic errors.
M = V + SE + RE
Obtained measure = True value + Systematic error + Random error
Then, it is seen that Churchill paradigm respects theory on measure proposed by Roerich
(1993) as eight steps elaborating measuring items allows reducing measuring errors. With the
exploratory phase, it helps reducing the random errors that may result from the exposure of the
measuring items such as unforeseen circumstances, respondents’humor [Evrad et al., 2000].
With the validity phase, it helps strengthening the work done is previous phase, reducing
random errors and at the same time reducing systematic errors that may result from an
irrelevant or inappropriate definition of conceptual variables or even the misrepresentation of
measuring items [Roussel, 2005]. In addition, with the flow of eight steps, and the possibility to
come back to previous steps or phases, it helps lowering overall errors that may exist in the
system. Churchill’s paradigm with eight steps is figured as the followings.

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Figure 21: Churchill paradigm- Suggested procedure for developing better measures
II.2. Procedure to valid variables and constructs
With this subsection, procedures of eight steps, employed from Churchill paradigm is
discussed, but classified into three phases: definition of conceptual domain of construct,
exploratory and confirmatory phases.
1. Specify domain of
construct
2. Generate sample
of items
3. Collect data
4. Purify measure
5. Collect data
6. Assess reliability
7. Assess validity
8. Develop norms
Recommended coefficients or
techniques
Literature search
Literature search
Experience survey
Insight stimulating examples
Critical incidents
Focus groups
Coefficient alpha
Factor analysis
Coefficient alpha
Split-half reliability
Multitrait-multimethod matrix
Criterion validity
Average and other statistics
summarizing distribution of scores
Confirmatory/validationphaseExploratoryphase
Definitionof
conceptual
domain

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II.2.1. Definition of conceptual domain of construct
Definition of the domain of construct is the first step in developing measures. As guided
Churchill (1979) “The researcher must be exacting in delineating what is included in the
definition and what is excluded” by consulting the litarature. In case of additing new measures,
“researchers should have good reasons for proposing additional new measures given the many
available for most marketing constructs of interest, and those publishing should be required to
supply their rationale”.
The domain of the construct in this research is specified as ethnic identity, ethnic
consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption and influent factors. Based on literature
review, it is found that these factors get three types of impacts, one from in-group for instance
influence of parents and friends of same ethnic group; the other from out-group such as friends
of other ethnic groups, and the last from situation or living environment.
II.2.2. Exploratory phase
Generate sample of items
Generating sample of items is the very productive step in exploratory research. In this
second step of the procedure for developing better measure, Selltiz et al. (1976) points out that
literature searches, experience surveys and insight stimulating examples can be employed. In
this research, literature review on ethnicity, ethnic identities, ethnic consumption behavior, and
ethnic food consumption helps setting up sample of items.
After that, an experience survey is conducted. According to Churchill (1979), this
experience survey is “a judgment sample of persons who can offer some ideas and insight into
the phenonmenon”. It is applied in the research as a pretest to get experience and advice from
experts and practitioners in ethnic marketing in France for the final purpose of (i) specifying
factors determining the establishment of ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior in
general, and ethnic food consumption in particular, as well as the influences of these three
factors; (ii) comparing these factors and measuring items with the theories; and (iii) modifying
and adapting measuring items in the situation of French society.
The experience survey involves exchanges and discussion with (i) outsiders who have a
special expertise in ethnic marketing such as professors and researchers; (ii) persons in
marketing research or advertising; (iii) sale representatives; (iv) cashiers at supermakets; and
(v) consumers. This is done either face to face, or by the exchange through emails and

221
telephone. From the exchange and discussion with these participants, the list of measuring
items is edited, refined and complemented, tapping each dimension of the constructs and
waiting for data collection test in the third step.
Thanks to this step, some principal issues are tackled as the following:
A short and clear objective of the research and some terminologies are edited and
added to facilitate the understanding of respondents when taking part in the
questionnaire
Clearer guidance before each question is provided
Measuring items are edited and refined
At first, all questions are five- scale- likert-question, allowing respondents giving
their answers based either their agreement (from totally disagree to totally agree), or
frequency (from never to always). However, as the topic also touches their feeling
and attitude, some questions are modified with the five scales from “It's totally not
me” to “It's exactly me”.
The following table provides a list of persons, aging from 25 to 70, participating in the
experience survey.

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Table 23: Profile of persons taking part in experience survey
No
Gender Function Expertise domain
1 Female Marketing consultant Ethnic marketing, multicultural and
diversity marketing, cross-cultural
management, innovation and
creativity on international projects
2 Female Maître de Conférence at Paris Est
Marne-la Vallée university
Management science, marketing
strategy, researcher in “Ethnos”
3 Female Responsible for marketing mission in
gastronomy distribution
Food marketing
4 Male Professor at Nice Sophia Antipolis
universiy
Management science, marketing and
strategy
5 Male - Professor at Paris 1 Panthéon
Sorbonne university
- CNRS research director
- Research group in law, economics
and management, Sophia Antipolis
- Founding member and President of
the Association of Vietnamese
Scientists and Experts
Macro-economic modeling,
development and growth, arbitrage
and equilibrium, community
activities
6 Male -Professor at IPAG Business School
- Associate Researcher at Centre
d’Economie de la Sorbonne,
University paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne
- President of the Association of
Vietnamese Scientists and Experts
Emerging markets finance, energy
finance, volatility modeling, risk
management in international capital
markets, community activities
7 Male Researcher, associate professor Information system , marketing
8 Male PhD student at Telecom Ecole de
Management
Ethnic marketing
9 Female PhD student at Telecom Ecole de
Management
Brand marketing
10 Male PhD student at Evry University Management science
11 Male PhD student at Evry University Management science
12 Female Cashier at Francprix supermarket Sale and distribution
13 Female Cashier at Tangfrère supermarket Sale and distribution
14 Female Cashier at Carrefour supermarket Sale and distribution
15 Female Cashier at Monoprix supermaker Sale and distribution
16 Female Cashier at Dia supermaket Sale and distribution
17 Female Sale representative at Thanh Binh
jeune supermarket
Sale and distribution
18 Female Owner of restaurant in Paris 13 Food sale and distribution
19 Female Retired Consumer
20 Male Construction engineer at Alto Group Consumer
21 Male Informatic researcher at Telecom
ParisTech
Consumer
22 Female Financial enterprise performance
analysis at BNP bank
Consumer
23 Male Informatic engineer at Versaille
University
Consumer
24 Female Project management officer at Atos Consumer
25 Male Student at Sud Telecom Consumer

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Collect data
Data collection at this step serves the purpose of purifying the measure. It can be
conducted either in quality or quantitative manner, depending on the choice of researchers.
However, with this research, a quantitative online pretest with fifty ethnic consumers is taken in
use. In addition to the main objective, this data collection also help testing the interface of
online questionnaire, correctness of terminology in use, quality of survey tool in terms of
clearness to present the questions and easiness for respondent to give answer and for managing
the results. Not only filling in the questionnaire, many respondents also send their feedbacks to
better the administration of this online survey.
Purify the measure
The purification of the measure is done thanks to the test of reliability, factor analysis
and interation. According to Nunally (1967), the square root of coefficient alpha is the
“estimated correlation of the k-item test with errorless true scores”. High coefficient alpha
indicates the sample of items performs well with the construct and correlates well with true
scores, and vice versa. Also, low alpha shows that some items measuring the same construct do
not share equally in the common score and should be deleted. That is why for Churchill it
“absolutely should be the first measure one calculates to assess the quality of the instrument”
[Churchill, 1979].
However, reliability of coefficient alpha is not enough, it must be associated with factor
analysis to confirm whether the number of dimensions conceptualized can be verified
empirically [Churchill, 1979]. In fact, both of these two methods should be used to obtain a
satisfactory coefficient. In addition, iteration is necessary during the analysis of reliability and
factor until satisfactory coefficients are achieved.
The fourth step of measure purification is helpful for this research in restructuring and
purifying items and constructs. For example, at first, the research attempts to measure the
construct of parental orientation with six items, however, after testing reliability and analyzing
factor, it is suggested that this construct should be splitted into two constructs; one measures the
parental orientation towards ethnicity attachement while the other measures the parental
orientation towards the integration in French society. By this way, both factors have satisfactory
coefficients. The list of constructs purified and measuring items retained can be presented in the
below table

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Table 24: Constructs and measuring items purified and retained after the pretest
Construct
Coded item
Ethnic Identity (EI) Likert scale
(EI1-EI3: Not me at all-> Totally me
EI4-EI5: Totally disagree- Totally agree)
EI Definition: Measuring ethnicity, identity, and acculturation level
Theoretical justification: Phinney J.S. (1992)
EI1 I have spent time trying to find out more
about my own ethnic group, such as its
history, traditions, and customs.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EI2 I have a strong sense of belonging to my own
ethnic group and understanding its meanings
in my life.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EI3 I am proud of my cultural or ethnic
background and happy to be a member of the
group I belong to.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EI4 I actively participate in cultural practices of
organizations or social groups that include
mostly members of my own ethnic group.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EI5 I often talk to other people about my ethnic
group, or invite my friends to participate in
cultural practices of my group, such as special
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
Parental Orientation towards Ethnicity
(POE)
Likert scale
(Never-Always)
POE Definition: Measuring the perception of belonging to an ethnic group that
individuals inherit from their parents
Theoretical justification: Jing Xu et al (2004), Jun et al. (1993)
POE1 Participated in ethnic group activities. 1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
POE2 Talked to me about our cultural background. 1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
POE3 Wanted to be recognized with our ethnic
origin in public.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
Parental Orientations towards Integration
in French society (POI)
Likert scale
(Never-Always)
POI Definition: Measuring the level of integration in host culture that individuals
inherit from their parents
Theoretical justification: Jing Xu et al (2004), Jun et al. (1993)
POI1 Enjoyed French culture and entertainment
such as watching French television programs,
listening to French radio and music, or
reading French newspapers/magazines
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
POI2 Socialized with their Caucasian-French
friends
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
POI3 Spoke French at home. 1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□

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Ethnic Friendship Orientations (EFO) Likert scale
(Not me at all-> Totally me)
EFO Measuring the perception of belonging to an ethnic group and the level of
attitude and behavior that individuals are influenced by their in-group ethnic
friends
Theoretical justification: Jing Xu et al (2004)
EFO1 Most of my friends are from my ethnic group. 1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EFO2 I see more commonalties between me and
friends from my own ethnic group, rather than
friends from other ethnic groups.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EFO3 I prefer to hang out with friends from my own
ethnic group rather than friends from other
ethnic groups on social occasions.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
Other Group Orientations (OGO) Likert scale
(Not me at all-> Totally me)
OGO Definition: Measuring the attitude of an ethnic group member toward other
groups and their participation in out-group activities
Theoretical justification: Phinney J.S. (1992)
OGO1 I like meeting, and getting to know people
from other ethnic groups, as well as their
culture and custom.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
OGO2 I often spend time with people from other
ethnic groups, involve in activities and enjoy
being around them.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
OGO3 I often encourage my family and friends to
engage in cultural practices of other ethnic
group, such as their special food, music and
customs.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
Situational Orientation (SO) Likert scale
(Totally disagree- Totally agree)
SO Definition: Measuring the strength of favorable situations’ influence on
ethnicityand ethnic food consumption
Theoretical justification: Jing Xu et al (2004)
SO1 The stereotypes and/or regulations in this
society do not make me hesitate to involve in
ethnic concerning activities.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
SO2 I enjoy ethnic related activities with friends of
my own ethnic group
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
SO3 Ethnic products and services are available in
my living place.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
Ethnic consumption behavior (ECB) Likert scale
(Never-Always)
ECB Definition: Measuring the ethnic consumption behavior
Theoretical justification: Phinney J.S. (1992), Jing Xu et al (2004)
ECB1 I watch ethnic movies or movies that portrait
my ethnic culture in my language or with
French subtitle, and/or listen to my ethnic
music or music that is closely related to my
ethnic origin, and/or listen to radio in my
language, and/or read newspaper in my
language
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□

226
ECB2 I eat my ethnic food or food with similar
origins.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
ECB3 I attend my ethnic cultural performances,
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
Ethnic food consumption (EFC) Likert scale
(EFC1a-EFC2b: Never- Always
EFC3-EFC5: Not me at all-> Totally me)
EFC Definition: Measuring food consumption of ethnic members
Theoretical justification: Mich Clauda C. & Keillor B.D. (2011)
EFC1a I eat out/order ethnic food. 1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EFC1b I eat homemade food self processed and
cooked in traditionally ethnic style.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EFC1c I buy prepared ethnic food, then cook at home 1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EFC2a I consume only food products originated from
my place of origin.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EFC2b I consume any food products regardless their
places of origins
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EFC3 I spend most of my food budget for my own
ethnic food.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EFC4 I prefer special services, either shops/
supermarkets specifically serving my ethnic
group/community, or the service providers
from my ethnic groups, or the people working
in shops/supermarkets/restaurants can speak
my native language, or the products are
labeled in my ethnic language.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
EFC5 I like to go to shops/ supermarkets/
restaurants near my living place.
1□ 2□ 3□ 4□ 5□
II.2.3. Confirmatory phase
Collect data
Data collection at confirmatory phase is now done with such criteria as “clear” and
“clean”. This means that for respondents, questionnaire is comprehensive and easy to answer.
For questionnaire manager, it is systematic, logical, and easy to manage and extract the data
serving later stage of processing. At this fifth step of bettering measure, the survey receives
answers from 450 ethnic individuals through out France. These numbers is rather good for the
assessment of reliability and construct validity of new data in the next steps.
Assess reliability with new data
Now that new data are collected, coefficient alpha is then tested for determining the
reliability of a measure based on internal consistency or internal homogeneous. This is the basic
statistic test of reliability. Cronbach’s alpha should be above “0.60” for exploratory research

227
and above “0.70” for confirmatory research [Nunnally, 1967; Nunnally, 1978; Peter, 1979].
This research required all Cronbach’s Alpha higher than “0.70”.
In addition to Cronbach’s alpha, the coefficient of rhô de Jöreskog is also a good
indicator used to test internal consistency. It is also known as composite reliability. The
reliability of the construct is considered good if the value of this coefficient is greater than
“0.70” [Fornell & Larker, 1981; Evrard et al., 2000; Roussel et al., 2002].
Within this research, this sixth step of better measure development, both coefficients of
Cronbach’s alpha and rhô de Jöreskog are employed to assess reliability with new data on 450
samples.
Assess construct validity
Within the seventh step, it is necessary to mention other kinds of validity together with
construct validity, including content validity and criterion validty.
In terms of content validity, as implied Churchill (1979), in case of appropriate sample
and “right looking” items, the content validity of the measure is confirmed. Since the sampling
of items is the major source of error within a test, content validity is useful in lowering the error
in terms of appearance and content. Once the overall measuring items is developed, the
sampling of items are sent to ethnic marketing experts and practitioners to deal with different
aspects that it is supposed to measure. The content validity of the sampling of items is then
confirmed.
In terms of construct validity, as the consistency is necessary but insufficient to
construct validity [Nunnally, 1967:92], other aspect should be specified, including the extend to
which the measure correlates with other measures defined to measure the same thing, and
whether the measure behaves as expected [Churchill, 1979]. This is mainly shown in
convergent and discriminant validities. From the point of Roussel et al. (2000), these validities
are often be used to test the internal validity of the construct. Accordingly, the approach multi-
trai and multi method proposed by Campbell and Firske (1959), alternative sequential method
proposed by Fornell and Larcker (1981), which is then improved by Bagozzi and Yi (1989) are
all applied for the purpose of confirming convergent and discriminant validity of the constructs.
Within the frame of this study, factor analysis is employed, consisting of factor
structure, factorability, convergent validity and discriminant validity. With factor structure, the
inter-correlations among variables are tested. Factor analysis follows including the tests of

228
appropriateness of data, convergent validity and discriminant validity based on this correlation
matrix.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett's test of Sphericity allows ensuring the
appropriateness of data. KMO value should be higher than “0.50” while Bartlett's test of
Sphericity should be with significant p<”0.000” [Field, 2000: 446]. Furtheremore, keeping
attention to the variabale correlation, the anti-image matrix diagonals shoud be superior to
“0.50” if the sample is adequate [Field, 2000: 446].
For convergent validity, several issues are tested. Firstly, the correlation of variables
within a single factor is expressed though factor loadings. Secondly, the amount of variance that
is captured by the constructs in relation to the amount due to measurement error is shown by
average variance extracted (AVE). Thirdly, extend to which an item correlates with all other
items via communailities. Fourthly, total variances explained are verified, keeping in mind that
a good factor solution is one that explains the most variance with the fewest factor(s). Last but
not least, the significance of independent variable in explaining dependent variable is confirmed
with t-value.
For reference, items loadings should be above “0.70” to show that over half the variance
is captured by the latent construct. The AVE of each construct should be higher than “0.5” and
larger than its correlation with other constructs. The communalities of each measuring items in
a construct should be superior to “0.5”. In terms of total variances explained, a good factor
solution is one that explains the most variance with the fewest factor(s) and that 50-75% of the
variance explained is good. Meanwhile, the significance of independent variable in explaining
dependent variable should be bigger than “1.96” [Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Chin, 1998b; Hair et
al., 1998; Segars, 1997; Thompson et al., 1995].
If the convergent validity shows the correlation with other measures that a measure
should be ralated to, then discriminant shows the uncorrelation with measures that it should not
correlate with. In other words, it shows to which extend the factor is distinct and uncorrelated.
The rule is that each item should load more highly on its derived construct than on the other
constructs [Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Chin, 1998b; Hair et al., 1998; Segars, 1997; Thompson et
al., 1995].
Lastly, as internal consistency is a necessary but insufficient condition for construct
validity, criterion validity is suggested to confirm that the measures behave as expected in
relation to other constructs. Accordingly, scale score is assessed to decide whether it correctly
predicts some criterion measure. In addition, all theories and hypotheses which have

229
sufficiently well scrutinized are taken into consideration to inspire confidence in probable truth
concerning to the relationship between constructs [Churchill, 1979].
In fact, some of the elements used in exploratory and confirmatry factor analysis
presented above has been already mentioned and described step by step by Rietveld and Van
Hout (1993). The figure below synthesizes some main steps of factor analysis in a nutshell,
including the measurement of reliability, correlation matrix, factor analysis versus principle
component analysis, communalities, number of factors to be retained, factor rotation, factor
loadings, factor scores, interpretation or use of results.
Figure 22: Factor analysis steps described by Rietveld & Van Hout (1993:239)
Develop norms
Developing norms is the fact making the implicit standards explicit. It relates the
meaning to a specific score for the purpose of comparison and correlation analysis. This is done
Reliable
measurement
Correlation matrix
Factor
analysis
Estimate communalities
Decide factors retained
Factor rotation/
orthogonal/oblique ?
Factor loadings
Factor scores
Intepretation
Subsequent analysis, for
instance multiple regression
Principal
component
analysis :
unities in
diagonal of
correlation
matrix
NO YES
YES
NO

230
by calculating a mean and standard deviation. Therefore, norm quality is not only the function
of the number of cases used to calculate the average, but also their representativeness
[Churchill, 1979]. However, norm quality is not justified in this study as the norm developing
is not a constraint of this research when using structural equation modeling.
III. Methodology to verify the conceptual model and hypotheses
III.1. Structural equation modeling method
To verify and confirm hypotheses of the research, structural equation modeling (SEM)
is employed. It is a statistical technique for testing and estimating causal relations using a
combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions grounded in established
theory [Sewall Wright, 1921; Trygve Haavelmo, 1943; Herbert A. Simon, 1953, Judea Pearl,
2000]. It combines measurement model or confirmatory factor analysis and structural model
into a simultanous statistical test [Hoe S.L., 2008].
Traditionally, structural equation modeling has been used in sociology, psychology,
education, and econometrics. Nevertheless, due to its usefulness in dealing with substantive
problems in social and behavioral sciences, structural equation modeling has been used widely
in marketing [Jöreskog K.G. & Sörbom, D., 1982].
Following the part of factor analysis, component analysis, and discriminant analysis to
validate variables and constructs above, SEM-based procedures brings many advantages. First,
each equation on the model represents a causal link, rather than a mere empirical association
while the tructural paremeters represent relatively unmiwed, invariant, and autonomous features
of the mechanism generating the observable variables [Jöreskog K.G. & Sörbom, D., 1982]..
Especially, structural equations are important whistle regression parameter fail to give the
relevant informations in some cases listed as: (i) when there are measurement errors in the
observed measurements and the interesting relationship is among the true or disattenuated
variables; (ii) when interdependence or simultaneous causation among the observed response
varibales exists; and (iii) when there are omitted variables, meaning that important explanatory
variables have not been observed [Goldberger, 1973].
In addition, structural equation modeling is useful for the researchers, such as providing
them with flexibility to (i) model relationships among multiple preductors and criterion
variables; (ii) flexibility to construct unobservable latent variables; (iii) define errors in
observed variables measurements; and (iv) test priori and measurement assumptions agains
empirical data [Chin W.W., 1998].

