Finalized Dissertation

Georgia Dana Gregoriou JN3991
A Critical Examination of Gender Representation of Video Game Characters’ in
Select Video Game Journalism Websites
Georgia Dana Gregoriou
JN3991
This dissertation is submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements of the BA
(Hons) Journalism & English Literature degree in the School of Journalism and
Media at the University of Central Lancashire
2015

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Acknowledgments
I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to my advisor, Amy Binns, Senior
Lecturer, in the School of Journalism and Media. I am extremely thankful for her
availability to my every question, her support, guidance and patience throughout the
process of my dissertation. I wish to acknowledge, Peter Anderson, Senior Lecturer,
who approved this study’s topic, which granted me a valuable opportunity to research
into video game journalism from an academic perspective. Writing this dissertation has
been a meaningful experience of my academic career at the University of Central
Lancashire. I would also like to thank my family and friends for their unwavering
support and encouragement.

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Abstract
Content analysis of video games has frequently delineated that women are depicted as
hypersexualized objects of desire designed to be ogled at for the assumed male
audience. However, the study of the portrayal of gender in video game journalism is a
subject which is in short supply. Such media artefacts of video games as well as video
game websites have become an increasingly popular form of media, which have
profound levels of influence in the socialization of gender roles and attitudes. This
research aims to fill the gap which examines video game websites portrayal of both
male and female video game characters from websites IGN, Kotaku, Gamespot and
Gameinformer. This study conducted an in-depth review utilizing the method of content
analysis of text and screenshots from four video game websites to determine how the
gender of characters, more notably females, are portrayed in reviews written by video
game journalists.
The results indicated that in the various reviews from selected websites, digital women
were frequently portrayed more negatively as the proverbial damsel in distress,
underrepresented and/or ignored sidekicks as well as being relegated to the status of a
hypersexualized pinup. The more positive findings of this research also found that
female characters were not repeatedly portrayed as damsels in distress; on the contrary
various journalists emphatically commended select female characters on their fully
rounded personalities as empowered heroines from their respected games.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………...… iii
List of Figures ………………………………………………………………..…...… v
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………....…... v
Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………...….... 1
Chapter 2: Literature Review…………………………………………………...…… 6
Women’s ‘Place’ in Video Games and Video Game Journalism..…………....…. 6
Chapter 3: Methodology……………………………………………………...….…. 14
Coding Scheme …………………………………………………………...…….. 18
Limitations ………………………………………………………………...……. 20
Chapter 4: Results ………………………………………………………………...... 21
Negative/Positive Depictions of Female Characters ……………………...….. 28
Negative/Positive Depictions of Male Characters ……………………………. 29
Chapter 5: Discussion ……………………………………………………………… 30
Negative Representations of Female Characters: Women as Pinups ……….... 30
Negative Representations of Female Characters: Damsel in Distress Trope .... 37
Criticism of Female Representation …………………………………………… 39
Positive Representation of Female Characters ………………………………… 45
Chapter 6: Conclusion………………………………………………………………. 49
Appendix A: List of Video Games Selected For Review ………………………….. 51

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Chapter 7: Bibliography .……………………………………………………...……… 52
Primary Sources ……………………………………………………….………... 55
LIST OF FIGURES Page
Figure 1: Gender Demographic of Video Game Players ………………………….…... 3
Figure 2: Screenshot of “Ivy” from “Soul Calibur V” IGN …………...…………….. 31
Figure 3: Screenshot of “Natsu” from “Soul Calibur V” Gameinformer ………….…. 32
Figure 4: Banner Image of “Bayonetta” from “Bayonetta 2” Gamespot ...................... 35
Figure 5: Screenshot of “Elizabeth” from “BioShock Infinite” Gameinformer ...….... 39
Figure 6: Screenshot of female Elin race from “Tera” Gamespot……………..…….... 40
Figure 7: Banner Image of “Juliet” from “Lollipop Chainsaw” ………………........… 41
Figure 8: Screenshot of “Lara Croft” from “Tomb Raider” ……………………..….... 47
LIST OF TABLES Page
Table 1: IGN Screenshots Portrayals of Female & Male Characters ………….….….. 23
Table 2: Kotaku Screenshots Portrayals of Female & Male Characters …………....... 24
Table 3: Gamespot Screenshots Portrayals of Female & Male Characters ……….….. 25
Table 4: Gameinformer Screenshots Portrayals of Female & Male Characters …...…. 26
Table 5: All Screenshots Portrayals of Female & Male Characters ……...………..…. 27
Table 6: Highest Overall Portrayals of Female & Male Characters …………..…....... 28

