Final version resub

THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE FOREST SECTOR IN URUGUAY:

A COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS

by

VIRGINIA MORALES OLMOS

(Under the Direction of Jacek P. Siry)

ABSTRACT

Uruguay is a South American country surrounded by Argentina and Brazil. Its economy

has traditionally been based on agriculture. Since the 1960s, the government has been

encouraging forestry as an alternative use for marginal agricultural lands in an effort to promote

economic development, diversification, and environmental services. The Forestry Law of 1987

introduced subsidies and tax exonerations for the development of forest plantations and wood

manufacturing industries. As a result, the new forest sector has been growing rapidly, attracting

foreign investment. While several studies have examined the impact of individual forest firms,

no study to date has examined the impact of the forest sector from the point of view of the entire

economy. This research project evaluated the impact of the new forest sector by conducting a

Cost-Benefit Analysis. The results indicate a positive net impact when compared with livestock:

the Net Present Value for the forest sector was 630.2 million US$, and the Internal Rate of

Return was 36.4%.

INDEX WORDS: Policy Evaluation, Uruguay, Forest Sector, Cost-Benefit Analysis.



by


Lic. en Economía, Universidad de la República, Uruguay, 2002

A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

MASTER OF SCIENCE

ATHENS, GEORGIA

2007

© 2007

Virginia Morales Olmos

All Rights Reserved



by


Major Professor: Jacek P. Siry

Committee: David H. Newman
Warren Kriesel

Electronic Version Approved:

Maureen Grasso
Dean of the Graduate School
The University of Georgia
May 2007

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Three years ago I was invited to participate in a discussion on Forest Economics at INIA

with Dr. Brooks Mendell from The University of Georgia, who was at that time visiting

Uruguay. While I had never heard about the discipline before, the forest sector was developing

rapidly. Since I wanted to learn more about it, I attended the meeting. There I started the

adventure of studying Forest Economics. Many people accompanied me in this adventure with

Forest Economics, and I would like to thank them for making it possible.

I thank my advisor, Dr. Jacek Siry, for giving me the opportunity to study in the United

States, and for his guidance and supervision. He was always open to new ideas in this process, to

my questions, and to my last minute concerns. Thank you for pushing me further but with the

doses of compassion that we all need, and for taking the time to continuously read the drafts of

the thesis and correct them, and, especially, for your support during the last days of writing.

I thank my Committee Members, Dr. David Newman and Dr. Warren Kriesel, who have

been open to my research ideas and accepted the changes with patience and helpful suggestions.

Dr. Newman was always ready for my questions and concerns; I really enjoyed our

conversations and discussions about the Third World and South America. Gracias, Dr. Newman.

Dr. Kriesel was always supportive during the Committee Meetings, making valuable comments

and suggestions.

I thank all the people in Uruguay for providing me with the information about the

Forestry Sector and Uruguay statistics, and for discussing with me policy evaluation methods,

including Mr. Lorenzo Balerio (FYMNSA), Mr. Javier Otegui (COFUSA), Mr. José Obes

(BOTNIA), Mr. Ricardo Methol (FOSA), Mr. Carlos Faroppa (BOTNIA), Mr. Enrique Ramos

iv

(COLONVADE), Mr. Raúl Pazos (EUFORES), Mr. Gustavo Balmelli (INIA Tacuarembó), Mr.

Pedro Barrenechea, Mr. Carlos Voulminot (Industrias Forestales Arazatí), Ms. Paola Zubillaga

(SPF), Mr. Héctor Pastori (UDELAR), Mr. Alberti, Mr. Roni Swedzki (CIU), Ms. Elena

Cuadrado (BCU), Ms. Lucía Pittaluga (IE), Mr. Michael Borchardt (MEF), Mr. Jerónimo Rocca,

Mr. Bruno Lanfranco (INIA), Mr. Rafael De La Torre (CELFOR). Special thanks to the Forest

Division of Agricultural Ministry of Uruguay: Mr. Daniel San San Román and Mr. Andrés

Berterreche, Mr. Juan Pablo Nebel for the information on Native Forest. Special thanks to Ms.

Verónica Durán (OPYPA) who was always willingly answering my questions and with whom I

first discussed the topic of this thesis. Thank you Verónica, your help has been invaluable. I

thank my colleague Mercedes, who shared discussions on line and has been of great support

since we met in Tacuarembó.

I thank the Latin American and Caribbean Student Institute (LACSI) for facilitating this

research by providing travel funds to conduct my interviews in Uruguay.

I thank Dr. Brooks Mendell, the “first person responsible” for my trip to Athens. Thank

you for providing all the information that I needed and for being there even though we did not

met very often during these two years. It was a pleasure working with you.

I thank the staff of the Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources. Special thanks

to Ms. Rosemary Wood who was always ready to answer any questions with kindness and

patience, and to the students and professors in the fifth floor of Building 4. Thank you for always

encouraging me, especially during the last months of my writing.

I thank my officemates: Tony, Matt, Iris and Tiffany. In different ways, you were always

there for me. Thank you, Tony for listening to my complaints for a year and for your friendship

and support. To Gay Mac Cormack, my English professor, who became an expert in Forest

v

Economics and Uruguay after a year working together. Thank you for the coffee that we shared

in the English Department.

I thank my friends in Athens, the ones who already left and the ones that are still here,

who became my extended family during this time far from Uruguay.

Finally, I thank my family. Without their support, I could not have completed this

degree.

In memorian of my colleague Mariana, with whom I started to like the forests.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................1

CHAPTER 2: POLICY ANALYSIS ...............................................................................................5

CHAPTER 3: URUGUAY’S FOREST SECTOR ........................................................................24

CHAPTER 4: METHODS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................52

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................91

REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................95

APPENDICES

I. SURVEY RESULTS.........................................................................................105

II. SURVEY FORMS ...........................................................................................113

III. CBA TABLES ................................................................................................128

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

TABLE 1. FOREST AREA IN CHILE (1,000 HA) …………………………………………….19

TABLE 2. FOREST AREA IN BRAZIL (1,000 HA)...................................................................19

TABLE 3.GDP AS PERCENTAGE OF AGRICULTURAL GDP ..............................................40

TABLE 4. URUGUAY FOREST RESOURCES..........................................................................40

TABLE 5. CONEAT INDEX FOR FOREST LANDS .................................................................42

TABLE 6. FOREST FARMS BY AREA......................................................................................43

TABLE 7. URUGUAY FOREST EXPORTS SHARE IN TOTAL EXPORTS...........................43

TABLE 8. URUGUAY EXPORTS IN VALUE AND VOLUME ...............................................44

TABLE 9. PAPER AND CARDBOARD EXPORTS PRICE INDEX.........................................46

TABLE 10. WOOD EXPORT UNIT VALUES (1,000 US$/M3)................................................47

TABLE 11. SAW TIMBER EXPORT PRICE INDEX ................................................................48

TABLE 12. URUGUAY FOREST IMPORTS (MILLION US$ FOB) ........................................49

TABLE 13. GDP FOREST INDUSTRIES AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL GDP (2003) .........49

TABLE 14. CIIU PRODUCTION INDEX, BASE 100=2002......................................................50

TABLE 15. GDP FOREST INDUSTRIES AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

(CONSTANT MILLION 2002 US$).............................................................................................50

TABLE 16. SAWMILLS AND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRIES SHARE IN INDUSTRY

PRODUCT AND INDUSTRY WAGES.......................................................................................51

TABLE 17. SHADOW PRICES RELATIONS FOR URUGUAY...............................................81

TABLE 18. UNEMPLOYMENT RATES FOR URUGUAY.......................................................82

TABLE 19. URUGUAY BLV (2005) ...........................................................................................83

viii

TABLE 20. EUCALYPTUS GROWTH, YIELDS AND MANAGEMENT ASSUMPTIONS...83

TABLE 21. PINE GROWTH, YIELDS AND MANAGEMENT ASSUMPTIONS....................84

TABLE 22. PLANTATION COSTS STRUCTURE.....................................................................85

TABLE 23. FOREST PRODUCTION COSTS (2005).................................................................86

TABLE 24. INDUSTRIAL COSTS STRUCTURE (2005) ..........................................................87

TABLE 25. TRANSPORTATION COSTS COEFFICIENTS......................................................87

TABLE 26. FOREST LAND PRICES VS LIVESTOCK LAND PRICES ..................................88

TABLE 27. COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS RESULTS.................................................................89

TABLE 28. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS: WOOD PRICES .........................................................90

TABLE 29. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS: YIELDS ......................................................................90

TABLE 30. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS: TRANSPORTATION COSTS ...................................91

TABLE 31. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS: LAND PRICE.............................................................91

TABLE 32. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS: HARVESTING, THINNING AND MANAGEMENT

COSTS ...........................................................................................................................................91

TABLE 33. COMPANIES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE ORIGIN OF THE

CAPITAL.....................................................................................................................................113

TABLE 34. AREA BY COMPANIES ........................................................................................113

TABLE 35. AREA BY SPECIES (IN HA) .................................................................................113

TABLE 36. ROTATION AGES AND GROWTH RATES .......................................................113

TABLE 37. TOTAL EXTRACTION EUCALYPTUS (1,000 M3)............................................129

TABLE 38. TOTAL EXTRACTION PINE (1,000 M3).............................................................130

TABLE 39. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS .........................................................................................131

TABLE 40. INVESTMENTS IN LAND (MILLION US$)........................................................132

ix

TABLE 41. INDUSTRY INVESTMENTS (MILLION US$) ....................................................133

TABLE 42. EXPORTS................................................................................................................134

TABLE 43. TRANSPORTATION COSTS (MILLION US$)....................................................136

TABLE 44. LIVESTOCK TRANSPORTATION COSTS .........................................................137

TABLE 45. INDUSTRY COSTS ................................................................................................138

TABLE 46. PRODUCTION COSTS ..........................................................................................142

TABLE 47. LABOR COSTS EXPORTS (MILLION US$) .......................................................144

TABLE 48. PRUNING AND THINNING COSTS (MILLION US$)........................................144

TABLE 49. ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENTE COSTS (MILLION US$)...........145

TABLE 50. HARVESTING COSTS...........................................................................................145

TABLE 51. NURSERY COSTS..................................................................................................146

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

FIGURE 1. BASIC POLICY ANALYSIS PROCESS…………………………………………..21

FIGURE 2. CONSUMER AND PRODUCER SURPLUS……………………………………...22

FIGURE 3. TAXATION AND DEADWEIGHT LOSS………………………………………...22

FIGURE 4. URUGUAY GDP BY SECTORS (2005)…………………………………………..40

FIGURE 5. URUGUAY FOREST PRIORITY SOILS………………………………………….41

FIGURE 6. AREA PLANTED BY SPECIES (CUMULATIVE)……………………………….42

FIGURE 7. PAPER AND CARBOARD EXPORTS BY REGION (US$ FOB, 2005)…………45

FIGURE 8. WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS EXPORTS BY REGION (US$ FOB, 2005)....45

xi

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Incentives promoting investment in the development of forest plantations and wood

manufacturing industries have been a controversial policy issue in recent decades. Most of the

arguments rely on the misuse and depletion of natural resources due to government failures.

Ineffective forest policies, the absence of logging controls, and external pressures such as rapid

population growth have frequently resulted in resource decline and deforestation (Hyde et al.

1987; Repetto & Gillis 1988; Ascher & Healy 1990; Clapp 1995; Dore & Guevara 2000; Clapp

2001; Guldin 2003; Bacha 2004; Silva 2004). Some studies pointed out that economic incentives

such as tax breaks, tax exonerations, subsidies, credit concessions, and pricing policies resulted

in the misuse of forest resources as well (Repetto & Gillis 1988). One of the most important

consequences of these failures is deforestation as many developing countries experience high

deforestation rates (Repetto & Gillis 1988; Haltia & Keipi 1997; FAO 2005).

Unlike many developing countries experiencing deforestation, forest cover in Uruguay

has been increasing (Nebel 2003). The majority of the land in Uruguay is privately owned and

population growth is slow (INE 2006). In addition, the landholding concentration is not high. As

a result, Uruguay does not have the characteristics that have led to deforestation in other

countries. Further, Uruguay has used economic incentives to promote the development of forest

plantations and wood manufacturing industries. Whether these incentives will result in

deforestation or resource decline seems to be a non-controversial issue since effective regulations

protecting native forest exists. In addition, forest plantations have been established on

agricultural lands. Nevertheless, environmental groups have argued that monocultures composed

1

of either eucalyptus or pine will cause severe damage to the native forest (Guayubira 2006). In

addition, those organizations claim that the forest sector does not generate economic benefits

while providing low-quality employment (Carrere 2002).

The forest sector in Uruguay has been rapidly developing since the passage of the

Forestry Law 15939 in 1987 (Durán 2004; Forest Division 2005). The Law established subsidies

and tax incentives to support the development of forest plantations and wood manufacturing

industries. This development is part of a broader trend in South America, where countries such

as Brazil and Chile have long used economic incentives to attract domestic and foreign

investment into their forestry sectors.

1.1 Objective

The objective of the project is to evaluate the impact of the new forest sector on the

Uruguayan Economy by considering the costs and benefits associated with the policy that started

with the Forestry Law 15939 promulgated in 1987.

1.2 Justification

The rationale for Law 15939 as discussed by members of Parliament was that the project

will contribute to environmental, economic and social goals of the country. The existing studies

have attempted to evaluate the policy and its impacts from the point of view of the government

by focusing on fiscal impacts (González Posse & Barrenechea 1996); estimating tax balance,

unemployment balance and product balance (Vázquez Platero 1996; Ramos & Cabrera 2001), or

by studying individual firms (Metsa-Botnia 2004; World Bank 2005). These studies do not

reflect the opportunity cost for the Uruguayan society of the resources used in the forest activity.

2

The current study uses a Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) to determine the impact of the new

forest sector on the Uruguayan economy. It approaches the analysis from the point of view of the

society, using shadow prices and a social discount rate.

The results of this project will be important for assessing the impact of a policy on the

whole economy. The results will help in determination of whether (1) the incentives were

efficiently used, (2) the incentives should be now terminated as the forest sector has already

developed, or (3) the incentives should be refocused on different agents in the sector, i.e., small

producers. In addition, the analysis of the sector will help in assessing further information needs.

Finally, the discussion of forest policy evaluation methods from the standpoint of the country’s

economy will contribute to future studies.

The second chapter describes the methods of policy evaluation and discusses CBA along

with the Social Choice theory and Welfare economics theories. In this framework, the rationale

for establishing forest policies is discussed, and two South American forest sectors are briefly

described: Chile and Brazil.

The third chapter describes the Uruguayan forest sector and examines forest laws and

regulations. The silvicultural sub-sector has increased its share in agricultural GDP between

1990 and 2002, from 3.8% to 13.40%; and sawmills increased from nearly 0% of the

manufacturing industry GDP1 to 1.44% in 2003. Then a description of exports and imports is

presented, with the emphasis on forest exports and its share in Uruguay’s total exports, as most

of the total production is exported. Favorable laws and regulations were key factors attracting

foreing investor into the country.

1
The GDP for sawmills was not included in the country’s statistics before 2001 because its sharing in the industry’s
GDP was negligible.

3

The fourth chapter presents the analytical method, results and discussion. The CBA is

discussed along with data and assumptions. The chapter addresses major issues with the use in

the current study, including shadow pricing and its application for Uruguay, with emphasis in

land and labor valuation. Finally, the CBA results are presented and discussed.

The fifth chapter summarizes the results and provides policy. Finally, several future

research opportunities identified during this research are presented.

4

CHAPTER 2

POLICY ANALYSIS

Policy analysis considers a complex set of factors and therefore there are several ways to

define the analysis (Patton & Sawicki 1993; Dunn 2004). Policy analysis is both descriptive and

normative, because it has to describe the objectives, instruments, and results of the policy, and

has to provide instruments to select the best policy. The choice of objectives and results involves

balancing opposite interests and values such as efficiency, equity, security, and development

(Dunn 2004). Furthermore, given their scarcity, the resources have to be allocated in order to

consider different interests (Cubbage et al. 1993; Patton & Sawicki 1993). This allocation

implies tradeoffs involved in following one policy or another.

A basic policy analysis process can be summarized in six steps: define the problem,

establish the evaluation criteria, identify alternative policies, evaluate the policies, implement the

policy, and monitor the implemented policy (Figure 1). First, the analyst has to define the

problem, a process, which assumes that a problem exists and describe it with a focus on the

central, critical factors. Problem structuring is the description and definition of the problem to be

solved by the policy (Cubbage et al. 1993; Boardman 2001; Dunn 2004). Second, the analyst has

to establish the criteria to evaluate alternative policies. The evaluation criteria chosen depend on

the objectives of the policy and its effects on the population. The most common criteria used to

evaluate a policy include cost, net benefit, effectiveness, efficiency, equity, legality, and

administrative ease. Third, the analyst has to identify alternative polices according to their

objectives and specific values and interests. A list of alternatives, including a thorough definition

of each one, can reveal aspects of the problem not considered before. This description can lead to

5

a reformulation of the problem and return to the beginning of the policy analysis. Fourth, after

selecting the alternatives, the analyst has to evaluate, with technical criteria, which alternative

best achieves the objectives of the policy defined at the beginning of the policy analysis.

Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the outcomes of a policy compared with a set of

standards (Weiss 1998 in Bisang & Zimmermann 2006; Dunn 2004). It consists of the evaluation

of the content of the policy, which includes programs and instruments (Bisang & Zimmermann

2006). The types of evaluation depend on the problem: the analyst can use quantitative methods

of evaluation, qualitative methods of evaluation, or a combination of both. At this point, the

analyst can find that there is information missing from the problem description, and then has to

go back and redefine the problem. Fifth, after evaluating the alternatives and choosing the best

one, this policy has to be implemented. Finally, the implemented policy has to be monitored in

order to assess whether the policy worked properly and, if not, to identify the problems and

correct them. Monitoring is the observation of previously defined indicators and produces

information on the outcomes of the policy (Dunn 2004; Bisang & Zimmermann 2006).

The policy analysis is an iterative process: at each step there is feedback from the other

steps, and the final step, to monitor the implemented policy, will be compared with the first step.

2.1 Policy Evaluation

2.1.1. History of Policy Evaluation

Formal policy evaluation began in the 1930s. On a systematic basis policies have been

evaluated from the mid 1960s (Zerbe & Dively 1994; Rossi et al. 1999; Bisang & Zimmermann

2006). At that time the United States established two programs to fight poverty: the War on

Poverty-Great Society initiative and the Executive Order establishing the Planning Programming

6

Budgeting (PPB) system, both programs mandated policy evaluation (Haveman 1987 in Rossi et

al 1999; Rossi et al 1999; Bisang & Zimmermann 2006). The US General Accounting Office

(GAO) was put in charge of these evaluation studies (GAO 1991 in Bisang & Zimmermann

2006). The Government Performance and Results Act, passed in 1993, required US executive

agencies to evaluate their programs.

International institutions, such as the World Bank and the United Nations, also require

evaluations of their projects (Dasgupta et al. 1972; Squire & van der Tak 1975; Nas 1996);

Chelimsky & Shadish 1997 in Bisang & Zimmerman 2006). The World Bank requires an impact

evaluation of its projects. It provides evaluation guidelines, recognizing that there is no single

standard approach to conduct an impact evaluation, and that each evaluation has to consider the

project, the country and institutional context and the actors involved. The Bank recognizes that

there are different times in project evaluation: (1) evaluations for the Bank have to be timed with

mid-term review and closing of the project; (2) evaluations for the government have to be timed

with government discussions, i.e., budget, political context. Government participation in the

project is considered a key element to the success of a policy. The role of the government is to

identify the relevant policy questions, to ensure the integrity of the evaluation, and to incorporate

the results in future policy choices (World Bank 2006).

Since the World Bank is an important lending source for developing countries, these

developments had numerous impacts on project evaluations in Latin America. In Europe,

program evaluations were introduced in the 1970s in Sweden, Germany and the UK. The

practice of policy evaluation has expanded to other countries in the 1990s, making it a common

practice nowadays (Leeuw 2004 in Bisang & Zimmermann 2006).

7

2.1.2. Types of evaluation

Policy evaluation methods can be classified in different ways: quantitative and

qualitative, social choice and “implementable”2, rationalist and social. A classification according

to the objective of the evaluation criteria has been widely discussed in the literature. These

methods range from qualitative methods (Dunn 2004) to quantitative methods (Dasgupta et al.

1972; Squire & van der Tak 1975; Ray 1984; Pleskovic & Treviño 1985; Stone 1985;

Chowdhury & Kirkpatrick 1994; Zerbe & Dively 1994; Nas 1996), and a combination of both

(Slee 2006).

Quantitative methods can be grouped in three categories: Input-Output models (I-O),

Computable General Equilibrium models (CGE) and Cost-Benefit analyses (CBA). An I-O

model uses a matrix to represent a nation’s economy in terms of the linkages between sectors,

households and the government (Pleskovic & Treviño 1985; Chowdhury & Kirkpatrick 1994).

Multipliers are calculated from the matrix to estimate the change in total economic activity

attributable to sector activity. A CGE model simulates a market economy by considering the

abstract general equilibrium structure formalized by Arrow and Debreu (Bergman & Henrekson

2003; Wing 2004). A CBA estimates the costs and benefits associated with the new activity or

policy. This approach differs from I-O and CGE models since it does not consider the economy

as a whole.