231
III.2. Principal issues in structural equation modeling
In SEM-based analysis, three issues are discussed: sample size, overall fit indices, and
approach to weigh individual scale items.
In terms of sample size, McQuitty (2004) suggests that minimum sample size should be
determined to achieve a desired level of statistical power with a given model prior to data
collection. Meanwhile, Schreiber et al. (2006) indicates that relevant sample size is affected by
the normality of the data and estimation method used; however, it is recommented to have 10
participants for every free parameter estimated [Nunnally, 1967; Barcalay et al., 1995; Chin,
1998, Chin and Newsted, 1999; Kahai and Cooper, 2003]. Also, a “critical sample size” of 200,
which provide sufficient statistical power for data analysis is proposed by Garver and Mentzer
(1999), and Hoelter (1983). Nevertheless, there is little consensus on the recommended sample
size for structure equation modeling [Sivo et al., 2006].
In terms of fit indices, it is recommended to use more than one indicator of goodness-of-
fit [Bentler&Wu, 2002; Hair et al. 1998]. These indices are categorized into three groups:
absolute fit indice, incremental fit indices, and parsimony fit indices.
Absolute fit indice measure how well a priori model fits the sample data [McDonal &
Ho, 2002], how well the model fits in comparison to no model at all [Jöreskog & Sörborn,
1993], and which proposed model has the most superior fit [Hooper et al., 2008]. Indicators
belonging to this category include goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index
(AGFI), root mean squared of error (RMSEA), root mean square residual (RMR), standardized
root mean square residual (SRMR), and Chi-Squared test.
Incremental fit indices, also named as comparative fit indices [Miles & Shevlin, 2007],
or relative fit indices [McDonal & Ho, 2002) include all the indices not using the chi-square in
its raw form but compare the chi-square value to a baseline model [Hooper.D. et al., 2008], for
instance normedfit index (NFI), , non-normed fit index (NNFI), or comparative fit index (CFI).
Parsimony fit indices are developed to overcome the problem of dependence of complex
model or estimation process on sample data [Hooper.D et al. 2008]. They comprise of
parsimony goodness-of-fit index (PGFI), parsimonious normed fit index (PNFI), Akaike
information criterion (AIC), consistent version of AIC (CAIC), χ2
/ Degree of freedom. Each
indicator ussually has a threshold to be accepted, except some parsimony fit indices, but it is
recommended to use various fit indices at the same time.
According to Marsh, Balla and McDonald (1988), ideal fit indices should be accurate,
consistent, and independent of sample size so that they can help to assess different models and

232
reduce interpretation needed thanks to a well defined pre-set range. As a result, three indices are
suggested by Garver and Mentzer (1999) based on the above criteria, including NNFI, CFI and
RMSEA. Several indicators of good-of-fit are popularly uses, and also applied to measure the
fit model of this research. The detail of each indicator is supposed to be presented as the
followings:
Goodness of fit index (GFI): This index is created by Jorëskog &Sörbom (1984) to
measure the fit between the hypothesized model and the observed covariance matrix, or
is a measure of the relative amount of variance and covariance jointly accounted for by
the model. By taking into consideration the variances and covariances accounted by the
model, it shows how closely the model comes to replicating the observed covariance
metrix [Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2000]. Ranging from “0” to “1”, a cut off of “0.90”
indicates good fit [Jöreskog and Sorborm, 1989], or even a cut off of “0.80” is
acceptable [Etezadi-Amolo and Farhoomand, 1996].
Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI): Measuring relative part of the variance-
covariance explained by the model, adjusted with the degree of freedom, with more
saturated models reducing fit [Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007]. It is also developed by
Jorëskog &Sörbom (1984). Like GFI, AGFI values also range between “0” to “1”, but
generally accepted with values superior to “0.80” which indicates well fitting models
[Segars & Grover, 1993]. However, GFI and AGFI are measures affected by sample
size. The current consensus is not to use these measures [Shama et al., 2005].
Root mean squared approximation of error (RMSEA): measuring the discrepancy
between the observed and estimated covariances matrices per degree of freedom, first
developed by Setinger (1990). The discrepancy here is applied for the population, but
not for the sample, so it is not affected by sample size. This indicator shows how well
the model, with unknown but optimally chosen parameter estimates would fit the
population covariance matrix [Byrne, 1998]. It is one of the most informative fit indices
[Diamantopoulos &Siguaw, 2000:85]. The value of this fit index range from 0 to 1.
MacCallum et al. (1996) propose that an RMSEA below 0.08 shows a good fit and
between “0.08” to “0.1” implies mediocre fit. However, Hu and Bentler (1999)
recommend that a cut off value close to “0.06” indicates good fit. More recently,
according to Steigner (2007), a stringent upper mimit of “0.07” is good for model fit.
Therefore, it can be briefted that values between “0.08”-“0.1” is considered as
mediocre fit, between “0.05” to “0.08” indicate reasonable fit and good fit is for value
less than “0.05”.

233
Comparative fit index (CFI): This index is used to analyze the model fit by examining
the discrepancy between the data and the hypothesized model, while adjusting for the
issues of sample size inherent in the chi-squared test of model fit, and the normed fit
index. It is infact a noncentrality parameter-based index to over come the limitation of
sample size effect, developed by Bentler (1990). More than “0.90” indicates good fit
Normed Fit Index (NFI): Analying the discrepancy between the chi-squared value of the
hypothesized model and the chi-squared value of the null model. This index was
developed by Bentler & Bonnet (1980). In fact, it compares the improvement in the
minimum discrepancy for the specified or defaut model to the discrepancy for the
independence model. A value of the NFI below “0.90” indicates that the model can be
improved. Therefore, it is suggested that the value of this index should be around or
greater than “0.90” indicating a good fit [Chin and Todd, 1995; Hair et al., 1998].
Non-normed Fit Index (NNFI): Comparing a proposed model’s fit to a nested baseline
or nul model and measuring parsimony by evaluating the degrees of freedom from the
proposed model to the degrees of freedom of the nul model [Hoe S.L., 2008]. This
index is also called the Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index because it was developed
by Bentler and Bonett (1980), but also Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) because Bentler and
Bonett (1980) built this index on the one created by Tucker and Lewis (1973). It is
similar to NFI, but penalizes for model complexity. Among fit indices, it is one of the
fit indexes less affected by sample size. In case of negative valie, it indicates that the
ratior of Chi-square to the degree of freedom for the null model is less than the ratio for
the given model. This can happen if the degree of freedom of a given model is very few
and correlations are low. In case close to 1, it shows a good fit. Conventionally, NNFI
value below “0.90” is not a good sign, showing that it is necessary to respecify the
model, however, some claim that a cut-off of “0.80” is already accepted because TLI
tends to run lower than GFI. Meanwhile, Hu and Bentler (1999) propose a cut-off of
“0.95” as a threshold for good model fit.
χ2
/d.f.: due to the fact that Chi-square is highly sensitive to sample size, particularly with
over 200 observations, the alternative good indicator of model fit which is the ratio of
χ2
to the degree of freedom (d.f.) is developed by Jöreskog & Sorbom (1993). It is
suggested that a “χ2
/d.f;” ratio of 3 or less is a reasonable and good indicator of model
fit [Kline, 1998].
Inaddition to the goodness of fit indices, the structural equation modeling may also used
to look at causal paths among the variables, which are evaluated in terms of statistical

234
significance and strength using standardized path coefficient ranging from “-1” to “1” [Hoe
S.L., 2008]. These values show the strength of relationships among the variables. According to
Chin (1998), standardized path should be at least “0.20” and ideally above “0.30” to be
considered meaningful for discussion.
In terms of approaches to weight individual scale items in structural equation modeling,
there are several ways to do it, for example total aggregation, total disaggregation, and partial
disaggregation and partial aggregation [Bagozzi & Healtherton, 1994].
With aggregation approach, all the items are computed into a single indicator or latent
variable, and the same weight is given to the items as in non-SEM research.
With total disaggregation approach, each item is considered as an individual indicator
and structural equation modeling weights the individual items to optimize contribution to the
latent variables.
These two approaches have their disadvantages. With total aggregation approach,
information is lost and distinctiveness of the components is obscured; and with total
disaggregation, the measurement errors become sensitive and therefore it is difficult to get
satisfactory model fits [Hoe S.L., 2008]. In terms of partial aggrement, single underlying factor
is used, in which dimensions of the construct are organized hierarchically as indicators of the
factor, but the unique dimension of the construct may be obscured [Hoe S.L., 2008]. Therefore
partial disaggregation approach is recommended [Bagozzi & Healtherton, 1994], which allow
to use a large number of indicators to represent a latent variable [Garver & Mentzer, 1991].
This approach is usefull in reducing the number of parameter to be estimated and to capitalize
on the increase in reliability when items on sub-scales are summed. In other words, each
dimension can be measured with two indicators while each indicator is already the sum of
multiple items [Hoe S.L., 2008]. This research applies total disaggregation approach.
III.3. Choice of statistic software for structural equation modeling
A structural equation model can imply a structure of the covariance matrix of the
measures, regarded as an analysis of covariance structure, but it can also imply a structural of
component, considered as component-based analysis. Recently, several structural equation
modeling software are typically used for confirmatory factor analysis, either covariance-based
such as LISREL, EQS, AMOS, SEPATH, RAMONA, MX, CALIS, Mplus…, or component-
based like PLS-PC, PLS-Graph, Smart PLS… [Chin W.W., 1998]. Among them, LISREL and

235
PLS path modeling have been recently and widely used in social science, econometrics,
marketing and management.
LISREL is the abbreviation for linear structural relationships. It is an approach used in
structural equation modeling based on covariance structure. It was developed in 1970 by Karl
Jöreskog dedicated to estimate factors loadings and structural path. It is necessary to bear in
mind that the aim of LISREL is to estimate causal model parameters [Baclay, D.W., Higgins,
C., & Thompson, R., 1995].
PLS is in short of partial least square, which is a projection to latent structures,
introduced by the Swedish statistician Herman Wold in 1975. The goal of PLS is to estimate the
variance of endogenous constructs and their respective manifest variables [Baclay, D.W.,
Higgins, C., & Thompson, R., 1995]. PLS path modeling employs an algorithm allowing
estimating latent variables and structural equations. While latent variables are estimated thanks
to the iteration between internal and external estimation, classical multiple regressions are used
to estimate structural equations.
According to Chin (1995), LISREL is superior to PLS on mathematical and statistic
grounds but in turns, PLS shows its superiority on practical grounds. For explanation, the PLS
estimates of the factor loadings and structural path approximate the ones that LISREL only
under joint condition of large sample size, high communiality and large number of indicators
per factor. Otherwise, the PLS parameter estimates for construct loadings tend to have a
homogenization and overestimation, while structural paths are likely to be underestimated
[Dijkstra, 1983:86].
Nonetheless, because of this limited information estimation procedure, appropriate
sample size in PLS tends to be much smaller than that needed for full information procedure in
LISREL. The Maximum Likelihood estimation procedure for LISREL can be robust in
producing better estimates of the population parameters compared to PLS. In addition, it
provides a statistical basis using a chi-square test for multiple group comparison, which allows
the generalizability. Notheless, whether the score generated by PLS for group comparison can
serve the purpose of generalizability or not; this needs to be determined [Chin, 1995].
In practice, PLS is computationally more efficient and more rapidly than LISREL,
especially in case of large models with high number of indicators and factors [Baclay, D.W.,
Higgins, C., & Thompson, R., 1995]. The table below resumes some of the main differences
across these two approaches.

236
Table 25: Comparison of LISREL and PLS methods
LISREL PLS
Methodology Covariance- based method Component- based method
Objective Parameter estimation oriented Prediction oriented
Manifest variables Reflective Reflective or formative
Latent variables True latent variables, estimated
by linear combination of all
manifest variables
Variables in PLS are not true latent
variables, but composites, estimated
by exact linear combinations of their
manifest variables
Estimates Estimates is calculated taking
into account measurement
error
Estimates are biased as measurement
erros is not taken into account
Hypotheses Multinorminality of data and
unidimentionality
Unidimensionality (reflective)
Complexity of the
model
Moderate (<100 manifest
variables)
Large (ex: 100 latent variables, 1000
manifest variables)
Minimum sample 100-150 cases At least 10 times the number of
items in the most complex construct
Quality of sub-
model
Better internal model because
latent variables are estimated in
non restrained space
Better external model because latent
variables are contained in the space
of their manifest variables
Source: Synthesized from Jöreskog and Wold (1982); Marcoulides, Chin, & Sauners (2009:172-174); McDonald
(1996:172-173), Goodhue D.L. et al. (2012)
Taking all the advantages and disadvantages of these two methods, in this research
LISREL method is taken in use to test the conceptual model of global sample and to estimate
causal model parameters due to its availability and popular usage. With the total sample size of
450 people with different ethnicity, 28 manifest variables and 8 latent variables, it is totally
adequate to apply LISREL method for structural equation modeling.
Meanwhile, PLS path modeling is used as complementary tool to verify the conceptual
model and the result obtained from LISREL for global sample. Especially, since LISREL
matter with sample size, in the analysis of main ethnic groups, and as PLS shows its advantages
in dealing with small sample size of each group of population, it is recommended in the section
of analysis of ethnic groups. There are many reasons for this choice. The first and formost is its
genuine advantages. For instance, PLS path modeling allows estimating relationships between
latent variables and several indicators despite of small sample [Chin & Newsted, 1999]. In this
study, there are 28 manifest variables, but about 100 samples each of main ethnic groups. The
sample scale is small, then it should be better to use PLS path modeling. In addition, this
modeling tool “involves no assumptions about the population or scale of measurement”
[Fornell & Bookstein, 1982:443] and can be used even when distributions are highly skewed
[Bagozzi & Yi, 1994]. Furthermore, Smart PLS is very easy to use with friendly and graphical
userinterfaces [Ringle et al. 2005].

237
Conclusion
In conclusion, this research provide theoretical background for the research, including
social identity theory, identity development, culture, sub-culture and counter-culture, ethnic
marketing and ethnic related issues. It applies positivism as epistemology and hypothetico
deductive as research design approach. For the purpose of convenience, rapidity, low cost,
online questionnaire is used to collect the data. In addition, dynamic method is chosen to
diffuse the questionnaire. Concerning sampling, convenient sample method is employed
targeting ethnic population in France. What is more, it follows Churchill paradigm as procedure
to valid variables and constructs, including exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. In
terms of verification of research model, it employs structural equation modeling. Some of the
heuristics for construct validity and model validity used on this research can be synthesized in
the following tables.
Table 26: Heuristics for construct validity and model validity in the research
Validity Technique Heuristic Source
Construct’s reliability
Internal consistency Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach’s Alpha should be
above “0.60” for exploratory
research and above “0.70” for
confirmatory research
Nunnally
(1967);
Nunnally
(1978); Peter
(1979).
Internal coherence Rhô de Jöreskog or
composite reliability
Rhô de Jöreskog should be
above “0.70”
Fornell &
Larcker (1981),
Roussel et al.
(2002); Evrard
et al. (2000)
Content validity
Content validity Analysis of
undelying theory and
critical review of
expert
Churchill
(1979); Smith et
al.(1996);
Storey et al.
(2000)
Criterion validity
Criterion validity Analysis of the
relationship between
the scale measuring
the construct and
external criterion in
the construct
Churchill (1979)

238
Construct validity
Convergent validity
Items loading Items loadings should be above
“0.70” to show that over half the
variance is captured by the latent
construct
Fornell &
Larcker (1981);
Chin, (1998b),
Hair et al.
(1998); Segars
(1997);
Thompson et al.
(1995)
Average variance
extracted (AVE)
The AVE of each construct
should be higher than “0.5” and
larger than its correlation with
other constructs
Communalities The communalities of each
measuring items in a construct
should be superior to “0.5”
Total variances
explained
A good factor solution is one
that explains the most variance
with the fewest factor(s) and that
50-75% of the variance
explained is good.
T-value The significance of independent
variable in explaining dependent
variable should be bigger than
“1.96”
Discriminant validity Items loadings Each item should load more
highly on its derived construct
than on the other constructs
Factorability of the construct
Appropriateness of the
data
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO)
KMO should be higher than
“0.50”
Field (2000:446)
Bartlett's test of
Sphericity
Bartlett's test of Sphericity
should be with significant
p<”0.000”
Anti-image matrix of
covariances and
correlations
The anti-image matrix diagonals
shoud be superior to “0.50” if
the sample is adequate
Model validity
Absolute fit
indices
Goodness of Fit
Index (GFI)
LISREL GFI≥ 0.90 Jorëskog & Sörborn,
(1984)
Adjusted
Goodness of Fit
Index (AGFI)
LISREL AGFI≥ 0.80 Jorëskog &Sörborn,
(1984); Segars &
Grover (1993)
Root Mean
Square Error of
Approximation
(RMSE)
LISREL RMSE ≤ 0.06 Steiger & Lind (1980);
Hu and Bentler (1999)
Incremental
indices/
relative fit
indices
Comparative Fit
Index (CFI)
LISREL CFI≥ 0.90 Bentler (1990)
Normed Fit
Index (NFI)
LISREL NFI≥ 0.90 Bentler & Bonett
(1980); Hair et al.,
(1998)

239
Non-normed Fit
Index (NNFI)
LISREL NNFI≥ 0.90 Bentler & Bonett
(1980)
Parsimonial
fit indices
χ2
/ Degree of
freedom
LISREL The χ2
/ Degree of
freedom should be lower
than 3
Jöreskog (1969); Kline
(1998)
Path validity
Coeficients
Linear
regression,
PLS
Significant t-values Thompson et al.
(1995)
LISREL Standardized path value
should be reported for
comparison purpose and
at least “0.20” and ideally
above “0.30” to be
considered meaningful for
discussion.
Bollen (1989),
Jöreskog & Sörbom
(1989) ; Hair et al.
(1998) ; Chin (1998)

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CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH RESULTS

241
Introduction
Following the chapter discussing methodology to conduct the research, this chapter
focuses on presenting research results, which are categorized into three main sections.
The first one deals with descriptive analysis of the samples in this research, particularly
profile of the respondants in terms of ethnic origin, nationality, language used, religion, gender,
age, profession, and duration of time living in France.
The second section goes into detail on factor analysis, which applies methodologies to
validate variables and constructs. Accordingly, eight factors are taken into consideration,
namely parental orientation towards ethnicity, parental orientation towards integration in
French society, ethnic friendship orientation, out-group orientation, situational orientation,
ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption.
The third section presents the results of hypothesis validation, in which all the
hypothesis are verified based on data collected to identify whether they are validated or not. In
fact, it comprises of two sub-sections, one analyzes direct relations of the constructs while the
other addresses the effect of moderator variables.