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Chapter 1: Introduction
Video games have been a prominent and striving force of entertainment in popular
culture since the 1970s, becoming the fastest growing media in the United States;
generating more than US$21 billion in sales in 2013 (ESA, 2014). From the first set of
multiple home systems such as the classic Atari 2600, the Sega Genesis, to the
overwhelming popularity of arcades; video game arcade revenue had surpassed US$5
billion by the 1980s (Fisher, 2015). At the turn of the century, the age of online
multiplayer games on dedicated games consoles were being ushered in by Microsoft’s
Xbox video game unit in the 2000s (Kent, 2001). As modern video game systems began
to represent technological quantum leaps in hardware and graphics from 8-bit1
simplistic games such as ‘Pac-man’ (1980) to 128-bit masterpieces like Halo (2014), it
is undeniable that both the role and content of video games has marked a pivotal shift of
gender representations in popular culture.
With the rising popularity and financial success of the video game industry, the popular
culture gave rise to a niche of specialist gaming press such as magazines which came as
counterparts for multiple video game systems dedicated to gaming. Previous research
on the subject matter found that with the emergence of specialist gaming press such as
the Atari Age magazine (1982-1984) for the Atari 2600, the Nintendo Power (1988-
2012) for the NES2, and PC Gamer magazine (1993-present), all showed how these
publications established and forged the video game culture of the past and present
(Newman & Vanderhoef, 2014).
1 A bit is also known as a bit-map image. The bit-map image corresponds ‘bit-for-bit’ with an image
displayed on a screen, characterized of the width and height of the image in pixels.
2 Nintendo Entertainment System

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The content of such magazines ranged from in-depth articles of investigative reports,
reviews and previews of upcoming games, gaming controversies between developers
and publishers as well as industry trends (Fischer, 2012). Highlighting one of the
industry’s earliest magazines the Atari Age, Fisher (2015) argues that the overall content
frequently displayed, “families playing games together, offered Atari-themed
merchandise for both sexes, and displayed just as much digital artistic skin of men as it
did women” (2).
Researchers within this field of study however have distinguished and reinforced the
notion that the video game culture of the past has continued to be a largely male-centric
demographic (Cassel & Jenkins, 2000). This is seen in terms of player base, in game
character representations and target audience of gaming journalist writings as well as
the journalists themselves. In accordance to the Entertainment Software Associations3
(ESA) statistics, research showed that the period between 2003-2009, despite the rising
popularity of video games, the demographic divide of the medium’s core audience
exhibited that more men played video games than women. In recent years however the
gender trends have shifted greatly, as statistics show that approximately 49% of U.S.
households own more than one dedicated games console, with 48% of the audience
being female and 52% male (ESA, 2014). With the rising popularity of video games
amongst more women, it is crucial to examine the messages and modern portrayal of
gender not solely in video games, but from the industry’s sister counterpart – video
game journalism.
3 ESA (Entertainment Software Association)is an American association focused on business and
consumer research which serve companies that publish video games for video game consoles,personal
computers, mobile/handheld devices and the Internet.

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0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Male 71.5% 59% 55% 62% 62% 60% 60% 60% 58% 57% 55% 52%
Female 28.5% 39% 43% 38% 38% 40% 40% 42% 42% 43% 45% 48%
Gender Demographic of Video Game Players
Figure 1: Gender Demographic of Video Game Players 2003-2014
In light of such facts, the magazines of the industry’s early years are in stark contrast to
the more modern video game magazines as well as websites; the video game industry as
a whole shifted its focus, generating more content geared towards men as opposed to
both genders. Newman & Vanderhoef (2014) in their research argue that these
publications were and still are dominated by male writers, whose target readerships
were, “boys – or men who had grown up on early games,” and within this niche press,
“developed a common masculinist language of video game criticism and a canon of
games” (47). Discourses and representations generated by video game journalists
undeniably shape consumers understanding of video game content on the basis that
mass media plays an influential role in constructing gender identity through
representation, which has led to negative attitudes and portrayals of female characters in
reviews of games.

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Such facts become prevalent when considering Fisher’s (2012) research which argues
how representations of gender through the media are reflective of cultural attitudes and
beliefs, which ultimately, “shape people’s attitudes as they grow up” (3). In previous
media studies on the subject matter, researchers through their findings have concluded
that the portrayals of female video game characters were either infrequent,
underrepresented, feminized copies of male characters, damsels in distress or objects of
sexual desire (Beasley & Collins Standley, 2002; Ivory, 2006; Sarkeesian, 2013).
While findings on the portrayal of male characters frequently highlighted their
capabilities as the heroic protagonist, while female characters were supplemental in the
male characters quest, seen in notable games such as The Legend of Zelda. The games
narrative tells the heroic adventure of the lead male character Link on a quest to save
Princess Zelda. Miller & Summers (2014) asserted that it is with these games, “sexist
portrayals of the male character as the hero and the female as victim,” (1) in addition to
video game journalisms endorsement of such gender attitudes that has, “sent women’s
quest for equality back to medieval times, where the knight in shining armour had to
rescue the damsel in distress” (1). With exposure to such depictions of video game
characters from both video games and its journalism, players influenced by such
portrayals begin to construct behaviours and gender roles, which is similar, “to how
individuals use other forms of media to learn roles and behaviours” (Miller & Summers,
2014:2).