Qualitative models include focus groups and in-depth interviews with the populations

affected by the policy (Dunn 2004; Slee 2006). They aim to reveal stakeholders´ response to the

policy under evaluation (Slee 2006). Most of these methods do not allow immediate

quantification, and qualitative statistical methods should be adopted.

2
The term “implementable” refers to a policy that can be put in practice.

8

A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods to policy evaluation has been

proposed by Slee (2006). The method is called a multidimensional approach and it includes four

elements: economic linkages, regional impacts, non-market benefits, and social analysis

(Slee et al. 2003). The consideration of these elements will allow measuring the spillovers

associated with a forest project, such as non-market benefits and local and regional development

of the population around the forest.

Mendes classified policy evaluation methods into two general approaches. The first one

is used when the policy maker has defined a set of objectives the policy should achieve and

evaluates their achievement. The second approach takes performance criteria as given and

assesses if the desirable outcomes can be put in practice implemented (Mendes 2000 in Carvalho

Mendes 2006). The first group of methods is based on social choice theories, and the second

group on implementation theory (Carvalho Mendes 2006). The social choice theories started

with the General Possibility Theorem established by Arrow (1951). He proved that any social

choice rule that satisfies a basic set of fairness conditions could produce an intransitive social

order leading to a non-Pareto Optimal solution (Boardman 2001). The implementation method

examines whether the policy targets were achieved, and if they were not, it investigates whether

the goals were “implementable”. The author proposes three types of implementation constraints:

“feasibility, individual rationality, and incentive compatible constraints“, and associates these

constraints with three facts of policy making: resources availability, decisions decentralization,

and imperfect information about the stakeholders (Carvalho Mendes 2006).

Finally, two groups of approaches resulted from the discussion at a symposium on Forest

Policy Evaluation held in France in 20043. One group is the rationalist, as the methods included

3
EFI (European Forest Institute)-ENGREF (French Institute of Forestry, Agricultural and Environmental
Engineering)-IUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organizations) International Symposium. June, 2004.

9

here use a rationalist framework to evaluate a policy. The theories included the social choice

theory, as explained above; the implementation theory, previously mentioned in the classification

conducted by Carvalho Mendes; and the systemic theory, which considers the sector as groups of

actors interrelated among them and with different institutions. Another group considers the

context in which the policy is evaluated, including social and policy considerations rather than

using rationalist schemes (Forest Policy and Economics Editorial 2006).

2.2 Cost Benefit Analysis

2.2.1. Social choice

According to the social choice theory, the government intervenes in the economy in

response to market failures, which prevent an optimal resource allocation in society. These

failures may include imperfect competition, asymmetric information, inability to provide public

goods, or externalities. The policies of the government are driven by a goal of reaching income

distribution and improving public welfare (Zerbe & Dively 1994; Dunn 2004). The policies will

affect prices and then consumer welfare.

A convenient way to measure the change in the social welfare is the consumer surplus.

The willingness to pay measured by the compensating and equivalent variations would be the

correct way to measure welfare changes. However, in practice, the measures are difficult to

obtain since deriving compensated demand curves requires holding utility levels constant.

Therefore, demand curves in which income is held constant are used. The welfare measured

using these demand curves, called ordinary demand curves are called consumer and producer

surplus (Varian 1984; Zerbe & Dively 1994).

10

Consumer surplus (CS) is approximately the amount one would pay for the good over

what one does have to pay. It is the usual measure of welfare change in CBA benefit cost

analysis. The CS is represented by the area under the ordinary demand curve, but above the price

(Figure 2). Producer surplus (PS) is an analogous concept to consumer surplus. It is the amount

that can be taken from the producer or input supplier without diminishing the amount supplied.

PS is measured along a supply curve just as CS is measured along a demand curve, so it is the

area below the price and above the supply curve.

However, policy questions do not generally concern a single individual only. A central

problem of any social welfare or social value theory is the problem of aggregation over

individuals to obtain society’s welfare (Zerbe & Dively 1994; Boardman 2001). The use of the

Pareto Optimality criterion usually allows measuring society’s welfare. This criterion is an

efficiency norm describing the conditions necessary to achieve optimality in resource allocation.

The Pareto Optimality criterion establishes that no one can be made better off without

simultaneously making at least one other person worse off (Dunn 2004). The criterion is an

efficiency norm criterion and three efficiency conditions are associated with it: production

efficiency, exchange efficiency, and allocative efficiency. Production efficiency represents a

resource allocation where it is no longer possible to increase the output of one good without

reducing the output of another. Exchange efficiency represents a resource allocation where is

impossible to make one individual better off without making one other individual worse off.

Allocative efficiency is attained when production and exchange efficiency are both attained: the

rate at which commodities are substituted in production equals the rate at which commodities are

exchanged in consumption. Pareto Optimality criterion distinguishes between optimal and non-

11

optimal solutions but does not provide a conceptual framework for comparing two solutions that

are efficient.

The problem of locating the optimal point on the utility frontier is a problem of social

choice. Economists approach to the social choice problem by postulating a social welfare

function. A social welfare function is a decision rule for making choices in which the welfare of

more than one person or agent is affected. A social welfare function is a function of the utilities

of n individuals:

W= W (U1, U2,…,Un)

Where: W= society’s welfare

Un = utility of individual n

n= number of individuals in the society

While the Pareto Optimality indicates an efficient resource allocation, in the real word is

difficult to attain. Consequently a more flexible criterion is used: the Potential Pareto

improvement also called the Kaldor-Hicks criterion. According to this criterion, those

individuals who benefit from reallocation could compensate those individuals who lose (Zerbe &

Dively 1994; Boardman 2001).

The value of a resource allocation change can be measured by considering consumer and

producer surpluses. Examples of factors affecting welfare include externalities, supply changes,

and other market distortions. Social welfare can be affected by a policy, such as new taxation or

subsidies. Figure 3 provides an example of how new taxes affect three sectors of the economy:

consumers, producers and government. The supply curve shifts backward, and the price paid by

the household changes from p0 to pd while the price received by the producer is ps. The loss in CS

12

equals area A plus area B while PS loses area C plus area D. The revenue received by the

government equals area A plus area D. The difference between the revenue received by the

government and the households’ and producers’ loss is called deadweight loss, consisting of area

B plus area D.

2.3 Forest Policy

There are several reasons for policy interventions in the forest sector. First, forests

provide non-market services such as soil conservation, aesthetic values, recreation, and carbon

storage (Chappelle 1971; Ellefson 1988; Dore & Guevara 2000; Clapp 2001; Clark 2004;

Richards & Stokes 2004). Second, forest investments are long-term investments. They require

the maintenance of a large capital stock, which makes the opportunity cost of capital tied up in

growing stock high.

Meijerink (1997 in Enters et al. 2003) proposed that incentives should be applied to

public goods only. Where plantations provide environmental services such as soil or watershed

protection, prevention of land degradation or carbon sequestration, incentives are appropriate

because private net returns are often lower than overall social returns. Enters et al. (2003)

proposed incentives to projects that provide employment, especially to new forest industries in

countries with competitive advantages, ensuring reliable supplies of strategic timber resources,

and alleviating rural poverty. Scherr and Current (1999 in Enters et al 2003) stated that

incentives might be particularly justified to accelerate the pace of plantation development in

cases where a developing industry requires a minimum supply of raw material. Clapp (1995 in

Enters et al 2003) stated that commodity industries such as pulp and paper need economies of

scale to be competitive, then a subsidy to start their activities may be necessary. Cubbage et al.

13

(1993) mentioned that reducing income taxes by providing tax deductions or tax credits for

timber growing is a way of favoring timber investments.

On the other hand, some authors claimed that incentives represent a misallocation of

public-sector resources and are not needed when the private returns from plantation management

exceed those from other land uses (Forestry Law 13723 1968; Haltia & Keipi 1997).

Furthermore, in a number of instances government forestry policies have aggravated problems

such as deforestation (Repetto & Gillis 1988). The deforestation of Brazilian Amazon, the

inefficient use of resources in Philippines, and illegal logging in Indonesia are the most common

examples of these negative effects (Repetto 1988; Repetto & Gillis 1988; Berck et al. 2003;

Bacha 2004).

2.4 Latin American Policy

In Latin America, the use of incentive mechanisms promoting forest investments started

in the 1970s and was broadly adopted in the 1980s. Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay

introduced subsidies, tax breaks and tax exonerations to promote the development of forest

plantations and wood manufacturing industries, with different results. Colombia, Ecuador and

Paraguay took the Chilean model to establish subsidies.

2.4.1. Chile

2.4.1.1 Regulation

The development of the forest sector in Chile began with the Decree Law 701 that

created the Forestry National Corporation (CONAF). The objective of the policy was:

“…to promote plantations, reforest, rationalize the exploitation and attain the optimum

14

management of the forest” (Sabag Villalobos 1984). Management plans are required for native

forest, forest plantations, afforestation projects, and harvesting operations (FAO 2006). The

instruments applied consisted of subsidies and tax exonerations (Sabag Villalobos 1984; Silva

2004; FAO 2006). Currently subsidies are not in force and tax exonerations are the only

incentive still available. Policy results were positive. The area of pine and eucalyptus plantations

increased substantially (FAO 2006).

Small producers were not included in the incentives schemes established by the Decree

Law 701 (Silva 2004). The reestablishment of a democratic government led to several reforms of

the forest policy. These reforms included the debate of the Native Forest Bill in 1990, and the

reform of the Decree Law 701 between 1994 and 2000 (Silva 1999 in Silva 2004). The Native

Forest Bill was one of the first environmental initiatives of the government. The Native Forest

Bill aimed to protect native forests that were under pressure from invading pine plantations.

Several political issues and opposite interests arose in the debate, with the president and the

Agricultural Ministry supporting the Bill, and the Economy Ministry, part of the legislature, and

the timber corporations opposing it. The Native Forest Bill is still under deliberation and has not

yet been approved. The reform of the Decree Law 701 aimed to redirect the subsidies from large

corporations to small producers. Following negotiations, large corporations received an

extension of tax exonerations but did not gain access to the subsidies.

2.4.1.2 Forest Resources

Chile’s forest area has grown over the past 15 years as a result on increased planting. At

the same time, native forest area has been stable. The total forest area reached 16 million

hectares (ha) by 2005 (Table 1). Between 1998 and 2004, about 40,000 ha were planted

15

annually. The country is divided into 13 regions. Native forests are located in Regions IX

through XII and forest plantations are concentrated in Regions VII through IX (Lara & Veblen

1993). In 1994 radiata pine covered 75.5% of the total planted area, and eucalyptus 16.9%. By

2004 the share of radiata pine declined to 47% and while that of eucalyptus rose to 40% (Paredes

1999; Southern Hemisphere 2006). The value of forest production increased more than four

times between 1984 and 1997. During this period, 74% of the production was exported (Paredes

1999). Wood pulp production reached 3.4 million ton in 2004, as much as 2.5 million were

exported. Pulpwood consumption also increased, and there is a concern regarding future pulp

wood availability for new projects. Paper exports increased by 78% between 1986 and 2004.

Paper exports increased in 2004 compared to 2003 by 31% (Southern Hemisphere 2006).

Lumber production has also increased reaching 8.6 million m3 in 2004, with 2.4 million

m3 exported. On the other hand, local lumber consumption has also increased due to the growth

of the construction sector (Paperloop 2005; Southern Hemisphere 2006).

2.4.1.3 Industry

The Chilean forest industry is one of the most rapidly growing in the world (Clapp 2001;

Silva 2004). The pulp industry is highly concentrated. rauco and CMPC Celulosa are the most

important companies (Paperloop 2005; Southern Hemisphere 2006). Arauco owns four pulpmills

in Chile and one in Argentina (Southern Hemisphere 2006). The solid wood sector is also highly

concentrated: nine companies account for 90% of the production. The most important companies

are the same as in the pulp sector: Arauco and CMPC Celulosa (Southern Hemisphere 2006).

16

2.4.2 Brazil

2.4.2.1 Regulation

Between 1967 and 1986, Brazil has provided incentives for establishing forest

plantations. The first law was established in 1966 and included tax incentives to plantations

(Keugen 2001; Flynn 2005). To be included in this program the owner had to present a plan to

the Brazilian Institute for Forestry Development (IBDF), which had to approve it, and then the

plantation and maintenance costs were deducted from the income taxes for the first three years of

the operation, up to a maximum of 50% of the income tax. During the 1970s the law was revised

restricting the tax exonerations to legal entities, and reducing gradually the percentage of tax

deduction. In 1987, the percentage was reduced to 10% and restricted to the Northeast of the

country (Flynn 2005). A controversial issue was the use of agricultural lands for forestry. In

1976 the regulation established “Priority Regions for Reforestation and/or Forest Industry

Districts” for planting. Currently, the federal government has two programs that provide

incentives to small and medium sized landowners to plant trees.

Regarding the industry, the Brazilian Government has encouraged the establishment of

specific programs to develop the industrial forest sector. The Wood and Furniture Forum is led

by the Ministry of Development and Foreign Trade and was established to promote growth in the

sector. The BNDES has financed studies which indicate that more plantations are needed in

order to provide wood for the new industries. Therefore, the BNDES has been financing forest

plantations projects. PROMOVEL is the Brazilian Program for Increasing Furniture Exports. It

was created in 1998 by the Brazilian Furniture Association (Flynn 2005).

17

There are some protective tariffs to the wood products industry. On one hand, taxes on

wood imports have been decreasing. On the other hand, imported equipment has high tariffs in

order to encourage the use of local machinery (Flynn 2005).

Another law requires that at least 20% of every forest area must be maintained in “natural

vegetation”(Flynn 2005).

2.4.2.2 Forest Resources

Today, Brazil has nearly 6 million ha covered with forest plantations, and the total area of

natural forest is more than 550 million ha as is shown in Table 2 (Flynn 2005; Paperloop 2005;

FAO 2006; Southern Hemisphere 2006). Eucalyptus accounted for 63% of total planted area and

pine for 31%. Eucalyputs growth rates differ according to states and companies, ranging from 30

to 50 m3/ha/year. Annual harvest is estimated in 60-70 million m3, and it is projected to increase

to 106 million m3. Consumption is divided into pulp mills (50%), charcoal and energy (40%),

panels (6%), and lumber (4%) (Flynn 2005).

Pine plantations are located mainly in the state of Parana, 682,000 ha, and were planted

between 1967 and 1998 (Southern Hemisphere 2006). The ownership is not very concentrated as

12 companies own 18.4% of the total (Flynn 2005). Rotations are on average 22 years in the

South, with a first thinning at 12 years and a second thinning at 17 years. If pines are managed

for pulp, rotations are 16 years (Flynn 2005). Pine harvest is divided among sawmills (60%),

pulpmills (22%), plywood (10%) and composite wood panels (8%).

18

2.4.2.3 Industry

Brazil is the 7th largest producer of pulp in the world and the 11th largest producer of

paper and paperboard in the world (Flynn 2005; Paperloop 2005). Pulp production has been

expanding since the 1990s (Flynn 2005; Paperloop 2005). Aracruz is the most important pulp

company with a pulp production capacity of 2.25 million metric tons in 2003. The reminder is

divided among five companies (Flynn 2005; Paperloop 2005).

Another growth industry is packaging. The largest packaging producer is Klabin which

has a capacity of 150,000 ton/year (Flynn 2005; Paperloop 2005).

2.4.2.4 Exports

The value of sawn wood exports increased 23% between 2003 and 2004. The growth in

the following year was much smaller. The exports increased by 5% only due to the Real

devaluation (Southern Hemisphere 2006). The most important export markets were United States

and China.

Pulp and paper exports have been increasing reaching 1.187 billion US$ in 2004. The

main destinations for pulp were Europe (47%), Asia (29%) and North America (21%); on the

other hand, paper went to Latin America, Europe (18%) and North America (16%) (Flynn 2005).

2.5 Summary

The design of a public policy implies the choice of objectives that considers scarce

resources and opposite interests. The last objective behind any public policy is to increase the

welfare of the society, i.e., to make a group of persons better off without making anyone else

worse off. This is known as the Pareto Optimality criteria.

19

In Latin America, many countries started forest programs with different results. Chile and

Brazil can be characterized as the most successful, even though their policies and strategies have

been different. Chile has a highly concentrated forest industry while Brazil has less concentrated

industry. Both countries rely on exotic species.

20

1. Define
the
problem

6. Monitor the 2. Establish
implemented evaluation
policy criteria

5. Implement
3. Identify
the Policy
alternative
policies

4. Evaluate
alternative
policies

Source: Adapted from Patton and Sawicki, 1993.

Figure 1. Basic Policy Analysis Process

21

Price Supply

CS
Po PS
Demand

Quantity
Qo
Figure 2. Consumer and Producer Surplus

Price Supply 2 Supply 1

Pd
A B
P0
D Demand
C
Ps
Q1 Qo Quantity

Figure 3. Taxation and Deadweight Loss

22

Table 1. Forest area in Chile (1,000 ha)

FRA 2005 Categories 1990 2000 2005
Primary 4,152 4,145 4,142
Modified natural 9,344 9,309 9,292
Semi-natural 26 26 26
Sub total 13,522 13,480 13,460
Productive plantation 1,741 2,354 2,661
Protective plantation 0 0 0
Total 15,263 15,834 16,121
Source: FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005.

Table 2. Forest area in Brazil (1,000 ha)
FRA 2005 Categories 1990 2000 2005
Primary 460,513 433,220 415,890
Modified natural 54,444 54,714 56,424
Semi-natural - - -
Sub total 514,957 487,934 472,314
Productive plantation 5,070 5,279 5,384
Protective plantation - - -
Total 520,027 493,213 477,698

23

CHAPTER 3

URUGUAY’S FOREST SECTOR

Uruguay is a small South American country located between Argentina and Brazil. It has

a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 18 billion US$ (Central Bank of Uruguay 2005). The most

important sector of the economy is Manufacturing Industries, which accounts for 22.9% of GDP.

Another important sector is Agriculture, including livestock, which contributed 8.7% to the GDP

(Figure 4). The silviculture sub-sector (forest plantations) has increased its share in the

Agricultural GDP between 1990 and 2002 to 13.4% (Table 3).

The Uruguayan Economy has been relatively stable during the last 25 years, except for

two financial crises in 1982 and in 2002. In 1982, the exchange rate system collapsed leading to

a currency devaluation and a financial crisis. This resulted in a decline in the agricultural sector,

which had debt denoted in US$ and was multiplied by the devaluation effect. After a period of

high growth in the 1990s, the economy began to contract in 1998, and the 2002 financial crisis

reinforced this phenomena. However, in 2003 the GDP increased 1% versus a 10% decline the

year before. This reversal can be explained by growing exports and by substituting imports with

domestic production. The trade balance in Uruguay was negative between 2000 and 2005 with

the exception of 2003. The main export is beef, which accounts for 33% of total exports. Even

though in 2005 exports increased by 16.2%, imports increased 24.4%, resulting in a trade deficit

of 474 million US$. A one-time special purchase of 243 million US$ of Venezuelan oil was part

of the deficit.

24

The Uruguayan exchange rate regime4 has changed from pegged exchange rates within

horizontal bands in the 1990s to a floating system in 2002, after a 93% devaluation that year. The

devaluation has increased the competitiveness of domestic production and exports grew. At the

same time, imports declined due to a contraction in consumption (Economic Institute 2003).

3.1 Description of the Uruguayan Forest Sector

3.1.1 Area

Forest area is in Uruguay reaches almost 1.5 million ha, constituting 9% of the country’s

land base (Agricultural Ministry of Uruguay 2000; Ramos & Cabrera 2001). Forests are

classified as either plantations or natural forests. Natural forests cover 740,000 ha, representing

4% of the country’s land area (Agricultural Ministry of Uruguay 2000; Ramos & Cabrera 2001).

Plantations cover 751,000 ha and their area has grown rapidly from between 1990 and 2005

(Table 4).

The last Agricultural Census, CGA 2000, shows a significant increase in the forest area

(Agricultural Ministry of Uruguay 2000). Planted forest area reached 661 thousand ha in 2000.

That represented a nearly 4-fold increase from the preceding Census of 1990. According to the

Forest Division of the Agricultural Ministry, between 1990 and 2002, 590,000 ha were planted

under the incentives of the Forestry Law (Durán 2003).

The law provided fiscal incentives for the development of commercial forests plantations

on priority soils, generally marginal agricultural (Figure 5). The CONEAT5 index measures the

productivity of the land by soil type, location, and productivity. The base index is 100; lands

4
The exchange rate considered here is the price of a dollar in terms of Uruguayan Peso ($U). The US$ is the
currency used by the Uruguayan Government to set the exchange rate and the exchange rate regime.
5
CONEAT stands for the National Commission of Agronomic Study of the Land. This Commission depends on the
Renewable Resources Division (RENARE) which depends on the Agricultural and Livestock Ministry (MGAP).

25

with an index higher than 100 are considered very well for livestock and agriculture; lands with

an index lower than 100 are considered poor lands. Ramos and Cabrera built a weighted average

CONEAT index for forest lands and estimated that between 1989 and 1999 the index was 69.6

(Ramos & Cabrera 2001) (Table 5).