242
I. Analysis of samples
With the objective of better understanding empirical data, a descriptive analysis of
samples is conducted based on eight socio-demographic factors, such as (i) ethnic origin; (ii)
nationality; (iii) language spoken; (iv) religion practiced; (v) gender; (vi) age; (vii) profession;
and (viii) duration of time that the respondents have been living in France. Thanks to this, the
profiles of the respondents become clearer. An overall profile of the total sample is presented in
the following table.
Table 27: Profiles of the respondents
Criterion
Sample In number In percent
Total population 450 100%
Ethnic origin
Northern African 119 26.4
Sub-saharan African 104 23.1
Middle Eastern 26 5.8
Central Asian 28 6.2
Eastern Asian 117 26.0
Caribean countries 19 4.2
Latin American 16 3.6
Mixed 16 3.6
Others 5 1.1
Nationality French 285 63.3
Country of origin 156 34.7
Mixed nationality 9 2.0
Language Mother language 35 7.8
French 185 41.1
Both 220 48.9
Others 10 2.2
Religion Christianism 100 22.2
Judaism 2 0.4
Muslim 123 26.9
Boudhism 49 10.9
Hindouism 18 4.0
Without religion 158 35.1
Gender Female 239 53.1
Male 211 46.9
Age Adolescent 58 12.9
Young adult 285 63.3

243
Middle age 99 22.0
Old age 8 1.8
Profession Artisans, merchants and entrepreneurs 7 1.6
Cadre (middle manager) and
intellectual profession
67 14.9
Intermediate profession 36 8.0
Employee 105 23.3
Worker 30 6.7
Retired 14 3.1
Without professional activities 56 12.4
Student 135 30.0
Time living in
France
Short time 76 16.9
Medium time 68 15.1
Long time 81 18.0
Extremely long time 225 50.0
I.1. Distribution of respondents by ethnic origin
There are three main ethnic groups taking part in the research, including Northern
African, Sub-saharan African and Eastern Asian ones.
Figure 23: Classification global sample according to ethnic origin
Of the overall sample, Northern African population makes up 26.4%, the same with
Eastern Asian population with 26% while Sub-saharan African population represents 23.1%.
These percentages correspond to the number of 119, 117 and 104 people respectively. The rest
finds their origins from the Middle East; Central Asia; Caribean countries; Latin America;

244
mixed in terms of ethnicity, meaning that their parents are from different ethnic groups; or other
ethnic groups.
Due to the fact that data are collected thanks to online questionnaire, which is posted
either on forum for ethnic people in France, or sent to their emails. To some extend, the number
of people with ethnic origins above represents (i) the interest of the respondents in answering
the questionnaire; (ii) their voluntary in taking part in the survey; (iii) the availability of forums
and mailing lists to get access to certain ethnic communities in France; (iv) the access of ethnic
people to Internet; and (v) the number and availability of ethnic people in France.
I.2. Distribution of respondents by nationality
Most of respondents in the survey have French nationality. Only two percent of them
declare to have mixed nationalities, for example French and American nationality, or French
nationality together with a nationality of their origin country. Thirty five percent of them stay or
live in France holding nationality of their origin country. The number of respondents with
French nationality, mixed nationality and nationality of original countries is 285, 9 and 156
correspondingly.
Figure 24: Classification of global sample according to nationality
In case using ethnicity and nationality as criteria to classify the respondents, the figure
below indicates that the most ethnic groups holding French nationality include Sub-saharan
Africa and Northern Africa. Meanwhile Eastern Asian ethnic respondents are those with the
most number holding nationality of their origin countries. Some individuals holding mixed
nationality can be found in the groups of Northern Africa, Middle East, Eastern Asia, Sub-
saharan African and mix.

245
Figure 25: Distribution of respondents according to nationality and ethnicity
I.3. Distribution of respondents by gender
Generally, the number of female participating in the survey is a little bit bigger than
male. Fifty three percent of the respondent is female. Meanwhile male participants make up
47% of the total samples. The reason is that the topic of ethnicity, consumption behavior and
food consumption rather touches female population, than male. The number of female and male
taking part in the data collection is 239 and 211 respectively.
Figure 26: Classification of global sample according to gender

246
If taking ethnicity into account together with gender factor, it is found that in the female
group, 32% belongs to Northern African ethnic group, 25% has Eastern Asian ethnic origin,
and 23% has origin in Sub-saharan Africa. The rest of 20% declare to have ethnic origin in the
Middle East, Central Asia, Latin America, Caribean countries, mixed of two ethnic groups or
others.
Meanwhile, in the group of male respondents, those with Eastern Asian ethnic origin
make up 27%. Following this group is the Sub-saharan African ethnic group with 23%. Those
with Northern African ethnicity occupy 20% of the total male respondents while the mixed
ethnic group follows with 10% . Twenty percent remaining belongs to Caribean , Middle East
The distribution of respondents according to factor, ethnicity and gender can be shown
in the figure below.
Figure 27: Classification of global sample according to gender and ethnicity

247
I.4. Distribution of respondents by language
In terms of language practiced daily, most of ethnic individuals taking part in the survey
indicate that they use both French and their mother language to communicate with each other.
This group makes up 49% of the total respondents, equivalent to 220 participants. The fact
speaking both French and mother language at home shows that these individuals partly
integrate in French society and partly preserve their tradition through the maintainance of
language practice. In addition, mother language practice also helps them to get access to the
culture of their ethnic groups via network of ethnic people, means of communication, etc.
However, the number of ethnic people using only French as main language to
communicate is not small, 185 individuals, and representing 41% of the total respondents. This
may be because they live in France for a long time, or they belong to the second or third
generations. A very moderate number of people confest that they use only their mother
language to communicate with their family members and friends. This group makes up 7.8% of
the total respondents, equivalent to 35 persons. The rest 2.2% are those speaking other
languages. In fact, there are only 10 people using other language.
Figure 28: Classification of global sample according to language spoken
Taking only language spoken at home as the criterion, the classification of global
sample can be shown in the above figure. Now that adding ethnicity as another criterion, some
further information on respondents can be depicted. An overall figure of global sample
according to ethnicity and language daily spoken is presented as the followings.

248
Figure 29: Classification of global sample according to language daily spoken and
ethnicity
As shown above, the group that involves the most persons using mother language to
communicate is Eastern Asian one. Other groups can also be found with the use of mother
language, but at moderate number, including Northern Africa, Sub-saharan Africa, Central
Asia, and Latin America. For the use of French, it can be seen in all kinds of ethnic groups.
This seems evident since they live in France. In terms of both French and mother language, they
are used the most by Northen African people, Eastern Asian people, and Sub-saharan African
people, because these groups involve the most respondents. Other language is used mainly by
Asian people, Sub-saharan African and some Latin American ethnic people.
I.5. Distribution of respondents by religion
Among respondents, most of them do not practice any religion. This group accounts for
35.1% of the total samples, equivalent to 158 persons. The second biggest group according to

249
religion is the group practicing Islam. Up to 26.9% of the total participants are Islam. To some
extend the number of 121 out of 450 shows that Islam is one of the biggest religions in France.
Following this group is the group of Christianisme. Twenty two percent of the respondent
indicates that they belong to Christianisme religion. One hundred out of 450 is not a small
number. Together with Muslim, Christianisme is popular religion practiced in France. It is
necessary to indicate that Christianisme is a biggest religion in France but for the total
population. Within ethnic population, the number of those practicing Islam is higer
Meanwhile, the number of Boudhist members is very moderate, only 49 persons, or
10.9% of the total sample. Hindouism members are also included, but very small number, only
18 individuals, or 4%. The one with the least participants is Jewish group. In fact, the low
number of Hindouism and Jewish members can be explained by the fact that this survey can not
approach them, neither in real life, nor on Internet. Particularly, in real life, despite that Jewish
members can be found, they are not either willing to participate in the questionnaire, or to
declare that they are juif. On vital network, social network of Juewish could not be found. It is
on contrary with Muslim community.
Figure 30: Classification of global sample according to religion practised
Religion and ethnicity are two important factors that bring rich information for the study
on ethnicity, ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption. Therefore, it is
necessary to combine these two factors for further information of the sample.
As can be seen below, Muslim practiciens can be found mainly in Northern African
ethnic group, following is the group of Sub-saharan Africa. Only some can be found in Middle
East, Eastern Asia and mix groups. Meanwhile Eastern Asian ethnic group has the biggest
number of people practicing Boudhism. Very few Boudhists belong to Sub-saharan and
Northern African groups.
Islam

250
Christianism is a very popular religion, which is distributed in almost all ethnic groups,
except the Central Asian ethnic group. Sub-saharan African is the category with the most
Christians. Also, most of the groups have ethnic members without religion. Among them,
Eastern Asian and Sub-Saharan African groups are the two communities with the biggest
number of people who do not practice any religion.
Figure 31: Classification of global sample according to religion practiced
I.6. Distribution of respondents by age
The participants in the questionnaire are categorized into four groups: adolescent (13-19
years old), young adult (20-40 years old), middle age (40-64 years old) and old age (≥65 years
old).

251
Data collected show that most of respondents belong to young group. This makes up
63.3% of the total sample, equivalent to 285 people. The second large group is at middle age
(99 people), accounting for 22% of the total respondents. Adolescent group is rather moderate,
with 58 respondents, representing 12.9% of the total sample. Only 8 out of 450 are at old age.
Therefore, this group is the smallest one, occupying only 1.8% of the total samples.
Figure 32: Classification of global sample according to age
For explanation, young adult and middle age are those most active with Internet and
more opened to the survey on culture in general. The online questionnaire therefore involves
many people of these groups. For the one of old age, already they are not so assessible on
Internet, moreover, they are very careful in taking part in such activities as questionnaire or
survey. This explains why the number of old participants is very low. The figure above shows
an overall picture of the respondents according to age.
In case incorporating ethnicity factors, it is indicated that young adults contributing to
data collection principally come from Eastern Asian, Sub-saharan African, and Northern
African groups. The number of middle age persons is distributed in every ethnic group.
However, most of them belong to the groups of Northern Africa (highest number), Sub-saharan
Africa, and Eastern Asia. Adolescents come from almost all ethnic groups, except Central Asia
group but highest number of them has Sub-saharan African origin. Meanwhile, old participants
are those holding Eastern Asian, Northern African and Sub-saharan African ethnicity. For vivid
illustration, please see the figure of global sample according to age and ethnicity below.

252
Figure 33: Classification of global sample according to age and ethnicity
I.7. Distribution of respondents by profession
Classifying respondent according to profession, it is found that the biggest number is the
group of students with 135 persons, representing 30% of the total participants, probably
because the questionnaire is sent to some mailing lists of students in France addition to being
posted on forums of ethnic communities, which involves also the participation of students.
Following is employee group, making up 23.3% of the total sample, equivalent to 105
respondents. These employees are approached thanks to the mailing lists of some enterprises in
France. However, the big number of these two groups, to some extent, indicates that they are
more active and have more Internet access to other groups.

253
A very moderate number of respondents is working as cadres or middle managers and
intellectual professions (67 out of 450, or 14.9%), may be because there are not so many in
ethnic population. Similarly, a very moderate number people do not have any professional
activities (56 out of 450, or 12.4%). In fact, the group without professional activities includes
those working as housework, in job searching, or unemployed.
There are some workers taking part in the survey, accountinf for only 6.7%, equivalent
to 30 workers. Meanwhile few participants have been retired, representing 3.1% of the total
samples. The rest and smallest group include those working as artisans, merchants and
entrepreneurs, just 1.6%. This might be due to the fact that they are so busy to spend time on
such activities as online questionnaire or survey.
The distribution of respondent by profession is shown in the following figure.
Figure 34: Classification of global sample according to profession
To have more detailed information on respondents in terms of profession and ethnicity,
a combination of these two factors is made, which is then illustrated in the below figure. It is
found that students and employees come from all ethnic groups, but mostly derive from Eastern
Asian, Sub-saharan African, Northern African and Latin American groups. In terms of
participants working as middle managers and intellectual profession, they come from all ethnic
groups mentioned in this study, but principally belong to Northern African, Eastern Asian,
Middle East and Sub-saharan African. In addition, highest number of those without professional
activities can be found in Sub-saharan African group, the second is Northern African group.
The rest are distributed moderately among ethnic groups.

254
Figure 35: Classification of global sample according to profession and ethnicity
I.8. Distribution of respondents by time of residence in France
The length of time living in France comprises four categories, short time (≤5 years),
medium time (5 years< time≤ 10 years), long time (10 years <time< 20 years), and extremely
long time (≥20 years). According to this division, most of respondents have been living in
France for extrememy long time as 50% of them confirm to have lived in this country for more
than 20 years. This percentage number is equal to 225 respondents. The rest is distributed rather
evenly to three groups: short time, medium time and long time. They are 17%, 15% and 18%
respectively, corresponding to 75, 68 and 81 respondents. To some extend, this means that the
survey gest access to immigrants, rather than foreigners.

255
In addition, among ethnic groups, Northern Africa is the group with highest number of
respondents having been living in France fore more than 20 years. Followings are Sub-saharan
African, and Eastern Asian. Meanwhile Eastern Asian is the group that makes up the most
number of those living for short and medium time.
Figure 36: Classification of global sample according to time staying or living in France
To figure out global sample according to the duration of time staying or living in France,
as well as in combination of criterion factor as ethnicity, please see the illustrations below.

256
Figure 37: Classification of global sample according to time staying or living in France
and ethnicity
II. Factor analysis
The verification of constructs in the model is conducted thanks to factor analysis
method, including exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis.
The first step of exploratory factor analysis helps determining the correlation of items
with variables, as well as among the variables in the dataset. Through this, misfit items and
variables are detected so that chosen items and variables are used for cleaner structural equation
modeling. According to Field (2004), this starting point helps reducing the dimensionality of
correlation matrix by looking for variables highly correlated with a certain group of variables
but badly correlated with variables outside the defined group.

257
Meanwhile, confirmatory factor analysis is the next step determining the factor structure
of dataset that are extracted in the first step.
With exploratory factor analysis, some of the following issues are tested:
Factor structures: inter-correlations among variables
Reliability: consistency of the item-level errors within a single factor (shown via
Cronbach's alpha for each factor) and internal coherence of the constructs (through Rhô
de Jöreskog or composite reliability)
Appropriateness of data: through Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) statistics and Bartlett's
test of Sphericity while keep attention to the correlation matrix correlations and anti-
image matrix diagonals
Convergent validity: (i) correlation of variables within a single factors expressed though
factor loadings; (ii) amount of variance that is captured by the construct in relation to
the amount due to measurement error shown by average variance extracted (AVE); (iii)
the extend to which an item correlates with all other items via communailities; and (iv)
total variances explained, keeping in mind that a good factor solution is one that
explains the most variance with the fewest factor(s) and that 50-75% of the variance
explained is good.
Discriminant validity: extend to which factors are distinct and uncorrelated, but
respecting the rule that a variable should relate more strongly to its self than any other
else. If the convergent validity shows that correlation with other measures that a
measure should be ralted to, then discriminant shows the uncorrelation with measures
that it should not correlate with
T-value: significance of independent variable in explaining dependent variable
II.1. Parental Orientation towards Ethnicity
Parental orientation towards ethnicity (POE) is measured by three items POE1, POE2,
and POE3. Testing the appropriateness of data related to this factor, it is found that the data are
factorable since KMO indicator is "0.71" and a significant indicator of Bartlett's test of
Sphericity with p<0.000. In addition, in the examination of the diagonals on the anti-image
covariance and correlation matrix, all of the variables with covariance and correlations between
“0.50” and “0.74”, showing a reasonable accuracy of the variables and that they are sufficiently
correlated with other variables.

258
Reliability of this construct (Cronbach’s Alpha) is over "0.8" with both software Smart
PLS and SPSS while Rhô de Jöreskog or composite reliability is higher, nearly "0.9". This
means that there is a high internal coherence inside the construct of parental orientation toward
ethnicity.
The coefficients of communalities of these three items are all over “0.71”, which means
they correlate with each other. The correlation between items and the construct is rather high;
all of the three have the loading of more than "0.8" in both SPPS and Smart PLS software. In
addition, three items POE1, POE2 and POE3 share more variance with the construct POE than
the measurement error since AVE indicator is over "0.7". And only one factor explains 73.34%
of the variance in the total three items. Moreover, the intensity of the relation between this
constructs and its items is high thanks to the fact that T-value of three items are all superior to
"1.96". The correlation matrix in the annex shows that these three items are strongly correlated
to the construct POE, but weakly with other construct.
Definitely, the reliability, and both convergent and discriminant validity are verified.
Table 28: Factor analysis for the construct of Parental Orientation towards Ethnicity
Item Smart PLS SPSS
Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Composite
Reliability Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog KMO
POE 0.82 0.73 0.89 0.82 0.74 0.89 0.71
POE1 0.89 183.17 0.87 57.69
POE2 0.83 90.50 0.84 63.76
POE3 0.85 139.47 0.86 51.40
II.2. Parental Orientation towards Integration in French society
Three items (POI1, POI2, POI3) are used to calculate the construct parental
orientation towards integration in French society (POI). This construct is totally factorable
thanks to KMO indicator of "0.71" as well as thanks to the p<0.000. in Bartlett’s test of
Sphericity. Furthermore, the variables with covariance and correlations between “0.51” and
“0.76” in the diagonals of the anti-image matrix, indicates sufficient covariance and correlation
of these variables.
The extent to which three latent variables correlate with each other is rather good with
the values of more than "0.70" in the extraction of communalities. They also correlate strongly
with the construct since all the loadings are over "0.8". In fact, it is "0.87" for POI1, "0.86" for
POI2 and "0.85" for POI3. In terms of the correlation between the construct and its measuring
items, T-value are higher than "1.96" for all the three items, showing a high correlation of this

259
relation. What is more, it is very useful that one factor explains more than 73% of the variances
in the three items.
The convergent validity of this construct POI is validated because the variables within
the factor are highly correlated and the variance due to measurement the construct is higher
than the variance due to measurement error, average variance extracted is "0.74" with both
statistic software.
What is more, internal coherence of the construct is very good thanks to satisfactory
level of Jöreskog's rho coefficient or composite reliability ("0.9" in both statistic software). In
terms of reliability of the construct, with over "0.8" of Cronbach's Alpha, the construct and its
measuring items are definitely reliable.
Discriminant validity of the construct is also validated when cross factor loading show
that POI1, POI2 and POI3 is much more correlated to its parental construct POI than other
constructs of the dataset.
Table 29: Factor analysis for the construct of Parental Orientation towards Integration in
French society
Item Smart PLS SPSS
Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Composite
Reliability Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog KMO
POI 0.82 0.74 0.89 0.82 0.74 0.90 0.71
POI1 0.86 60.99 0.87 49.86
POI2 0.87 86.11 0.86 59.66
POI3 0.84 61.53 0.85 46.44
II.3. Ethnic Friendship Orientation
The construct ethnic friendship orientation is measure by three items, namely EFO1,
EFO2, and EFO3. The analysis of the construct ethnic friendship orientation confirms its
reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with its data.
It is totally factorable with KMO of "0.72" and a significant indicator p<0.000 in
Bartlett's test of Sphericity. All the three variables are correlated in the diagonals of the anti-
image covariance and correlation matrix (between “0.52” to “0.74). The average variance
extracted (AVE) of “0.74” implies that the variance due to the construct is greater to
measurement errors, which validates convergent validity of the construct. Communality
exactraction of over "0.72» for all the three items shows their high correlation with each other.
For this construct, it is so useful that one factor explains up to 73.77% of the variances in the
three items. Three manifest variables are also strongly correlated to their parental construct

260
EFO when all of the factor loadings are over "0.8". They are "0.85", "0.86", and "0.87" for
EFO1, EFO2 and EFO3 respectively. T-value superior to 1.96 in all the three items shows the
reliability of the predictive power of those coefficients.
This construct has a good reliability. Cronbach's Alpha is the same with SPSS and Smart
PLS for the construct: "0.82". Composite reliability is nearly "0.9" for Smart PLS, and also
"0.9" of Rhô de Jöreskog for SPSS.
Table 30: Factor analysis for the construct of Ethnic Friendship Orientation
Item Smart PLS SPSS
Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Composite
Reliability Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog KMO
EFO 0.82 0.73 0.89 0.82 0.74 0.90 0.72
EFO1 0.86 113.72 0.85 60.91
EFO2 0.82 67.78 0.86 59.25
EFO3 0.89 182.45 0.87 51.29
II.4. Out-group Orientation
Out-group orientation (OGO) includes three items focusing on the orientation of those
from other ethnic groups. They are abbreviated as OGO1, OGO2, and OGO3. Factor analysis
on these three items shows a Bartlett's test of Sphericity with a significant p<0.000, as well as a
KMO of “0.71”, meaning all items are perfectly correlated with themselves and have good level
of correlation with the other items. Values of the diagonals in the anti-image correlation matrix
indicate sufficient correlation of these variables (between “0.54” to “0.74”). Hence, they can be
all part of the same factor, in other word, the construct is totally factorable.
With communalities all over “0.7”, extracted factors explain most of the variance in the
variables being analysed. Furthermore, just one factor explains 72.61% of the variances in three
items. The value of average variance extracted (AVE) equals to “0.71”, meaning the variance
due to the construct is greater to measurement errors. It is concluded that the strength of the
relationship among variables is strong, convergent validity of the construct is then validated.
They are also strongly correlated to latent variable of out-group orientation thanks to high
loading values, “0.86” for OGO1, “O.84” for OGO2, and “0.85” for OGO3. In addition, factor
correlation matrix shows that these three manifest variables are much more correlated to the
construct OGO than any other construct. And it is confident to have these three variables as
predictors for the construct as their T-value are all superior to “1.96”.
Realibility of the constructs and its measuring items shown through Cronbach's Alpha
and Rhô de Jôreskog in SPSS section and composite realibility in Smart PLS section are very

261
good with high coefficients, above “0.8” for Cronbach’s Alpha and nearly “0.9” for composite
realibility.
In short, the construct is factorable, convergently and discriminantly validated.
Table 31: Factor analysis for the construct of Other Group Orientation
Item Smart PLS SPSS
Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Composite
Reliability Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog KMO
OGO 0.81 0.69 0.87 0.81 0.72 0.89 0.71
OGO1 0.83 21.20 0.86 66.71
OGO2 0.69 8.25 0.84 70.61
OGO3 0.95 49.21 0.85 70.67
II.5. Situational Orientation
Situational Orientation (SO) comprises three items used to measure it (SO1, SO2 and
SO3). KMO and Bartlett’s test of sphericity produces the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of
sampling adequacy of “0.73”, and Bartlett’s test with a significant p< 0.000. Furthermore, the
variables with covariance and correlations between “0.52” and “0.73” in the diagonals of the
anti-image matrix, indicate sufficient correlation of these variables. The variance due to the
construct is greater to measurement errors with “0.74” of average variance extracted (AVE).
Extracted factors explain most of the variance in the variables being analysed since the
communalities of all the three items are all over “0.74”. Even, with just one factor, it explains
up to 74.93% of the variances in three items. Therefore, factor analysis is appropriate,
convergent validity is confirmed.
Not only correlated among the items themselves, these three measuring items are much
correlated to the construct “Situational Orientation”. The loadings of three manifest variables
are rather high, all over “0.8” and factor correlation matrix implies their low level of correlation
with other construct, but high level of correlation with situational orientation. They can be
totally predictor for the construct with their T-value superior to “1.96”.
With acceptable coefficients, both convergent and discriminant validity of the construct
are confirmed. In terms of reliability, it is also validated with Cronbach’s Alpha of “0.8”. The
same high value “0.88” of composite reliability in Smart PLS and “Rhô de Jöreskog” in SPSS
indicates high internal coherence inside the construct. As a result, it is factorable, and validated
in terms of realibility, convergent and discriminant validity.