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Although women have become increasingly more involved in the industry as video
game designers, journalists and iconic in-game characters, Newman & Vanderhoef
(2014) argue that ruling masculinist discourse in video game journalism in various
magazines such as Edge (1993-present) and websites such as Kotuku (2004-present)
continues, “despite a persistent feminist presence in video game culture and a
significant number of gender-conscious writers” (47).
This study through the method of content analysis will endeavour to critically examine
how reviews of video games from professional video game journalism websites portray,
more specifically female characters, as well as male characters to compare and contrast
when deemed necessary.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Women’s ‘Place’ in Video Games and Video Game Journalism
In order to effectively analyse the portrayal of gender in video game website reviews,
this literature review will examine research set forth by academics within the subject
field. It is imperative that this review examine studies with regards to video games and
video game journalism websites construction and representation of gender in order to
distinguish the various aspects which contribute to the socializing of sexism established
in gamer culture.
An abundance of empirical social scientific research and popular debate surrounding
video games for most of the 20th century focalizes on traditional media effects of violent
video game content on aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2001). This controversial
issue of violent video games sparked debate in the U.S.circa 1990 when the United
States Congress set in motion a series of investigations into video game violence. With
research on the role of gender representation in video games in short supply, researchers
in the last decade have extended their scope into the many facets of the gamer culture
with both quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Various studies provided a qualitative analysis of images in video game magazines and
e-zines (Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007, 2014, Fisher, 2015) in addition to video
game box art covers (Burgess, et al., 2007). Several quantitative studies examined the
representation of male and female characters in video game magazines (Fisher, 2012,
2015) and e-zines (Ivory, 2006) while utilizing frame and content analysis to thoroughly
investigate gender roles in articles as well as images.

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Undertaking research in light of gender representation in video game journalism is
essential for both men and women in understanding the extent of the media’s messages
and influence on both genders. Researchers have notably identified that a variety of
media such as magazines, television, and video games, “can play a role in socializing
individuals as to appropriate gender behaviours” (Miller & Summers, 2007: 733).
Exposures to media depictions of gender appropriating images as a result of such
studies have found to have an insurmountable influence on an individual’s attitudes and
expectations of the opposite sex, body images and self-perceptions.
Researchers through the study of video games and its journalism have found distinct
themes across a host of studies. The utilization of content analysis on video games and
video game magazines have frequently delineated that women are often portrayed as
hypersexualized objects in skimpy clothing, as well as the characterization of the
subordinate and subservient. In early video game studies of gender stereotypes, Dietz
(1998) research had found through a sample of games popular in 1995, 21% of the time
women were portrayed more likely than men as sex objects and, “as the victims or the
proverbial ‘Damsel in Distress’” (435). Another analysis which investigated online
reviews of video games concluded that, “while 75% of the reviews mentioned male
characters, only 42% mentioned female characters in any capacity” (Ivory, 2006: 109)
with 12% of those reviews focusing on the sex appeal of female characters. Miller and
Summers’ (2007) study investigated the excessive representation of hypermasculinity of
male characters and the hypersexualization of female characters in video game
magazine articles.

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Their study concluded that male characters were prone to representations as
hypermasculine skilled heroes, while articles describing female characters focused on
their attractiveness, attire and their roles as supplemental characters (741).
Dill & Thill’s (2007) research on six top-selling gaming magazine articles and
advertisements through the method of content analysis found that in comparison to
earlier studies (Dietz, 1998) over 62.2% of female characters were prone to sexualized
and aggressive portrayals compared to men (60% versus 1%) as well as scantily clad
(39% versus 8%). Another study utilizing content analysis had examined 47 video game
box covers in order to compare gender representation. The study found that male
characters were being showcased 12 times more often than female characters, with the
male characters striking a dominant pose for the cover art (Provenzo, 1992) Through the
method of content analysis, these hosts of studies have consistently found that the ratio
of male characters representation frequently outnumber female characters in both video
games, magazines and e-zines (Beasley & Standley, 2002; Dietz, 1998; Ivory, 2006;
Summers & Miller, 2007; Fisher, 2015)
These studies through their variety of methodologies of content analysis, surveys, and
data collection have thoroughly examined the representation of women and men in
video game culture; however they are not without their limitations. Although the
reading of previously mentioned literatures are predominantly content analysis studies,
it is important to note that the method of content analysis, “privileges theory more than
effect” (Downs and Smith, 2010: 731). Limitations will be discussed further in the
methodology section (Chapter 3).

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As video games have consistently been recognized as a male-dominated media,
Newman & Vanderhoef (2014) in their research have argued that the, “stereotype of the
video game player as a young male endures in spite of efforts to open up play to other
identities and to recognize the participation of girls and women in video game culture”
(47). Studies involved in tackling the representation of gendering games have geared
their focus towards the depiction of masculinity through in game narrative, characters,
playability and images, as, “gendering structures the production of games and the
experience of players” (ibid). An abundance of the industry’s earlier games were
tailored towards masculinized pastimes, genres and experiences which drew on, “a
history and tradition of boy culture stressing exploration, fighting, physical skill, and
competition” (Newman & Vanderhoef, 2014:47). This notion is supported by Newman
& Vanderhoef (2014) who draw attention to the many influences of masculine genres of
entertainment and play such as, “Outlaw (1979) a Wild West shootout, Combat (1977)
tank battle, Maze Craze (1978) a cops-and-robbers chase, Home Run (1978) big league
baseball and Missile Command (1981) Cold war space attack” (48).
The demeaning depiction of women is predominant throughout many types of media, as
several studies have delineated that a predominant theme, “that has emerged is that
women are often portrayed in a stereotypic fashion” (Summers & Miller, 2014:2).
Research on the subject matter through the method of content analysis of magazines
found that women in the 1970s were frequently depicted in degrading stereotypical
roles of the housewife, particularly illustrating unintelligent and submissive behaviours
such as women mindlessly dependent on men and their engagement with household
chores (Feller, et al., 1982).