3.1.2 Species

Plantation incentives were provided for particular tree species. As a consequence,

eucalyptus species account for 76% of planted areas greater than 10, and pine for 22%

(Figure 6). While pine has been more frequently planted in recent years, eucalyptus still accounts

for the majority of the planted area,

3.1.3 Location

Forested areas are geographically concentrated in the north of the country (the provinces

of Rivera and Tacuarembó). The remainder is found in the west (the provinces of Paysandú and

Río Negro), and in the southwest (the provinces of Lavalleja and Maldonado). Currently, forest

area is Cerro Largo also growing. Rivera is the province with the largest forest area (115,000 ha,

which represents 13.1% of the total agricultural area of the province). It is followed by

Tacuarembó (97,300 ha, 6.6% of the total agricultural area of the province); and Paysandú

(93,000 ha, 6.9% of the total area of the province). Nearly a half of the forest planted area is

located in those three provinces, Rivera, Tacuarembó and Paysandú (Durán 2003).

26

3.1.4 Ownership

The saw timber and paper sectors have begun developing rapidly in the 1990s. As the

first forest plantations neared their first harvest, international investors have discovered

Uruguay’s forest sector as an attractive investment opportunity. Traditionally, the sector

concentrated on paper and lumber production manufactures. These lumber manufacturers were

small local firms (Durán 2004). The Forestry Law has recently attracted new, primarily foreign,

investors who focus on plantations development and paper and lumber manufacturing. The

forest sector today is characterized by the coexistence of large, vertically integrated firms with

many small scale primary producers and a substantial presence of foreign investors. Production

and export activities are the domain of a few large firms (Durán 2003; Mendell et al. 2007).

Even though there are more than 19,000 farms with at least one forested ha, the forest

plantation estate is highly concentrated: 96% of the farms have less than 100 ha planted and they

control only 17.3% of the forest area. Most of these small farms use plantations for shelter and

shadow for livestock or for other non-commercial purposes. On the other hand, 62.8% of the

plantation area is in farms with forest areas greater than 500 ha. Intermediate farms (planted

areas between 100 and 500 ha) account for only 9% the total forest planted area (Table 6).

According to DIEA assessment, in 2000 there were 64 farms with planted area between 1,000

and 10,000 ha and 9 farms with forest planted areas larger than 10,000 ha (Durán 2003).

3.1.5 Forest Income

The development of plantations and growing production of wood products have

transformed the forest sector into an important source of income. According to the Agricultural

Census 2000, out of 57,131 farms, 1,015 listed forestry as their main source of income. The

27

forest sector employs 2,962 workers, from a total of 157,000 employees in the agricultural

sector. In addition, a large number of workers serve the forest sector by performing harvesting,

pruning, and thinning operations. The Forest Division estimated that in 2000 the sector had

approximately 14,000 employees in the forest plantations (Durán 2003).

3.1.6 Wood harvest, manufacturing, and exports

Growing wood harvest fueled a rapid growth in wood exports. The harvest volume

increased 27% between 2000 and 2003, rising from 2.9 million to 3.7 million m3 (cubic meters)

(DIEA 2004). Pulpwood production increased from 893,000 to 1.6 million cum, a gain of 83%,

and fuel wood production increased from 1.4 to 1.6 million cum, a gain of 13%. Much of the

harvest, except fuel wood, is designated for export (Forest Division 2005).

While export growth has been rapid, its share in the Trade Balance remains low. Forest

products exports account only for 5% of the country’s total exports, and in the period 1989-2004

the share has oscillated between 2 to 7% (Table 7). At the same time, forest products imports

account for 3.5% of the total imports (ALADI 2006). It is expected, however, that maturing

plantations will increase wood harvest which would promote export-oriented production. The

two most important export groups are (1) saw timber (2) paper and cardboard, and pulpwood has

been increasing in the last years (Table 8). If paper and cardboard exports are not considered,

forest exports account for 4% of the country’s total exports.

Since 1990 pulpwood production increased dramatically. About 50% of the production is

exported. Saw timber and lumber production also increased. Since domestic consumption of

these products has been stable, their export continues to grow. In 2000, about 100 thousand cum

of lumber were exported. That accounts for a fifth of the total lumber production. Paper and

28

cardboard exports also increased, reaching more than 50,000 tons in 1999, or 40% of the total

production. That year the total forest exports were less than 100 million US$, 4.4% of the total

exports in Uruguay. By 2004, pulpwood exports reached 92.5 million US$, lumber exports 18.1

million US$, and paper and cardboard 31.6 million US$.

During the 1990s pulp logs exports went to Europe: Spain, Norway, Finland and

Portugal. Lumber was sold to Italy, USA and Japan (Figures 7 and 8).

3.1.7 Export Prices

Between 1989 and 1999, exports grew in volume but not in value. The Central Bank of

Uruguay (BCU) constructs an index for Paper and Cardboard (Series X). The Index is a Paasche

Index with base in the previous year on FOB6 values, and it is available from 1994 to 2004. The

index shows that prices increased between 1994 and 1995, but started declining in 1996

(Table 9).

The Forest Division provides export information by value, volume, and item, allowing

the estimation of unitary values. This information is available for years from 1980 and 2005, for

hardwood and softwood saw timber and pulpwood. The results indicate that hardwood saw

timber unit values were more stable than softwood saw timber ones (Table 10). Hardwood prices

varied from 27 to 314 US$/m3 in the period7; while softwood unit values oscillated from 99 to

115 US$/ m3. Softwood pulpwood pries were stable at around 40 US$/ m3 8.

The Association of Industries of Uruguay (CIU) constructs a Paasche index for the entire

sector (saw timber, pulp, paper, cardboard, printing, etc.) based on the National Customs

Administration (DNA) data. The index is also calculated for saw timber, but not for pulpwood

6
Free on Board.
7
In 1990, the average unit value was 5 US$/cum, a value that probably does not reflect the real price.
8
There is no information about pulp prices before 1989.

29

because its share in Uruguay’s total exports is low. The weights are not fixed as the index base is

the preceding year. Three products are included: pine wood, eucalyptus wood, and other species

wood (Table 11). The results from 2000 to 2006 with 2000 as a base year show that prices had

decreased until 2002 and after that started growing again.

3.1.8 Imports

Forest products imports increased in the 1990s: paper purchases increased four-fold,

representing 60% of the total forest imports in value; lumber represented 18% of the total;

remanufactured wood purchases represented 5% of the total. Pulp purchases doubled in value

and tripled in volume, reaching more than 10% of the total. Between 1995 and 2005, forest

imports9 were on average US$ 47 million annually (Table 12).

Two thirds of the Uruguayan purchases of paper and cardboard came from the region,

mainly from Argentina and Brazil, 15% came from North America, and the rest from Europe.

The regions are the source for 70% of pulpwood imports.

3.1.9 Forest Industries

The National Institute of Statistics (INE) collects information for industries using the

Uniform International Industrial Classification (CIIU). According to its estimates, based on INE

and BCU data, sawmills and pulp and paper industries constituted 1.36% of Uruguay’s GDP in

2003 (Table 13). This percentage will be higher after new facilities currently under construction

are included. Botnia, which will have completed a pulp and paper mill investment of one billion

9
Not all the products were considered. Ramos and Cabrera (2001) considered all the products and indicated that
between 1989 and 2000, the forest imports averaged 75 million US$ annually.

30

US$ this year. The mill construction began in the third quarter of 2005. Other companies, such

Urupanel and Colonvade in Tacuarembó also completed their investments after 2003.

The CIIU 2 was used until 2002. Then it was replaced the CIIU 3. In CIIU 2, the pulp

and paper industry was considered together with newspapers, printing, etc. In CIIU 3, they are

separate items, and the wood and wood manufacturing industry includes new items as well.

Therefore, the production values of each subgroup cannot be compared for those years. The

Association of Industries of Uruguay (CIU) constructs a Production Index (PI) for the industry

using the CIIU 3 codes from 1993 to 2006 based on INE data, which was used to convert the

values from current US$ to constant 2002 US$ (Table 14).

Pulp and Paper Industry GDP increased 6% between 1998 and 1999, measured in

constant US$ of 2002, and then declined (Table 15). In 2002, the INE changed the classification

system and the Pulp and Paper sub sector does not include printing; therefore, the results cannot

be compared easily. However, after adjusting the data, the results show that the GDP in US$

increased. If only pulp and paper industry is considered, between 2002 and 2003, its GDP

increased 30%; sawmills GDP increased by 67%; meanwhile, manufacturing industry GDP

decreased. There are no records of sawmills GDP before 2002.

Analyzing the share of forest industries in total manufacturing GDP, only sawmills

increased their share significantly between 2002 and 2003 (Table 16). This is consistent with the

current situation in the forest sector: the new projects that just have been completed or are about

to be completed are not included in the GDP.

The number of sawmills decreased, indicating the industry concentrated. By 2000, the

number of sawmills declined to about than 50, down from 113 in 1988. The sawmills operated

primarily in Montevideo (45%), San José and Paysandú (20% each) and Rivera and Tacuarembó

31

(15% of the total) (Ramos & Cabrera 2001). In the 1990s, the production of pulp wood and

recycled paper increased, as well as the pulp and cardboard production, to lesser degree, but the

employment in those sub sectors was reduced to half (Ramos & Cabrera 2001).

Currently, five firms are key players in the forest sector in Uruguay: Botnia, Colonvade,

Fymnsa, Cofusa-Urufor, and Urupanel. Two firms invest heavily in pulp manufacturing: Ence

and Stora Enso. Botnia, is constructing a pulp mill in the North of the country, which involves

the largest single investment in the country’s history, with a value of one billion US$. The mill

will be operational the third quarter of 2007. Ence has partnerships with several local firms and

had been planning a pulp mill. Due to a dispute with Argentina, Ence has been forced to change

the mill’s location and that decision is still under consideration. Stora Enso has just arrived in

the country and is also planning to build a pulp mill. In the saw timber and plywood sector, the

leading firms include Fymnsa and Urufor (domestic) and Weyerhaeuser and Urupanel (foreign).

Colonvade is constructing a plywood facility and plans to build five to eight more plants in

Tacuarembó, Rivera and Paysandú. Fymnsa, one of the oldest and biggest domestic companies

located in Rivera, is constructing a sawmill. Cofusa and Urufor operate in the North of Uruguay

and produce high quality eucalyptus grandis timber. Urupanel is a Chilean lumber company

located in Tacuarembó.

3.2 Forest Policy

Even though there was a general agreement when the Forestry Law was approved in

1987, controversies soon followed. The Forestry Law in Uruguay was controversial for several

reasons including subsidies and regionalization. Regarding subsidies, the main issues were: (1)

whether the subsidies were necessary to attract investments, (2) whether to subsidize other,

32

already established, sectors of the economy and (3) whether the subsidies should be in effect for

regions which determined that better alternative uses exist for lands allocated to forest

development. Regarding regionalization, the argument focused on the designation of forest

priority lands as it was argued that not all lands included were low productivity lands.

3.2.1 Background and Previous Regulation

In the 1950s, the potential to increase forest production in Uruguay was studied. At the

same time, the country’s soils were classified according to their productivity (CIDE 1963). The

classification had five soil groups, and the country was divided into thirteen soils zones for

management and conservation (Berreta 2003).

In 1968, the first Forestry Law was approved (Forestry Law 13723 1968), and the forest

sector became the only economic sector with a Promotion Policy (Gabriel San Román Policy

Director, Forest Division. Personal Communication, July 2006). The objective was to increase

the forest area. The instruments used included tax exonerations, tax reinvestments in plantations,

and credit extended by the BROU.

The Law did not achieve its objectives for a variety of reasons. The law was incomplete,

funds were not allocated for the Forest Fund, and priority zones were not defined. Furthermore

the credit extension was not designed according to the long term characteristics of a forest

investment (Forestry Law 13723/54-56). Forestry loans were offered by the BROU for a period

of only 10 years (Forestry Law 13723/53), and timber rotations range from 15 to 25 years.

33

3.2.2 Forestry Law 15939: objectives and instruments

The second Forestry Law was approved in 1987 (Forestry Law 15939 1988) by all

members of the Parliament, even though some members expressed their concerns about some

areas10.

The parliament passed the law to generate to environmental, economic, and social

benefits for the country. The main objectives of the 1987 Forestry Law were to increase planted

area and to protect native forests. The specific objectives were to increase forest cover through

the introduction of fast-growing species in regions with poor soils, to promote industrial

development in non-industrialized regions, and to increase and diversify exports.

The Forestry Law 15939 is the framework for the current forestry policy, but, as the

sector has been developing, new regulations have been developed in several decrees and

resolutions. Some of these regulations were designed to implement certain parts of the Law (i.e.

soils priority zones, tax exonerations, subsidies, Forest Fund); others were developed to consider

new factors that emerged during the development of the forest sector (e.g. species productivity);

and finally some were developed to modify original resolutions that needed updating (e.g. soils

priority zones, subsidies).

The policy instruments used include regionalization, tax exonerations, subsidies, and

credit. Regionalization consisted of defining forestry priority zones in the country. Forestlands

are defined and zones classified according to soil type in Decree 452/88. Soils classified as

priority soils in Forestry Law 15939 and following decrees (Decree 452/88-Article 2; Decree

26/93) are located mainly in the North, Northwest and Northeast of the country. To be classified

as the forest priority soil, the site has to be characterized by a low natural fertility but offer good

10
The Forest Producers Society summarized the history and discussion of the Forestry Law 15939 in an internal
report that was obtained during the author’s visit to Uruguay, but they date when the report was prepared was not
known.

34

forest growth conditions (Decree 452/88-Article 3). The minimum area to be considered a forest

was set at 2,500 square meters (Decree 452/88-Article 1).

The definition of priority zones also included “supplementary soils” that could be planted

up to 40% of the total area11 (Decree 333/90). This decree was revoked in 2005 (Decree 154/05).

Currently, forest planting requires an associated management plan, and to plant in accessory

soils, an environmental plan (Decree 191/06; Decree 220/06). These changes have only a limited

impact on forest investment decisions as they do not affect the management of lands where most

forest plantations have been developed 12 (Personal Communication with Forest Companies, July

2006).

Tax exonerations for forestlands and taxes and tariff exonerations for goods and inputs

used for forestry activities also were established. Tax exonerations included land tax, which is

1.25% on the land value and will vary according to soil productivity13; rural property taxes; the

exoneration of the Global Tariff Rate and Value Added Tax (IVA) for the imports14 by forest

companies for 15 years. While the last exoneration expired in 2002; property tax exonerations

are still in force. To benefit from the exonerations, the plantations have to be qualified as

protective and production forests and they have to be located in forest priority zones.

Law 16002 established a subsidy of up to 30% of the cost of plantation but this

percentage was later increased to 50% (Law 16.170, Article 251; Decree 212/97, Article 1).

Currently subsidies are not in force. Another change is that forest priority soils and species are

under revision, but projects previously approved are not affected.

11
In Decree 452/98 it was allowed to plant in “supplementary soils” up to 10% of the total area.
12
Other groups of soils affected are: 2.11a, 2.12, 5.01c, 5.02a, 7, 8 (not all) (Decree 191/06).
13
The value used to calculate the tax is the CONEAT Index.
14
Activities are listed in Decree 457/989 and include: fertilizers, chemical products, vehicles, machines, equipment
for fire prevention, etc.

35

Credit is another tool used by the Government to promote forest investments. The

Republic of Uruguay Bank (BROU) finances nurseries and different stages of the forest

production. It provided financing of up to 80% of the project’s value, not considering land value;

the credits are in US$, and payment begin up to 10 years later.

The ability to create Joint Stock Corporations with bearer shares was one of the changes

introduced by the new Forestry Law. Join Stock corporations with bearer shares were not

allowed in the Agricultural Sector, but the Forestry Sector was the exception. Today, they are

allowed in the Agricultural Sector as well.

Wood manufacturing industries benefit from other laws as well15. Investments Promotion

and Protection Law and associated decrees, and Free Trade Zone Companies regulations all help

in developing wood processing. Investments Promotion and Protection Law (Law 16906 1998),

establishes tax exonerations and tax breaks for investments that are considered as National

Interest Projects. To receive the benefits introduced in the Law the project has to be declared by

the Government as National Interest Project. The project has to be presented to the Customer

Office at the Tourism Ministry. The requirements include presenting a note describing the fiscal

incentives requested, an investment project containing a description of its costs and benefits, and

an environmental impact study when necessary and a proof of origin of the capital.

Industries can choose to develop a Free Trade Zone. Two international forest companies

had adopted this regime: Botnia and Ence16. To be considered under this scheme, the company

has to present a project to the government describing the economic viability of the project and

the benefits it will generate for the country. After obtaining the authorization, the company has to

15
These laws are in force for all industries, not just for forest industries.
16
By October 2006, Ence announced a change in the mill construction plans. The mill would be relocated and
therefore, the construction is delayed.

36

pay either a one-time fee or a periodic fee. The benefits include tax exonerations. All the national

taxes are exonerated except for social security contributions. In addition, the entrance of goods

and the services rendered within the free trade zone is exempt from all taxes. Goods inbound to

the zone from Uruguay are considered to be exports and goods outbound from the zone are

exempt from all taxes. However, if the goods are moved into Uruguayan territory they are

considered imports. The company that operates in a tax free zone is not allowed to have activities

in the rest of the country (Tourism Ministry 2006).

3.3 Native Forests

Native species represent 3.7% of the country’s land area. They are composed of 140

species. The species distribution varies with geographical location, particularly with soil

conditions. Native forests can be into five groups: gallery forests, mountain forests, park forests,

ravine forests and palms.

Traditionally, native forest has been used for fuel wood. Fuel wood consumption has

been constant at around 35,000 to 40,000 tons annually. The sellers are controlled by the

Government and are required to report their stocks every four months.

The native forests also have non-timber uses. The species present in Uruguay can be used

for medicine, carbon storage, cosmetics (essential oils), fruits17, and ornaments (Escudero 2004).

The ecotourism has been proposed as an interesting alternative use for native forests and is

currently developing in the country.

Some studies have attempted to estimate the returns of managing native woods

(Cubbage et al. 2006). By considering three different management regimes, the study analyzes

different species in the Southern Cone of Latin America and in the Southern United States.
17
The Agricultural School of the University of Republic in Uruguay has attempted to work in this field.

37

Natural stand returns in Latin America were much lower than those of plantations. The average

natural forest growth rates were estimated at 1 cubic meter per hectare per year (m3/ha/yr),

resulting in a low internal rate of return (IRR). The immediate harvest of native species would be

more attractive financially, but is not likely to be sustainable without good management.

The unsustainable use and exploitation of the native forests worldwide is a widespread

problem. There are three different approaches to the management of the native forests:

exploitation, preservation and conservation. Exploitation refers to the use of the resource,

without considering its conservation. Preservation does not allow any resource utilization.

Finally the intermediate approach would be the conservation approach, which refers to the

regulated use of the forests.

The Uruguayan government has taken the conservation approach, along with the

preservation of some specific areas. The harvest of native wood is only allowed in the forests

subject to management plans that need to be approved by the Forest Division of the Agricultural

Ministry. In addition, the commercialization and transport of the native wood is controlled by the

government, as described above.

The Uruguayan Government considered the definition proposed by the World

Conservation Union (IUCN) to design the native forest policy. They consider that the

conservation is positive and involves the preservation, the sustainable management and the

improvement of the natural environment. The Uruguayan government as well as some

institutions has signed agreements with international organizations to implement projects that

protect the native forests, e.g., BIRF Projects UR (3131, 3697), Cooperation Agreement with the

European Union (1994-1995).

38

3.4 Summary

The Forestry Law promoted the rapid development of forest plantations. Between 1989

and 1999 the area planted increased by 491 thousand ha. The annual planting reached its peak in

1998. The plantations are concentrated in the provinces of Rivera, Paysandú, Tacuarembó, Río

Negro and Cerro Largo, all located in the North of the country (Forest Division 2004). The

Forestry Law attracted new, primarily foreign, firms into the forest sector. These new firms

invested in wood growing and lumber and pulp.

The incentives were offered because the forest sector has long-term investments and the

returns are not immediate. In addition, if industries are expected to invest in the country, it will

be necessary to have a sizeable forest area in order to meet their raw material needs. Even though

environmental issues such as the protection of native forest protection were considered, they

were not the center of the debate.

Regionalization was another controversial issue related to the new forest policy. It was

argued that soils that can be used for livestock would be used for forestry. In such cases agro-

forestry systems have been adapted by most of the forest firms.

39

Agriculture and
Other Services Livestock
8.90% 8.69%
Fisheries
0.38%
Minery
Government Services
0.28%
8.22%

Manufacturer Industries
Assets and services to 22.95%
companies
11.70%

Electricity, Gas and
Water
Financial Business,
4.61%
Insurances, etc
7.54%
Construction
T ransportation 4.19%
9.56%
Commerce, Restaurants
and Hotels
12.97%

Source: Central Bank of Uruguay 2007.

Figure 4. Uruguay GDP by sectors (2005)

Table 3. GDP as Percentage of Agricultural GDP

Sub sectors 1990 2002
Agriculture 23.40 21.00
Silviculture 3.80 13.40
Livestock 72.80 65.60
Total 100.00 100.00
Source: Central Bank of Uruguay.