262
Table 32: Factor analysis for the construct of Situational Orientation
Item Smart PLS SPSS
Loading T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Composite
Reliability Loading
T-value Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog KMO
SO 0.83 0.75 0.83 0.83 0.74 0.90 0.73
SO1 0.85 96.83 0.87 80.78
SO2 0.88 137.74 0.87 76.18
SO3 0.86 103.97 0.84 83.40
II.6. Ethnic Identity
Measuring ethnic identity construct, five items (EI1, EI2, EI3, EI4, and EI5) are taken in
use. Comparing the magnitudes of the observed correlation coefficients to the magnitudes of the
partial correlation coefficients, it is found that KMO of this construct is rather high: "0.81".
This large value for the KMO measure indicates that a factor analysis of the variables is a good
idea. In addition, the relationship among variables is very strong with the observed significance
level of 0.000 in Bartlett's test of sphericity. The values ranging from “0.53” to “0.86” in the
diagonals of the anti-image covariance and correlation matrix indicate sufficient covariance and
correlation of these variables. So, in terms of factorability, the measures of sampling are
adequate.
The value of average variance extracted (AVE) is about “0.6”, but it is sufficient to
conclude that variance due to the construct is greater to measurement errors. With accepted
comunalities (all above “0.5”)” in the five items, extracted factors explain most of the variance
in the variables being analysed. Especially, it is very good when just with one factor, it explains
59.22% of the variance in the five items of the ethnic identity construct.
The correlation between items and the constructs is rather good with factor loadings
from “0.74” to “0.80”. Specifically and correspondingly, they are “0.75”, “0.78”, “0.74”,
“0.77”, and “0.80” for the five items EI1, EI2, EI3, EI4, and EI5. They express more correlation
with ethnic identity construct, than other construct in factor correlation matrix. Moreover, it is
totally confident to consider them as predictor for the construct as T-value of the five items are
all bigger than “1.96”.
The realibity of the construct is very good with “0.83” of Cronbach alpha with both
statistic sofwares and nearly “0.9” of composite reliability and of Rhô de Jöreskog.
Therefore, factor analysis confirms sampling adequacy, factorability, reliability,
convergent and discriminant validity of the ethnic identity construct.

263
Table 33: Factor analysis for the construct Ethnic Identity
Item Smart PLS SPSS
Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Composite
Reliability Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog KMO
EI 0.83 0.6 0.88 0.83 0.6 0.88 0.81
EI1 0.76 68.86 0.75 66.81
EI2 0.77 78.84 0.78 75.02
EI3 0.72 53.50 0.74 80.70
EI4 0.78 75.79 0.77 56.08
EI5 0.81 100.1 0.80 59.39
II.7. Ethnic Consumption Behavior
There are three items measuring ethnic consumption behavior, ECB1, ECB2, ECB3.
Measures of sampling adequacy are applied to determine the factorability of a correlation
matrix. They include the test of KMO, the Bartlett’s test of spericity, anti-image matrix
diagonals and correlations among factors. Together with diagonal values from “0.51” to “0.73”
on the anti-image covariance and correlation matrix, when checking to value of the Kaiser-
Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy, the KMO of “0.72” is found to be good within
acceptable limits. The Bartlett’s test of sphericity is significant as p<0.000. And factors are
correlated.
The values of average variance extracted (AVE) are around “0.74” with both statistical
sofwares. Nevertheless, both of the two values reach sufficient level to confirm that variance
due to the construct is greater to measurement errors. The communalities of three items are very
much similar, around “0.74” for each, so extracted factors explain most of the variance in the
analysed variables. It is very useful that one factor explains about 74.61% of the variance in the
three items of the ethnic consumption behavior. Loadings of three items measuring this
construct are rather high, averagely “0.86” for each. They are much more related to the
construct ethnic consumption behavior than any other constructs in data set. These information
shows the convergent and discriminant validity of the construct.
For realibility, the coefficient is rather high. Cronbach’s Alpha is “0.83” with both
Smart PLS and SPSS. Internal coherence of the construct is rather strong with composite
reliability or Rhô de Jöreskog of approximately “0.9”.
Table 34: Factor analysis for the construct of Ethnic Consumption Behavior
Item Smart PLS SPSS
Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Composite
Reliability Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog KMO
ECB 0.83 0.74 0.90 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.72
ECB1 0.89 179.75 0.87 68.36
ECB2 0.86 102.29 0.86 68.44
ECB 3 0.84 79.47 0.86 69.36

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II.8. Ethnic Food Consumption
Among constructs in the model, ethnic food consumption (EFC) is the construct with the
biggest number of measuring items. It is measured by eight items, coded as EFC1a, EFC1b,
EFC1c, EFC2a, EFC2b, EFC3, EFC4 and EFC5. This construct has to be modified so that the
model can work better.
When measuring Cronbach's Alpha of this construct with SPSS, it is found that this
coefficient is very high, over “0.85”. However, under “Cronbach’s Alpha if item deleted”, it is
indicated that if the item EFC1a is deleted, Cronbach's Alpha of the construct is even higher,
from "0.85" to "0.88".
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
N of
Items
0.850 8
Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean
if Item
Deleted
Scale
Variance if
Item Deleted
Corrected
Item-Total
Correlation
Cronbach's
Alpha if Item
Deleted
EFC1a 24.29 31.386 0.220 0.878
EFC1b 23.90 26.892 0.655 0.824
EFC1c 23.90 27.304 0.682 0.821
EFC2a 23.87 26.569 0.662 0.823
EFC2b 23.91 27.585 0.666 0.823
EFC3 23.94 27.820 0.623 0.828
EFC4 23.91 27.638 0.623 0.828
EFC5 23.80 27.654 0.644 0.826
Although the result of KMO and Barlette’s test show a very satisfactory KMO of “0.9”
and a significant p<0.000, the value of EFC1a extracted in communilities is so weak (“0.22”)
and the correlation of this variable with the parental variable EFC is not enough strong, under
“0.5”.
To verify this problem with PLS model, the same thing could be found. The
standardized coefficient of item EFC1a is extremely low (only "0.33"). Despite of high
Cronbach's Alpha “0.86” and high composite reliability “0.88”, this low loading makes the
communality and AVE of the construct EFC rather weak, only "0.51". Therefore, this item is
supposed to be deleted to see the difference. In case removing the item EFC1a, the standardized

265
coefficients of all items of this construct is better, and the Cronbach’s Alpha of the construct
increases to “0.88”, its AVE and communality increase to nearly "0.6".
Now that item EFC1a is deleted in SPSS, Cronbach’s Alpha obtained is higher “0.88”.
This high value indicates that the scale has high internal consistency with six remaining items:
EFC1b, EFC1c, EFC2b, EFC3, EFC4, and EFC5. Composite reliability or Rhô de Jôreskog is
then calculated and found to be high, “0.91”, implying high internal coherence of the latent
variables that measure the construct.
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value of this construct is particularly very high “0.9”, highest
among all other constructs. The Bartlett’s test of sphericity is significant as p<0.000. Factors are
correlated. Diagonal values on the anti-image covariance and correlation matrix show the anti-
image covariance above “0.5” and anti-image correlation around “0.9”. It is then concluded that
sampling adequacy and factorability of the correlation matrix are confirmed.
The latent factor is explained by its observed variables thanks to the average variance
extracted (AVE) value of nearly “0.6”. These six items selected have moderate communalities,
their extractions range from “0.54 to “0.61”. However, it is already good when one factor
explains 57.85% of the variances in the seven items and all of the seven items used to measure
ethnic food consumption correlate to parent construct with loadings of over “0.75”. Moreover,
all independent variables have T-value of more than “1.96”, which signifies that they explain
well the dependent variable. Meanwhile cross factor loading shows better correlation of these
items with its construct, compared to their correlation with other constructs of dataset.
Convergent validity and discriminant validity are confirmed.
Total information on the factor ethnic food consumption can be synthesized in the
following table.
Table 35: Factor analysis of Ethnic Food Consumption
Item Smart PLS SPSS
Loading
T-
value
Cronbach’s
Alpha AVE
Composite
Reliability Loading
T-
value
Cronbach’s
Alpha AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog KMO
EFC 0.88 0.6 0.91 0.88 0.6 0.91 0.90
EFC1b 0.79 81.58 0.77 66.45
EFC1c 0.78 70.47 0.77 71.87
EFC2a 0.77 71.69 0.77 65.13
EFC2b 0.77 61.24 0.77 72.77
EFC3 0.71 45.52 0.74 70.64
EFC4 0.77 62.56 0.76 69.70
EFC5 0.73 45.22 0.75 73.96

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Synthesis
In short, factor analysis is used to validate items and constructs of the developed mode.
It attempts to verify the appropriateness of data, the factorability, realiability, convergent and
discriminant validity of the latent variables and constructs, factor structure as well as
significance of independent variables in explaining dependent variables. Accordingly, this
concerns with eleven main indicators, namely (i) Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value; (ii) p
value in Bartlett's test of Sphericit; (iii) communalities; (iv) diagonals on the anti-image
correlation matrix; (v) total variances explained; (vi) average variance extracted (AVE); (vii)
Cronbach's alpha; (viii) Composite Reliability or Rhô de Jöreskog; (ix) loading of each items;
(x) T-value; and (xi) coefficient of inter-correlations among variables.
Two statistic packages are used to process and analyze data collected, including Smart
PLS 2.0 M3 and IBM SPSS 21. Of these two statistic software, SPSS is considered as the
principal software for data processing whistle Smart PLS serve the purpose of verification. It is
found that there are not so much difference in processing data with global samples using Smart
PLS and SPSS.
The results of these two statistic software show KMO value superior to “0.5”,
significant Bartlett’s test of sphericity with p<0.000, AVE value bigger than” 0.5”, Cronbach’s
Alpha and Rhô de Jöreskog/composite reliability over “0.7” for all constructs. For the items, all
of them have loadings of approximately “0.7”, communalities and diagonals on the anti-image
correlation matrix superior to “0.5”, T-value over “1.96”, and high correlation with parental
construct but low correlation with others.
In addition, within every construct, the variance of the total items can be explained by
just one factor. The total variances explained range from 59% to 73%. As a result, the
appropriateness of data, the factorability, realiability, convergent and discriminant validity of
the latent variables and constructs; factor structure as well as significance of independent
variables in explaining dependent variables are confirmed.
Last but not least, although it is not discussed, the tolerance- percentage of variance in
the independent variable that is not accounted for by the other independent variables- and
variance inflation factor- degree to which the standard errors are inflated due to the levels of
collinearity- as well as possibility of duplication of the predictor variable are checked and
controlled to ensure that there is no multi-collinearity problems.
For the overall of factor analysis with global samples, it can be seen in the below table.
However, further information on KMO, Bartlett’s test of sphericity, communalities, total

267
variances explained, cross loading or factor correlation matrix and construct correlation matrix
can be found in the apendices.
Table 36: Factor analysis with global samples
Item Smart PLS SPSS
Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Composite
Reliability Loading
T-
value
Cronbach's
Alpha AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog KMO
EI 0.83 0.6 0.88 0.83 0.6 0.88 0.81
EI1 0.76 68.86 0.75 66.81
EI2 0.77 78.84 0.78 75.02
EI3 0.72 53.50 0.74 80.70
EI4 0.78 75.79 0.77 56.08
EI5 0.81 100.1 0.80 59.39
POE 0.82 0.73 0.89 0.82 0.74 0.89 0.71
POE1 0.89 183.17 0.87 57.69
POE2 0.83 90.50 0.84 63.76
POE3 0.85 139.47 0.86 51.40
POI 0.82 0.74 0.89 0.82 0.74 0.90 0.71
POI1 0.86 60.99 0.87 49.86
POI2 0.87 86.11 0.86 59.66
POI3 0.84 61.53 0.85 46.44
EFO 0.82 0.73 0.89 0.82 0.74 0.90 0.72
EFO1 0.86 113.72 0.85 60.91
EFO2 0.82 67.78 0.86 59.25
EFO3 0.89 182.45 0.87 51.29
OGO 0.81 0.69 0.87 0.81 0.72 0.89 0.71
OGO1 0.83 21.20 0.86 66.71
OGO2 0.69 8.25 0.84 70.61
OGO3 0.95 49.21 0.85 70.67
SO 0.83 0.75 0.83 0.83 0.74 0.90 0.73
SO1 0.85 96.83 0.87 80.78
SO2 0.88 137.74 0.87 76.18
SO3 0.86 103.97 0.84 83.40
ECB 0.83 0.74 0.90 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.72
ECB1 0.89 179.75 0.87 68.36
ECB2 0.86 102.29 0.86 68.44
ECB 3 0.84 79.47 0.86 69.36
EFC 0.88 0.6 0.91 0.88 0.6 0.91 0.90
EFC1b 0.79 81.58 0.77 66.45
EFC1c 0.78 70.47 0.77 71.87
EFC2a 0.77 71.69 0.77 65.13
EFC2b 0.77 61.24 0.77 72.77
EFC3 0.71 45.52 0.74 70.64
EFC4 0.77 62.56 0.76 69.70
EFC5 0.73 45.22 0.75 73.96
III. Hypothesis validation
This section includes two objectives. The first is to analyze direct effects between
constructs in the models which are classified into three categories: (i) effects on ethnic identity;

268
(ii) effect on ethnic consumption behavior; and (iii) ethnic food consumption behaviors. The
second is to analyze the effects of moderator variables.
However, first and formost, before entering to the validation of hypothesis, it is
necessary to present again the conceptual model of the research in the figure below.
Figure 38: Conceptual model
Thirty items are modeled onto the proposed eight constructs in the measurement model.
Among these constructs, almost all are measured with three items, except ethnic identity with
five measuring items, and ethnic food consumption behavior with 7 measuring items.
Structural equation modeling technique is adopted for analytical procedures of this
research. Based on this method, before running the model and testing hypotheses, it is
necessary to conduct an assessment of model and model fit, using several indices that have been
presented in the part of methodology. These fit indexes include:
Goodness of fit index (GFI)
Adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI)
Root mean square error of approximation (RMSE)
Gender Age
Duration of stay
in host country
H1
In-group
factors
Out-group
factors
Personal factors
Situational
factors
H5
Ethnic food
consumption
H4
H8
ethnicity
H2
H3 H10
H9
Moderator variables
Profession
H6
H7
Ethnic
consumption
behavior
Ethnic identity
H11
H12

269
Comparative fit index (CFI)
Normed fit index (NFI)
Non-normed fit index (NNFI)
χ2
/ Degree of freedom
The result of the model fit assessment is synthesized in the following table.
Table 37: Quality indices for justification of research model
Indice Definition Reference
norm
Result Interpretation
Absolute fit indices
GFI
(Goodness of Fit
Index)
(Jorëskog &Sörborn,
1984)
Measure of fit between the
hypothesized model and the
observed covariance matrix/
measure of the relative
amount of variance and
covariance jointly accounted
for by the model
≥ 0.9 0.88 Accepted
AGFI
(Adjusted Goodness
of Fit Index)
(Jorëskog &Sörborn,
1984)
Measuring relative part of the
variance-covariance
explained by the model,
adjusted with the number of
miberty degree (analogue at
R2 adjusted of multiple
regression)
≥ 0.8 0.84 Complying
with the norm
RMSE
(Root Mean Square
Error of
Approximation)
(Steiger & Lind,
1980)
Analyzing the discrepancy
between the hypothesized
model, with optimally chosen
parameter estimates, and the
population covariance matrix
=< 0.06 0.037 Complying
with the norm
Incremental indices/ relative fit indices
CFI
(Comparative Fit
Index)
(Bentler, 1990)
Analyzing the model fit by
examining the discrepancy
between the data and the
hypothesized model, while
adjusting for the issues of
sample size inherent in the
chi-squared test of model fit,
and the normed fit index.
with the norm
NFI
(Normed Fit Index)
(Bentler & Bonett,
1980)
Analying the discrepancy
between the chi-squared
value of the hypothesized
model and the chi-squared
value of the null model
>≈ 0.9 0.86 Accepted

270
NNFI
(Non-normed Fit
Index)
(Bentler & Bonett,
1980)
Comparing a proposed
model’s fit to a nested
baseline or nul model and
measuring parsimony by
evaluating the degrees of
freedom from the proposed
model to the degrees of
freedom of the nul model
with the norm
Parsimoninal indices
χ2
/ Degree of
freedom
(Jöreskog, 1969)
Evaluating to discern models
“over-adjusted” or “sub-
adjusted”
<3 1.28 Complying
with the norm
All the model fit indices comply with the norm. Particularly with GFI and NFI, although
this value is of “0.88” and “0.86” respectively, they approximately reach the norm “0.9”, so can
be considered accepted. It is then possible to conduct the test of hypotheses using structural
equation modeling techniques.
III.1. Analysis of constructs’ direct relation with global samples
Structural model testing is the core of this part. The proposed model constituted with
eight constructs, concerning the identification of ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior
in general and the consumption of ethnic food is tested. This is a two-fold testing. Firstly, the
value of explained variance (R2) for the three latent variables is examined to find out the
adequacy among ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption.
Secondly, internal evaluation of the model is done thanks to path weighting scheme and path
coefficient, which allows an analysis of the significance of each parameter estimated and
facilitates interpretation.
All hypotheses proposed in the conceptual model are now investigated on the whole
ethnic population, meaning the global sample in terms of direct effects. These effects are
presented in three categories: (i) effect on ethnic identity; (ii) effect on ethnic consumption
behavior in general; and (iii) effect on ethnic food consumption.
III.1.1. Effect on ethnic identity
Five hypotheses are proposed to analyse the influence of parental orientation towards
ethnicity, parental orientation towards integration in French society, ethnic friendship

271
orientation, outgroup orientation, situational orientation on the identification of ethnic identiy.
They are presented in the following table.
Table 38: Hypotheses related to factors influencing ethnic identity
H1 Parental orientation towards ethnicity has positive and significantly effect on ethnic
identity.
H2 Parental orientation towards integration in French society has negative and significant
effect on ethnic identity.
H3 Ethnic friendship orientation has positive and significant effect on ethnic identity.
H4 Out-group orientation has negative and significant effect on ethnic identity
H5 Situational orientation has positive and significant effect on ethnic identity
The figure below presents the estimate of coefficients, showing the results that, ethnic
identity is positively affected by four factors: parental orientation towards ethnicity, ethnic
friendhip orientation, out-group orientation, and situational orientation. Among these factors, all
of them have significant impact on ethnic identity. In terms of out-group orientation, it is
hypothesized to have negative and significant influence on ethnic identity. However, it does
have negative impact, but not significant. These results then totally support hypotheses 1, 2, 3
and 5, but partialy confirm hypothesis 4.
Figure 39: Validation of hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
***: Significant
III.1.2. Effect on ethnic consumption behavior
Ethnic consumption behavior is proposed to be positively and significantly affected by
three factors: parental orientation towards ethnicity, ethnic friendship orientation, and ethnic
identity. These relations correspond to three hypotheses as the following.
ethnicity
Ethnic identity
[0.68]
0.55***
-0.28***
0.38***
-0.05
0.38***