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Further existing studies on magazines notably indicates that from 1950 to 1994, the
demeaning portrayal of the female gender had altered very little, as they were more than
often shown in stereotypical feminine roles or portrayed as sex objects (Paff & Lakner,
1997). As seen above, through the construction of gender stereotypes, “these messages
can affect society by communicating normative behaviours which shape individuals’
attitudes towards women” (Miller and Summers, 2007:734).
An example of the construction of gender stereotypes is evident through video games
utilization of the gendered cliché the ‘Damsel in distress’ trope (Sarkeesian, 2013). This
trope in turn creates a ‘subject object dichotomy,’ where the male subject is the games
main playable character involved in majority of the games action, while relegating
women to the role of object to be acted upon, being reduced to a prize to be won or a
goal to be achieved (Sarkeesian, 2013). As video games portray women as victims and
damsels in distress such as Princess Peach from the Super Mario Universe, and men as
the heroes’ i.e. Super Mario, this can greatly impact, “the way game players view
gender roles, as females might interpret this portrayal to mean that they lack the ability
to be a hero or take care of themselves” (Miller & Summers, 2007:734). Analyzing the
once male dominated domain of video games and its journalism therefore will prove to
be beneficial in determining the gender roles and stereotypes portrayed therein.
Maisonave (2013) draws attention to how the artefact of game magazine
reviews/articles and game cover images, “represent the first exposure that gamers
receive of a game” (16). The findings of previous studies through content analyses
therefore, “force us to question whether or not the industry is knowingly and willingly
perpetuating the ideals of, ‘man as hero, woman as object’” (ibid).

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In light of such research, the study of video game discourse, a fundamental element of
the masculinization of the medium, has also come under the spotlight. Harvey (2015)
takes the stance that video game magazines and specialist websites play a significant
and, “market orientated role in expanding gaming capital by circulating knowledge that
is codified as necessary for belonging to the gaming world for the purposes of
cultivating the game industry” (106). Due to the emergence of specialist press of video
game magazines in the 1980s, Consalvo (2007) asserts that, “early paratexts of gaming
culture such as video game magazines like Nintendo Power and Electronic Gaming
Monthly served to construct an ideal gamer” (15).
The impact of media types such as magazines and video games, play an influential role
in constructing the self-perceptions of individuals and the determining of attitudes
geared towards gender. Summers and Millers (2011) study expressed the view that
unlike the themes of aggression and violence, very few studies have been conducted
which examine the impact of video game magazines and websites portrayal of gender
constructs and the socialization of individuals. As women have been conditioned to feel
excluded from the culture, game developer Brianna Wu has argued that in the past 30
years, the games industry has materialized a stigma of a, “boys club” mentality. She
states that, “everything about the games industry sends the signal: this is a space for
men. When players are repeatedly shown that women are sex symbols and damsels in
distress, is it any surprise that players go on to treat women poorly in real life” (2014:4).
Based on Gerbner’s theoretical framework of Cultivation Theory, Maisonave (2013)
describes how the theory, “is founded on the premise that increased and ubiquitous
consumption of media causes these media to become a solidifying source for knowledge
of the world” (3).

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In light of such effects of how mass media content can cultivate audience’s attitudes and
behaviours, Fisher (2012) proposes that audiences determine definitions of gender in the
gaming world from video game magazines and websites portrayal of women and/or
men. Fisher emphasizes that women are treated as, “one-dimensional objects who exists
for the sexual satisfaction of the audience and do not exist as fully-realized people –
whether real-life women who play games or digital women who exist as avatars within
the games” (49).
Fisher’s (2015) study reinforces how, “the media have a prominent role in spreading
ideologies, and they are noted for spreading the dominant group’s ideologies” (7). Thus
the representation of women in video game magazines becomes a crucial discussion; as
such media platforms have become tools in which people have learnt, through exposure
to such attitudes and behaviours, to be a part of a specific culture or society. Fisher
(2015) reinforces his argument by noting when, “magazines present a denigrating or
one-dimensional perspective of women as objects existing only for sexual satisfaction
of the assumed male audience, the audience can absorb those definitions of women
avatars and/or gamers” (ibid). As a result, women become marginalized, as people learn
that there is no place for women in the gamer culture when they are excluded in video
games as well as magazines or merely included for the sake of decoration or eye candy.
Fisher (2012) in his research noted that the premise of ‘Hegemonic Masculinity’ has
been so heavily ingrained in video game journalism that it has fundamentally become an
ideology.

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He argued that the video game journalists themselves began to perceive the world
through the ideology of Hegemonic Masculinity, and with the rise of more women
engaging more in video game play and the industry, “that information is subjected to
disciplinary action, by misrepresenting the women gamers as clueless, or the women
avatars as nothing more than sex objects to be ogled or mocked” (Fisher, 2012, 76).
In light of the research presented throughout this literature review, the foundation of this
study has framed that the role of sexism plays a crucial role on how characters in select
video games have been perceived and portrayed in reviews by journalists. Therefore this
study suggests that when characters are represented in a sexist or stereotypical manner
by a journalists opinion embedded in their review, these sexist attitudes can undeniably
impact how an individual constructs their opinion and/or perception of those characters
based on those opinions.