Table 4. Uruguay Forest Resources (1,000 ha)

FRA 2005 Categories 1990 2000 2005
Primary 591 296 296
Modified natural 465 444 444
Semi-natural - - -
Sub total 704 740 740
Productive plantation 197 655 751
Protective plantation 4 14 15
Total 905 1,409 1,506

40

Uruguay: Forest Priority Soils

CONEAT Groups

Agricultural and Livestock Ministry
Renewable Resources Division
Geographical Information System

Figure 5. Uruguay Forest Priority Soils

41

Table 5. CONEAT Index for Forest Lands

Province Ha CONEAT Index
Artigas 193 70.5
Canelones 2,753 32.4
Cerro Largo 20,941 65.4
Colonia 1,325 55.3
Durazno 31,951 72.4
Flores 426 69
Florida 23,786 61.2
Lavalleja 42,960 65.6
Maldonado 10,247 65.6
Montevideo 137 4.5
Paysandu 56,348 80.1
Rio Negro 77,668 68.2
Rivera 74,305 69
Rocha 10,316 55.5
Salto 437 41.1
San Jose 2,406 47.2
Soriano 21,784 80.9
Tacuarembo 68,113 71.4
Treinta y Tres 4,823 63.2
Total 450,917 69.6
Source: Ramos and Cabrera 2001.

800,000
700,000
600,000
Hectares

500,000
Pine
400,000
Eucalyptus
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
19 9
19 0
19 1
19 2
19 3
19 4
19 5
19 6
19 7
19 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 02
20 3*
20 4*
*
05
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
0
0
19

0
0

Year

(*) For years 2003 and 2004 the official data was not updated, but the total area by 2005 was 751,000 ha, then the
area for each species was assigned according to secondary information.
Source: Forest Division

Figure 6. Area Planted by Species (Cumulative)

42

Table 6. Forest Farms by Area

Plantation area Total
(in ha) Number %
Total 19,402 100
<3 11,248 58
3-10 5,139 26.5
11-20 1,071 5.5
21-50 832 4.3
51-100 362 1.9
101-500 558 2.9
>500 192 1
Source: Agricultural Census 2000.

Table 7. Uruguay Forest Exports Share in Total Exports

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Total
Exports 1,599 1,693 1,605 1,703 1,645 1,913 2,106 2,397 2,726 2,771 2,242 2,302 2,061 1,861 2,198 2,922
Forest
Exports 101.7 103.1 114 117.4 113.5 120.6 142.6 152.4 172.2 171.4 176.3 84.7 82.9 86.7 94.9 146.2
Share in
total 6% 6% 7% 7% 7% 6% 7% 6% 6% 6% 8% 4% 4% 5% 4% 5%
Forest
Exports (2) 95 94.7 97.2 101.5 98.9 106.1 127 131.4 139.7 138.7 144.8 48.1 49.9 53.9 63.3 114.6
Share in
total 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 5% 5% 5% 6% 2% 2% 3% 3% 4%
(2) Excludes paper and cardboard
Sources: Forest Division and Central Bank of Uruguay.

43

Table 8. Exports in Value and Volume

In volume (1,000 m3)
Product 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
Pulpwood 114 83 145 149 88 215 457 510 690 623 702 840 907 1,097 1,369 1,611 1,490
Chips 17 25 12 262 836 1,298
Sawtimber 0 2 2 15 22 28 36 43 64 57 56 72 58 77 96 120 140
Panels * * * * * 3
Pulp 3 1 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 * * 0 1 * * * *
Paper and
Cardboard 7 12 22 22 21 20 15 20 32 35 38 39 36 44 43 42 41
In value (million US$)
Product 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
Pulpwood 4.5 3.5 5.8 7.3 3.4 7.9 25 27.6 34.8 31.6 35.7 40.3 41.5 43.1 47.5 56.53 55.73
Chips 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.42 0.67 0.67 10.86 32.69 62.28
Sawtimber 0 0.2 0.3 1.7 2.1 3.8 5.5 7.8 7.9 9.1 10.1 7.8 7 8.8 12.8 18.1 22.7
Panels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * * * 0.09 0.04 0.01 0.559
Pulp 1.8 1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.4 1.5 0 0 0 0 0.02 0.71 * 0.03 0.02 *
Paper and
Cardboard 6.4 8.4 16.8 15.9 14.6 14.5 15.6 21 32.5 32.7 31.5 36.6 33 32.8 31.6 31.6 30.6
(*) Missing information
Source: Forest Division (Statistics Bulletin 2004 and web site)

44

Europe
Others
0.26%
14.30%

M exico
2.44%

Chile
14.23%

US
1.31% M ERCOSUR
(Argentina and
Brazil)
67.46%

Source: ALADI, 2006.

Figure 7. Paper and Cardboard Exports by Region (US$ FOB, 2005)

Others
24.28%

Europe
44.27%

Asia
16.72%

M exico
0.94% M ERCOSUR
Chile US 1.04%
1.12% 11.63%

Note: ALADI classification does not include pulpwood. Source: ALADI, 2006.

Figure 8. Wood and Wood Products Exports by Region (US$ FOB, 2005)

45

Table 9. Paper and Paper Cardboard Exports Price Index

Year Price Index
94 104.2
95 128.7
96 85.1
97 90.6
98 95.8
99 89.3
00 103.5
01 99.8
02 83.4
03 97.1
04 103.0
Source: Wood Pastes, Paper and Cardboard (NCM-Section X). Paasche Exports Price Index Base 100=previous
year. Central Bank of Uruguay.

46

Table 10. Wood Export Unit Values (1,000 US$/m3)

Saw timber Pulp
Year Hardwood Softwood Total Softwood
1980 - 0.369 0.369
1981 - 0.410 0.410 -
1982 - - - -
1983 * 0.056 0.063 -
1984 0.086 0.058 0.067 0.032
1985 - 0.150 0.150 -
1986 - - - -
1987 0.100 0.500 0.464 -
1988 0.150 0.231 0.195 -
1989 0.139 0.097 0.119 0.042
1990 0.005 0.099 0.098 0.040
1991 - 0.115 0.115 0.042
1992 0.044 0.120 0.114 0.040
1993 0.140 0.095 0.099 0.046
1994 0.241 0.123 0.132 0.039
1995 0.314 0.139 0.151 0.037
1996 0.027 0.155 0.075 0.055
1997 0.103 0.149 0.121 0.054
1998 0.216 0.129 0.160 0.050
1999 0.049 0.132 0.063 0.049
2000 0.105 0.117 0.108 0.049
2001 0.118 0.131 0.121 0.046
2002 0.129 0.112 0.114 0.039
2003 0.197 0.098 0.133 0.035
2004 0.284 0.107 0.151 0.034
2005 0.240 0.139 0.162 0.037
Source: Based on Forest Division data (Volume and Exports in value).

47

Table 11. Saw timber Export Price Index

Year CIU
2000 92.71
2001 93.98
2002 93.15
2003 82.58
2004 (1) 101.59
2005 111.47
(1)
The CIU calculates the Index as a Paasche Index with base 100=2004. However, when the index is calculated for
year 2004 as a simple average of the monthly indexes, the index is different from 100.
Source: CIU.

48

Table 12. Uruguay Forest Imports (million US$ FOB)

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Wood 0.015 0.048 0 0 0.248 0.118 0.178 0.271 0.011 0.247 0.237 0.226 0.183 0.051 0.116 0.281 0.554
Saw
timber 4.936 4.999 5.926 5.597 6.641 9.173 9.552 7.3 14.15 15.2 12.9 9.3 8.985 4.2 3.478 6.589 8.074
Panels 0.667 0.612 1.36 1.784 2.276 3.228 3.764 4.354 5.942 6.642 5.9 4.963 4.281 2.459 2.701 3.571 5.149
Paper and
Cardboard 12.01 13.45 19.65 26.28 30.1 36.29 48.96 46.77 41.31 47.41 44.78 50.8 61.24 30.9 20.84 13.35 45.47
Source: Forest Division 2006.

Table 13. GDP Forest Industries as Percentage of Total GDP (2003)

2003
GDP Industry/GDP Total 18.57%
GDP SW/GDP Industry 1.44%
GDP P&P/GDP Industry 5.90%

GDP SW/GDP Total 0.27%
GDP P&P/GDP Total 1.10%

GDP SW and P&P/GDP Total 1.36%
SW=sawmills, P&P= pulp and paper industries
Source: Own estimations based on INE and BCU data.

49

Table 14. CIIU Production Index, base 100=2002

Year Sawmills (1) Pulp and Paper (2)
1993 nd 69
1994 nd 75
1995 nd 59
1996 nd 84
1997 nd 94
1998 nd 98
1999 nd 101
2000 nd 100
2001 nd 96
2002 100 100
2003 201 103
2004 120 111
2005 111 109
Jan-Aug 05 103 104
Jan-Aug 06 134 112
Source: CIU based on INE data.

Table 15. GDP Forest Industries and Manufacturing Industry
(constant million 2002 US$)

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
(*)
Pulp and Paper 101.3 108.3 104.8 99.2 106.3 122.1(*)
Sawmills - - - - 18.8 58.0
Industry 2,146.7 1,802.4 1,780.3 1,715.7 1,921.9 1,887.7
(*)
In 2002, INE changed the classification system from to CIIU 2 to CIIU 3. These results were estimated adding the
information for pulp and paper and printing press (sub sectors 21 and 22 according to CIIU 3 classification) in order
to compare the results.
Source: INE.

50

Table 16. Sawmills and Pulp and Paper Industries Share in Industry Product
and Industry Wages

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
GNP
Pulp and Paper 6.12% 7.28% 6.86% 5.98% 4.97% 4.47%
Sawmills - - - - 0.82% 1.01%
Slaughter Houses 42.26% 42.96% 41.74% 42.68% 43.97% 45.54%
Wool, cotton and
leather 12.21% 11.45% 11.42% 11.26% 14.06% 13.82%
GDP
Pulp and Paper 6.58% 7.44% 7.50% 7.13% 5.53% 5.90%
Sawmills - - - - 0.98% 1.44%
Wool, cotton and
leather 10.16% 9.54% 9.53% 8.73% 9.63% 11.68%
Salaries
Pulp and Paper 10.06% 11.04% 10.10% 9.82% 9.44% 8.42%
Sawmills - - - - 1.11% 1.09%
Wool, cotton and
leather 14.66% 13.72% 13.09% 12.04% 11.88% 13.15%
Source: Own estimates based on INE data.

51

CHAPTER 4
METHODS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSION

The objective of the research was to evaluate the impact of the new forest sector on the

Uruguayan economy by considering the costs and benefits of the policy that started with the

Forestry Law 15939 in 1987. Different approaches to policy evaluation were discussed in

Chapter 2. Considering the aim of the study and data availability, a CBA was chosen for this

research. The analytical process included the following steps: (1) identifying the costs, benefits

and investments associated with the policy; (2) quantifying them; and (3) evaluating the overall

impact of the policy on the national economy.

Different studies that attempted to measure the economic impact of the forest sector in

Uruguay comparing the economy with and without the forest sector (Vázquez Platero 1996;

Ramos & Cabrera 2001). They considered plantations as well as industrial activities, and both

concluded that the impact will be positive. The limitations for the sector would be related with

high costs in US$, especially fuel, and a low exchange rate which leads to a competitiveness

loss.

Vázquez Platero (1996) evaluated the forest policy estimating Fiscal Balance,

employment, and costs (including plantations and sawmills), and compared the forestry activity

with livestock. He uses market prices and includes subsidies and taxes. Investments were not

considered and plantations from 1989 to 1994 were included. The results showed a Net Present

Value (NPV) for the forest sector equals to 26 million US$, using a 10% discount rate. The

internal rate of return (IRR) was 29.8%. Ramos and Cabrera (2001) using the same approach,

evaluate the forest policy considering the plantations between 1989 and 1999. They estimated a

52

NPV equals to 730 million US$, and an IRR equals to 38.7%. The total subsidies accrued

between 1989 and 1999 were 29 million US$ which gives an average subsidy of 181 US$/ha.

The Forest Division estimates the cost of the policy at 149 million US$ (Forest Division

2006). This analysis conducted by Forest Division considered tax exoneration and subsidies to

plantations. It is estimated that 2.86 jobs were created by 1,000 ha planted.

No studies that consider direct and indirect impacts of the forest sector in Uruguay have

been done, however a study for BOTNIA, a Finnish Company that is building a pulp mill in

Uruguay, estimated the impact of the new mill on the Uruguayan Economy using an I-O model

(Metsa-Botnia 2004). The study used elements from C-B analysis and I-O models to describe

two scenarios: one assessing the Uruguayan Economy without the mill project and the other

assessing the Uruguayan Economy with the project. The study determined the main variables of

the economy as well as the activities more related with the forest sector from 2004 to 2016.

Direct and indirect impacts were measured. Direct impacts referred to “…the effects of the pulp

mill investment and production on output and employment in those sectors, which are directly

connected to the investment and production process”. The study estimated that the new pulp mill

will increase the GDP by 1.4% by year 2016, and it will increase employment in 2200 new jobs.

However, the impact on labor fluctuates according to which stage of the construction/ operation

of the mill was considered. Although the trade balance is positive for the period considered,

imports will increase at the beginning due to the mill construction. Indirect impacts referred to

the impacts induced by increasing the activity in the forest sector that leads to increase

consumption, income and employment. In addition, development impacts were summarized

grouping them into: population and sociology, forest sector, regional economy and national

53

economy. The study located the effects on three different state economies involved: Río Negro,

Soriano and Paysandú.

4.1. Methods: CBA

While CBA is generally similar to Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA), there are several

differences (Little & Mirrlees 1974; Nas 1996). First, taxes and subsidies are not included in the

CBA because they are transfers between agents within the economy. Second, some benefits or

costs resulting from the project’s operation do not appear as inputs or outputs in the ordinary

accounts. Third, the discount rate used to evaluate the project is usually different from the market

interest rate which might be used by a private firm.

CBA is a very comprehensive procedure as it considers all potential gains and losses

from a policy and it is particularly designed for the evaluation of public projects. The project

outcome is always evaluated in CBA on the basis of public interest. Prices in CBA are corrected

for market distortions. Costs and benefits are measured in terms of social utility gains and losses

rather than cash or revenue flows, and external costs and benefits are invariably included in the

evaluation (Nas 1996). CBA may be used to recommend policy actions, in which case it is

applied prospectively (ex ante). It may also be used to evaluate policy performance. This

approach is applied retrospectively (ex post) in this study.

4.1.1 Shadow Prices

Shadow prices are defined as the increase in welfare resulting from any marginal change

in the availability of commodities of factors of production (Squire & van der Tak 1975).

“A shadow price is a measure of the welfare effects of marginal changes in the supply or demand

54

of good or services” (Londero & Cervini 2003). As it was discussed in the previous chapter,

CBA is based in welfare economics as is shadow prices theory (Londero & Cervini 2003). An

important assumption in applied welfare economics is the use of economic shadow prices to

appraise investments (Harou 1987). The analytical method uses a partial equilibrium approach: it

is assumed that all prices other than that of the good being studied remain unchanged. Individual

markets are studied in isolation, as if they were independent from other markets, reflecting the

expectation that a price change in one market does not have significant repercussions in other

markets (Londero & Cervini 2003). In this study this assumption is not too restrictive as forestry

accounts only for small part of the national economy.

One approach to estimate shadow prices is the efficiency analysis, in which equal weights

are assigned to the marginal income changes, not considering differences among income levels.

Another approach assigns the same valuation in welfare function to all that have the same

income level. The most important authors in this group include UNIDO (1972), Little and

Mirrlees (1974), and Squire and van der Tak (1975) (Londero & Cervini 2003). Little and

Mirrlees (1974) proposed the “accounting prices” to conduct social cost-benefit analysis

(Little & Mirrlees 1974). The UNIDO (1972) approach distinguishes between “weights” which

are political value judgments, and the shadow prices derived from these judgments and technical

information (Marglin 1977). UNIDO Guidelines propose a ”bottom-up” procedure in which the

weights are generated by the formulation and evaluation procedure itself (Dasgupta et al. 1972).

Squire and van der Tak (1975) proposed the use of distribution weights, which may be derived

from an explicitly specified welfare function. The choice of a numeraire (unit of account) is basic

to the determination of weights, insofar as the numeraire determines the absolute level of weights

(Squire & van der Tak 1975). However, the conclusions would not change if the numeraire

55

changes (Londero & Cervini 2003). In LMST, the value of public investment in border18 prices

is expressed in relation to the value of consumption in border prices. In the Squire van der Tak

system the value of public investment in border prices is expressed in relation to the value of

consumption in domestic prices (Ray 1984).

The technique of shadow prices consists of several steps. First, goods or services are

classified in several ways according to how additional demand is met. According to Londero and

Cervini, goods or services can be classified considering how additional demand is met: fixed

supply goods, where it is met from withdrawals from other uses; produced goods, when it is met

by additional production; and socially traded goods; when it is met by additional imports or

reduced exports (Londero & Cervini 2003). According to Squire and van der Tak goods and

services can be classified considering whether they are tradable or not tradable: goods imported

or exported at the margin with infinite elasticity, goods imported or exported at the margin with

less than infinite elasticity, goods not currently traded but ought to be traded, and goods not

currently traded and ought not to be traded (Squire & van der Tak 1975). Second, several

techniques can be used to estimate the shadow prices: input-output matrices (Londero & Cervini

2003), linear programming (Harou 1987), and welfare functions (Squire & van der Tak 1975).

Shadow pricing of forestry projects was proposed in the 50s (Duerr and Vaux 1953) but

started to be applied in the 70s (Watt 1973, FAO 1979, Harou 1981). The methodology has been

developed for industrial investments (OECD 1968, UNIDO 1972, Squire and Van Der Tak 1976,

UNIDO 1979) and agricultural projects (Gittinger 1983 in Harou 1987). In forestry projects,

18
Border prices are the prices of imports or exports of a commodity. Import prices usually are calculated as CIF
prices (it is the price paid by the buyer, which includes: Cost, Insurance and Freight) and export prices are calculated
as FOB prices (Free on Board) refers to the price received by the seller, who pays the transportation from the port of
origin to the country.

56

most outputs can be expressed in shadow prices. On the other hand, major input such as land,

labor, and machinery may or may not be considered for shadow pricing. Whether or not it is

actually worth shadow pricing a particular input depends on the magnitude of the estimated

difference between its market price and its economic value19 (Gregersen & Contreras 1979;

Harou 1987).

There are some difficulties in estimating the shadow price of land by measuring the

compensating variation of those affected by the change in the demand (supply) of land. First, the

market price of land is determined by the present value of the associated rent. When moving to

forestry from alternative uses it is necessary to estimate the effects of the change and to compute

their future values. Second, the use of land could have significant external effects that could or

could not impact other markets. These difficulties may be further related to different land

qualities, different land locations, and the existence of taxes. Therefore, simplified approaches

are used to estimate the shadow price of land (Londero & Cervini 2003). The appropriate

measure of value for land is the highest net return that actually has been obtained from the land

in the absence of the project (Gregersen & Contreras 1979; Londero & Cervini 2003).

The objective in valuing labor is to arrive at a measure of the benefits foregone by

employing labor in the project rather than in its next best alternative use. If labor is hired away

from other productive activity and there is little unemployment in the project region, the value of

labor in the other activity, or the market wage, provides an acceptable measure of opportunity

cost for the economic analysis (Dasgupta et al. 1972; Little & Mirrlees 1974; Marglin 1977;

Gregersen & Contreras 1979; Londero & Cervini 2003).

The shadow price ratio (SPR) for labor is the ratio of its efficiency cost to its market cost:

the reduction in production per unit of withdrawn value, multiplied by the amount of labor
19
In the text, the economic value is referred sometimes as “efficiency price” that is defined in the next pages.

57

withdrawn (Londero & Cervini 2003). The difference between the efficiency salary and the

market salary depends on the characteristic of the labor market. This topic has been extensively

discussed in the literature (Dasgupta et al. 1972; Little & Mirrlees 1974; Squire & van der Tak

1975; Marglin 1977; Gregersen & Contreras 1979; Ray 1984; Harou 1987; Londero & Cervini

2003). Labor markets can be classified in different ways. According to Londero and Cervini

(2003), (1) labor can be withdrawn from the production of traded goods; (2) dual urban markets

can exist where there is a group of workers protected by labor legislation and/or represented by

unions; and (3) rural urban migration can be caused by the new activity.

The efficiency price of foreign exchange, like any other efficiency price, is defined as the

sum of the compensating variations attributable to a unit change in the demand or supply of

foreign exchange. Its SPR would be the ratio of that shadow price to the market price, the

prevailing exchange rate (Londero & Cervini 2003).

4.1.2 Discount Rate

Discounting is based on the idea that a given amount of resources available for use in the

future is worth less than the same amount of resources available today. Through investments, one

can transform resources that are currently available for use into a greater amount of resources in

the future (Boardman 2001). The selection of the most appropriate rate of discount is related to

the weights that the society should apply to consumption that occurs in future periods relative to

the same amount of consumption in the current period. These weights represent how much of the

current consumption the society is willing to give up now in order to obtain a given increase in

future consumption.