272
Table 39: Hypotheses related to factors influencing ethnic consumption behaviors
H7 Ethnic friendship orientation is positively and significantly related to ethnic consumption
behavior.
H8 Ethnic identity has positive and significant effect on ethnic consumption behavior
Figure 40: Validation of hypotheses 6, 7 and 8
***: Significant
From the data collected, and the estimates of coefficients, it is found that the
relationships between ethnic consumption behavior and other three factors are true as
hypothesized. Furthermore, significance is shown in all relationships between ethnic
consumption behavior with parental orientation towards ethnicity, ethnic friendship orientation
and ethnic identity. As a result, all of the hypotheses (6, 7, and 8) are validated.
III.1.3. Effect on ethnic food consumption
Two factors are proposed to have significant effect on ethnic food consumption,
including situational orientation, and ethnic identity. All these relations are synthesized in the
three hypotheses as the follows.
Factors influencing ethnic food consumption
H9 Situational orientation has positive and significant effect on ethnic food consumption
H10 Ethnic identity has positive and significant effect on ethnic food consumption
The result of model testing is presented in the figure below.
ethnicity
Ethnic consumption
behavior
[0.58]
0.24***
0.25***
Ethnic identity
0.27***

273
Figure 41: Validation of hypotheses 9 and 10
***: Significant
The result in the figure above shows that ethnic food consumption is all positively
related to situational orientation and ethnic identity. However, significance is only shown in the
relations with situational orientation. Therefore, hypothesis 10 is partial confirmed while
hypothesis 9 is validated.
III.1.4. Effect on the socialization with ethnic friends
The socialization with ethnic friends is hypothesized to be affected positively and
significantly by two factors: parental orientation towards ethnicity and situations.
Factors influencing ethnic friendship socialization
H12 Situational orientation has positive and significant impact on ethnic friendship
socialization.
The result signifies that both of the two hypotheses are correct. Ethnic friendship
socialization is influenced positively and significantly by parental orientation towards ethnicity
and situational orientation.
Figure 42: Validation of hypotheses 11 and 12
***: Significant
Synthesis:
In short, twelve hypotheses developed in accordance with the conceptual model are
tested, aiming at analyzing the effects on ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior, ethnic
food consumption, and ethnic friendship socialization. These effects are positive or negative,
Ethnic food
consumption
[0.51]
0.28***
Ethnic identity 0.27***
ethnicity Ethnic friendship
socialization
[0.63]
0.45***
Situational orientation 0.34***

274
significant or not, depending on data collected and processing, which then be shown in path
weight, path coefficient and p value. They are synthesized in the table below.
Table 42: Validation of hypothesese in the model for global sample with LISREL
Hypotheses
LISREL
Path coefficient/
Estimate
Verification
Ethnic identity 0.68
H1. Parental orientation towards ethnicity has
positive and significantly effect on ethnic
identity
+ 0.55*** Validated
H2. Parental orientation towards integration in
French society has negative and significant
effect on ethnic identity
- -0.28*** Validated
H3. Ethnic friendship orientation has positive
and significant effect on ethnic identity
+ 0.38*** Validated
H4. Out-group orientation has negative and
significant effect on ethnic identity
- -0.05 Partial validated
Negative but not
significant
H5. Situational orientation has positive and
significant effect on ethnic identity
+ 0.38*** Validated
Ethnic consumption behavior 0.58
positive and significant effect on ethnic
+ 0.24*** Validated
H7. Ethnic friendship orientation is positively
and strongly related to ethnic consumption
behavior.
+ 0.25*** Validated
H8. Ethnic identity has positive and significant
effect on ethnic consumption behavior
+ 0.27*** Validated
Ethnic food consumption 0.51
H9. Situational orientation has positive effect
on ethnic food consumption
+ 0.28*** Validated
H10. Ethnic identity has positive and
significant effect on ethnic food consumption
+ 0.27*** Validated
Ethnic friendship orientation/socialization 0.63
positive and significant effect on ethnic
+ 0.45*** Validated
H12. Situational orientation has positive and
significant impact on ethnic friendship
socialization.
+ 0.34*** Validated
Note: *** p-value < 0.001
Among twelve hypotheses, one of them is partial validated, including the relationship
between out-group orientations with ethnic identity. The reason is that this relationship is
negative but not significant. The rest of hypotheses are validated. The results of the model
testing could be figured out as the followings.

275
Figure 43: Validation of the model with global sample
III.2. Analysis of the effect of moderator variables
In the context of structural equation models, Paul L. Sauer and Alain Dick (1993)
identify two types of moderator variables, including discrete variables and continuous variables.
Discrete moderator variables are infact qualitative variables, which are potentially used in
marketing by their nature discrete, mostly concerning demographic variables like gender,
occupation, nationality, ethnicity. Meanwhile continuous moderator variables represent
quantitative variables in which the variates differ in magnitude, for instance, age, income,
duration of time. However, it is suggested that if a moderator variable is continuous, it should
be rescaled as discrete [James & Brett, 1984].
Taking this suggestion into consideration, all the continuous moderator variables in this
research such as age and duration of time that ethnic person stay in France are rescaled into
discrete variables by transforming into dummy variables from quantitative variables.
Accordingly, the moderator like age is transformed into a categorical variable by recoding the
values. It is classified into five intervals. Four values 1, 2, 3, and 4 are associated respectively to
In-group
factors
Out-group
factors
Out-group
orientation
Personal factors
Situational
factors
Situational
orientation
Ethnic food
consumption
[0.51]
Parental orientation
towards ethnicity
Ethnic friendship
orientation
[0.63]
towards integration
in French society
Ethnic
consumption
behavior
[0.58]
Ethnic identity
[0.68]
0.55***
0.38***
0.28***
0.27***
0.27***
0.38***
-0.05
0.25***
-0.28***
0.24***
0.34***
0.45***

276
four categories: (i) adolescent (13-19 years old; (ii) young adult (20-40 years old); (iii) middle
age (40-64 years old); and (iv) old age (>=65 years old).
Similarly, the moderator variable “residence time in France” comprises four categories,
and encoded as 1, 2, 3 and 4 corresponding to (i) short time for those living in France less or
equal to 5 years, (ii) medium time for the duration between more than 5 years and less than or
equal to 10 years (iii) between 10 years and 20 years for long time; and (iv) over 20 years for
extremely long time.
In general, the effects of moderator variables can be seen on either the direction and/or
the strength of the relation between an independent/predictor variable and a dependent or
criterion variable [Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A., 1986: 1174]
Now that all moderator variables are discret (categorical), multi-group moderation
analysis in the context of structural equation models [Paul L. Sauer and Alain Dick, 1993] is
applied in which the effects of moderator variables are tested by using them to divide the
sample into groups, then their effects are shown and interpreted by sequential moderated
multiple regression analysis.
Traditionally, to do this, Chi-quare test of significance of the difference between
designated structural parameter across groups is performed. More concretely, since moderator
variables in this research are simply observed variables, it is recommended to apply modeling
approach in which a new variable is formed as a product of one moderator variable and another
independent variable and it is called interaction variable [Hayduk, 1987; Bollen, 1989]. The
data are then run twice to measure modeling interaction effect with caution, which requires the
interacting observed variables as multi-norminal distributed [Bollen, 1989]. In the first run, this
interaction variable is present as an indicator while in the other run they are absent. After that,
Chi-square test proceeds and the difference in Chi-square value is then computed [Paul L. Sauer
and Alain Dick, 1993]. The effects of moderator variables are shown by sequential moderated
multiple regression analysis.
However, there is another way much easier and less time consuming to test for group
differences in AMOS, compared with the test of Chi-square difference. Moderator variables are
certainly used to divide the sample into groups, the model is then run with the participation of
these groups. Regression weights of each group are performed. Then, together with critical
ratios for differences between parameters, z-score are calculated. The effects of moderator
variables are confirmed in case of significant z-score. This allows testing the effect of
moderator variables on several relations in the model at the same time.

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To facilitate the test and analysis of the effect of moderators, all of our moderators are
then rescaled into two main groups. For age, it includes two groups, adolescent and young
adults (≤40 years old), and middle and old age (>40 years old). For duration of time living in
France, two groups are set up, one for those with short or medium time living in France (≤10
years) and the other is medium and long time for those living in France more than 10 years. For
profession, it is divided into active and high income profession and passive and low income
profession, in which high active and high income profession regroups four groups of (i)
artisans, merchants and entrepreneurs, (ii) cadre (middle manager) and intellectual profession,
(iii) intermediate profession, and (iv) employee while passive and low income profession
includes the rest four groups of (i) worker, (ii) retired, (iii) without professional activities, and
(iv) student.
Insisting on three main factors of the model, including ethnic identity, ethnic
consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption, this section attempts to decide whether
gender, age, profession and time of residence in France are four moderators, influencing the
relationships between socialization factorx with these three factors. It also aims at seeing the
general effect of moderator variables in the model. Accordingly, twelve hypotheses on the
influence of moderator variable on the model are formulated as the followings.
Figure 44: Moderator variables’ effects
Duration of stay
in host country
Age Gender
Ethnic food
consumption
towards ethnicity
Moderator variables
Profession
Ethnic
consumption
behavior
Ethnic identity
HM3a
HM3b
HM4b
HM1a HM1b
HM2b
HM2a
HM4a

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Table 43: Hypotheses on moderators’ effects
Influence of gender
behavior
Influence of age
moderated by age.
identity
III.2.1. Effect of the gender
To test the two effects of gender on the relations between parental orientation towards
ethnicity and ethnic identity and ethnic consumption behavior in general, z-score is calculated
based on regression weights of two groups (male and female) and critical ratios for differences
between parameters. The significant of difference is also shown together with the value of z-
score. As seen in the table of gender’s effect below, the result shows that gender does moderate
these two relations. Instead, it has significant effect on the relations of (i) parental orientation
towards ethnicity and ethnic identity; (ii) parental orientation towards ethicity and ethnic
consumption behavior. Therefore, the hypotheses HM1a and HM1b are then validated.
HM1a Gender moderates the relations between parental orientation
towards ethnic identity
Validated
HM1b Gender moderates the relations between parental orientation
towards ethnic consumption behavior
Validated
Table 44: Effect of gender
Female Male
Estimate P Estimate P Z-score
EI <--- POE 0,186 0,000 0,375 0,000 2,441**
ECB <--- POE 0,259 0,000 0,101 0,175 -1,705*
Notes: *** p-value < 0.01; ** p-value < 0.05; * p-value < 0.10

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III.2.2. Effect of the age
To facilitate the testing of hypotheses related to the effects of age as moderator, four
groups of age are combined into two: (i) adolescent and young adult; (ii) middle and old age.
Two hypotheses on the effect of age are formulated: one indicates that age moderates the
influence of parental orientation towards integration in French society on ethnic identity, the
other states that the relationship between situational orientation and ethnic food consumption is
moderated by age. Results prove that age moderates these two relationships. As a result, both
hypotheses HM2a and HM2b are validated.
HM2a Age moderates the influence of parental orientation towards
integration in French society on ethnic identity
Validated
HM2b The relationship between situational orientation and ethnic food
consumption is moderated by age.
Validated
Table 45: Effect of age
Adolescent and young adult Middle and old age
EI <--- POI -0,072 0,058 0,122 0,054 2,631***
EFC <--- SO 0,091 0,065 0,465 0,000 2,939***
III.2.3. Effect of profession
Acknowleging the role of profession in the socialization with friends, two hypotheses on
the effects of profession focus on the relationships related to friendship orientation. Concretely,
it attempts to see whether profession moderates the influence of ethnic friendship
orientation/socialization with ethnic identity and with ethnic consumption behavior or not. As
seen in the table presenting effect of profession below, profession not only moderates these two
relations but also the relationship between parental orientation towards ethnicity and ethnic
identity. Then, two hypotheses on the moderation of profession are both validated
HM3a Profession moderates the relations between ethnic friendship
orientation and ethnic identity
Validated
HM3b The influence of ethnic friendship orientation on ethnic
consumption behavior is moderated by profession.
Validated
The effect of profession on the model is illustrated in the following table.

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Table 46: Effect of profession
Active or high income
professions
Passive or low income
professions
EI <--- POE 0,191 0,000 0,326 0,000 1,791*
EI <--- EFO 0,172 0,002 -0,002 0,973 -2,358**
ECB <--- EFO 0,205 0,000 0,053 0,372 -1,805*
III.2.4. Effect of residence time in France
Time of residence is a moderator of the model. It is hypothesized that the duration of
time in France moderates the relations between parental orientation with (i) ethnic identity and
with (ii) the socialization with ethnic friendship.
HM4a The length of residence in France moderates the relation between
parental orientation towards ethnicity and ethnic identity
Validated
HM4b The length of residence in France moderates the relation between
parental orientation towards ethnicity and the socialization with
ethnic friendship.
Validated
Results from data collected confirmed these two hypotheses. Based on the significance
of difference shown in below table, the length of residence in France moderates the relationship
of parental orientation with ethnic identity and with ethnic friendship orientation. Total effect of
the length of residence in France is shown in the following table.
Table 47: Effect of length residing in France
Short and medium time Long and extremely long time
EFO <--- POE 0,138 0,057 0,393 0,000 2,762***
EI <--- POE 0,189 0,000 0,316 0,000 1,715*
Synthesis:
Eight hypothese are developed on the interaction effects. It is proved that gender, age,
profession and time of residence in France are moderators of the model. Based on the analysis
of moderators’ effects on certain relationships in the model, all of the eight hypotheses confirm
the moderation role of these factors. These results are synthesized in the following table.

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Table 48: Validation of effect of four moderator variables gender, age, profession and
time of residence in France
Influence of gender Verification
HM1a Gender moderates the relations between ethnic identity and ethnic
Validated
HM1b Gender moderates the relations between ethnic identity and ethnic
food consumption.
Validated
Influence of age
HM2a Age moderates the influence of parental orientation towards
integration in French society on ethnic identity
Validated
HM2b The relationship between situational orientation and ethnic food
consumption is moderated by age.
Validated
HM3a Profession moderates the relations between ethnic friendship
orientation and ethnic identity
Validated
HM3b The influence of ethnic friendship orientation on ethnic consumption
behavior is moderated by profession.
Validated
HM4a The length of residence in France moderates the relation between
parental orientation towards ethnicity and ethnic identity
Validated
HM4b The length of residence in France moderates the relation between
parental orientation towards ethnicity and the socialization with
ethnic friendship.
Validated
III.3. Comparison of the result between PLS and AMOS with global sample
Structural equation modeling techniques are applied to perform path analytic modeling
with latent variables [Wynne W.Chin., 1998] and considered as multivariate analysis [Fornell,
1987:408]. According to Wynne W.Chin (1998), they are useful in providing the flexibility on:
(i) model relationships among multiple predictor and criterion variables; (ii) construct
unobservable latent variables; (iii) model errors in measurements for observed variables; and
(iv) test a priori theoretical and measurement assumptions agains empirical data in statistic
manner. In this study, partial least squares path modeling is supposed to be shown and
analyzed.
Conventionally, the test of hypotheses are often permitted once overall model fit or
goodness of fit is confirmed with satisfactory indices for any structural equation modeling
based study [Wynne W.Chin., 1998]. However, it is not the case using Smart PLS. The first
and most important reason is that the existing goodness of fit measures is related to the ability
of the model to account for the sample covariances [Wynne W.Chin., 1998]. In other words,
model fit is based on the covariance matrix. Nevertheless, Smart PLS does not rely on the
covariance matrix. The second reason, like Wynne W.Chin explained (1998) is that “In
actuality, models with good fit indices may still be considered poor based on other measures

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such as the R-square and factor loadings. The fit measures only relate to how well the
parameter estimates are able to match the sample covariances. They do not relate to how well
the latent variables or item measures are predicted. The SEM algorithm takes the specified
model as true and attempts to find the best fitting parameter estimates. If, for example, error
terms for measures need to be increased in order to match the data variances and covariances,
this will occur. Thus, models with low R-square and/or low factor loadings can still yield
excellent goodness of fit.” He also suggested that, instead, the predictiveness of the model, the
strength of structural paths and loadings should be paid attention. Taking into account of strong
loadings and significant structural paths (which should be around 0.2 and ideally above 0.3), the
hypothesized model is then run with SmartPLS to extract standardized path to verfy the
hypotheses.
As seen in the table below, all the relationships are supported in the same way using
LISREL or PLS methods to test the model and hypotheses. However, in general, it is found that
PLS often underestimates path weights (which show the weigth of the relationship between
latent variables). This can be explained that while LISREL is a covariance-based structural
equation modeling method, PLS is a partial-least squares based method, or variance based.
Therefore, it is possible to have different results with same data using these two different
methods. In addition, with PLS, the attenuating effect of measuring error is not taken into
account using multiple regressions. A known fact is that PLS tends to underestimate the
structural path connecting constructs to one another but overestimates the measurement paths
connecting constructs to their indicators [Chin, 1995]. Moreover, even with small path weight
(under 0.2), the increase in the number of cases or the numbers of samples can help increasing
t-statistic by running bootstrapping. It is acknowledge that the more case selections and the
more resamples, the lower error, so the higher t-statistic. However, as suggested Wynne
W.Chin (1998), it is recommended to take into account significant structural paths which
should be around “0.2” and ideally above “0.3”. Therefore, this model is affected by the choice
of statistical software and structural equation modeling method.
The following table presents a comparison of the results testing hypotheses with two
methods, LISREL and PLS.

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Table 49: Comparison of hypothesis testing with LISREL and PLS
Hypotheses
LISREL PLS
Path coefficient/
Estimate Verification
Path
coefficient/
Estimate
Verification
H1. Parental orientation
towards ethnicity has positive
and significantly effect on
ethnic identity
+ 0.55*** Validated 0.33*** Validated
towards integration in French
society has negative and
significant effect on ethnic
identity
- -0.28*** Validated -0.21*** Validated
H3. Ethnic friendship
orientation has positive and
identity
H4. Out-group orientation has
negative and significant effect
on ethnic identity
- -0.05 Partial
validated
Negative but
not significant
-0.03 Partial
validated
Negative but
not
significant
H5. Situational orientation has
positive and significant effect
on ethnic identity
and significant effect on
ethnic consumption behavior
orientation is positively and
strongly related to ethnic
H8. Ethnic identity has
on ethnic consumption
behavior
H9. Situational orientation has
positive effect on ethnic food
consumption
on ethnic food consumption
H11Parental orientation
and significant effect on
ethnic friendship socialization
H12. Situational orientation
has positive and significant
impact on ethnic friendship
socialization.

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IV. Analysis of main ethnic groups
Based on data collection, it is found that there are three main ethnic groups participating
in this study, including Northern African, Sub-Saharan African and Eastern Asia. Therefore,
this section is dedicated in analyzing factors and validing hypotheses according to ethnic
groups. The purpose of this analysis is to see whether the conceptual model is appropriate with
sample data according to ethnicity or not.
IV.1. Factor analysis
This section deal with the factor analysis of three main groups taking part in the survey:
Northern African, Sub-saharan African, and Eastern Asian. Factor analysis shows that all the
manifest and latent variables of the model satisfy with the norms concerning loadings (≥0.5),
Cronbach’s Alpha (≥7), rhô de Jöreskog (≥0.7), KMO (≥0.5), Barlett’s test with significant p
value, communalities (≥0.5), antimage covariance (≥0.5), anti-image correlation (≥0.5), AVE
(≥0.5), T-value (≥1.96), manifest variables have higher loadings with its latent variable
compared to other constructs… These help validating the latent variables in terms of
convergent validity, discriminant validity and reliability. Especially, it is necessary to mention
that, like the global sample, the construct of ethnic food consumption has to delete one
measuring item (EFC1a) for better model. The result of factor analysis can be synthesized in the
table in annex 6.
IV.2. Testing model and hypothesis
Thanks to factor analysis, the model is allowed to run and hypotheses are tested. Due to
small sample in three groups, PLS is taken in use. The following table synthesized the result
obtained from three main ethnic groups in France, Northern African ethnic group, Sub-Saharan
ethnic group, and Eastern Asian ethnic group.