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Chapter 3: Methodology
To thoroughly examine the portrayal of males and females in video game journalism,
this study utilized the method of content analysis of reviews of popular video games
from select video game websites. Samples of articles dedicated to reviews of video
games which were selected for the process of content analysis were taken from select
websites, IGN.com, GameSpot.com Kotaku.com and GameInformer.com. These
websites were selected based on their association with larger corporate organizations,
making them legitimate entities in traditional journalism as opposed to independent
blogging websites run by video game fans.
GameSpot.com was chosen due to its role as a publication of CNET Networks and its
affiliation with CBS Corporation; IGN.com was additionally selected as it is a
component of IGN Entertainment, which was previously associated with News
Corporation, however become an entity of j2Global in 2013. Kotaku.com was selected
for this study as it is part of Gawker Media, and finally GameInformer.com was
included due to its validation as a highly respected video game magazine publication,
therefore selecting their official website to accompany the three previously mentioned
websites would give this study greater depth. Additionally, the choice to include four
websites had been made on the basis that it would provide a substantial amount of
content to be analysed as well as an abundance of screenshots provided in select reviews
to be coded alongside text.

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In addition to their commercial legitimacy, these four websites were also chosen due to
their popularity amongst the gaming community as they were listed in the “Top 15”
highest rated and frequently visited websites according to www.ebizmba.com4 with
IGN ranking 1, Gamespot at rank 3, Kotaku ranked at 4 and GameInformer at number
10 (eBizMBA, 2015). The choice of four websites was to establish a thorough
representation of commonly reviewed and popular games on a variety of websites from
an assortment of journalists from those respected websites. The choice websites as
opposed to magazines were selected on the basis that the internet is a first and easily
accessible stop for a consumer potentially interested in purchasing and learning about a
particular game and the score that game achieved according to top video game
reviewers.
Websites frequently produce reviews of popular games on multiple video game
platforms (PS3, PS4, Xbox 360, Xbox One, PC) as well as achieving a higher traffic
rate than the circulation of prominent gaming magazines such as PlayStation Official
Magazine which had a total circulation of 27,5825 digital and print, in comparison to
Kotaku.com which reached 20,071,746 users in the month of March 2015 alone.
Content analysis conducted in this study aimed to examine the attitudes and opinions
from video game journalists who have engaged and are experienced in video game play.
By analysing the content of video game articles by professional journalists, the reviews,
“present a manifest, uniform albeit subjective text representation of a video game’s
overall content from an authoritative source that lends itself to coding more easily than
fleeting and flexible video game content” (Ivory, 2006:106).
4 Ebusiness guide for online marketing and analytics of websites visits
5 ABC circulation figure from 1 January 2014 to 31 December 2014

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An advantage of analyzing review sites is that the ideological stance, attitudes and
personal beliefs of the reviewers themselves pervade throughout their work, therefore
their attitudes towards gender representations can be studied. This is beneficial due to
the fact that video game reviewers are avid video game players, therefore their positions
as opinion leaders is all the more valuable (Ivory, 2006).
Despite the fact that content analysis as a methodological approach has its limitations, it
also has its strengths. Maisonave (2013) asserts that content analysis being a form of
descriptive quantitative research allows for an effective analysis of the dynamics of
gender. He argues that it is, “imperative to understand the current climate of gender
portrayals in modern video games, and content analysis provides a viable research
strategy to classify and categorize various trends in media content” (7). Fisher (2012)
additionally argues that an advantage of content analysis allows for researchers to, “cull
meanings from the texts that the original writers may not have even realized they were
encoding into them” (76).
Through a process of elimination, a collection of popular games from all three websites
were chosen at various points of a games release from the years 2012-2015 in
accordance to online sales/reviews rating charts at www.vgchartz.com. This was
performed to find top-selling and popular home console games in the United States, as
all four video game journalism websites are American based. Video games were also
selected if they featured either a choice between male and female playable characters or
NPC’s6.
6 NPC abbreviation for Non Playable Character

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Due to the rising popularity of video games amongst more women (seen in Figure 1),
the choice of period was selected in order to examine if the advancing atmosphere of the
video game industry has exhibited a more inclusive and positive portrayal of female
avatars and whether those portrayals are reflected through the industry’s journalism. A
total of 40 reviews were selected which featured 10 popular games from all four
websites; IGN (N = 10), Gamespot (N = 10), Kotaku (N = 10) and GameInformer (N =
10).
It is important to note that a smaller sample group of reviews were selected for this
study as opposed to previous studies which analysed a sample of 100 reviews (Ivory,
2006) or 408 articles (Fisher, 2012). This was largely due to the overall length and word
count of each review which varied between 1,300-2,500 words, which was a sufficient
amount to allow for coding, analysing and results. In addition to a content analysis of
reviews, a unit of analysis in this piece of research involved the inclusion of coding
screenshots. A collection of 439 screenshots from all four websites reviews were
additionally coded in order to generate extra data alongside the content of text; IGN (N
= 105), Gamespot (N = 104), Kotaku (N = 93) and Gameinformer (N = 137). In
addition to analysing the content of the reviews, the variable of a journalist’s gender,
whether male or female, had been noted in the discussion section.
The trends in opinions on in-game character representations by male and female
journalists were additionally analysed in this study to identify and/or compare a male
journalist’s opinions and/or criticisms towards i.e. the hypersexualization of a female
character and whether those opinions were held by a female journalist or even by
another male journalist reviewing the same game.