58

The choice of the social rate of return is based on the preferences of individuals in the

society. In order to compare the costs and benefits associated with the policy they have to be

weighted (Dasgupta et al. 1972). The weights ( w j ) are related to the discount rate (i) as follows:

1
wj =
(1 + i ) n

where:

n= number of periods,

i= discount rate

These weights can be determined if the consumers’ preferences are known and markets

do not have imperfections. In addition, there should not be any distortions such are taxes, risk,

and transaction costs20 (Dasgupta et al. 1972; Boardman et al. 1997). An approach to measure

transaction costs for Uruguay can be found in the report present by the World Bank where 175

countries are measured according several indicators that measure “…business regulation and the

protection of property rights and their effect on businesses” (World Bank 2006) in order to

establish the average period of time that takes starting a business in a country. Uruguay ranked

70 in 200521 and 64 in 2006. While the country has similar indicators to the region22 in some

cases in other they are similar to OECD countries.

20
Transactions costs are defined as the costs incurred in the exchange process as transaction fees, gather
information, move products (Chavas & Bouamra Mechemache 2006)
21
A complete report of the ranking can be found at: www.doingbusiness.org
22
Uruguay is included in Latin America and Caribbean.

59

Regarding risk, the “country risk”23 is measured in Uruguay using an indicator called

Uruguay Bond Index (UBI) that measures the spread between the returns on Uruguayan bonds

and USA bonds. The UBI was 3,100 basis points during the 2002 and financial crisis, and it is

167 points today, reaching the lowest value in the last six years. According to Adamodar

(Hagler 2007) Uruguay pays a 5.25% of risk premium while in the region Chile pays 1.05%,

Brazil 3.75%, and Argentina 6.75%.

Taxes in Uruguay are the main source of income for the Government. In the last two

decades the taxes went from 62.5% of the Government income in 1990 to 71.3% in 2002; and

taxes went from 17.8% of the GDP in 1990 to 22.1% in 2002. Compared with other countries,

the share of taxes in the GDP is lower than developed countries but higher than the average in

Latin America; compared with the region, Uruguay is between Argentina and Brazil (Lorenzo et

al. 2005).

The discount rate used in this project was 6%, as this is the social interest rate that is

being used in the country to evaluate local development projects.

4.1.3 “Before and After” Approach versus “With and Without” Approach to

CBA.

The “With and Without” approach to analyze the effects of a policy is not the same as

comparing the situation “Before and After” its implementation.

The “Before and After” analysis compares the economy before the project is established

with the economy after the project is established. The “Before and After” approach would not

give information about the changes that may occur without the policy because it does not

describes the same economy (Boardman 2001).
23
The country risk is defined as an index that reflects the risk that a country has for foreign investments.

60

The “With and Without” analysis consists of estimating the net marginal benefit induced

by the new policy (Harou 1987). In this project, the “With and Without” approach will be used.

The “With” situation is defined as the situation where the Forestry Policy has been established in

1989; the “Without” situation is defined as the situation where the Forestry Policy has not been

established. The “With” situation describes what happened in the economy after the Forestry

Law. Therefore, plantations from 1989 onward were considered and, according to the

management regimes, forest industries were considered from the first year when wood harvest

was processed into manufactured wood products. The “Without” situation describes what would

have happened to the economy if the Forestry Policy had not been established. It was assumed

that if the lands were not used for forestry, they would have been used for livestock. Therefore,

slaughter houses, tanning leather and wool industries would have been developed.

4.1.4 Sensitivity Analysis

Uncertainty about the magnitude of the results is always present as there is uncertainty

about the values we assign to the costs and benefits associated to the policy evaluated. Sensitivity

analysis acknowledges this uncertainty and allows analysts to identify how sensitive the results

are to the assumptions made. The analysis also helps to identify the key variables that affect the

policy results.

Three approaches can be taken in order to conduct a sensitivity analysis: partial

sensitivity analysis, worst and best case analysis, and Monte Carlo simulations. Partial sensitivity

analysis consists of estimating how net benefits change as one variable is changed and the others

remain constant. Worst and best case analysis consists of changing some assumptions in order to

identify the assumptions or a combination of assumptions that would change the analysis’

61

results. Monte Carlo sensitivity analysis consists of assigning probability distribution functions

to some key assumptions and evaluating how changes of these assumptions would affect the net

results (Boardman 2001).

In this study, a partial sensitivity analysis will be conducted in order to identify the

variables that most affect the results obtained.

4.1.5 Terminal Value

Forestry investments are usually long-term investments; therefore, some corporations

have unlimited planning horizons and anticipate managing their forests forever. To evaluate an

asset that produces cash flows over an infinite time frame, it is necessary to have a procedure for

calculating the present value of an infinite series of cash flows (Clutter et al. 1983). There are

several indicators to evaluate forest investments, some based on yield criteria, and others on

economic criteria (Clutter et al. 1983; Newman 1988; Perman et al. 2003). Those based on yield

criteria are maximum single-rotation physical yield; maximum single-rotation annual yield, also

called Mean Annual Increment (MAI); and Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY). Those based on

economic criteria are maximization of discounted net revenues from a single rotation;

maximization of the discount net revenues from an infinite series of like rotations, also called

soils expectation value (SEV) or bare land value (BLV); maximization of annual net revenues,

also called forest rent; and internal rate of return (Clutter et al. 1983; Newman 1988; Perman et

al. 2003).

However, the discussion of the optimum rotation length for a forest stand has not been a

simple issue24 (Newman 1988). Faustman’s Formula (1849) is the first rule used to evaluate the

optimal rotation age, and was based in the maximization of discounted net revenues (Perman et
24
A very good discussion on the literature referring to Optimal Forest Rotation can be found in Newman (1988).

62

al. 2003). Even though it is important, the formula contains simplified assumptions that have

been changed in the following years, allowing the development of a great number of theories and

practices (Newman 1988). Newman discusses six criteria for an optimal rotation age: Maximum

Gross Yield, Maximum Sustained Yield, Present Net Worth, Soil Rent, Forest Rent, and Internal

Rate of Return (Newman 1988).

In this study, BLV criterion was used to estimate the terminal value of the plantations’

investments and the land value in order to compare it with land market prices. BLV, associated

with a given rotation age, is the present value of the net returns from all the rotations in the

continuing series. This is the present value of all cash flows produced by an infinite series of

rotations using a rotation age of t years (Clutter et al. 1983).

Cash flows for continuing series of plantations for each alternative were calculated, and

the present value of each alternative was maximized. The maximum present value is

accomplished with the rotation age with maximum BLV, and this rotation age is called the

optimum economic rotation (Clutter et al. 1983). BLV was used because it estimates the net

present value of the land in infinite rotations and it is a good approach of the opportunity cost of

land.

4.2. Data and Assumptions

Costs, investments and benefits25 were estimated from primary and secondary

information. Primary information was obtained from a survey conducted in Uruguay in July

200626. Secondary information was obtained from the Forest Division (DF), the Agricultural

Planning and Policy Office (OPYPA), the Agricultural Statistics Division (DIEA), the Forest

25
The tables with the assumptions for the period of analysis are presented in Appendix III.
26
The questionnaire and the Survey’s results are presented in Appendices I and II.

63

Producers Society (SPF), the National Institute of Statistics (INE), the Central Bank of Uruguay

(BCU), the Association of Industries of Uruguay (CIU), the Agricultural and Livestock Plan

Office (IPA), and the National Colonization Institute (INC). In addition, estimates on plantations

and sawmills data were taken from two previous studies: Vázquez Platero (1996) and Ramos and

Cabrera (2001). Taxes estimates were obtained from Ramos and Cabrera (2001). Growth rates

and management plans were compared with those obtained from the survey and with SPF

information.

Market prices were converted to shadow prices according to two studies: Fernández

Gaeta (1995) and Pereyra (2004). Both studies considered the income as numeraire and defined

the SPR as:

spri = spi/pi

where:

spri =shadow price ratio of the good i,

spi = shadow price of good i,

pi = market price of good i

From 1989 to 2001, Fernández Gaeta (Fernandez Gaeta 1995) estimates for 1995 were

used. From 2001 to 2005, Pereyra estimates from 2004 (Pereyra 2004) were used because the

major change in the economy occurred in 2002 after the devaluation of the Uruguayan currency

and Pereyra estimates reflected those changes. The first study provided estimates of all the

shadow prices of the economy except for imports; while the second provided estimates for only a

few items related to infrastructure projects.

64

Labor SPR has been less than one in the period 1989-2005. Estimates for 1995 showed

that the SPR for skilled labor was 0.98 and for non-skilled and semi-skilled labor was 0.8,

meaning that the market wage for skilled labor was similar to the opportunity cost of it. On the

other hand, the market wage for non-skilled and semi-skilled labor was higher than its

opportunity costs. Labor SPR estimates for 2004 showed that the SPR for skilled labor had not

changed significantly, but the SPR for non-skilled and semi-skilled labor had dropped to 0.6

(Table 17). These results reflect the increase in the unemployment rate which went from 7% in

1989 to 12% in 2005 (Table 18). The unemployment rate estimates includes only cities with

more than 5,000 habitants, therefore the rural unemployment was not included. However, the

analysis of the provinces where plantations were established, indicate that the unemployment has

decreased. Therefore the question: What does the rest of the economy ultimately lose when a

person joins the project? becomes crucial for the analysis of the situation in Uruguay where two

opposite phenomena occur. On one hand, a high level of unemployment in the cities and lower in

rural areas, and a high demand for semi-skilled labor in the new industries that in some cases has

been difficult to meet. The states of Río Negro and Tacuarembó are examples of the changes in

the opportunity cost of semi-skilled and skilled labor. In Río Negro, Botnia is constructing a pulp

mill and the province state did not have enough labor available to meet the needs. In

Tacuarembó, Colonvade27 and Urupanel28 are building plywood facilities and the demand semi-

skilled and skilled labor has also been growing and attracting labor from other states. In those

cases, the companies started training programs and they are encouraging technical teaching

institutes to adapt their programs to the new industries requirements.

27
Colonvade is a company with partnership between Weyerhaeuser and Global Partners with facilities located in
Tacuarembó and Rivera.
28
Urupanel is a Chilean company with facilities located in Tacuarembó.

65

Therefore, despite the high level of unemployment in the Uruguayan economy, the

opportunity cost of labor in the forest sector is not zero because some resources are being

withdrawn from other sectors.

One of the most important effects of the new Forestry Law was the increase in land

prices. As the demand for land increased, prices rose. Average prices presented by the DIEA

which calculates the price in US$/ha as an average of the transactions in the period, do not reflect

the prices of the transactions accurately because data from INC shows that land prices are higher

than those reported by DIEA. The INC shows that, during the first semester of 2006, the average

price land was 1354.30 US$/ha; if this average is standardized according to productivity indexes,

it was 1465.06 US$/ha CONEAT 100 (Colonization National Institute 2006). In 1995, Fernández

Gaeta estimated that the SPR for land was 1.19, meaning that the market prices under value the

land. Fernández Gaeta estimated the land price considering the net present value of the most

important outputs for year 1992, when the agricultural and livestock sector had a different

structure. Based on the CGA information, he assumed that the total area was distributed as

follows: 76.9% livestock, 7.7% dairy production, 3.9% rice and 11.5% other cereals production.

The sector structure was different from today’s structure, where the forest sector has small

participation.

To fill this lack of information, BLV for land were estimated. The BLV were divided

into three activities: land designated for eucalyptus plantations, land designated for pine

plantations, and land designated for livestock. As it was discussed in Chapter 3, land designated

for forestry has a site productivity index of 69 in average; therefore the BLV was estimated for

these sites.

66

The results show that the market prices are lower than shadow prices estimated

(Table 19). The SPR showed that for forestlands designated for eucalyptus it is 1.20, for

forestlands designated for pine is 1.42 and for lands designated for livestock is 1.25. These

results show the BLV in 2005, but a complete series could not be estimated. As the changes have

been important in the period of analysis, 1989-2005, the opportunity cost of the land might have

been changing. Therefore for the CBA, market prices were used and a sensitivity analysis was

conducted.

Exports and imports values were corrected by the foreign exchange SPR (SPRf).

Considering the 1993 Uruguay’s trade structure, the 1993 Trade Commercial Balance and the

equilibrium and observed exchange rate, Fernández Gaeta estimated a SPRf of 1.31. Pereyra,

using the same approach but including 2003 data, estimated SPRf of 1.01 (Pereyra 2004).

SPRf = (Eq. ER/Obs. ER) * [(Imports*(1+Taxes and Tariffs) +

Exports (1+Subsidies)]/(Imports +Exports)

where:

Eq. ER=Equilibrium Exchange Rate,

Obs. ER= Observed Exchange Rate

The exchange rate he used was 30 Uruguayan Pesos per US$ ($U/US$), and currently the

ER is 25 $U/US$, then the shadow price does not reflect the current currency value but it is the

most updated version of shadow prices estimation.

The analysis covered the period from 1989 through 2005, in order to consider the

plantations that were established as a result of the Forestry Law 15939.

67

Two indicators were calculated to determine the value of the project for the society:

NPV, using a 6% discount rate, and IRR. Both were calculated at year 1989.

4.2.1 Production

4.2.1.1. Forest Management Plans

Several forest management plans have been designed in the past decades. Vázquez

Platero (1996) assumed a management plan consisting of two prunings, four thinnings and final

harvest for pine for saw timber; two prunings, two thinnings and final harvest for eucalyptus for

sawtimber; and a final at year eight for eucalyptus for pulpwood (Vázquez Platero 1996).

Ramos and Cabrera (2001) proposed six different models and six different management

plans according to wood destination and regions. Eucalyptus management plans included one

thinning and the final harvest if the wood was grown for pulp, or two thinnings and the final

harvest if the wood was grown for saw timber. Pine plantations management plans included two

or three thinnings, and a final harvest at age 22 or 24. Pine plantations were grown for saw

timber (saw logs, plywood logs, sawn wood).In the survey conducted in Uruguay, rotation ages

varied according to the final product of the company. Therefore, in Pine grown for saw timber

was managed on rotations 22 to 25 year long. On the other hand, information on rotation ages for

eucalyptus differed among plantations: plantations grown for saw timber had rotation ages from

15 to 20 years, and plantations grown for pulpwood had rotation ages around 10 years.

This study assumed that 70% of the eucalyptus plantation area was grown for pulp and

30% for saw timber. The rotation age for pulp was 9 years and for saw timber 18 years with two

intermediate thinnings, at 9 and 13. Both thinnings produced pulpwood. The assumptions are

presented in Table 21 and volume estimations are based on Methol’s model (Methol 2003). For

68

pine it was assumed that 100% of the plantations are grown for saw timber. The rotation age was

22 years with three intermediate thinnings, at years 4, 12 and 18, and two prunings. The

assumptions are shown in Table 21 and were based on Ramos and Cabrera model for Pine in the

North29 (Ramos & Cabrera 2001).

4.2.1.2. Growth rates

Growth rates have been adjusted after first plantations were established. Vázquez Platero

(1996), according to producers, estimated growth rates ranging from 22 to 36 cubic cu m/yr/ha

on average30 for eucalyptus and 17 to 26 m3/yr/ha for pine according to the location.

Ramos and Cabrera (2001) estimated different growth rates by location, products and

species. For eucalyptus plantations grown for saw timber, MAI varies from 28 to 32 m3/yr/ha,

and for pulp from 18 to 23 m3/year. For pine plantations MAI can be from 19 to 24 m3/yr/ha.

According to the survey conducted in Uruguay, growth rates vary from 20 m3/yr/ha for Pine to

20 to 25 m3/yr/ha for eucalyptus with an average of 22 m3/yr/ha.

In this research the following growth rates were assumed: 24 m3/yr/ha for Pine, and

30 m3/yr/ha for eucalyptus.

4.2.2 Inputs

4.2.2.1. Production Costs

4.2.2.1.1. Plantations

Plantation costs vary with management plans and species. Management plans have been

changing since expertise was gained in the field. Before the Forestry Law 15939 was established,

29
In Ramos and Cabrera study, these assumptions correspond to Model 2.
30
This is the Mean Annual Increment (MAI) which designs the average production per year.

69

plantations were oriented towards fuel wood or saw timber production for local companies, with

some exceptions.

Plantation costs were based on Ramos and Cabrera estimates (Ramos & Cabrera 2001).

They include fencing, soil preparation, ant control, fertilization, plants, plantation, and other

minor costs. Each item includes the labor required for the activity, and only imported items were

included. On average, labor costs are 16% of plantations costs meanwhile imports account for

10%. Shadow prices were assigned according to the share of each component in total costs; taxes

were not considered (Table 22).

4.2.2.1.2. Pruning and Thinning

The most important component in these activities is labor. Labor used varies according to

the management plan: pruning and thinning ages.

In this study, it was assumed that eucalyptus plantations grown for pulp are not pruned or

thinned; eucalyptus plantations growth for saw timber are thinned at year 9; and pine plantations

growth for saw timber are pruned at years 4, 6 and 8 and thinned at years 4, 12 and 18. It was

assumed a cost of 60 US$/ha for pruning and 8 US$/ha for thinning (Table 23).

4.2.2.1.3. Harvesting

For pulp, labor requirements were estimated in 0.289 daily wages/ m3 for pulp and 0.222

daily wages/ m3 for saw timber according to Ramos and Cabrera based on SPF information

(Ramos & Cabrera 2001). The costs structure for final harvest is as follows: 55% labor, 30%

fuel, and the other costs are 15% of the total cost. These costs were corrected using shadow

prices, which where assigned according to the weight of each item in the total cost.

70

4.2.2.1.4. Industry

For the case with project, sawmills were included in the analysis. Costs in thousand

US$/ m3 of wood processed were obtained from Ramos and Cabrera based on INE data, from

1999 the coefficients were considered constant. Wood manufacturing costs, included wood, were

estimated at 119 US$/ m3 of wood processed in 1989 and in 67 US$/ m3 from 1999. Several

factors could explain this drop: a decrease in equipment maintenance after 1993 and the

disappearance of the cost of fuel wood in the last three years. On the other hand, salary costs

remained stable in US$ despite increasing 70 to 80% in $U. Wood processed was obtained from

the eucalyptus and pine models described above.

For the case without the project, slaughter houses, wool and leather industries were

considered. The productivity indexes for these industries were considered from Ramos and

Cabrera between 1989 and 1999, from IPA between 2000 and 2005, and thereafter assumed

constant until 2010. These costs were corrected using the same criteria as in the previous item

(Table 24).

4.2.2.1.5. Transportation

Transportation costs were based on figures provided by Ramos and Cabrera (2001) by

region, species and product. Costs were estimated by tons and divided into pulp and saw timber

products. Harvested wood could be destined for either the mill or the seaport. Transportation

costs included costs from the plantation to the mill and from the mill to the final destination

(Table 25). Wood designated for final consumption either in the local markets or abroad, had

other transportation costs associated. Then, transportation costs were first calculated for the

distance between the plantation and the mills. Costs from the mill to the final destination were

assigned to the industry.

71

For the case without the project, the livestock that would have been transported if

forestland were used for livestock production was estimated.

4.2.2.1.6. Export Costs

Export costs include labor costs for activities in the port, and these costs were based on

Ramos and Cabrera estimates. They assumed that 0.022 daily wages/day/m3 was needed to

prepare wood for export from the port.

4.2.3 Investments

4.2.3.1. Plantations

Investments in plantations were calculated as the total area declared in the Forest

Division multiplied by the land price of the same year. Land price series were taken from DIEA

and a sensitivity analysis was conducted to address the differences between market and shadow

prices (Table 26).

4.2.3.2. Industry

Investments in the industry were based on the survey data, and only sawmills were

considered because information regarding pulp mill investments was not available. According to

the survey, 85% of the investments in equipment in the industry are imported, and the companies

have tax exonerations for imports to the industry. Therefore, it was assumed that 85% of the

investments were imported and that the information did not include taxes.

72

4.2.4 Outputs

Wood exports are the output considered in the analysis as they represent income

generated in the country. For the case with project, total wood exports were estimated according

to the level of production, and the value was estimated considering average stumpage prices

obtained from the Forest Division. In the model, the wood can be used to produce either pulp or

saw timber. As of 2006, there were not pulp mills in the country; therefore, it was assumed that

until that year all wood for pulp was exported.

For the situation without project, exports from alternative activities were estimated based

on production levels and producers prices, as most of the production is destined for exports

(Ramos & Cabrera 2001). To estimate the percentage of the production exported each year, CIU

estimations and IPA information were used. Between 1988 and 1998, CIU estimated that leather

and wool were sub-sectors that exported more than 50% of their production, while slaughter

houses exported from 11% to 50% of their production. The slaughter houses accounted for most

of the total value of the alternative products considered here, it was assumed that between 1989

and 2000 50% of the total production was exported. In 2001, the foot-and-mouth disease caused

beef exports to drop until 2002. Based on IPA data, for 2001 it was assumed that 40% of the

production was exported as the outbreak began in October of that year; for 2002 and 2003 it was

assumed that 30% of the production was exported; and for 2004 and 2005 it was assumed that

60% of the production. From 1999 to 2005, leather and wool industries decreased their exports

and slaughter houses increased them, becoming one of the most important sectors in the total

exports of the country.