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Table 50: Testing hypotheses on three ethnic groups
Northern African
group
Sub-saharan African
group
Eastern Asian group
Hypotheses
Path
coefficient
Verificat°
Path
coefficient
Verificat°
Path
coefficient
Verificat°
towards ethnicity has
positive and significantly
+*** V +*** V +*** V
towards integration in
French society has
negative effect on ethnic
identity
_*** V _ PV + NV
identity
+*** V +*** V +*** V
H4. Out-group orientation
has negative and
identity
_ PV _ PV _*** V
has positive and significant
+*** V +*** V +*** V
positive and significant
effect on ethnic
+*** V + PV +*** V
orientation is positively
related to ethnic
+ PV +*** V +*** V
effect on ethnic
+ PV +*** V + PV
has positive effect on
ethnic food consumption
+*** V +*** V + PV
positive effect on ethnic
food consumption
+*** V + PV +*** V
effect on ethnic friendship
socialization
+*** V +*** V +*** V
H12. Situational
significant impact on
ethnic friendship
socialization.
+*** V +*** V +*** V
***p<0.001 No sign => insignificant
V: Validated NV: Not validated PV: Partial validated

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As can be seen, the result of hypothesis testing shares similarities and difference across
different ethnic groups. This is supposed to be discussed in detail in the following section.
V. Discussion of findings
The purpose of the research is to study ethnic identity, socialization factors and their
influence on ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption. Accordingly, the role
of socialization factors such as parental orientations, ethnic friendship orientation, out-group
orientation and situational orientation are taken into consideration to analyze their impact on the
identification of ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption. As
well, the correlations among the
The research model allows explaining 68.2% of the variance of ethnic identity, 58.3% of
the variance of ethnic consumption behavior, 51.3% of the variance of ethnic food
consumption, and 63.3% of the variance of ethnic friendship orientation. The model is
estimated on global sample using LISREL approach and verified with PLS approach. However,
for ethnic groups, the model is estimated thanks to PLS approach due to the limitation of
sample size.
V.1. With global sample
V.1.1. Effect on ethnic identity
Ethnic identity is influenced by several factors, which is divided into three groups.
The first include in-group factors, for example orientations of parents or friends of the
same ethnic group. However, for parental orientations, it is categorized into positive and
negative orientations. In terms of positive orientation, it includes orientation towards
ethnicity, which may strengthen ethnicity related issues of an individual. On contrary,
parental orientation towards integration in French society represents negative impact.
The second group involves out-group orientations, coming from people of host culture.
The third one is situational orientation, which comprises of favorable condition for the
development of ethnicity and ethnic consumption.
Five hypotheses are developed to see their impact on ethnic identity, and result obtained
supports four of them. Concretely, ethnic identity is positively and significantly influenced by
(i) parental orientation towards ethnicity; (ii) ethnic friendship orientation; and (iii) situational

287
orientation. Meanwhile parental orientation towards integration in French society has negative
and significant impact on it.
The remaining hypothesis, which is only partial validated, signifies the influence of out-group
orientation on ethnic identity. It does have negative effect, but not so strong on ethnic individual’s
ethnicity. The socialization of ethnic individuals with out-group members shows their attempts in
integrating in mainstream society. For instance, they would like to meet and make acquaintance with
people from other ethnic groups and discover their culture and customs. They usually spend their time
with people from other ethnic groups, involve in activities and enjoy being around them, as well as
encourage their family and friends to engage in cultural practices of other ethnic groups, enjoy food,
music and customs of other groups. However, this socialization, to some extent, is time consuming and
affects their daily practice and behavior. As a result, it has negative effect in the preservation and
demonstration of ethnic identity. Nevertheless, it is impossible to conclude that socialization with out-
group members has great impact on ethnic identity or one can lost their ethnic identity because of
making friends with people from other ethnic group and participating in their activities.
Hence, the identification of ethnic identity does not only depend on the self, but other
socialization factors in society. It extremely depends on parental orientations; on the friends of
the same ethnic group that individual socializes with, and on favorable situations. In case of
favorable conditions, ethnic identity is motivated, in case of unfavourable conditions, it is
demotivated. These results confirm the importance of family as a transmitter of ethnicity and
significant impact on the strength of ethnic identity [Smith W.L. & Hendry W. 2007: 112],
proved positive effect of ethnic friendship orientation on ethnic identity [Xu J. et al. 2004], and
support the point of view of Phinney (1992) when indicating that "the attitudes toward other
groups are not part of ethnic identity, but they may interact with it as a factor in one's social
identity in the larger society" [Phiney, 1992: 161].
Therefore, it is necessary to study the effect of these five factors in order to understand
the ethnic identity of a certain ethnic group. Parental orientation towards ethnicity, socializing
with friends from the same ethnic groups and favorable situations are factors that helps
preserving, and strengthening ethnic identity while the integration of parents into host culture
and the socialization with people from other ethnic groups contribute to degrade ethnic identity.
There is a trade-off here, which supports the model of acculturation. For instance, if one wants
to assimilate or totally integrate in host culture, he/she will loose ethnic identity gradually. On
the contrary, he/she preserves his/her ethnic identity, but only live in ethnic community manner,
and keep a big distance with host culture. There is also a possibility for one who halfly
integrates in mainstream culture and halfly belongs to his/her ethnic group. In this case, he/she
should socialize with both in-group and out-group members.

288
Gender is a factor moderating the effect of parental orientation towards ethnicity on
ethnic identity. This effect is stronger for male than female. Therefore, parental education of
ethnicity for male individuals helps strengthening ethnic identity better than for female one.
Age also moderates the effect of parental orientation and ethnic identity. However, it is the
parental orientation towards the integration in French society. For adolescent and young adult,
this parental effect is stronger and negative. Nonetheless, for those of middle and old age,
parental orientation towards ethe integration in French society does not decrease their ethnic
identity, but increases. This is perhaps because the self is already formed with the group of
middle and old age, while adolescent and young adult still seek for their identity and is
influenced by several factors, including their parental orientation.
In addition, profession is another moderator of the relationships between ethnic identity
and parental orientation towards ethnicity and between it with ethnic friendship orientation. For
those with passive or low income profession, such as unemployed, students, housewives, and
workers… they are more oriented towards ethnicity by their parents. Meanwhile, those with
active and high income professions, such as cadres, entrepreneurs, employees… are not. The
influence of ethnic friendship orientation towards ethnicity is positive to thosebelonging to
active or high income profession group but negative to those with passive or low-income
professions.
Last but not least, time of residence in France moderates the influence of parental
orientation towards ethnicity on ethnic identity. With those living in France for long and
extremely long time, this influence is higher. Then, the more they live in France, the more their
parental orientation towards ethnicity has impact on their ethnic identity. Perhaps it is because
they acknowledge well the role of keeping and maintaining ethnic identity in the host culture.
V.1.2. Effect on ethnic consumption behavior
To test the impact on ethnic consumption behavior, three relationships are taken into
consideration, including those between this factor and parental orientation towards ethnicity,
ethnic friendship orientation and ethnic identity. All these three hypotheses are supported.
Based on the result, it is possible to conclude that in case parent orients ethnic individual
towards ethnicity, in case socializing with ethnic friends, or in case of strong ethnicity, he/she
tend to have ethnic consumption behavior, such as watch ethnic movies or movies that portrait
ethnic culture in his/her language or with French subtitle, listen to his/her ethnic music, listen to
radio in his/her language, read newspaper in his/her language, eat ethnic food or food with

289
similar origins or attend his/her ethnic cultural performances, festivals or events. In other
words, the consumption behavior of an ethnic individual is positively and significantly
influenced by his/her ethnic identity (personal factors), parental orientation towards ethnicity
and ethnic friendship orientations (in-group factors). This supports positive effect of parents
and ethnic friendship orientation on ethnic consumption behavior that have been studies by
several researcher, such as Rieasman & Roseborough (1955); Hirschman, 1981; Wallendorf &
Reilly (1983); Valencia, (198); 5Zmud J. & Arce C., (1992); Phinney (1990), Xu J. et al.
(2004), Pachucki M.A. et al. (2011), Sarah-Jeanne Salvy et al., (2011). Hence, to stimulate the
consumption of certain ethnic products, it is necessary to strengthern ethnic identity of ethnic
individuals, to provide opportunities for them to socialize with ethnic friends, or to stimulate
their parental orientation towards ethnicity.
The influence of parental orientation towards ethnicity and ethnic consumption behavior
depends on gender. It is more significant for female and male. In other terms, female tends to
have more ethnic consumption behavior than men in case their parents orient them towards
ethnicity and towards the consumption of ethnic products or services. Meanwhile, the influence
of ethnic friendship orientation on ethnic consumption behavior is moderated by profession. For
those belonging the the group of active or high income profession, this impact is stronger than
for those with passive or low income professions.
V.1.3. Effect on ethnic food consumption
Ethnic food consumption is significantly and positively influenced by ethnic identity
and situational factor. So, to increase the consumption of ethnic food of certain ethnic members,
it is vital to enhance their ethnic identity as well as provide favorable conditions, such as a good
socio-political environment that encourage the consumption of ethnic food, or availability of
ethnic food around the living place of ethnic individuals. The results support researches on the
relationship between ethnic identity and ethnic food consumption, for example the studies of
Laroche M. et al., (1998); Xu J. et al., (2004); Carrus.G. et al., (2009); Rodrigo Romo & José
M. Gil (2009); Laroche M. et al. (2009) and those on the relationship of situation factor and
ethnic food consumption conducted so far, such as Stayman & Deshpande (1989), and Xu J. et
al. (2004). In addition, the age moderates the relationship between situational orientation and
ethnic food consumption. For middle and old age group, this impact is much more significant to
adolescent and young adult group, probably because they are more sensitive with this relation.

290
V.1.4. Effect on the socialization with ethnic friends
The socialization with ethnic friends is hypothesized to be positively and strongly
affected by favorable situations and parental orientation towards ethnicity. The result obtained
supports these factors, indicating that ethnic individuals are positively encouraged to socialize
with ethnic friends in case their parents orient them towards ethnicity, or in case of favourable
conditions. This confirms close connection between family and friends in a life-long process of
socialization and self identity formation [Brim, 1968, Moore E.S. & Bowman G.D., 2006].
Depending on the length of time residing in France, the relationship of parental orientation
towards ethnicity and ethnic friendship orientation can be different. The longer ethnic members
live in France, the greater this impact is.
V.2. Similarity and difference across ethnic groups
The table presenting the result of model testing and hypothesis testing allows making
comparison among three ethnic groups: Northern African, Sub-Saharan African, and Eastern
Asian.
V.2.1. Parental role
Despite of difference, the important and significant influences of parental orientation
towards ethnicity on ethnic identity and ethnic friendship socialization are undeniable
regardless ethnic group. This shows crucial role of parental orientation towards ethnicity in the
identification of an ethnic individual’s identity and his/her socialization with ethnic friends.
Nonetheless, parental role towards ethnicity is totally different according to types of
ethnicity when parents tend integrating in French society. In this case, their orientations can be
negative and significant to the ethnic identity of Northern African group, but not so significant
with Sub-Saharan African group, and totally not negative to Eastern Asian group.
Perhaps this shows that Eastern Asian ethnic members do not follow parental orientation
towards the integration in French society that blurs their ethnic identity. In case of strong and
negative orientation towards ethnicity, it has opposite impact, meaning reinforcing their ethnic
identity.
This is contrary with Northern African group when children tend to follow completely
the orientation of their parent. In case their parents integrating in French society and weaken
their ethnic identity, so do the children. For Sub-Saharan African group, the negative of

291
parental orientation towards integration in French society exist, but not that strong and
significant as with Northern African group.
V.2.2. Ethnic friends’ role
When ethnic friendship orientation influences ethnic identity, it has significant and
positive impact three ethnic group members.
In terms of ethnic friendship orientation, it is true that in case socializing with ethnic
friends, the consumption behavior of ethnic members is strengthened, however at different
level. For Sub-Saharan African and Eastern Asian ethnic members, this influence is significant,
but for Northern African individuals, it is not that strong.
V.2.3. Out-group’s role
In general, out-group orientation has negative impact on all ethnic groups. Nevertheless,
this effect is stronger to Eastern Asian group than to Northern African or Sub-Saharan African
groups. The reason may lies in the fact that the ethnic identity of Eastern Asian members is very
clear. In case socializing with ethnic friends, their ethnic identity is strong. However, in case
socializing with out-group friends, their ethnic identity is strongly faded. Meanwhile, for
Northern African and Sub-Saharan group members, socializing with out-group members
contribute weakening their ethnic identity, but not so significantly.
V.2.4. Situation’s role
In the identification of ethnic identity and the socialization with ethnic friends, favorable
situations provide opportunities for the Sub-Saharan African and Eastern Asian group members
to find out more common with their ethnic friends, prefer to hang out with friends from their
own ethnic group and to make friends with them. As a result, it strongly motivates them to
socialize with ethnic friends as well as reinforce their ethnic identity.
However, depending on situation and ethnicity, ethnic food consumption can be slightly
or strongly affected. Favorable situations highly strengthen the consumption of ethnic food by
Northern and Sub-Saharan African ethnic members while moderately stimulate the
consumption of this kind of food by Eastern Asian group members. It is difficult to explain this
moderate effect, because perhaps even in unfavorable condition, the Eastern Asian population
in France still consumes ethnic food due to their high ethnic identity.

292
V.2.5. Ethnic identity’s role
In general, ethnic identity plays an important role in defining ethnic consumption
behavior and ethnic food consumption of the three ethnic groups: Northern African, Sub-
Saharan African and Eastern Asian. However, the degree to which it affects these two factors
are a little different according to ethnic groups. For example the influence of ethnic identity on
the consumption of ethnic food are both positive and significant for Northern African and
Eastern Asian groups, but it is not significant for Sub-Saharan African one. On contrary, the
impact of ethnic identity on ethnic consumption behavior in general is only positive and
significant for Sub-Saharan African group. However, it is not significant for the rest of two
groups.
Then, it is possible to conclude that for Northern African and Eastern Asian individuals,
their high degree of ethnic identity motivate them to consume ethnic food in significant manner.
This is probably due to high link between ethnic identity and ethnic food consumption as well
as strong importance of ethnic food in these two ethnic groups. Meanwhile, Sub-Saharan
African with high degree of ethnic identity stimulate them to have significant ethnic
consumption behavior in general, for instance reading ethnic magazines and journals, watching
television in ethnic language, attending their cultural events, so on so forth.

293
Conclusion
To conclude, this chapter presents the main result of the research. Firstly, it provides a
descriptive analysis of the sample, according to ethnic origin, nationality, religion, language,
gender, age, profession and time of residence in France. The study involves 450 ethnic people
in France, from the age of adolescent to old age (17-70), mainly living in France over 10 years,
and principal belong to three main ethnic groups: Northern African, Sub-saharan African and
Eastern Asian.
Secondly, it demonstrates factor analysis in terms of factorability, reliability, convergent
and discriminant validity. The results show a satisfactory factor analyses not only for the global
sample, but also for the three main ethnic groups. As a result, structural equation modeling is
allowed to test hypotheses on the global sample, as well as on the three ethnic groups for the
purpose of making comparison.
In the next part, final and overall conclusion will provide a synthesis of the research in
general. In addition, contributions of this research are supposed to be discussed more in detail.
Then based on what have been done, limitation of the research will be presented as well as
recommendations are made for future research.

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CONCLUSION
I. Synthesis of the research
Theoretical and empirical investigations on ethnicity, ethnic identity, culture, ethnic
consumption shows the objective of this research. It first attempts to identify and measure the
impact of different socializational and situational factors on ethnic identity, ethnic consumption
behavior in general and ethnic food consumption in particular in France. It is found that several
important issues involve here.
The first concerns immigration development and acculturation of immigrants in France.
As France is among countries with long history of immigration, while the number of immigrant
and foreigners increases over recent years, there is a diversity of ethnic people living in France
with different types of acculturation which helps defining their behaviors. There are four main
ethnic groups, including
North Africans- the Maghreb: for instance Algerian, Morrocan, Tunisians, these
ethnic groups are mostly Muslims, speaking Arabic and French
Sub-Saharan Africans with those coming from nations situated in the West or
Central Africa/ the Africans and Antillais: this group include both people practising Muslim
and Christian, normally speaking French, together with their national languages
Asians: mainly comprises of Vietnamese political immigrants after the war in
Vietnam or Chinese migrating to France for economic reasons
Ethnic people of other nationalities recently immigrate to France for different
purposes: for example the Turkish concentrated in the East of France, or those from the East of
Europe migrating to the European Union in general and to France in particular.
Although the ethnic participants of the research have a strong ethnic identity, confirm
their high ethnic consumption behavior, and rather high ethnic food consumption, there are
different types of consumers. The research confirms the result conducted by the ethnic
marketing agency SOPI in the sense that, ethnic population based on acculturation can be
categorized into five types, including:
The "positive thinkers": represented by the young professional originating from
Africa, Maghreb (North Africa) or Asia between the age of 25 and 45, who are driven by the

295
desire to get individual success or fairer demonstration and recognition of their achievements
while neglecting the discrimination in reality. Their consumption is wholly analogous to the
mainstream people, except when they are with ethnic members, or in case of availability of
their ethnic products and services.
The "ET ET": is in fact the ones of middle class who claim much the culture of
their parents and their ethnic members, rather than that of the country they were born. The
majority of their friends shared the same community like them, however, they can also have
friends of all origins. They are the main consumers of identical products and services. They
usually do not buy meaningless goods, but loyalty programs can meet their expectation. They
are African European, Franco-Arabic, and Franco-Asian.
The "Sam'suffit": is also the one of middle class, but rather assimilated when not
wanting to be considered as belonging to any precise ethnic minority group but just as an
average consumer. They are normally in the age between 25-40, working as a middle manager,
employees or official. They include Western Asian, or North African origin, several of them are
miw in terms of ethnicity.
The "Identity rebel" groups those driven by a strong frustration vis-à-vis French
society. They have a strong ethnic identity. This includes those at different ages but
unemployed, or in under-qualified jobs or the young and newly arrived persons at the age of 18-
25. This group of people is very potential for identity marketing, because they prefer cultural
products, and ethnic food.
The "As in their country": is in fact the one from African or Maghreb, often new
arrivals and keep most of their lifestyle as in their homeland. Despite of low income profession,
these people prefer consuming ethnic products and services, as well as ethnic food. They
include men and women over 45 years old or those of the age 25-35 but young economic
migrants.
The second refers to ethnic products and services available in world wide market, and
particular in France. They can be financial products or services, clothing, cosmetics, food,
communications, housing, telecommunication, or touristic services, so on so forth. Among
these kinds of ethnic products and services, it is easy to recognize the vivid existence and
development of some in France, namely ethnic food, ethnic cosmetic, ethnic press, and ethnic
communication services. In addition, the marketing of ethnic products and services increase in
importance for both big and small market agents. For the big ones, ethnic market is considered
as the remaining potential market segments that they try to cover. For the small ones, ethnic

296
market is potential and easier for them to develop their business in such saturated market as
France.
However, dealing with ethnic issues, it is necessary to understand ethnic identity
formation and development. Therefore, theory on identity, especially on ethnic identity is a
focus, aiming at clarifying its components, meaning, importance, and development procedure. It
is also essential to understand the importance of ethnic culture, and acculturation of ethnic
people. Theory on culture serves this purpose. Nonetheless, how to market ethnic products and
services to ethnic people is another related issue. Hence, an overall knowledge on ethnic
marketing is systematically analyzed, and indepth comparison between it with tribal marketing
and community marketing is made.
II. Contribution of the research
The research is useful for both theory and practice. It, therefore, has two principal
constributions. While the first one contributes to theoretical knowledge on ethnic identity,
ethnic consumption behavior and socialization factors in acculturation process, the second
brings more practical knowledge to facilitate the management of ethnic issues and the
marketing of ethnic products and services in France.
II.1. Theoretical contribution
In terms of theoretical contribution, this research activates theoretical background on
ethnicity, ethnic identity and culture of ethnic population. At the same time, it brings a profound
knowledge on ethnic marketing. An overview of several researches on these issues has been
synthesized, allowing to present and analyze (i) ethnic identity; (ii) ethnic consumption
behavior; (iii) ethnic food consumption; and (iv) the socialization factors.
This research contributes significantly to previous researches on the identification and
formation of ethnic identity. The adaptation and adoptation of multi-group ethnic identity
measure model (Phinney J.S., 1992) allows validating the conceptual model developed in this
research. Accordingly, ethnic identity is not only the product of the self, but influenced by
many other factors. This includes both socialization factors coming from in-group and out-
group, and situational factors deriving from living environment.
To better understanding ethnic consumption, ethnic consumption behavior in general
and ethnic food consumption in particular are separated. The model and measurements of Xu J.