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Out of the 40 reviews, 15% (N = 6) were written by female journalists, while the
majority were written by male journalists 85% (N = 34). This study found that although
there were an overwhelming number of male journalists on all four websites, there were
varying differences in opinions and criticisms from both male and female journalists
with regards to representations of characters gender.
It is also important to note that all 10 games which were included for this study were
additionally played by the researcher, which provided a greater depth and understanding
of the games and their characters which were being reviewed by the journalists. This
proved to be advantageous as the information and knowledge gained from playing the
games helped compare and contrast opinions constructed from the researchers
experience to the opinions of the journalists.
Coding Scheme
The unit of analysis conducted throughout this study was applied to N = 40 reviews
from the four websites (IGN, Gamespot, Kotaku and Gameinformer). Protocol which
guided what constituted as necessary criteria for coding content of screenshots involved
five categories for both male and female avatars. The depictions of gender were coded if
those screenshots showed avatars who were portrayed as: helpless, heroic, sexualized
and aggressive, scantily clad and hypermasculine. During the process of analysing the
content of text and accompanying screenshots, the following criteria were used to
narrow down and record themes prevalent throughout the 40 articles, those indicators
were as followed:

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 the presence of female/male journalist’s opinions and attitudes depicted
in the text which characterizes the male/female protagonist;
 the presence of females/males illustrated within the screenshots from the
games in accordance to the indicators: helpless, heroic, sexualized and
aggressive, scantily clad and hypermasculine;
 the words and/or phrases employed within the text to describe the
protagonist, with reference to in-game narrative;
 the words and/or phrases used to describe the portrayal of male or
female characters in gameplay as well as text which makes reference to
the type of audience for the game;
 the words and/or phrases used to describe the protagonist’s interactions
with in-game NPC’s, either male or female and whether they are
portrayed negatively or positively;
 the presence of female/male journalist’s criticisms of the portrayal of
female characters and/or NPC’s; and
 the presence of female/male journalist’s positive comments of the
portrayal of female characters and/or NPC’s

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Limitations
As mentioned previously, the methodological approach of content analysis has its
constraints, as with any research method. Content analysis gives authority to theory
over the effects (Downs and Smith, 2010), it therefore lacks the capacity to provide a
solid body of evidence, “to support a hypothesis about what effects these
representations have” (Nelson, 2014:4). Content analysis has its limitations in the sense
that the content of an article’s visual imagery and written text can be open to numerous
interpretations. In light of the notion of interpretation, the analysis of data is driven by
the ‘self’ of the researcher, which proves that quantitative research methods as opposed
to qualitative research determines more candidly, “the researchers own identity,
background and beliefs [which] have a role in the creation of data and the analysis of
data” (Deanscombe, 2007:313).
During the process of decoding meanings from a reviews text or screenshots, there is a
chance of misinterpretation to occur. Therefore, this study’s method of content analysis
can prove to be weak as it lacks the capacity to produce definitive results. As mentioned
at the beginning of Chapter 4, the choice of websites were chosen for analysis on the
basis that these video game websites receive far more views than any single video game
magazine. Websites are easily accessible, which also makes it more alluring for
consumers/players interested in finding a review for a specific game online. Finding as
well as purchasing all the magazines from the years 2012 would have proven difficult
and expensive as well as finding specific issues which contained the reviews needed for
this study.

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Chapter 4: Results
After thoroughly analysing the content of 40 reviews of 10 select popular video games
from four video game journalism websites, the following themes had been developed.
These themes however will be discussed further in the discussion chapter of this study
(Chapter 5):
 The portrayal of female avatars as hypersexualized objects of desire,
focusing on their physical attributes as opposed to their capabilities as
playable characters in game;
 Portraying female avatars as damsels in distress and/or objects used as
leverage between male avatars;
 Negatively portraying female avatars as passive/static in-game;
characters, while positively portraying male characters as active
characters;
 Sexist words and/or denigrating screenshots of female avatars;
 Underrepresenting and/or entirely ignoring female avatars in games
which have playable female NPC’s; and
 Positively portraying playable female characters and NPC’s as well as
criticising game developers for their portrayal of female avatars
Video game journalists from select websites had presented female characters in various
negative and stereotypical depictions based on the games they reviewed. These
depictions included portraying women as pinups or captured in suggestive poses in
screenshots, as well as descriptions heavily emphasizing their hypersexuality as
opposed to critically arguing against sexist depictions.