73

4.3. Results

The results show that the forest sector compared with an alternative production, livestock,

had a net positive impact on the Uruguayan economy in the period 1989-2005. The NPV for the

forest sector compared with livestock in year 1989 equals 630.2 million US$, using a 6%

discount rate. The IRR for the forest sector was 36.4% (Table 27). Since the project’s products

are mostly exported, all economic project’s outputs are included. On the other hand, only inputs

including imported items and labor are included. In addition, SPRs are lower than one for inputs

and equal or higher to one for outputs. Therefore the results are more positive than evaluating the

policy at market prices.

The alternative industries costs savings were high. The livestock production is an annual

activity, and therefore costs associated with the industry will occur every year. On the other

hand, forestry is a periodic activity and industry costs will start when the first wood harvested is

processed. In the model, forest industries started to operate 9 years after the plantations were

established; as a result, there is a 9-year period where there no forestry industry costs.

Sensitivity analyses were conducted on wood prices, yields, transportation costs, land

prices and thinning, administration and harvesting costs. The results are presented as variations

of NPV and IRR in percentage. Wood markets are a key factor for the analysis as its results are

sensitive to changes in wood prices. Results are more sensitive to changes in pulpwood prices

than in saw timber prices (Table 28). These results can be explained by the fact that pulpwood

accounts for most of wood output. Between 1989 and 2005 a total of 72.2 million of cum of

pulpwood were produced versus 22.7 million of cum of sawn wood.

Since the prices considered were FOB Montevideo, freight costs to final destinations

were not included. According to the industries’ survey, the oceanic freight costs increased 60%

74

between 2002 and 2006. It is expected that wood consumption would continue to rise, but the

real price of products will increase slightly. The biggest effect would be on trade rather than on

production, with a shift on trade toward processed products (Prestemon et al. 2003). This

increasing demand represents an opportunity to Uruguayan products; however, an analysis of

price trends and markets would be important to obtain benefits.

The results are very sensitive to changes in yields: if both plantations yields decreased

20%, the IRR would decrease more than 7% and the NPV would decrease nearly 100%. A

reduction in eucalyptus yields has more impact on NPV and IRR than a reduction in pine yields.

This result can be explained by the different areas covered by pine and eucalyptus.

Approximately 75% of the area is covered with eucalyptus and the rest by pine. With most land

owned by private investors, the investors’ management decisions are the key factor influencing

the provision of forest benefits to the society. The idea that private forest management is less

socially responsible and characterized by lower environmental standards has proved to be not

always true; forest certification and private management plans analysis are two elements that

support this outcome (Siry et al. 2005).

Transportation costs at the beginning of the project represent a saving in costs because

there is no wood transported. However, after wood processing begins, these costs will be

included. A decrease or increase in transportation costs rangin from 10 to 20%, change the IRR

less than 1% point, meanwhile the NPV will increase or decrease by 3% when the costs vary by

20% (Table 31). This result does not conform with the private investors’ view that transportation

is an important factor in their production operations.

Results were very sensitive to changes in land prices, a drop of 20% in land prices, will

result in a 21% increase in the IRR and a 9.5% in the NPV. On the other hand, a 20% increase

75

will lower the IRR by 8% and the NPV by 11% (Table 32). The IRR is not very sensitive to

changes in management costs: a change of 10% in thinning, harvesting and management costs

changes the IRR by less than 1% (Table 33). Results show that land prices are still lower than

shadow prices. If the demand for land was driven by timber prices, an analysis of the products

and markets where Uruguay plans to export would be necessary. Even though the land price in

Uruguay has increased in the last thirty years, historically, it has been lower than the land prices

in Argentina and Brazil. Considering the same quality land, average prices per hectare in

Argentina and Brazil have been higher than the Uruguay’s average land price between 1994 and

2003 (Sáder Neffa 2004). Current land prices in Uruguay are similar to land prices in Brazil and

in Argentina. Lower land price can be considered as another factor attracting foreign investors to

the Uruguayan forest sector.

Forestry generally provides more jobs than the livestock on the same land base.

Considering the primary production costs in both alternatives, forestry costs are higher. Labour

accounts for much of the costs; therefore, the forest activity has a positive impact on

employment. Results show that, on average, labor costs in US$/ha in forest plantations were four

times higher than labor costs in livestock activities. If pruning, thinning, management,

administration, and harvesting costs are added, labor costs are twenty times higher than those in

livestock activities. These results are consistent with those estimated by the Forest Division and

Ramos and Cabrera (Ramos & Cabrera 2001; San Roman 2005). The Forest Division estimated

that the employment generated in the forest sector is higher than the employment generated in

the livestock sector. First, they considered only the permanent employees in plantations and the

results were that 2 to 9 jobs were created per 1,000 ha. Second, they DIEA adjusted these results

considering the labor hired by third parties, and they estimated that the sector generates

76

7 jobs/ 1,000 ha. Third, based on CGA 2000 results, DF estimated that the forest sector generated

7.98 jobs/1,000 ha, that is, four times the employment generated in the livestock sector (DIEA

estimates that the livestock activity generates 1.96 to 2.65 jobs/1,000 ha). The Forest Division

estimates salaries in plantations at 130% of the minimum national wage. In addition, salaries

paid in the forest sector are higher than those paid in the livestock sector.

Finally non-market benefits were not included in the evaluation as this assessment

exceeded the objectives of this research. Other benefits associated with the forests are carbon

storage, recreational, bird watching, hiking, and wildlife. In addition, forests decrease erosion,

diminish urban migration, and promote industrial development. These impacts are difficult to

quantify but they will increase the social net return of the policy.

One underlying objective of forest management is maintaining a variety and valuable

supply of forest products while at the same time ensuring that production and harvesting are

sustainable in the long run and do not compromise the consumption of generations.

Uruguay has also attempted to evaluate the alternative use of forests31. The country

ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2001, and has been promoting participation in the Clean

Development Mechanism (CDM) for forestry and agricultural projects. The Environmental

31
Some of the activities and publications regarding CS developed by the Uruguayan Government include:

- Host Country approval for CDM projects in Uruguay Applications on sustainability Tool Assessment.
August 2003.

- Research to support the appliance to CDM for the Kyoto Protocol for Uruguay. May 2002. MVOTMA.

- Meeting Climate Change: CDM application in Uruguay. Montevideo, 24- 25 April 2003.

- National Capacity Proposal No 15.

77

Ministry (MVOTMA) is in charge of the research and activities related to the evaluation of CDM

projects 32.

In addition, the Agricultural and Livestock Ministry (MGAP) established an office to

analyze the possibilities of producing alternative energy from biomass (Methol 2004; Souto &

Methol 2005). The Agricultural Projects of Climate Change Unit (UPACC) was established in

February 2001and started their activities in 200433. The Forest Division integrates the UPCC

along with other Divisions.

Currently the Forest Division is analyzing the feasibility of horse and cattle breeding

along with forest activities (Seminar: Opinions on the Forest Policy – Forest Division Director

Andrés Berterreche- July 20 2006). This alternative has been part of a strategy of the new

government to combine the two most important activities in the country. Most of the companies

have been developing agroforestry projects which minimize fire risk because animal grazing

reduces fuel loads in forests (COFUSA 2006).

The most important forest companies have programs to preserve native flora and fauna in

their forests. Ence has two conservation areas: M’Bopicuá and Santo Domingo (Ence 2006).

M’Bopicuá Conservation Area is located on the banks of the Uruguay River in Río Negro,

covering 150 ha. It comprises “…the breeding station, the Nature Trail for appreciating native

flora and an area of special historic interest. The aim is to preserve species of native flora and

fauna, reproduce certain species that are in danger of extinction and then re-introduce them back

into their natural habitat and contribute to environmental education in schools in the area”. The

Santo Domingo conservation area of 7,000 ha is located in Paysandú. Since 1996 plans have

32
www.cambioclimatico.gub.uy

33
Law 17296.

78

been developed for preserving palm trees, wetlands and native fauna. This is the first developed

wetland restoration project in the country. Native species threatened with extinction (coati and

caiman) have been reintroduced to this area. A project for improving the numbers of the natural

population of caimans is also being developed.

79

Table 17. Shadow Prices Relations for Uruguay

Category 1995 2004
Non-skilled and semi-skilled labor 0.8 0.6
Qualified labor 0.8 1
Foreign Exchange 1.31 1.01
Land 1.19 -
Ground transportation 0.77 0.77
Investments 0.98 0.77
Sources: Fernández Gaeta (1995), Pereyra (2004).

80

Table 18. Unemployment Rate in Uruguay

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Total (Urban) 8 9 9 9 8 9 10 12 11 10 11 14 15 17 17 13 12

Montevideo 9 9 9 9 8 9 11 12 12 10 12 14 16 17 17 13 12
Provinces 7 8 9 9 8 9 10 11 11 10 11 13 15 17 17 13 13
Artigas 19 12 14 14 15 20 13 16 15 13 13 17 20 15 17 13 15
Canelones 9 9 8 9 9 10 9 13 14 12 12 14 15 19 21 16 14
Cerro Largo 7 7 9 8 7 7 8 10 12 10 12 11 12 14 10 5 9
Colonia 5 6 10 12 8 8 8 9 11 8 14 16 20 20 18 12 10
Durazno 9 8 8 3 5 6 11 10 13 8 17 22 24 25 22 14 13
Flores 8 5 10 5 6 4 10 8 15 14 19 20 16 18 16 14 17
Florida 9 10 10 9 6 8 10 10 15 11 11 15 21 23 22 19 16
Lavalleja 9 10 11 11 8 9 7 9 9 9 7 11 13 17 16 10 16
Maldonado 4 8 8 9 7 9 12 13 13 8 11 17 20 24 23 20 18
Paysandú 7 7 8 10 7 8 9 12 9 9 9 11 13 13 19 16 13
Río Negro 13 11 17 9 11 12 16 26 13 13 12 6 9 6 7 4 8
Rivera 6 6 11 11 10 16 13 11 7 6 3 8 6 6 3 4 4
Rocha 9 7 7 8 7 9 13 10 12 8 10 12 16 18 18 13 14
Salto 5 9 5 5 5 4 3 2 1 1 4 2 6 8 7 6 12
San José 4 2 6 6 7 8 8 9 6 10 9 10 12 14 12 10 13
Soriano 6 7 10 10 10 6 10 12 11 15 14 18 19 21 18 17 12
Tacuarembó 8 8 9 9 9 10 11 11 12 10 8 15 14 17 13 11 8
Treinta y Tres 5 5 13 11 14 13 17 14 15 13 14 13 17 17 25 15 18
Note: The provinces marked in bold are the provinces with higher forest area.
Source: National Institute of Statistics (2006).

81

Table 19. Uruguay BLV (2005)

Market Prices US$/ha
Pine 1,028
Eucalyptus 1,493
Livestock 420

Shadow Prices US$/ha
Pine 1,460
Eucalyptus 1,785
Livestock 523

Source: Own estimates.

Table 20. Eucalyptus Growth, Yields and Management Assumptions

Pulp (70% area)
Growth rate (m3/ha/year) 30
Rotation age (years) 9
Initial Density (trees/ha) 1,000
Final Density (trees/ha) 800
Extraction (m3/ha) 250

Saw timber (30% area)
Extraction (m3/ha) m3/ha Product Year
1st Thinning 50 Pulp 9
2nd Thinning 140 Pulp 13
Final Harvest 340 Saw timber 18

Source: Own estimates based on Methol (2001)

82

Table 21. Pine Growth, Yields and Management Assumptions

Saw timber
Initial Density (trees/ha) 1,000 -
1st Thinning Density 1,000 600
2nd Thinning Density 600 400
3rd Thinning Density 400 200
Final Density (trees/ha) 200 0

Saw Fuel No
Extraction m3/ha Year timber wood Value
1st Thinning 11 4 0% 0% 100%
2nd Thinning 93 12 50% 50% 0%
3rd Thinning 188 18 70% 30% 0%
Final Harvest 255 22 85% 15% 0%

Source: Ramos and Cabrera (2001)

83

Table 22. Plantation Costs Structure

Items Share of Total Costs Taxes %
Fences 9%
Posts 47% Exonerated
Wire 30% Exonerated
Labor 24% BPS 11.5%
Soil Preparation 16%
Fuel 56% IMESI 34%
Lubricants 8% IMESI 26%
Machinery 25% Exonerated
Labor 11% BPS 12%
Ants control 3%
Inputs 55% IVA 17%
Labor 45% BPS 12%
Fertilization 6%
Inputs 61% Exonerated
Labor 39% BPS 12%
Plants 40% IVA pending
Plantation
Labor 7% BPS 12%
Reposition 9%
Plants 85% IVA pending
Labor 15% BPS 12%
Miscellaneous 9% IVA Basic 17%
Source: Adapted from Ramos and Cabrera (2001)

84

Table 23. Forest Production Costs (2005)

Export Costs
3
Total Labor Costs/volume of wood exported (1,000 US$/1,000 m ) 0.38

Pruning (1,000 US$/ha) 0.060

Thinning (1,000 US$/ha) 0.008

Administration and Management

Ants Control (1,000 US$/ha) 0.007
Year 1

Wage days/ha 1.25
1 day wage (1,000 US$) 0.015
Years 1 and 2

Paths
Daily wages/ha 0.3
Daily wage (1,000 US$) 0.015
Annual

Administration
Daily wages/ha 3

Harvest
Sawn
Pulp wood
Daily wages (# daily wages/m3) 0.289 0.222
Salaries US$ (130% minimum national wage )
1 day salary (1,000 US$) 0.015385

Cost Structure
Labor 55%
Fuel 30%
Rest 15%
Total Costs 100%
Source: Own estimations based on Ramos and Cabrera (2001).

85

Table 24. Industrial Costs Structure (2005)

Beef Wool Leather Wood
Total Costs 100% 99% 100% 100%
Inputs 65% 44% 42% 77%
Production Costs 35% 54% 58% 23%

Imports and Labor as percentage of total costs
Imports Labor
Wood 8% 35%
Leather 3% 15%
Slaughter Houses 4% 12%
Wool 3% 15%
Sources: Own estimates based on Ramos and Cabrera (2001) and INE.

Table 25. Transportation Costs Coefficients

Wood Transportation

Coefficients
Pulpwood transportation/Pulpwood extracted 0.90
Sawn wood transportation/Sawn wood extracted 0.80
Total Costs US$/ tons 9
Saw timber transported/Saw timber 0.45

Livestock Transportation
Transportation Costs (1,000 US$/ha) 0.0009
1989
Livestock production (kg/ha) 43
Total Area 6575
Livestock production total (tons) 285
Livestock production (ton/ha) 0.043
# trips (total tons/13 tons) 22

Transportation fees (US$/km-1 trip=13 tons) 1.15

US$/km/ton 0.08
Km/trip 250
Source: Own estimations based on Ramos and Cabrera (2001).

86

Table 26. Forest Land Prices vs. Livestock Land Prices

US$/ha
Year
Average Forest Livestock Difference
1999 530 617 486 132
2000 473 624 415 209
2001 421 565 349 217
2002 362 460 283 177
2003 434 584 385 199
2004 689 871 599 271
2005 807 1015 692 323
Source: DIEA based on INC

87

Table 27. Cost Benefit Analysis Results
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05

INPUTS 0.3 0.3 1.0 1.5 2.4 2.6 3.3 3.0 3.7 13.2 13.0 24.5 42.6 55.9 69.4 100.6 116.6

Production Costs 0.3 0.3 1.0 1.6 2.4 2.7 3.5 3.2 4.0 8.9 8.2 12.6 19.7 10.2 22.1 41.3 59.3
Plantations 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.5 -0.2 -1.2 -1.4 -3.2 -1.9 -2.1 -2.7
Nurseries 0.2 0.2 0.6 1.0 2.0 2.2 2.7 2.7 3.2 3.4 1.9 2.2 1.9 0.5 0.8 1.6 2.6
Pruning and Thinning 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.9 2.2 2.7 2.9
Management and Adm 0.2 0.3 1.0 1.4 2.1 2.7 3.6 3.7 4.4 5.3 5.0 4.3 3.4 0.7 1.1 2.4 5.8
Harvesting 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.3 4.5 10.6 18.7 12.3 22.0 39.8 55.0
Industry 0.0 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 -1.2 -1.5 -1.5 -1.6 -1.8 -1.5 -1.3 -1.5 -1.6
Transportation 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -0.1 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2 -0.3 4.1 4.6 11.5 22.1 43.7 45.3 56.7 54.8
Export Costs 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.9 2.0 2.6 2.5

INVESTMENTS 0.0 0.9 2.0 3.1 5.1 5.4 20.8 7.1 8.9 16.6 12.5 16.2 14.9 5.2 16.1 20.9 55.7

Plantations 0.0 0.9 2.0 3.1 5.1 5.4 7.1 7.1 8.9 16.6 12.5 16.2 14.9 5.2 5.5 10.3 13.8
Industry 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.6 10.6 41.9

OUTPUTS -0.2 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -1.0 -1.0 -1.8 -1.8 -2.4 23.4 31.1 60.6 114.7 187.4 214.5 274.8 297.1

Exports -0.2 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -1.0 -1.0 -1.8 -1.8 -2.4 23.4 31.1 60.6 114.7 187.4 214.5 274.8 297.1

Terminal Value 1164.5

CASH FLOW -0.4 -1.4 -3.4 -5.2 -8.4 -8.9 -26.0 -11.9 -15.0 -6.3 5.6 19.9 57.2 126.3 129.0 153.3 1289.3

IRR 36.4%
NPV (6%) mill US$ 1989 630.2

88

Table 28. Sensitivity Analysis: Wood Prices

IRR Pulpwood Pulpwood
-20% -10% 0% 10% 20% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20%
-10% 33.38% 34.81% 36.17% 37.46% 38.69% -10% -3.01% -1.58% -0.22% 1.07% 2.30%
Saw timber

Saw timber
0% 33.63% 35.05% 36.39% 37.67% 38.89% 0% -2.76% -1.34% 0.00% 1.28% 2.50%
10% 33.88% 35.28% 36.61% 37.88% 39.09% 10% -2.51% -1.11% 0.22% 1.49% 2.70%
20% 34.13% 35.52% 36.83% 38.09% 39.28% 20% -2.26% -0.87% 0.44% 1.70% 2.89%

NPV Pulpwood Pulpwood
-20% -10% 0% 10% 20% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20%
-10% 564,972 579,189 621,762 664,334 706,907 -10% -11.55% -8.81% -1.36% 5.14% 10.85%
Saw timber

Saw timber
0% 545,061 587,663 630,206 672,778 715,350 0% -15.62% -7.24% 0.00% 6.33% 11.90%
10% 553,505 596,077 638,649 681,222 723,794 10% -13.86% -5.73% 1.32% 7.49% 12.93%
20% 561,948 604,521 647,093 689,666 732,238 20% -12.15% -4.25% 2.61% 8.62% 13.93%

Table 29. Sensitivity Analysis: Yields

IRR Pine Pine
-20% -10% 0% 10% 20% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20%
-20% 29.02% 29.70% 30.35% 30.97% 31.57% -20% -7.37% -6.69% -6.04% -5.42% -4.82%
Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus
-10% 32.67% 33.19% 33.70% 34.19% 34.66% -10% -3.72% -3.20% -2.69% -2.20% -1.73%
0% 35.55% 35.98% 36.39% 36.80% 37.19% 0% -0.84% -0.41% 0.00% 0.41% 0.80%
10% 37.94% 38.30% 38.66% 39.00% 39.34% 10% 1.55% 1.91% 2.27% 2.61% 2.95%
20% 40.00% 40.31% 40.62% 40.92% 41.21% 20% 3.61% 3.92% 4.23% 4.53% 4.82%

NPV Pine Pine
-20% -10% 0% 10% 20% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20%
-20% 321,701 343,506 365,312 387,117 408,922 -20% -95.90% -83.46% -72.51% -62.79% -54.11%
Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus

-10% 454,148 475,953 497,759 519,564 541,369 -10% -38.77% -32.41% -26.61% -21.30% -16.41%
0% 586,595 608,400 630,206 652,011 673,816 0% -7.43% -3.58% 0.00% 3.34% 6.47%
10% 719,042 740,847 762,653 784,458 806,264 10% 12.35% 14.93% 17.37% 19.66% 21.84%
20% 851,489 873,294 895,100 916,905 938,711 20% 25.99% 27.84% 29.59% 31.27% 32.86%

89

Table 30. Sensitivity Analysis: Transportation Costs

IRR Wood Wood
-20% -10% 0% 10% 20% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20%
-20% 36.96% 36.66% 36.35% 36.05% 35.73% -20% 0.26% -0.04% -0.35% -0.65% -0.97%
Livestock

Livestock
-10% 36.98% 36.68% 36.37% 36.07% 35.75% -10% 0.28% -0.02% -0.33% -0.63% -0.95%
0% 37.00% 36.70% 36.39% 36.09% 35.77% 0% 0.30% 0.00% -0.31% -0.61% -0.93%
10% 37.02% 36.72% 36.41% 36.11% 35.80% 10% 0.32% 0.02% -0.29% -0.59% -0.90%
20% 37.04% 36.74% 36.43% 36.13% 35.82% 20% 0.34% 0.04% -0.27% -0.57% -0.88%

NPV Wood Wood
-20% -10% 0% 10% 20% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20%
-20% 650,415 640,078 629,740 619,403 609,066 -20% 3.11% 1.54% -0.07% -1.74% -3.47%
Livestock

Livestock
-10% 650,647 640,310 629,973 619,636 609,299 -10% 3.14% 1.58% -0.04% -1.71% -3.43%
0% 650,880 640,543 630,206 619,868 609,531 0% 3.18% 1.61% 0.00% -1.67% -3.39%
10% 651,113 640,775 630,438 620,101 609,764 10% 3.21% 1.65% 0.04% -1.63% -3.35%
20% 651,345 641,008 630,671 620,334 609,996 20% 3.25% 1.69% 0.07% -1.59% -3.31%

Table 31. Sensitivity Analysis: Land Price

Land Price Land Price
-20% -10% 0% 10% 20% 50% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20% 50%
-
IRR 57.50% 43.38% 36.39% 31.71% 28.18% 20.94% IRR 21.11% 6.99% 0.00% -4.68% -8.21% 15.45%
-
NPV 698,946 664,576 630,206 595,835 561,465 458,354 NPV 9.83% 5.17% 0.00% -5.77% -12.24% 37.49%

Table 32. Sensitivity Analysis: Harvesting, Thinning and Management Costs

Land Price Land Price
-20% -10% 0% 10% 20% 50% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20% 50%
IRR 57.50% 43.38% 36.39% 31.71% 28.18% 20.94% IRR 21.11% 6.99% 0.00% -4.68% -8.21% -15.45%
NPV 698,946 664,576 630,206 595,835 561,465 458,354 NPV 9.83% 5.17% 0.00% -5.77% -12.24% -37.49%

90

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS

The forest policy in Uruguay was developed to promote economic growth and generate

environmental benefits. The government considered it as a tool to transform marginal

agricultural lands, offering good forest growth conditions, into a thriving, globally competitive

forest sector. The government thought that effective policies will help in developing a higher-

value land use while promoting economic development, creating employment, attracting foreign

investment, and increasing exports. While the development of the forest policy benefited from

broad support in the legislature, it still was controversial. Subsidies proved to be particularly

contentious. The main issues were: (1) whether the subsidies were necessary to attract

investments, (2) whether to subsidize other, already established, sectors of the economy, and (3)

whether the subsidies should be in effect for regions which determined that better alternative

uses exist for lands allocated to forest development.