297
et al. (2004) and Mich C.C. & Keillor B.D. (2011) are adapted to clarify these two issues. This
is interesting in the context of France where ethnic products and services in general increase in
importance and where gastronomy is in the heart.
As a whole, the measurements or the combination of the variables in the model
proposed in this research cover importance of more crucial factors than previous quantitative
empirical studies. Ethnic identity and behavior are expressed in (i) their affirmation, belonging,
pride and activation which are defined by themselves; (ii) their perception and choice of ethnic
identity received and chosen via the socialization process with different people, family, friends,
and other group members; (iii) as well as in felt ethnicity via different situations.
In addition, as the researches on ethnic identity and consumption behavior in France
have so far applied qualitative method [Beji Becheur A. et al., 2012; De Lassus C. et al., 2012;
Silhouette-Decourt, V., 2009, Silhouette-Decourt, V. & De Lassus C., 2012, Sondes Zouaghi,
2012], this study therefore brings another view and perspectives on ethnic identity and
consumption in France.
II.2. Managerial and professional contribution
The research is useful in clarifying some main issues:
The determinant factors in the identification of ethnic identity: including parental
orientation, ethnic orientation, out-group orientation and situational orientation
The factors influencing ethnic consumption behavior in general: including ethnic
identity, parental orientation and ethnic friendship orientation
The factors influencing ethnic food consumption in particular: including ethnic identity
and situational orientation
The factors influencing the socialization with friends of the same ethnic group:
including parental orientation and situational orientation
The difference in ethnic identity identification, ethnic consumption behavior, ethnic
food consumption and socialization factors across different ethnic groups in France
The results of the research allow providing some useful information for not only the
management of ethnic related issues, but also for different market agents.

298
For the management of ethnic related issues
Ethnic identity is influenced by several factors, which is divided into three groups. The
first include in-group factors, for example orientations of parents or friends of the same ethnic
group. The second group involves out-group orientations, coming from people of host culture.
The third one is situational orientation, which comprises of favorable condition for the
development of ethnicity and ethnic consumptionit is proved that ethnic identity is positively
and significantly influenced by (i) parental orientation towards ethnicity; (ii) ethnic friendship
orientation; and (iii) situational orientation and negative influenced by parental orientation
towards integration in French and out-group orientation (mainstream population). Family is the
main transmitter of ethnic identity, but other socialization factors also play a crucial role,
particularly in-group factor. Especially, in case of favorable conditions, ethnic identity is
motivated, in case of unfavourable conditions, it is demotivated. Gender, age, profession, and
duration of time in France show their importance roles in ethnic identification. Accordingly,
parental effects on ethnic identity is higher for the male, the young, the one with passive or low
income profession, such as unemployed, students, housewives, and workers… and for those
living in France for long and extremely long time.
Ethnic individuals are positively encouraged to socialize with ethnic friends in case their
parents orient them towards ethnicity, or in case of favourable conditions. Depending on the
length of time residing in France, this effect can be different. The longer ethnic members live
in France, the greater this impact is.
Situational factors play an important role in not only the identification of ethnic identity,
but also the consumption of ethnic food, or the socialization with ethnic friends.
For market agent
Ethnic market is a golden ore that has not been dug in France. Currently, it mainly exists
in media and communication, food, cosmetics, and telecommunication. However, it is potential
in every aspecs of life, not only these one, but also finance and banking, tourism, real estate, so
on so forth.
Ethnic market is distributed throughout France. However, ethnic services and products
have mainly developed in Il de France region. It is potential for market agents to develop their

299
products, services and distribution channels so as to cover the whole ethnic population in terms
of location, and to cover them in terms of different needs.
African and Asian are main ethnic population in France. They are mainly belongs to
young adult, and at working age. They can serve not only as potential and high purchasing
power consumers, but also as potential service providers, etrepreneurs, and distributors… to
satisfy specific demand of ethnic group.
Based on the average income of these groups in different area, the marketers can
understand better the financial and living condition of each group to design appropriate
products and services if they take any of these ethnic groups as targeted consumers.
Despite of several constraints related to regulations and discrimination, ethnic
population exists with potentiality. Either ethnic people preserve their ethnic identity or tend to
trace back to their origins, or other else searching for the differences in the mainstream culture,
ethnic market is opened for development.
Ethnic consumption behavior is significantly and positively influenced in case parent
orients ethnic individual towards ethnicity, in case socializing with ethnic friends, or in case of
strong ethnicity. The general ethnic consumption includes watching ethnic movies or movies
that portrait ethnic culture in his/her language or with French subtitle, listen to his/her ethnic
music, listening to radio in his/her language, reading newspaper in his/her language, eating
ethnic food or food with similar origins or attending his/her ethnic cultural performances,
festivals or events. Female tends to be influenced more by parental orientation towards the
consumption of ethnic food while those with active or high income profession tends to be more
affected by ethnic friends in terms of ethnic consumption. Therefore, ethnic social network,
media and communication are useful in motivate certain consumption of ethnic individuals
Particularly with ethnic food consumption, it is significantly and positively influenced
by ethnic identity and situational factor. So, to increase the consumption of ethnic food of
certain ethnic members, it is vital to enhance their ethnic identity as well as provide favorable
conditions, such as a good socio-economic environment that encourage the consumption of
ethnic food. It is necessary to to provide favourable condition to motivate the consumption of
ethnic products and services, for example the availability of products and services around the
living place of ethnic individuals. In terms of food, it can be largely on sale at grand distribution
surface like super markets or hyper markets in addition to traditional distribution channels and
ethnic commerce. Furthermore, it is necessary to provide additional services serving ethnic
population to facilitate and stimulate them in the consumption of ethnic products and services,

300
for instance the promotion and makerting strategies related to their cultural events, sale persons
possible to speak ethnic language in addition to French, package in several languages…
Nonetheless, etthnic food serves not only ethnic population but also others, including
mainstream one. This is due to cultural exchange and mondialization. As a result, ethnic food is
a potential market serving different types of clients. As the origin of ethnic food is important
but not decisive factor. The more crucial is the similar base and ingredient as original ethnic
good. This opens an opportunity for the French agriculture and food processing in responding
the needs in terms of ethnic food.
Like the case of Halal or Kosher food, specific ethnic brand can be developed targeting
different ethnic groups in different domains, food, cosmetics, fashion, telecommunication,
finance, tourism, etc.
III. Limit of the research
Despite of these contributions, it is inevitable to have limitations in the research. Certain
limitations of the research have been identified. First of all, data are collected from a relative
small convenience sample, which limits generalization of the findings beyond the sample
characterisicts. As Gay and Airasian (2003) and Trochim (2006) pinpoint, with convenience
sampling method, future researches that involve other subjects, in other places, or at other time
may not yield the same results and findings as the current study. Therefore, instead of non-
probalibity, probability sampling is recommended to avoid sampling bias and to ensure the
representativeness of the selected sample [Fowler, 2009; Gay and Airasian, 2003]. Particularly
in the analysis of three main ethnic groups, small number of sample restrains data processing
and model testing with LISREL method. In case of enough samples, certainly better reliable
result will be obtained and better picture of ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior, ethnic
food consumption, and socialization factors of different ethnic groups in France will be figured
out. However, it is necessary to mention the difficulty in contacting and approaching ethnic
members in France. Since ethnicity is a sensitive issue related to stereotypes, taboo, and
discrimination in France, people tends to be precautious in participating in such research.
Online survey makes it possible but only deal with young population who are active with new
technology and social network. The older ethnic members are neither active with Internet, nor
enthusiastic in participating in an online survey. In addition, to some extend, ethnic population
in France belongs to different minority groups with unfavorable conditions. Therefore, they
may not have high access to Internet. It is even more difficult if attemping to approach those

301
practicing certain religion or profession. To solve this problem, a face-to-face questionnaire
answering in real life is needed. Nonetheless, due to sensitive issue, and regulation problems
(concerning anonymity of ethnic people, data saving, etc.), respondents hesitate to engage in it,
especially Jew population.
The second limit concernes the construct of situational orientations. As only favorable
conditions are incorporated in this construct, it is necessary to create another situational latent
variable in which manifest variables indicate unfavorable conditions. The purpose is to bring a
clearer impact of situation on the identification of ethnic identity, socialization with ethnic
friends, the consumption of ethnic food or ethnic consumption behavior, as well as to see the
level of integration in the French society of ethnic group like the case of parental orientations.
As can be seen with this construct, favorable and unfavorable items measuring parental
orientation towards ethnicity, and parental orientation towards integration in French society
have different and opposite impact on ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior, ethnic food
consumption, and ethnic friend socialization. In this case, higher number of participants in data
collection is necessary.
Thirdly, in addition to the focus on different actions of food consumption, it is suggested
that the importance of ethnic food in one’s culture could be mentioned directly in the construct
of ethnic food consumption. Its objective is to measure the value of ethnic food in different
culture as well as how ethnic food is important to individuals.
Last but not least, there are many socialization factors that may have influence on ethnic
identity, ethnic consumption behavior and ethnic food consumption. They can be categorized
based on the fact of belonging to the same ethnic group or not like the case of this study.
However, they also can be classified upon the close relationship with ethnic individual, for
instance, siblings, close friends either of the same ethnic group or of other ethnic groups
(including mainstream population), collegues, so on so forth. This research can not cover all
these factors, which may describe a better overall impact on ethnic identity, ethnic consumption
behavior and ethnic food consumption.
IV. Perspectives
This research covers important and previously neglected research subjects on the links
between socialization factors, ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behaviors and ethnic food
consumption among ethnic minorities in increasingly globalized market in general, and in
France in particular. It contributes to investigate the role of socialization factors that helps

302
identifying ethnic identity of ethnic individuals, that influence ethnic consumption behaviors,
and that helps determining ethnic food consumption as well as the role of socio-demographic on
these ethnic related issues. However, future research related to this topic may be more
conclusive if the limitations described above are addressesed effectively.
The samples for this survey include people of main ethnicities living in France. Hence,
certain groups of ethnics are chosen to represent the whole population and correspond to the
scope of work of this thesis. However, it may be more interesting to involve mainstream
population in France for comparison. There are some reasons explaining the inclusion of
majority population in the study of ethnic identity. First and foremost, influential consumers are
changing their traditional views of racial and ethnic identity roles, and are seeking greater
engagement in ethnic identities other than their own. In reality, not only ethnic people but also
the mainstream ones are consumers of ethnic food. Another reason is to explore the cultural
openness- the degree to which the historic boundaries between ethnic and racial groups are
perceived as being highly porous and easily crosses, such porousness allows people to navigate
without self-consciousness and social constraint within and across different cultural groups,
absorbing the elements that work within their preferred lifestyle but not necessarily at the cost
of pride and participation in their native culture. By tapping into cultural identity, the
understanding of cultural openness will resonant deeply with consumers of that cultural identity
and will show potentiality to appeal broadly with certain consumers outside of that cultural
identity. The consumption of ethnic products in general and ethnic food in particular can
therefore be better understood and explained.
Another perspective of the research is to study ethnic identity, ethnic consumption
behavior and ethnic food consumption of the ethnic French according to regions or provinces.
In terms of culture and identity, it is certainly that each ethnic group in France also tries to
preserve their culture, tradition, regional language and identity… in such society of complexity.
In terms of consumption behavior, people belonging to different French ethnicity might have
different consumption behavior alonging with their choice of media, communication, financial
products and services, clothing, entertainment, so on so forth. Especially in terms of food, there
might be different in food consumption in terms of taste, food ingredients, favorite brand,
distribution, etc.
In addition, ethnic identity, ethnic consumption behavior, and ethnic food consumption
of a certain ethnic population may be different according to places, for example Asian
population in the United States of America with those living in France, or republic of Czech, or
in an African country. Therefore, it is also interesting to have comparison of the same ethnic

303
population in different countries or continents that have similar context with France. It is also
useful to do longitudinal research, meaning the same topic with regards to evolution of time to
make comparison of the same ethnic population over different periods of time.

304
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336
ANNEX
ANNEX 1 : Questionnaire................................................................................................. 337
ANNEX 2 : People groups in France ................................................................................. 341
ANNEX 3 : Distribution of the immigrants according to regions in France........................ 345
ANNEX 4 : Cross loading ................................................................................................. 348
ANNEX 5 : Assessment of normality with global sample .................................................. 350
ANNEX 6 : Factor analysis of the sub-group..................................................................... 351

337
ANNEX 1
Questionnaire
Questionnaire (English version)
This questionnaire is in the frame of doctoral study on "Ethnic Identity, Socialization
Factors, and Their Impacts on Ethnic Food Consumption Behavior and Ethnic Food
Consumption in France".
Instruction
Please pay attention to explanation of each question before giving your answer. Your
responses represent your opinion and are not supposed to be judged as good or bad. All
information collected will be processed in anonym manner and according to requirements of the
French National Commission of Informatics and Liberty (CNIL).
Please indicate the level of agreement, feeling or frequency based on five scales
suggested for each of the statements/situations, either (1) Strongly disagree → (5) Strongly
agree, (1) Not me at all → (5) Totally me, or (1) Never → (5) Always. For the other questions,
please tick the case(s) considering your situation(s), or give your concrete answers.
At the end of the questionnaire, please click "Submit" button to validate your answers.
Thank you very much for your participation. Your frank answers are highly appreciated.
Some definitions to facilitate giving answer:
(1) Ethnic group: group of people sharing common language, culture, religion,
traditions, ancestry and homeland.
(2) Ethnic food: referring to food coming from abroad related to food tradition and
culture of a particular ethnic group, or food habit according to religion reason and different
from what is usually found in modern Western culture. They are mainly consumed by
foreigners or immigrants with ethnic origin.

338
Questions
Q01 My ethnicity is
□ 1 Northern Africa (Maroc, Algeria, Tunisia, Libia, Egype, Soudan)
□ 2 Sub-saharan Africa
□ 3 Middle East (Turkey, Golf countries, Gorgia, Israel, Jordania, Paletestin
territories, occupied Palestine territories, Liban, Syria, Yemen…)
□ 4 Central Asia (India, Srilanka, Pakistan…)
□ 5 East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Philippine, Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia…)
□ 6 Carabean countries (Martinic, Guadeloup, Reunion, Haiti, Cuba…)
□ 7 Latin America
□ 8 Mixed (parents from two different ethnic groups)
□ 9 Other ethnic groups
Q02 My nationality is
□ 1 French
□ 2 Country of origin
□ 3 Mixed nationalities
Q03 Language I use daily is
□ 1 My native language
□ 2 French
□ 3 Both
□ 4 Other (write in): __________
Q04 I usually practice the following religion:
□ 1 Christianism
□ 2 Judaism
□ 3 Muslim
□ 4 Buddism
□ 5 Hinduism
□ 6 Without religion
□ 7 Other (write in): __________
Use the numbers to indicate your agreement and feeling
(1) Not me at all (2) Perhaps it’s not me (3) Neutral (4) Rather me (5) Totally me
Q05 I have spent time trying to find out more about my own
ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and customs.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q06 I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic group
and understanding its meanings in my life.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q07 I am proud of my cultural or ethnic background and happy
to be a member of the group I belong to.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5

339
Use the numbers to indicate your agreement
(1) Strongly disagree (2) Disagree (3) Neutral (4) Agree (5) Strongly agree
Q08 I actively participate in cultural practices of organizations or
social groups that include mostly members of my own
ethnic group.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q09 I often talk to other people about my ethnic group, or invite
my friends to participate in cultural practices of my group,
such as special food, music and customs.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Use the numbers to indicate the frequency
(1) Never (2) Rarely (3) Occasionally (4) Frequently (5) Always
Q10 Participated in ethnic group activities. □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q11 Talked to me about our cultural background. □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q12 Wanted to be recognized with our ethnic origin in public. □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q13 Enjoyed French culture and entertainment such as watching
French television programs, listening to French radio and
music, or reading French newspapers/magazines.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q14 Socialized with their French friends or friends from other
ethnic groups
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q15 Spoke French at home. □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q16 Most of my friends are from my ethnic group. □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q17 I see more commonalties between me and friends from my
own ethnic group, rather than friends from other ethnic
groups.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q18 I prefer to hang out with friends from my own ethnic group
rather than friends from other ethnic groups on social
occasions.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q19 I like meeting, and getting to know people from other ethnic
groups, as well as their culture and custom.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Use the numbers to indicate your agreement
(1) Strongly disagree (2) Disagree (3) Neutral (4) Agree (5) Strongly agree
Q20 I often spend time with people from other ethnic groups,
involve in activities and enjoy being around them.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q21 I often encourage my family and friends to engage in
cultural practices of other ethnic group, such as their special
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q22 The stereotypes and/or regulations in this society do not
make me hesitate to involve in ethnic concerning activities.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q23 I enjoy ethnic related activities with friends of my own
ethnic group
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q24 Ethnic products and services are available in my living
place.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5

340
Use the numbers to indicate the frequency
(1) Never (2) Rarely (3) Occasionally (4) Frequently (5) Always
Q25 I watch ethnic movies or movies that portrait my ethnic
culture in my language or with French subtitle, and/or listen
to my ethnic music or music that is closely related to my
ethnic origin, and/or listen to radio in my language, and/or
read newspaper in my language
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q26 I eat my ethnic food or food with similar origins. □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q27 I attend my ethnic cultural performances, festivals or events
related to my ethnic origin.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q28 In terms of ethnic food consuming style, I:
a. Eat out/order ethnic food. □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
b. Eat homemade food self processed and cooked in
traditionally ethnic style.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
c. Buy prepared ethnic food and then cook at home □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q29 In terms of ethnic food origin (place of production), I prefer:
a. Consume only food products originated from my place of
origin.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
b. Consume any food products regardless their places of
origins
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q30 I spend most of my food budget for my own ethnic food. □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q31 I prefer special services, either shops/supermarkets
specifically serving my ethnic group/community, or the
service providers from my ethnic groups, or the people
working in shops/supermarkets/restaurants can speak my
native language, or the products are labeled in my ethnic
language.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Q32 I like to go to shops/ supermarkets/ restaurants near my
living place to buy/eat ethnic food.
□1 □2 □3 □4 □5
Before validating the answer, be sure indicate the following situations!
Q33 I am
□ 1 Female
□ 2 Male
Q34 I am at the age of __________
Q35 In France, I work as a _________________
Q36 I have been living in France for___________________ years.