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This study had also found that although female characters were negatively portrayed in
a large portion of the reviews analysed, there were few journalists who commented on
female characters on an equal basis with male characters. However, there had been
reviews where the coverage of a female character was considered insignificant,
highlighting an overall underrepresentation of females, especially in games which
allowed a choice between either a male or female avatar. Indicative in various reviews,
a trend of select writers overtly criticizing the stereotypical and sexist portrayal of
female avatars was notable, where various writers expressed certain levels of criticism
directed at the games designers for their depiction of female characters. Finally, but
more importantly, there were various reviews which presented female characters in a
positive light, such as describing them as empowered heroines, commended for their
fighting capabilities, special powers or even survival skills in their respected games.
In the Discussion chapter, the four distinctive themes prevalent throughout the reviews
analysed from the websites will be divided under subheadings. Those subheadings are
as followed: 1) Negative representations of female characters: Women as Pinups; 2)
Negative representations of female characters: Damsel in Distress trope; 3) Criticisms
of Female characters representation; and 4) Positive representations of female
characters.
The following section illustrates a breakdown of six tables of results coded from a total
of 40 reviews on 10 highly popular games taken from four video game journalism
websites, as mentioned in the Methodology chapter of this study.

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TABLE 1
IGN - Screenshots Portrayal of Female and Male Characters
*N = 105 total of screenshots/photographs from 10 reviews
Indicative of the results presented above, female characters were excessively portrayed
more negatively as opposed to male characters. The results (Table 1) amounting to a
total of N = 105 images from 10 reviews (IGN), show that female characters were
drastically depicted more as hypersexualized, aggressive 39% (N = 41), scantily clad
43.8% (N = 46) and helpless 16.1% (N = 17). These results heavily outweigh the data
coded for the depiction of male characters, as the results show that male characters were
presented as far less hypersexualized, aggressive 3.8% (N = 4) scantily clad 12.3% (N =
13) and helpless 2.8% (N = 3). Journalists at IGN selected screenshots of male
characters which evoked more positive qualities of hypermasculinity 22.8% (N = 24)
and heroism 17.1% (N = 18).
Website Male
IGN N=105 Number Percent (%)
Hypersexualized & Aggressive 4 3.8%
Helpless 3 2.8%
Heroic 18 17.1%
Scantily Clad 13 12.3%
Hypermasculine 24 22.8%
Female
Number Percent (%)
41 39%
17 16.1%
6 5.7%
46 43.8%
N/A N/A

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TABLE 2
Kotaku - Screenshot Portrayal of Female and Male Characters
Data coded from a total of N = 93 screenshots taken from 10 reviews (Kotaku)
illustrated a consistency of data presented previously in Table 1. It is important to note
that although the images coded from Table 1 illustrate marginally higher percentages
compared to Kotaku, this is due to a 12 image difference (N = 93) in comparison to IGN
(N = 105). Results from the data coded (Table 2) displays a similar trend in numbers/
percentages with regards to the positive and negative portrayal of both male and female
characters seen in Table 1. Male characters were depicted more frequently with positive
attributes of heroism 17.2% (N = 16) and hypermasculinity 21.5% (N = 20), whereas
female characters were coded a total of 7.5% (N = 7) as heroic. Female characters once
again dominated the more negative attributes of hypersexuality, aggressiveness 37.7%
(N = 37), helplessness 15% (N = 14) and scantily clad 39.7% (N = 37) as opposed to
males who were presented far fewer times in a negative manner. Data indicated that
males were portrayed significantly less as hypersexualized, aggressive 2.1% (N = 2),
helpless, 3.2% (N = 3) and finally scantily clad 6.4% (N = 6).
Website Male
Kotaku N=93 Number Percent (%)
Helpless 3 3.2%
Heroic 16 17.2%
Female
Number Percent (%)
37 39.7%
14 15%
7 7.5%
37 39.7%
N/A N/A

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TABLE 3
Gamespot - Screenshots Portrayal of Female and Male Characters
Data coded utilizing the predetermined indicators were applied to Gamespot with a total
of N = 104 screenshots from all 10 reviews. Indicative of the data presented in the
results table above (Table 3), the data slightly differs from the images coded from
Kotaku (N = 93). As mentioned previously, Kotaku having the lowest amount of
screenshots out of the four websites means that both IGN (N = 105), Gamespot (N =
104) and GameInformer (N = 137) have marginally higher percentages due to a larger
screenshot count. In this case, Gamespot has 11 additional screenshots compared to
Kotaku, 1 more compared to IGN and 33 less in comparison to Gameinformer.
Comparing the data presented in Table 3, to Table 1, IGN’s reviews have depicted far
greater negative portrayals of female characters through screenshots in comparison to
Gamespot. The data presented above illustrates that female characters we portrayed far
more negatively according to the indicators of hypersexuality, aggressiveness 27.8% (N
= 29), helplessness 13.4% (N = 14) and scantily clad 38.4% (N = 40), whereas male
characters were portrayed far less as hypersexualized, aggressive 1.9% (N = 2), helpless
3.8% (N = 4) and scantily clad 10.5% (N = 11).
Website Male
Gamespot N=104 Number Percent (%)
Helpless 4 3.8%
Heroic 22 21.1%
Female
Number Percent (%)
29 27.8%
14 13.4%
4 3.8%
40 38.4%
N/A N/A