This study evaluated the forest policy in Uruguay nearly twenty years after it was

developed. It used a CBA approach that has not been used before. While some studies had tried

to evaluate the impact of the new forest sector on Uruguay’s economy, they had focused on

fiscal impacts and individual projects, not on the sector as a whole. This study compares the new

forest sector with alternative activities that would have been developed if the project would have

not been implemented. Livestock was assumed to be the alternative land use, corresponding

closely to what has been observed on the ground. The CBA model had to make an extensive use

of secondary information and own estimates. Linkages with other sectors of the economy,

excluding direct transportation costs, were not considered due to data limitations. The current

area of forest priority soils is 3 million ha; forests are already planted on 750 thousand ha. This

91

indicates that the forest planted area can still grow substantially, followed by further growth of

wood manufacturing industries.

The results indicate a positive net impact of the newly developed forest sector on the

Uruguayan economy when compared with agriculture and livestock. The NPV for the forest

sector equals 630.2 million US$, using a 6% discount rate. The IRR for the forest sector

development is 36.4%. These results are somewhat sensitive to changes in wood prices and

growth rates and harvest yields. This indicates that market conditions and forest management

operations are important variables in the evaluation of impacts that the sector has on the

country’s economy.

Forest policy in Uruguay has been successful in several ways. It has increased exports,

which improved the balance of payments. It has found more productive uses for poor quality

lands while attracting foreign investment, generating income and employment, and providing

environmental benefits. Still, some aspects of the forest policy are a subject of a heated debate.

One of the most contentious issues is the increased competition for land. The

development of the forest sector has brought about higher land prices. It has been harder and

more expensive to purchase land, rising dissent in some circles of the society. There are only

limited investment opportunities in Uruguay, and land has traditionally been considered as an

important low risk investment. Current land prices are on par with prices in neighboring Brazil

and Argentina. In the past, they had been lower. While not mentioned by forest investors, the

lower land prices were one of the factors that attracted foreign investment. In addition, some

farmers complained about the necessity of moving livestock to new areas once traditional

pastures were converted to forestry. Since this process has been gradual, the cost is not expected

to be high.

92

Other contentious issue regarding the forest policy was the use of subsidies to support the

development of forest plantations and wood manufacturing industries. It has been shown that the

even though subsidies the subsidy were important to attract investments, they were not the key

factor. The discussion of whether to subsidize other sectors of the economy can be addressed

with the positive net results obtained from evaluating the cost and benefits of the forest activity

compared with an alternative production.

One may ask: Why the impacts of the forest policy in Uruguay have been uniformly

positive? After all, there are numerous examples of countries that tried and failed in developing

their forest sectors in an efficient and sustainable way (Repetto 1988; Repetto & Gillis 1988).

Certainly, Uruguay has growth conditions suitable for forestry. Factors that may have decided

the successes of the policy include a stable economic policy and investment polices that truly

encourage foreign capital to invest to the country.

Throughout the course of this research project, several opportunities for further research

have been identified. First, an extension of this CBA analysis should be conducted in a few years

time. This is because large wood manufacturing facilities, including two paper mills, are nearing

completion and will start operating in the next few years. Their massive, value-added products

targeting global wood and paper markets will have a major impact on the country’s economy and

the evaluation of the forest policy.

Second, it would be worthwhile to estimate shadow prices for the forest sector, in

particular for land and labor. Shadow prices for land in forestry uses have not been developed in

Uruguay as suggested in the forest research literature. Labor treatment has been long a

controversial issue. Unemployment is high in Uruguay, and large numbers of workers migrate in

search for employment opportunities. While employment generation has not been a major

93

policy’s objective, it has been an important argument in debating and defending it. A

comprehensive assessment of labor issues would certainly help in informing this and future

policy debates.

Third, the use of a more comprehensive evaluation method may also cast more

information on the policy’s impacts. Three approaches are generally used to evaluate forest

policies. They include the Computable General Equilibrium (CGE), Input-Output (I-O) and

Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA), which was used in this study. CGE requires estimation of

macroeconomic equations which was beyond the scope of this project. The second approach

requires an updated I-O matrix. The rationale for a more comprehensive approach is that in a

small country such as Uruguay, the forest sector, once large mills become operable, will have a

substantial impact on the country’s economy.

Finally, further research should incorporate non-market variables. They include a range

of environmental services that are provided by forest plantations. Environmental values are

increasingly important in policy debates, and Uruguay is no exception. While the plantations

have been criticized on environmental grounds, they appear to put less stress on the environment

than agriculture and livestock. These impacts too need to be evaluated to inform policy debates

and permit rational land use decision-making.

94

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104

APPENDIX I

SURVEY RESULTS

105


SURVEY RESULTS

A survey to institutions and companies in the forest sector was conducted in July 2006 in

Uruguay. The institutions selected were the Forest Producers Society (SPF), the Economic

Institute of the Social Sciences Faculty of the Republic of Uruguay University, the Forest

Division and the Agricultural Planning and Policy Office (OPYPA) of the Agricultural Ministry.

Selected companies included were Botnia, Eufores, Colonvade, Fymnsa and Cofusa.

The Forest Producers Society (SPF) is a private association that represents the forest

business sector in Uruguay. It is made up of technicians, producers, and companies, both local

and foreign. Its objective is to promote a sustainable forest sector in Uruguay by promoting

forest plantations and contributing to the conservation of the natural forests in the country (Forest

Producers Society 2006).

The Economic Institute of the Social Sciences Faculty of the Republic of Uruguay

University is a research institute which research areas include: econometric, industrial

organization, business, microeconomics, macroeconomics, finance and labor economic.

The Forest Division of the Agricultural Ministry is in charge of the Forest Policy (Forestry

Law 15939 1988). The main activities are to promote the forest activity, to design and to analyze

management plans for public and private lands, to assist the institutions on the forest

management and to coordinate activities related with the forestry.

OPYPA of the Agricultural Ministry is the office in charge of advising the government in

the design, execution and control of the agricultural policies.

106

The companies were selected for the following reasons: first, they include both local and

foreign companies; second, all together they own 30% of the plantations and the rest is

fragmented; third, they produce a spectrum of products (two, wood for pulp; two, saw timber;

one, plywood); fourth, each of the companies is in a different stage of development; fifth, they

have different types of organization according to capital, species and timber management. Some

of the companies have different names for their plantation’s firm and for their manufacturing

firm; furthermore, some companies have different names from the name they use in their country

of origin (Table 33).

Botnia is constructing a pulp mill in the North of the country, which involves the largest

single investment in the country’s history: a one billion US$ investment. It consumes 3.5 million

cum of pulpwood when operating at full capacity (Metsa-Botnia 2004). Its main product is

bleached eucalyptus Kraft pulp, and their estimated production capacity will be one million tons

per year. Its capital originates from Finland and was used to purchase the Uruguayan company,

FOSA, which owned the forest plantations. The company is located in Río Negro and Paysandú.

Colonvade is a branch of the US company Weyerhaeuser. It is constructing a plywood

facility and plans to construct five to eight more plants in Tacuarembó, Rivera and Paysandú. Its

total investment is between $500 and $800 million, depending on the number of plants it will

construct. It has already made a $270 million investment in 131,000 hectares of land for

plantations, of which 85,000 were already planted. Its first commercial thinning was planned for

the current year, and it expected to obtain 16,000 m3 wood. By 2012 it expects to extract 2.5

million m3 per year, from which it would obtain 900,000 m3 in products to export. The main

products are: plywood, saw timber, MDF (medium density board) and LVL (laminated veneer

lumber) (El Espectador Radio 2005).

107

Ence, a Spanish company that has partnerships with several local companies, was planning

to construct a pulp mill by the end of the current year. Eufores is the local branch of the

company. At M’Bopicuá Logistic Terminal, Ence invested $622 million in a chip plant with a

production capacity of 500,000 cum per year. Maserlit, an Uruguayan sawmill that Ence

controls, produces 35,000 cum per year of kiln dried wood to produce Eucalyptus Grandis

lumber. By the time of the interview, Ence estimated that by the year 2008 they will be operating

at full capacity. However, these days it has been subsequently announced the relocation of the

mill and the information of when they are going to begin the construction is not known.

Fymnsa, which produces saw logs, is one of the oldest and biggest local companies and is

building a sawmill in Rivera (northern Uruguay). It is producing 18,000 tons of chips per year

and it has 13,000 ha of plantations.

Cofusa and Urufor are two forestry companies that belong to the same economic group.

They are located in the North of Uruguay and produce high quality Eucalyptus Grandis timber.

Cofusa owns 25,000 haof plantations and Urufor owns a sawmill.

The survey for institutions had semi structured questions on topics which differed according

to the institution. SPF was asked about regulation, their studies on forest sector impact and

policy evaluation and limitations for the sector’s development; the Economic Institute of Social

Sciences Faculty was asked about macroeconomic data availability to use in the research; Forest

Division was asked about the Forest Policy history and the current regulation in force as well as

about their future actions; and OPYPA was asked about the situation of the forest sector in

Uruguay and its possible impacts in the economy.

108

The survey for companies had open and structured questions. The companies had to fill out

two different forms: one for its plantation activities and the other for its industrial activities, as

some companies has separate corporations for each activity.

Each plantation company was asked about location, origin of the capital, production (forest

area, harvest, and rotation age), costs and investments, labor, certification programs and future

plans. Each industry was asked questions dealing with location, origin of the capital, production

(products, markets, sales, and plants’ capacity), investment and costs, labor, regulation,

certification programs and future plans. Each company was also asked for the reasons it started

its activities in Uruguay.

Institutions interviewed evaluated the impact of the forest sector in Uruguay as positive.

There is an agreement that the sector is just starting its development and it is going to grow fast

in the next years when plantations start to be harvested. Opinions on regulation differed: the SPF

said that regulation is good, and people in the Forest Division said that current regulation needs

to be adjusted. Institutions are weaker than at the beginning of the forest sector development.

The SPF had evaluated the impact of the new forest sector using cost benefit analysis. Two

private consultants compared the Uruguayan economy with and without the forest sector

(Vázquez Platero 1996; Ramos & Cabrera 2001). They considered plantations as well as

industrial activities, and both concluded that the impact will be positive. The limitations for the

sector would be related with high costs in US dollars, specially fuel, and a low exchange rate34

which leads to a competitiveness loss.

The Forest Division described the origin and objectives of the current Forest Policy in force.

Regarding the institution itself, two factors have a negative impact on their activities: first, an

34
Currently the exchange rate is 24 $U/ 1 US$.

109

increasing number of technicians are going to the private sector, and second, more resources are

going to the Environmental Ministry to evaluate forest projects.

The companies are located in the North and Northwest of the country, and one is expanding

their activities to the Northeast. The companies’ capital is originated in different countries:

Spain, Finland, USA and Uruguay. All the companies together have a forest area that represents

30% of the country’s forest area. They have more than 50% of their land planted; meanwhile this

ratio for the country is only 4.3%. These results show that the companies will buy new land to

increase the plantations area (Table 34).

Even though Eucalyptus is the most important specie planted, Pine is increasing its

participation reaching 77,265 hectares in 2004 (Table 35). Eucalyptus is mostly managed for

pulp with the exception of one company that is managing it for hardwood. Pine is managed for

saw timber and plywood.

Rotation ages vary from 22 to 25 for Pine according to the final product, and 10 to 20 years

for Eucalyptus. On average, this represents 23 years for Pine and 15 years for Eucalyptus

(Table 36).

Investments vary from each company according to their stage of development. By 2008,

four companies’ total investments35 will be approximately 1,900 million US$36. This amount

includes investments that the companies have been done in land and investments they planned to

do in industries. There are important differences in amount, as one company is planning to invest

1 billion US $ in its pulp mill. The most important investments are from the foreign companies.

35
One company did not give information about its total investments, and another did not give information before
2005.
36
These days, one of the companies announced that an 800million US $ investment planned will be delayed. If this
investment were not considered, the total amount would be 1.100 billion US $.

110

All the companies are involved in Certification Programs: four of them have Forest

Stewardship Council (FSC) certification and one has International Organization for

Standardization 14001 (ISO 14001) certification.

The regulation is good, but labor regulation is needed. Plantation workers are regulated

under agricultural laws without considering the specific characteristics of the forest sector, such

are safety issues. The general opinion is that the sector started developing because of the Forestry

Law 15939 and subsidies were an important part of the incentives’ package.

All the companies have plans to grow in the future, either to increase the area planted, to

export, to build new mills or to increase their current capacity. Two companies are already

building their second sawmill.

The companies mentioned several reasons for starting their activities in Uruguay. All of

them mentioned soils and growth rates as key elements to go to the country. They also pointed

put that a good economy’s performance, economy’s stability and a good regulation in the Forest

Sector were factors that contribute to this decision.

Labor’s skills were a problem at the beginning, but the problem was quickly solved by

training the labor in the skills needed. Training programs were offered by companies to their

labor force and most of the companies said that Uruguayan workers are open to learn.

111

Table 33. Companies classified according to the origin of the capital

Uruguayan Entity International Origin of (Foreign)
Manufacturing Forest Plantations Firm in Control Capital
Botnia Fosa Oy Metsa Botnia Finland
Eufores Eufores Ence Spain
Colonvade Colonvade Weyerhaeuser United States
Fymnsa Fymnsa - Uruguay
Urufor Cofusa - Uruguay

Table 34. Area by companies

Planted/
Planted Area (ha) Land Area (ha) Land Area
Total 5 Companies 220,893 391,000 56.49%
Total Uruguay 714,000 16,666,670 4.30%
% Total
(5 Companies/Uruguay) 30.94%

Table 35. Area by species (in ha)

Euc. Pinus Euc. Pinus Pinus Total
Grandis Taeda Globulus Patula Elliotti Area
38,120 77,265 105,000 129 379 220,893

Table 36. Rotation ages and Growth rates

Estimations Pine Eucalyptus
Rotation Age 23 years 15 years
Growth Rates 20 m3/year 22 m3/year

112

APPENDIX II

SURVEY FORMS

113

The Impact of the Forest Sector on the Uruguayan Economy
Master of Science Thesis Research
Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources
University of Georgia
Survey - Plantations

July, 2006

I. General Information

1. Company Name: _________________________________________________________

2. Contact Information:

Address/ Phone Number/E-mail address:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

3. Name and Position of the Person who answer the survey:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

4. Type of business organization: Domestic Foreign

Sole Proprietorship Domestic Partnership Corporation

5. Origin of foreign capital (if applicable): _____________________________________

114

II. Production

6. Area of Forest Land:

Species Total Land Area Planted Area Location

Total

7. Harvest:

Product Tons
Saw timber
Chip and Saw
Pulpwood

8. Rotation: which is the average rotation by specie or by product?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

III. Investments and Costs

9. Investments: Which are the estimated investments per year?

Category Amount (in dollars) Year Imported (%)

115

10. Total costs

Year Amount
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

11. Costs as percentage of the total:

Concept Amount (in dollars) Year
Raw material (timber)
Transportation
Services, maintenance and repair
Equipment
Wages
Insurance
Supplies
Contractual Services
Fuels
Utilities (Water, Electricity, Phone)
Taxes
Other administrative expenses
Others (describe)

116

IV. Employment

12. Indicate number of employees by part of the company.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

V. Environmental, certification and other programs
13. Does the company have environmental programs? If yes, please describe them briefly.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

14. Does the company participate in any certification programs? If yes, in which ones?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

15. In which other programs does the company participate?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

117

VI. Future Plans

16. What are the company’s plans for the following years?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

17. Which are the most important limitations that, in your opinion, the company would face
in the following years? E.g.: transport, financing, labor, markets.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
18. Which are the growth rates expected by species?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
19. How much production is expected for the next years?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

118

The Impact of the Forest Sector on the Uruguayan Economy
Master of Science Thesis Research
Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources
University of Georgia
Survey Industry

July 2006

I. General Information

1. Company Name: _________________________________________________________

2. Contact Information:

Address/ Phone Number/E-mail address:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

3. Name and Position of the Person who answer the survey:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

4. Type of business organization: Domestic Foreign

Sole Proprietorship Domestic Partnership Corporation

5. Origin of foreign capital (if applicable): _____________________________________

119

II. Production

6. Products:

Destination
Product (markets) % of the total sales
Fuel wood
Chips
Plywood
Boards
Pulp
Paper
Others (specify)

7. Total Sales of Forest Products: indicate the approximate amount of sales per year.

Year Amount
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

120

8. Does the company buy wood (timber) from other companies? Yes No . If yes,
fill in the following table:

Seller % of total timber consumed Specie(s)
Farmer(s)
Other companies
(1) ___________________
(2) ___________________
(3) ___________________
(4) ___________________
(5) ___________________

9. Mill capacity. Indicate current and expected annual capacity of your mill(s) in cum.

Plant Year Capacity Product Location

121

III. Investments and Costs

10. Investments: Which are the estimated investments per year?

Concept Amount (in dollars) Year Imported (%)

11. Total costs: how much are the total costs per year?

Year Amount
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

122

12. Costs as percentage of the total:

Concept Amount (in dollars) Year
Raw material (timber)
Transportation
Services, maintenance and repair
Equipment
Wages
Insurance
Supplies
Contractual Services
Fuels
Utilities (Water, Electricity, Phone)
Taxes
Other administrative expenses
Others (describe)

IV. Employment

13. Indicate number of employees by part of the company. If the company has more than one
plant, please use different tables.