341
ANNEX 2
People groups in France
People groups according to ethnicity in France in 2011
N° People group Population Religion Primary language
Group 1 Caucasian Peoples
Sub-group 1.1 Germanic
1.1.1 Alsatian (Germanic) 1,692,000 Christianity German, Swiss
1.1.2 Dutch 86,000 Christianity Dutch
1.1.3 Fleming 881,000 Christianity Vlaams
1.1.4 German 629,000 Christianity German, Standard
1.1.5 German Swiss 38,000 Christianity German Swiss
1.1.6 Luxemburger 43,000 Christianity Luxembourgeois
Sub-group 1.2 Scandinavian
1.2.1 Danish (Scandinavian) 13,000 Christianity Danish
Sub-group 1.3 French
1.3.1 Auvergnat (French) 1,378,000 Christianity Occitan
1.3.2 Breton (French) 228,000 Christianity Breton
1.3.3 Corsican (French) 30,000 Christianity Corsican
1.3.4 Franco-Provencal 629,000 Christianity Franco-Provencal
1.3.5 Franco-Swiss 32,000 Christianity French
1.3.6 French 36,857,000 Christianity French
1.3.7 Gascon 440,000 Christianity Occitan
1.3.8 Languedocian 2,517,000 Christianity Occitan
1.3.9 Limousin 11,000 Christianity Occitan
1.3.10 Picard 1,937,000 Christianity French
1.3.11 Provencal, Alpine
Provencal
2,895,000 Christianity Occitan
1.3.12 Deaf (Deaf) Unknown Christianity French Sign Language
Sub-group 1.4 Spanish
1.4.1 Catalonian (Spanish) 108,000 Christianity Catalan-Valencian-
Balear
1.4.2 Spaniard 755,000 Christianity Spanish
Sub-group 1.5 Slav
1.5.1 Czech (Slav, Western) 13,000 Christianity Czech
1.5.2 Macedonian (Slav,
Southern)
8,100 Christianity Macedonian
1.5.3 Polish (Slav, Western) 126,000 Christianity Polish
1.5.4 Russian (Slav, Eastern) 126,000 Christianity Russian
1.5.5 Serb (Slav, Southern) 25,000 Christianity Serbian
1.5.6 Ukrainian (Slav, Eastern) 22,000 Christianity Ukrainian
Sub-group 1.6 Romany
1.6.1 Gypsy, French 164,000 Christianity French
1.6.2 Romani, Balkan 12,000 Christianity Romani, Balkan
1.6.3 Romani, Calo 23,000 Christianity Calo

342
1.6.4 Romani, Sinte, Sasitka 30,000 Christianity Romani, Sinte
1.6.5 Romani, Vlax, Kalderash 12,000 Christianity Romani, Vlax
1.6.6 Romanian 13,000 Christianity Romanian
Sub-group 1.7 Italian
1.7.1 Italian 1,185,000 Christianity Italian
1.7.2 Ligurian, Genoan 38,000 Christianity Ligurian
Sub-group 1.8 Others
1.8.1 Armenian (Armenian) 461,000 Christianity Armenian
1.8.2 Assyrian (Assyrian /
Aramaic)
3,800 Christianity Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
1.8.3 Basque (Basque) 153,000 Christianity Basque
1.8.4 Greek, Caegese 63,000 Christianity Greek
1.8.5 Jew, French 484,000 Ethnic
Religions
French
1.8.6 Malagasy 63,000 Christianity Malagasy, Plateau
1.8.7 Portuguese 944,000 Christianity Portuguese
1.8.8 Swedish 13,000 Christianity Swedish
1.8.9 Georgian 2,500 Christianity Georgian
1.8.10 Amercian US 63,000 Christianity English
Group 2 Asian
Sub-group 2.1 South Asian Peoples
2.1.1 Bengali 31,000 Islam Bengali
2.1.2 Tamil 102,000 Hinduism Tamil
Sub-group 2.2 East Asian Peoples
2.2.1 Han Chinese, Cantonese 107,000 Ethnic
Religions
Chinese, Yue
2.2.2 Han Chinese, Chaozhou 6,300 Ethnic
Religions
Chinese, Min Nan
2.2.3 Han Chinese, Mandarin 38,000 Non-Religious French
2.2.4 Han Chinese, Wenchow 19,000 Ethnic
Religions
Chinese, Wu
2.2.5 Han Chinese, Wu 5,000 Ethnic
Religions
Chinese, Wu
2.2.6 Japanese 12,000 Buddhism Japanese
2.2.7 Korean 11,000 Ethnic
Religions
Korean
Sub-group 2.3 West Asia
2.3.1 Kurd, Kurmanji 82,000 Islam Kurdish, Northern
Sub-group 2.4 Southeast Asian Peoples
2.4.1 Cham, Western, Tjam 1,100 Islam Cham, Western
2.4.2 Filipino, Tagalog 22,000 Christianity Tagalog
2.4.3 Giay, Nhang 100 Ethnic
Religions
Bouyei
2.4.4 Gujarati 1,100 Hinduism Gujarati
2.4.5 Hmong Njua, Blue 126,000 Christianity Hmong Njua
2.4.6 Hmong, White 11,000 Ethnic
Religions
Miao, White
2.4.7 Iu Mien 2,200 Ethnic
Religions
Iu Mien

343
2.4.8 Khmer, Central 69,000 Buddhism Khmer, Central
2.4.9 Khmu 500 Ethnic
Religions
Khmu
2.4.10 Lao 19,000 Buddhism Lao
2.4.11 Tai Dam, Black Tai 1,100 Ethnic
Religions
Tai Dam
2.4.12 Tay 1,900 Ethnic
Religions
Tay
2.4.13 Vietnamese 629,000 Buddhism Vietnamese
Sub-group 2.5 Centre Asian
2.5.1 Pashtun, Northern 38,000 Islam Pashto, Northern
2.5.2 Persian 63,000 Islam Farsi, Western
2.5.3 Eurasian 63,000 Christianity French
2.5.4 Turk 379,000 Islam Turkish
2.5.5 Walloon 63,000 Christianity French
Group 3 African
Sub-group 3.1 Arab, Maghreb
3.1.1 Algerian, Arabic-speaking 1,258,000 Islam Arabic, Algerian
Spoken
3.1.2 Arab, Moroccan 821,000 Islam Arabic, Moroccan
Spoken
3.1.3 Arab, Tunisian 442,000 Islam Arabic, Tunisian
Spoken
Sub-group 3.2 Arab, Levant
3.2.1 Arab, Syrian 252,000 Islam Arabic, North
Levantine spoken
Sub-group 3.3 Sub-Saharan Peoples
3.3.1 Bambara 126,000 Islam Bamanankan
3.3.2 Cape Verdean 26,000 Christianity Kabuverdianu
3.3.3 Comorian, other 95,000 Islam Maore
3.3.4 Eurafrican 63,000 Christianity French
3.3.5 Fon (Guinean) 19,000 Christianity Fon
3.3.6 Fulani 32,000 Islam Fulfulde, Central-
Eastern
3.3.7 Jola-Fonyi, Diola 100 Islam Jola-Fonyi
3.3.8 Mandyak, Manjaco 24,000 Ethnic
Religions
Mandjak
3.3.9 Maninka 63,000 Islam Maninkakan, Western
3.3.10 Mossi, Moore 63,000 Christianity Moore
3.3.11 Reunionese Creole 13,000 Christianity Reunion Creole
French
3.3.12 Senoufo 6,300 Islam Senoufo, Cebaara
3.3.13 Soninke, Sarakole 9,400 Islam Soninke
3.3.14 Tukulor, Pulaar 100 Islam Pulaar
3.3.15 Wolof 40,000 Islam Wolof
Sub-group 4.4 Arab-Berber
4.4.1 Berber, Imazighen 157,000 Islam Tamazight, Central
Atlas
4.4.2 Berber, Kabyle 692,000 Islam Kabyle

344
4.4.3 Berber, Riffian 126,000 Islam Tarifit
4.4.4 Moor 19,000 Islam Hassaniyya
4.4.5 Shawiya 189,000 Islam Tachawit
4.4.6 Tuareg 25,000 Islam Tamajaq,
Tawallammat
Sub-group 4.5 Afro-Caribbean
4.5.1 Saint Lucian, Lesser
Antille
252,000 Christianity Saint Lucian Creole
French
Unclassified / Other
Individuals
962,000
UN Country Population
(2011)
63,126,000
Source: Synthesized from statistics of Joshua Project, U.S. 2011

345
ANNEX 3
Distribution of the immigrants according to regions in France
Map 1: Distribution of the total population of immigrants according to regions in France in 2006
Map 2: Distribution of the Chinese immigrants according to regions in France in 2006

346
Map 3: Distribution of the European immigrants according to regions in France (EU 25) in 2006
Map 4: Distribution of the Turkish immigrants according to regions in France in 2006

347
Map 5: Distribution of the Malghrebian immigrants according to regions in France in 2006
Source: Recensement de la population 2006

348
ANNEX 4
Cross loading
SPSS Correlations matrix with global sample
Correlations Matrix
EI POE POI EFO OGO SO ECB EFC
EI1 0.750**
0.381**
-0.045 0.232**
-0.003 0.253**
0.286**
0.153**
EI2 0.783**
0.328**
-0.094*
0.178**
0.026 0.308**
0.114*
0.104*
EI3 0.738**
0.297**
-0.081 0.157**
-0.038 0.271**
0.130**
0.093*
EI4 0.774**
0.360**
-0.123**
0.264**
0.030 0.323**
0.225**
0.190**
EI5 0.798**
0.387**
-0.194**
0.245**
0.022 0.348**
0.226**
0.180**
POE1 0.425**
0.879**
-0.182**
0.342**
0.083 0.411**
0.333**
0.232**
POE2 0.368**
0.837**
-0.092 0.229**
0.084 0.308**
0.229**
0.177**
POE3 0.383**
0.857**
-0.180**
0.408**
0.011 0.306**
0.344**
0.116*
POI1 -0.133**
-0.118*
0.867**
-0.090 0.045 -0.154**
-0.104*
-0.041
POI2 -0.109*
-0.134**
0.859**
-0.156**
0.014 -0.169**
-0.083 -0.117*
POI3 -0.123**
-0.205**
0.846**
-0.158**
0.015 -0.106*
-0.072 -0.110*
EFO1 0.253**
0.349**
-0.121**
0.845**
0.042 0.238**
0.258**
0.205**
EFO2 0.199**
0.280**
-0.131**
0.858**
0.052 0.264**
0.146**
0.153**
EFO3 0.277**
0.361**
-0.150**
0.874**
0.060 0.268**
0.271**
0.220**
OGO1 0.000 0.038 -0.011 0.063 0.864**
0.116*
0.033 0.057
OGO2 -0.019 0.068 0.038 -0.019 0.844**
0.126**
0.000 0.029
OGO3 0.049 0.069 0.048 0.111*
0.848**
0.122**
0.053 0.104*
SO1 0.338**
0.342**
-0.193**
0.235**
0.110*
0.868**
0.173**
0.161**
SO2 0.357**
0.351**
-0.136**
0.328**
0.103*
0.873**
0.200**
0.257**
SO3 0.334**
0.353**
-0.105*
0.219**
0.162**
0.883**
0.197**
0.189**
ECB1 0.264**
0.346**
-0.105*
0.285**
0.038 0.197**
0.872**
0.095*
ECB2 0.224**
0.298**
-0.094*
0.232**
0.042 0.221**
0.856**
0.052
ECB3 0.181**
0.274**
-0.062 0.161**
0.008 0.146**
0.863**
0.005
EFC1b 0.186**
0.199**
-0.092 0.257**
0.041 0.202**
0.050 0.765**
EFC1c 0.124**
0.159**
-0.070 0.164**
0.071 0.230**
0.087 0.774**
EFC2a 0.164**
0.145**
-0.055 0.192**
0.096*
0.158**
0.037 0.772**
EFC2b 0.103*
0.151**
-0.082 0.177**
0.069 0.147**
0.028 0.768**
EFC3 0.119*
0.094*
-0.102*
0.110*
0.044 0.138**
0.027 0.737**
EFC4 0.082 0.156**
-0.073 0.178**
0.113*
0.208**
0.047 0.757**
EFC5 0.231**
0.172**
-0.080 0.110*
-0.047 0.152**
0.041 0.749**
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

349
Smart PLS Correlations matrix with global sample
ECB EFC EFO EI OGO POE POI SO
ECB1 0.89 0.10 0.30 0.27 0.05 0.35 -0.11 0.20
ECB2 0.86 0.06 0.24 0.23 0.06 0.30 -0.09 0.22
ECB3 0.83 0.01 0.17 0.19 0.01 0.28 -0.06 0.15
EFC1b 0.05 0.79 0.26 0.19 0.06 0.20 -0.10 0.20
EFC1c 0.09 0.78 0.17 0.13 0.09 0.16 -0.07 0.23
EFC2a 0.04 0.76 0.20 0.17 0.11 0.15 -0.06 0.16
EFC2b 0.03 0.77 0.18 0.11 0.09 0.15 -0.08 0.15
EFC3 0.03 0.71 0.11 0.12 0.06 0.09 -0.10 0.14
EFC4 0.05 0.77 0.18 0.09 0.12 0.16 -0.08 0.21
EFC5 0.05 0.73 0.12 0.23 -0.03 0.17 -0.08 0.15
EFO1 0.27 0.21 0.86 0.25 0.08 0.35 -0.12 0.24
EFO2 0.15 0.16 0.82 0.20 0.07 0.28 -0.13 0.27
EFO3 0.28 0.23 0.89 0.28 0.09 0.36 -0.15 0.27
EI1 0.29 0.15 0.24 0.76 0.01 0.38 -0.04 0.25
EI2 0.12 0.10 0.18 0.77 0.04 0.33 -0.09 0.31
EI3 0.14 0.09 0.16 0.72 -0.03 0.30 -0.08 0.27
EI4 0.23 0.19 0.27 0.78 0.04 0.36 -0.12 0.32
EI5 0.23 0.18 0.25 0.81 0.05 0.39 -0.19 0.35
OGO1 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.83 0.04 -0.01 0.12
OGO2 0.00 0.03 -0.02 -0.02 0.69 0.07 0.04 0.13
OGO3 0.06 0.11 0.11 0.05 0.95 0.07 0.05 0.12
POE1 0.33 0.24 0.35 0.43 0.09 0.89 -0.18 0.41
POE2 0.24 0.18 0.23 0.37 0.06 0.83 -0.09 0.31
POE3 0.35 0.12 0.42 0.39 0.02 0.85 -0.18 0.31
POI1 -0.10 -0.04 -0.09 -0.13 0.06 -0.12 0.86 -0.15
POI2 -0.09 -0.12 -0.15 -0.11 0.02 -0.14 0.87 -0.17
POI3 -0.08 -0.11 -0.16 -0.12 0.01 -0.20 0.84 -0.11
SO1 0.18 0.17 0.23 0.34 0.12 0.34 -0.19 0.86
SO2 0.21 0.26 0.33 0.36 0.10 0.35 -0.14 0.88
SO3 0.20 0.19 0.22 0.33 0.14 0.36 -0.11 0.88

350
ANNEX 5
Assessment of normality with global sample
Assessment of normality
Variable min max skew c.r. kurtosis c.r.
EFC1b 1 5 -0.442 -2.620 -0.315 -0.933
EFC1c 1 5 -0.255 -1.512 -0.157 -0.466
EFC2a 1 5 -0.344 -2.041 -0.585 -1.735
EFC2b 1 5 -0.307 -1.823 -0.158 -0.468
EFC3 1 5 -0.314 -1.863 -0.026 -0.076
EFC4 1 5 -0.505 -2.992 -0.058 -0.173
EFC5 1 5 -0.436 -2.583 -0.095 -0.281
ECB1 1 5 -0.225 -1.335 -0.649 -1.925
ECB2 1 5 -0.178 -1.057 -0.418 -1.239
ECB3 1 5 -0.221 -1.308 -0.626 -1.855
EI1 1 5 -0.583 -3.459 -0.244 -0.725
EI2 1 5 -0.563 -3.337 -0.074 -0.220
EI3 1 5 -0.806 -4.781 0.356 1.055
EI4 1 5 -0.319 -1.894 -0.677 -2.008
EI5 1 5 -0.348 -2.065 -0.772 -2.290
SO1 1 5 -0.711 -4.214 0.395 1.172
SO2 1 5 -0.660 -3.916 0.139 0.411
SO3 1 5 -0.687 -4.074 0.316 0.937
OGO1 1 5 0.037 0.220 -0.144 -0.428
OGO2 1 5 0.114 0.679 -0.041 -0.123
OGO3 1 5 0.033 0.195 -0.047 -0.140
EFO1 1 5 -0.219 -1.301 -0.661 -1.959
EFO2 1 5 -0.357 -2.118 -0.617 -1.829
EFO3 1 5 -0.088 -0.523 -0.898 -2.663
POI1 1 5 -0.084 -.501 -1.085 -3.218
POI2 1 5 -.187 -1.108 -1.037 -3.076
POI3 1 5 0.036 0.216 -1.221 -3.620
POE1 1 5 -0.134 -0.794 -0.961 -2.849
POE2 1 5 -0.199 -1.181 -0.460 -1.364
POE3 1 5 0.037 0.219 -0.986 -2.922

351
ANNEX 6
Factor analysis of the sub-groups
Factor analysis of Northern African group
Item
Northern African group
Loading T-value
Cronbach's
Alpha
AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog
KMO
Barlett’s
test
Commu
niality
Anti-
image
covaria
nce
Anti-
image
correlat
ion
Total
variance
explained
EI 0.85 0.62 0.89 0.83 OK OK OK OK 62.1%
EI1 0.77 41.43
EI2 0.77 43.16
EI3 0.77 47.83
EI4 0.81 29.41
EI5 0.82 34.27
POE 0.83 0.75 0.89 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.71%
POE1 0.85 48.47
POE2 0.87 41.48
POE3 0.87 43.10
POI 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.73 OK OK OK OK 75.1%
POI1 0.87 27.92
POI2 0.85 35.05
POI3 0.88 26.54
EFO 0.84 0.75 0.90 0.73 OK OK OK OK 75.4%
EFO1 0.87 36.79
EFO2 0.86 39.73
EFO3 0.87 34.20
OGO 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.5%
OGO1 0.87 41.08
OGO2 0.87 39.86
OGO3 0.85 42.88
SO 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.672 OK OK OK OK 74.4%
SO1 0.85 57.23
SO2 0.87 50.63
SO3 0.87 52.02
ECB 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.4%
ECB1 0.85 50.19
ECB2 0.87 45.66
ECB 3 0.87 45.47
EFC 0.87 0.57 0.90 0.88 OK OK OK OK 56.1%
EFC1b 0.73 34.56
EFC1c 0.76 39.11
EFC2a 0.77 31.45
EFC2b 0.74 40.23
EFC3 0.76 33.29
EFC4 0.76 36.05
EFC5 0.74 37.13

352
Factor analysis with Sub-saharan African group
Item
Sub-saharan African group
Loading T-value
Cronbach's
Alpha
AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog
KMO
Barlett’
s test
Commu
niality
Anti-
image
covaria
nce
Anti-
image
correlat
ion
Total
variance
explained
EI 0.83 0.6 0.88 0.78 OK OK OK OK 59.5%
EI1 0.79 26.47
EI2 0.78 29.70
EI3 0.72 33.14
EI4 0.78 21.94
EI5 0.78 21.75
POE 0.82 0.73 0.89 0.71 OK OK OK OK 73.1%
POE1 0.87 22.01
POE2 0.83 26.63
POE3 0.86 21.64
POI 0.82 0.74 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.1%
POI1 0.86 25.05
POI2 0.85 31.74
POI3 0.87 27.19
EFO 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.73 OK OK OK OK 74.9%
EFO1 0.86 23.57
EFO2 0.87 22.26
EFO3 0.87 19.84
OGO 0.83 0.74 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.1%
OGO1 0.86 29.64
OGO2 0.87 31.47
OGO3 0.85 31.13
SO 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.4%
SO1 0.85 32.74
SO2 0.87 28.51
SO3 0.87 30.14
ECB 0.83 0.74 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.2%
ECB1 0.86 26.38
ECB2 0.85 27.63
ECB 3 0.87 28.24
EFC 0.83 0.5 0.87 0.77 OK OK OK OK 65.6%
EFC1b 0.69 26.91
EFC1c 0.76 33.31
EFC2a 0.73 27.94
EFC2b 0.71 31.48
EFC3 0.65 31.03
EFC4 0.69 30.77
EFC5 0.69 32.09

353
Factor analysis with Eastern Asian group
Item
Eastern Asian ethnic group
Loading T-value
Cronbach's
Alpha
AVE
Rhô de
Jöreskog
KMO
Barlett’
s test
Commu
niality
Anti-
image
covaria
nce
Anti-
image
correlat
ion
Total
variance
explained
EI 0.85 0.62 0.89 0.82 OK OK OK OK 61.8%
EI1 0.78 32.19
EI2 0.79 37.23
EI3 0.80 39.34
EI4 0.77 35.31
EI5 0.79 35.91
POE 0.82 0.75 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.3%
POE1 0.87 30.92
POE2 0.85 33.10
POE3 0.87 26.06
POI 0.803 0.75 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.4%
POI1 0.87 25.22
POI2 0.86 27.72
POI3 0.86 21.31
EFO 0.83 0.74 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.1%
EFO1 0.84 32.78
EFO2 0.87 30.64
EFO3 0.87 27.17
OGO 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 74.2%
OGO1 0.87 33.03
OGO2 0.86 34.77
OGO3 0.86 35.95
SO 0.82 0,75 0.90 0.72 OK OK OK OK 73.9%
SO1 0.87 40.18
SO2 0.88 41.26
SO3 0.84 50.20
ECB 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.73 OK OK OK OK 75.1%
ECB1 0.87 39.99
ECB2 0.87 40.08
ECB 3 0.86 41.66
EFC 0.86 0.55 0.90 0.86 OK OK OK OK 55.1%
EFC1b 0.73 48.52
EFC1c 0.72 42.72
EFC2a 0.75 39.78
EFC2b 0.77 42.54
EFC3 0.73 43.88
EFC4 0.74 45.59
EFC5 0.75 46.25

Final report. nguyen ngoc anh.01.07.2013

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Final report. nguyen ngoc anh.01.07.2013