Plant: _____________________________________

Years
Concept
Construction
Operation

123

Plant: _____________________________________

Years
Concept
Construction
Operation

Plant: _____________________________________

Years
Concept
Construction
Operation

Plant: _____________________________________

Years
Concept
Construction
Operation

14. Which external services do you hire?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

124

V. Regulation

15. Why did the company choose Uruguay to run the business?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

16. If the subsidies and tax exonerations were not established, would you have chosen the
country to invest?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

17. How do you evaluate the regulation in the Forest Sector in Uruguay?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

18. Do you consider the Law No. 16906 (National Interest Investments) an important
incentive to invest in the country?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

125

19. Which elements (or regulation) will be necessary to improve the developing of the sector
in the next years?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

VI. Environmental, certification and other programs

20. Does the company have programs to monitor environmental effects? If yes, which kind of
programs?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

21. Does the company participate in any certification programs? If yes, in which one(s)?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

22. Does the company participate in Chain of Custody certification programs?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

126

23. In which other programs the company participates?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

VII. Future Plans

24. What are the company’s plans for the following years? E.g.: increase capacity, buy new
land, and explore new markets.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

25. Which are the most important limitations that, in your opinion, the company would face
in the following years? E.g.: transport, financing, wood supply, labor, markets.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

26. What are the perspectives you see on the development of the forest sector in Uruguay?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

127

APPENDIX III
CBA TABLES

128

Table 37. Total Extraction Eucalyptus (1,000 m3)

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Effective
Area
(in ha) 3,817 4,208 10,070 16,473 25,707 26,736 35,651 34,671 41,683 38,274 28,865 22,778 19,988 8,807 8,620 19,808 17,873

Pulp 668 736 1,762 2,883 4,499 4,679 6,239 6,067

Saw
timber
Pulp
1st
Thinning 57 63 151 247 386 401 535 520
2nd
Thinning 1,080 1,123 1,497 1,456
Saw
timber

Total
Pulp 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 725 799 1,913 3,130 5,964 6,203 8,271 8,044
Total
Saw
timber 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

129

Table 38. Total Extraction Pine (1,000 m3)

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Effective
Area (in ha) 602 914 1,172 1,352 3,359 4,005 5,231 6,465 9,514 20,885 22,104 17,719 16,306 11,955 9,975 6,788 11,915
Total
Extraction
No Value

1st Thinning 7 10 13 15 37 45 58 72 106 233 246 198 182

2nd Thin - - - - -

3rd Thin. - - - - -
Harvest
Fuel wood

1st Thinning - - - - - - - - - - - - -

2nd Thin. 442 970 1,027 823 758
3rd Thin.
Harvest
Saw timber

1st Thinning - - - - - - - - - - - - -

2nd Thin. 442 970 1,027 823 758
3rd Thin.
Harvest
Total Pulp 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total SW 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 442 970 1,027 823 758
Total Fuel
wood 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 442 970 1,027 823 758
Total No
Value - - - - 7 10 13 15 37 45 58 72 106 233 246 198 182

130

Table 39. Basic Assumptions

Forest Area (in 1,000 ha)

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Annual 1989-
1999 7 8 16 26 42 44 59 59 73 85 73 58 52 30 27 38 43
Cumulative 7 14 31 56 98 143 201 260 333 418 491 549 601 631 657 695 738

0.2
With Project Production-Model (1,000 m3/ha)

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 725 799 1,913 3,572 6,934 7,230 9,094 8,801
Pulpwood 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 725 799 1,913 3,130 5,964 6,203 8,271 8,044
Sawn wood 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 442 970 1,027 823 758
Saw timber 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 199 437 462 370 341

Prices (1,000 US$/m3)
Saw timber
price 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.112 0.112 0.112 0.112
Pulpwood
prices 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.028 0.032 0.025 0.023 0.023 0.026 0.028 0.032

131

Table 40. Investments in Land (million US$)

Plantations 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
With
Market Land
Price (1,000
US$/ha) 0.361 0.528 0.580 0.637 0.658 0.716 0.749 0.760 0.734 0.796 0.630 0.650 0.590 0.460 0.593 0.871 1.871

SPR land 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1 1 1 1
Investments Land million
US$/ha
Market Prices 2.37 4.02 9.48 16.37 27.62 31.73 43.85 44.74 53.70 67.49 46.00 37.71 30.65 13.66 15.77 33.09 43.21
Shadow Prices 2.82 4.79 11.28 19.48 32.86 37.75 52.18 53.24 63.91 80.31 54.73 44.87 36.48 13.66 15.77 33.09 43.21

Without
Market Land
Price (1,000
US$/ha)
Livestock 0.361 0.426 0.478 0.535 0.556 0.614 0.647 0.658 0.632 0.632 0.486 0.415 0.349 0.283 0.385 0.599 0.599
SPR land
Land 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Investments
Land million
US$/ha
Market Prices 2.37 3.25 7.81 13.75 23.35 27.22 37.89 38.75 46.26 53.58 35.47 24.08 18.11 8.41 10.23 22.77 29.44
Shadow Prices 2.82 3.86 9.30 16.37 27.78 32.39 45.09 46.12 55.05 63.76 42.20 28.65 21.55 8.41 10.23 22.77 29.44

Incremental
Market Prices 0.00 0.78 1.66 2.61 4.27 4.51 5.96 5.99 7.44 13.91 10.53 13.63 12.55 5.25 5.54 10.31 13.77
Shadow
Prices 0.00 0.92 1.98 3.11 5.08 5.36 7.09 7.13 8.86 16.55 12.53 16.22 14.93 5.25 5.54 10.31 13.77

132

Table 41. Industry Investments (million US$)

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Investments
(with Project) 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.50 10.50 41.50
Saw timber 10.50 10.50 10.50 41.50
Pulp

Investments
(without
Project) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Incremental
Investments
market prices 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.50 10.50 41.50
Incremental
Investments
shadow Prices 0 0 0 0 0 0 13.76 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.61 10.61 41.92

133

Table 42. Exports

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
With
Cumulative area
(1,000 ha) 6.58 14.2 30.55 56.25 98.24 142.57 201.14 260.04 333.23
Forest Area (1,000 ha) 6.58 7.62 16.35 25.71 41.99 44.33 58.57 58.9 73.2

Total Exports 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Saw timber 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pulpwood 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Without
Total Exports (million
US $) 0.13 0.13 0.27 0.44 0.75 0.75 1.4 1.36 1.84
Alternative Productions (total
production) 0.22 0.22 0.46 0.74 1.24 1.25 2.33 2.26 2.83
Alt. Prod. (exports) 0.13 0.13 0.27 0.44 0.75 0.75 1.4 1.36 1.84

Incremental market prices (million
US$) -0.13 -0.13 -0.27 -0.44 -0.75 -0.75 -1.4 -1.36 -1.84
Incremental shadow prices (million
US$) -0.17 -0.17 -0.36 -0.58 -0.98 -0.99 -1.83 -1.78 -2.41

134

Table 42 (cont) Exports

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
With
Cumulative area
(1,000 ha) 418.01 491.02 549.03 600.99 630.72 657.31 695.31 737.86
Forest Area (1,000 ha) 84.78 73.01 58.01 51.96 29.73 26.59 37.99 42.55

Total Exports 20.31 25.58 47.83 88.64 185.9 212.84 272.93 295.44
Saw timber 0 0 0 16.65 48.73 51.57 41.34 38.05
Pulpwood 20.31 25.58 47.83 71.99 137.17 161.27 231.59 257.4
Without
Total Exports (million
US $) 2.43 1.81 1.55 1.08 0.35 0.47 0.85 1.28
Alternative Productions (total
production) 3.74 2.79 2.38 1.66 0.54 0.72 1.22 1.83
Alt. Prod. (exports) 2.43 1.81 1.55 1.08 0.35 0.47 0.85 1.28

Incremental market prices
(million US$) 17.88 23.77 46.28 87.56 185.55 212.38 272.08 294.16
Incremental shadow prices
(million US$) 23.42 31.14 60.63 114.7 187.41 214.5 274.8 297.1

135

Table 43. Transportation Costs (million US$)

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
With
Transportation
(in 1,000 tons)
Pulpwood 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 653 720 1722 2817 5368 5582 7444 7239
Sawn wood 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 354 776 822 659 606
Saw timber 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 90 196 208 167 153
Total Volume 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 653 720 1722 3260 6340 6612 8269 7999

Total Wood
Transportation
Costs 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.87 6.48 15.50 29.34 57.06 59.51 74.42 71.99
Total
Livestock
Transportation
Costs 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total Transp.
Costs
Market Prices 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.87 6.48 15.50 29.34 57.06 59.51 74.42 71.99
Shadow
Prices 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.52 4.99 11.93 22.59 43.94 45.82 57.31 55.43
Without
Livestock not
transported
(million US$) 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.13 0.21 0.28 0.42 0.51 0.54 0.61 0.67 0.27 0.73 0.77 0.82
Total Costs in
shadow prices 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.16 0.22 0.33 0.40 0.42 0.47 0.51 0.21 0.56 0.59 0.63
Incremental
Market - - - - - - - - -
prices 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.13 0.21 0.28 0.42 5.36 5.93 14.89 28.67 56.79 58.78 73.65 71.17
Shadow - - - - - - - -
prices 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.16 0.22 0.33 4.13 4.57 11.46 22.08 43.73 45.26 56.71 54.80

136

Table 44. Livestock Transportation Costs

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Without
Livestock production (kg/ha) 43 43 45 45 45 45 45 45 50
Total Area 6,575 14,199 30,545 56,251 98,242 142,572 201,140 260,037 333,232
Livestock production total (tons) 285 616 1,381 2,543 4,441 6,444 9,092 11,754 16,696
Livestock production (ton/ha) 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
# trips (total tons/13 tons) 22 47 106 196 342 496 699 904 1,284
Transportation fees (US$/km-1 trip=13
tons) 1.15 1.30 1.24 1.11 1.07 1.14 1.31 1.40 1.47

US$/km/ton 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.10
Km/trip 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250
Transportation Costs (million US$) 0.02 0.05 0.11 0.20 0.34 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.28

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Without
Livestock production (kg/ha) 52 51 51 51 20 51 51 51
Total Area 418,009 491,017 549,030 600,986 630,716 657,311 695,305 737,860
Livestock production total (tons) 21,817 25,003 27,957 30,602 12,614 33,470 35,405 37,572
Livestock production (ton/ha) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.05
# trips (total tons/13 tons) 1,678 1,923 2,151 2,354 970 2,575 2,723 2,890
Transportation fees (US$/km-1 trip=13
tons) 1.36 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26

US$/km/ton 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
Km/trip 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250
Transportation Costs (million US$) 1.68 1.92 2.15 2.35 0.97 2.57 2.72 2.89

137

Table 45. Industry Costs

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Production Costs (imports) 1,000 US$/ha
Slaughter Houses 0.00025 0.00027 0.00028 0.00029 0.00030 0.00031 0.00037 0.00034 0.00038
Wool 0.00012 0.00012 0.00012 0.00012 0.00012 0.00013 0.00013 0.00013 0.00011
Leather 0.00005 0.00005 0.00005 0.00005 0.00005 0.00005 0.00005 0.00005 0.00006
Wood (1,000
3
US$/m ) 0.00225 0.00209 0.00210 0.00146 0.00148 0.00133 0.00130 0.00127 0.00127

Labor
Slaughter Houses 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0016 0.0019 0.0017 0.0020
Wool 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003
Leather 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002
Wood (1,000
3
US$/m ) 0.02639 0.02451 0.02468 0.01713 0.01736 0.01556 0.01529 0.01489 0.01489
In market prices
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
With Project 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Labor
Alternative
Productions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Saw timber 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Production Costs
(imports)
Alternative
Productions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Saw timber 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Without Project 29 62 141 261 457 705 1017 1300 1536

Labor
Alternative
Productions 26 56 127 235 410 634 906 1164 1350

Production Costs
(imports)
Alternative
Productions 3 6 14 26 46 71 111 136 186

138

Table 45 (cont) Industry Costs Production and Labor

Shadow Prices
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
With Project 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Labor
Saw timber 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Without Project 23 50 113 209 365 564 813 1040 1229
Labor
Alternative
Productions 21 45 102 188 328 507 725 931 1080

Production Costs
(imports)
Alternative
Productions 2 5 11 21 37 57 89 109 149

Incremental in
SPR (million US$) -0.02 -0.05 -0.11 -0.21 -0.37 -0.56 -0.81 -1.04 -1.23

DATA
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Production
(kg/ha)
Beef 35 35 36 36 36 36 36 36 41
Lamb 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 6
Wool 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 4
Leather 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5
Total Costs Alternative Industries (1,000 US$/kg)
Beef 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Lamb 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Wool 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003
Leather 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
3
Total Costs Sawmills (1,000 US$/ m )
Wood 0.119 0.111 0.112 0.078 0.079 0.070 0.069 0.067 0.067

139


1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Production Costs (imports) 1,000
US$/ha
Slaughter Houses 0.00043 0.00037 0.00037 0.00037 0.00017 0.00029 0.00037 0.00037
Wool 0.00011 0.00008 0.00008 0.00008 0.00008 0.00008 0.00008 0.00008
Leather 0.00007 0.00007 0.00007 0.00007 0.00001 0.00003 0.00007 0.00007
3
Wood (1,000 US$/m ) 0.00127 0.00127 0.00127 0.00127 0.00127 0.00127 0.00127 0.00127
Labor
Slaughter Houses 0.0023 0.0020 0.0020 0.0020 0.0009 0.0016 0.0020 0.0020
Wool 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003
Leather 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0002

3
Wood (1,000 US$/m ) 0.01489 0.01489 0.01489 0.01489 0.01489 0.01489 0.01489 0.01489
In market prices
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
With Project 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Labor
Alternative Productions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Saw timber 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

Production Costs (imports)
Saw timber 0 0 0 3 7 7 6 5

Without Project 1859 1814 2028 2220 1926 2211 2568 2726
Labor

140


Shadow Prices
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
With Project 0 0 0 3 6 7 5 5
Saw timber 0 0 0 3 6 7 5 5

Without Project 1487 1451 1622 1776 1541 1327 1541 1635
Labor

Incremental in shadow
prices(million US$) -1.49 -1.45 -1.62 -1.77 -1.53 -1.32 -1.54 -1.63

DATA
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Production (kg/ha)
Beef 43 44 44 44 20 34 44 44
Lamb 7 5 5 5 2 5 5 5
Wool 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Leather 5 5 5 5 1 2 5 5

Total Costs Alternative Industries (1,000 US$/kg)
Beef 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Lamb 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Wool 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Leather 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
3
Total Costs Sawmills (1,000 US$/ m )
Wood 0.067 0.067 0.067 0.067 0.067 0.067 0.067 0.067

141

Table 46. Production Costs

Market Prices
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
With Project
Plantation Costs 0.027 0.026 0.033 0.042 0.042 0.049 0.05 0.053 0.056
Labor 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.017 0.017 0.019 0.02 0.021 0.022
Import 0.016 0.016 0.02 0.025 0.025 0.029 0.03 0.032 0.034
Area 6,575 7,624 16,346 25,706 41,991 44,330 58,568 58,897 73,195
Effective Area 4,931 5,718 12,260 19,280 31,493 33,248 43,926 44,173 54,896
Plantation Costs (mill.
US$) 0.133 0.151 0.399 0.81 1.317 1.614 2.182 2.361 3.094

Without Project
Alternative
Productions
Area (in ha) 6,575 14,199 30,545 56,251 98,242 142,572 201,140 260,037 333,232
Labor 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
Import 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
Prod Costs 0.03 0.06 0.16 0.28 0.52 0.92 1.36 1.83 2.28

Incremental (mill.
US$) 0.1 0.09 0.23 0.53 0.8 0.69 0.82 0.53 0.82
Shadow Prices
With Project
Plantation Costs 0.021 0.021 0.026 0.034 0.033 0.039 0.04 0.043 0.045
Labor 0.009 0.008 0.01 0.013 0.013 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018
Import 0.013 0.013 0.016 0.02 0.02 0.023 0.024 0.026 0.027
Area 6,575 7,624 16,346 25,706 41,991 44,330 58,568 58,897 73,195
Effective Area 4,931 5,718 12,260 19,280 31,493 33,248 43,926 44,173 54,896
Total Plantation Costs 0.11 0.12 0.32 0.65 1.05 1.29 1.75 1.89 2.48
Production Costs
With (million US$) 0.11 0.12 0.32 0.65 1.05 1.29 1.75 1.89 2.48

Without Project
Prod Costs (1,000
US$/ha) 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Labor 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004
Import 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002
Area (in ha) 6,575 14,199 30,545 56,251 98,242 142,572 201,140 260,037 333,232
Total Prod. Costs
(mill. US$) 0.02 0.05 0.13 0.22 0.42 0.74 1.09 1.46 1.82
Incremental (mill.
US$) 0.08 0.07 0.19 0.42 0.64 0.55 0.66 0.43 0.65

142

Table 46 (Cont) Production Costs

Market Prices
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
With Project
Plantation
Costs 0.056 0.056 0.051 0.051 0.037 0.045 0.037 0.037
Labor 0.022 0.022 0.02 0.02 0.015 0.018 0.015 0.015
Import 0.034 0.034 0.031 0.031 0.022 0.027 0.022 0.022
Area 84,777 73,008 58,013 51,956 29,730 26,595 37,995 42,555
Effective Area 63,583 54,756 43,510 38,967 22,298 19,946 28,496 31,916
Plantation
Costs (mill.
US$) 3.591 3.047 2.224 1.979 0.831 0.895 1.052 1.178

Without Project
Alternative
Productions
Area (in ha) 418,009 491,017 549,030 600,986 630,716 657,311 695,305 737,860
Labor 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.006 0.004 0.005 0.006
Import 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
Prod Costs 2.94 3.33 3.69 3.76 4.79 4 4.6 5.67

Incremental
(mill. US$) 0.65 -0.28 -1.47 -1.78 -3.96 -3.11 -3.55 -4.49

With Project
Plantation
Costs 0.045 0.045 0.041 0.041 0.03 0.027 0.022 0.022
Labor 0.018 0.018 0.016 0.016 0.012 0.011 0.009 0.009
Import 0.027 0.027 0.025 0.024 0.018 0.016 0.013 0.013
Area 84,777 73,008 58,013 51,956 29,730 26,595 37,995 42,555
Effective Area 63,583 54,756 43,510 38,967 22,298 19,946 28,496 31,916
Total Plantation
Costs 2.87 2.44 1.78 1.58 0.67 0.54 0.63 0.71
Production
Costs With
(million US$) 2.87 2.44 1.78 1.58 0.67 0.54 0.63 0.71
Without Project
Prod Costs
(1,000 US$/ha) 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.005
Labor 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.003
Import 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001
Area (in ha) 418,009 491,017 549,030 600,986 630,716 657,311 695,305 737,860
Total Prod.
Costs (mill.
US$) 2.35 2.66 2.95 3.01 3.83 2.4 2.76 3.4
Incremental
(mill. US$) 0.52 -0.22 -1.17 -1.43 -3.17 -1.86 -2.13 -2.7

143

Table 47. Labor Costs Exports (million US$)

With
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Wood Exported
(1,000 m3) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.73 0.80 1.91 3.33 6.40 6.66 8.64 8.38
Total Costs market
prices 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.30 0.73 1.26 2.43 2.53 3.28 3.19
Total Costs
shadow prices 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.18 0.44 0.76 1.95 2.03 2.63 2.55

Table 48. Pruning and Thinning Costs (million US$)

With
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Pruning
(million US$) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.10 0.13 0.38 0.46 0.72 0.87 1.34 2.32 2.72 3.33 3.54
1,000 US$/ha 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07
Total (1,000
US$)
First 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 22 34 65 75 248 296 386 477 703 1542 1632 1308 1204
Second 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 33 51 87 100 248 296 386 477 703 1542 1632
Third 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 44 67 87 100 248 296 386 477 703
Thinning
(million US$) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

Total Costs
market prices
(million US$) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.10 0.13 0.38 0.46 0.72 0.87 1.35 2.34 2.75 3.36 3.57
Total Costs
shadow
prices
(million US$) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.23 0.28 0.43 0.52 0.81 1.88 2.20 2.69 2.85

144

Table 49. Administration and Management Costs (million US$)

Administration and Management Costs

With
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Management 0.00 0.09 0.19 0.32 0.57 0.92 1.18 1.41 1.61 1.82 2.15 2.11 1.71 1.05 0.61 0.69 1.19
Ants Control 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.20 0.22 0.29 0.29 0.36 0.41 0.34 0.26 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.28
Paths 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.19 0.19 0.24 0.27 0.23 0.17 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.19
Administration 0.21 0.24 0.53 0.84 1.37 1.45 1.93 1.94 2.42 2.79 2.36 1.84 1.60 0.42 0.65 1.34 2.14

Total Costs market
prices 0.21 0.26 0.99 1.38 2.18 2.74 3.64 3.81 4.49 5.37 5.08 4.35 3.49 0.72 1.07 2.42 5.78
Total Costs shadow
prices 0.20 0.25 0.97 1.35 2.14 2.69 3.57 3.73 4.40 5.26 4.98 4.26 3.42 0.72 1.07 2.42 5.78

Table 50. Harvesting Costs

With
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Labor 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.06 3.21 7.55 13.35 10.08 18.00 32.60 44.99
Pulp 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.06 3.21 7.55 11.94 8.65 15.40 29.60 41.06
Sawn wood 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.41 1.43 2.60 3.00 3.94
Fuel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.67 1.75 4.12 7.28 5.50 9.82 17.78 24.54
Rest 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.84 0.88 2.06 3.64 2.75 4.91 8.89 12.27

Total Costs market
prices (million US$) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.57 5.84 13.72 24.26 18.33 32.73 59.27 81.81
Total Costs shadow
prices (million US$) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.30 4.50 10.58 18.72 12.31 21.99 39.83 54.97

145

Table 51. Nursery Costs

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Labor 87% 94% 94% 94% 94% 94% 94% 94% 94%
Imports 13% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6%
Area planted (ha) 4,419 5,121 11,241 17,825 29,065 30,741 40,882 41,136 51,197

Costs (1,000 US$/ha) 0.043 0.048 0.061 0.067 0.08 0.081 0.077 0.077 0.072
Average Costs (1,000 US$/ha) 0.065

Total Costs market prices
(mill.US$) 0.19 0.25 0.69 1.2 2.32 2.49 3.16 3.15 3.71

Total Costs shadow prices
(mill. US$) 0.16 0.21 0.59 1.03 2 2.15 2.73 2.73 3.21

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Labor 94% 94% 94% 94% 94% 94% 94% 94%
Imports 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6%
Area planted (ha) 59,159 50,969 40,497 36,294 20,763 18,595 26,596 29,788

Costs (1,000 US$/ha) 0.067 0.043 0.063 0.061 0.028 0.048 0.069 0.099
Average Costs (1,000 US$/ha)

Total Costs market prices
(mill.US$) 3.94 2.19 2.54 2.2 0.58 0.9 1.85 2.95

Total Costs shadow prices
(mill. US$) 3.41 1.89 2.2 1.9 0.51 0.78 1.6 2.55

146

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