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The reviews depicted male characters to exemplify attributes of heroism 21.1% (N =
22) and hypermasculinity 19.2% (N = 20), whereas females were only portrayed 3.8%
(N = 4) as heroic.
TABLE 4
Gameinformer - Screenshots Portrayal of Female and Male Characters
Making use of the predetermined indicators, the data presented in Table 4 were the
results of N = 137 screenshots from 10 reviews. As Gameinformer contained a higher
quantity of screenshots out of all previous websites reviews, it was to be expected that
the results presented above would differentiate greatly in numbers when comparing the
results of Kotaku, IGN and Gamespot. The data presented in the table above (Table 4)
shows that female characters were depicted negatively according to the indicators of
hypersexualized, aggressive 29.1% (N = 40) and scantily clad (N = 37). Although the
portrayal of female characters as helpless is undeniably negative, out of all the data
coded from all four websites, Gameinformer’s depiction of women as helpless was the
lowest at 6.5% (N = 9). More importantly, the positive indicator of heroism had been
depicted at a higher rate than screenshots coded from all three previous sets of data at
9.4% (N = 13).
Website Male
GameInformer N=137 Number Percent
Helpless 3 2.1%
Heroic 31 22.6%
Female
Number Percent (%)
40 29.1%
9 6.5%
13 9.4%
37 27%
N/A N/A

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Male characters on the other hand had the highest depictions of hypermasculinity at
30.6% (N = 42), heroism 22.6% (N = 31) and more notably the greatest number of
scantily clad representations 18.9% (N = 26), however the lowest scoring depictions of
hypersexuality and aggressiveness 2.1% (N = 3).
TABLE 5
All Screenshots Portrayal of Female and Male Characters
*N = 439 total of screenshots/photographs from all 40 reviews
After a thorough content analysis and coding of all N = 439 screenshots/images, this
particular set of data (Table 4) is an accumulation from all 40 reviews (IGN, Kotaku,
Gamespot and GameInformer). Explicit from the data presented above, it is apparent
that female characters are represented in a greater capacity as scantily clad 36.4% (N =
160), as well as hypersexualized objects of desire 33.4% (N = 147) which is in stark
contrast to male characters depiction of 2.5% (N = 11) as hypersexualized, aggressive,
helpless 2.9% (N = 13) and scantily clad 12.7% (N = 56). It is important to note that the
percentage of female characters who were presented as helpless had occurred a total of
12.3 % (N = 54) out of the N = 439 images; which is still a high figure, however not as
extensive as previously predicted.
Website Male
ALL N = 439 Number Percent (%)
Helpless 13 2.9%
Heroic 87 19.8%
Female
Number Percent (%)
147 33.4%
54 12.3%
30 6.8%
160 36.4%
N/A N/A

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The portrayal of male characters through the coded images illustrates a higher rate of
‘positive’ attributes such as hypermasculinity 24.1% (N = 106) as well as heroism
19.8% (N = 87), where the portrayal of heroic qualities for female characters had been
depicted at a rate of 6.8% (N = 30).
TABLE 6
Highest Overall Portrayal of Female and Male Characters
*IGN (N = 105), Kotaku (N = 93) Gamespot (N = 104), GameInformer (N = 137); Total
(N = 439)
Negative/Positive Depictions Female Characters (Table 5)
The video game journalism websites which had the highest count/ percentage of
depictions across all five indicators amongst male and female characters will be
compared to the website which had the lowest number of positive/negative depictions.
With reference to the hypersexualized and aggressive indicator for female characters,
IGN had the highest rate of 39% (N = 41) with Gamespot demonstrating the lowest rate
of 27.8% (N = 29). Female characters depicted as helpless were portrayed
predominately by IGN 16.1% (N = 17) with GameInformer exhibiting the lowest
depictions of 6.5% (N = 9).
Indicator Website
Number
Hypersexualized IGN 4
Helpless Gamespot 3
Heroic GameInformer 31
Scantily Clad GameInformer 26
Hypermasculine GameInformer 42
Male Website Female
Percent (%) Number Percent (%)
3.8% IGN 41 39%
2.8% IGN 17 16.1%
22.6% Gameinformer 13 9.4%
18.9% IGN 46 43.8%
30.6% N/A N/A N/A

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GameInformer exhibited the highest depictions of heroism 9.4% (N = 13) for female
characters, with Gamespot portraying heroic women a mere 3.8% (N = 4). Lastly, the
video game journalism website which had the highest percentage of scantily clad
portrayals of female characters was IGN at a staggering 43.8% (N = 46), which wasn’t
too far off from the lowest score of 27% (N = 37) from GameInformer.
Negative/Positive Depictions Male Characters (Table 5)
The results produced for the depictions of male characters were extensively more
positive in comparison to the representations of female characters by video game
journalism websites. According to the hypersexualized and aggressive indicator, male
characters were shown at its highest in reviews from IGN at 3.8% (N = 4), with the
lowest amount of hypersexualized depictions from Gamespot at 1.9% (N = 2). Far fewer
male characters were presented as helpless in comparison to female characters with IGN
illustrating 2.8% (N = 3) with marginally higher depictions coded from Gamespot at
3.8% (N = 4). Referencing the positive indicator of heroism, Gameinformer had shown
far more men as heroic at 22.6% (N = 31), with the lowest score coded at 17.2% (N =
16) from Kotaku screenshots, starkly contrasting the percentages of women depicted as
heroic with all three percentages combined (5.7%, 7.5%, 3.8%). The hypermasculinity
indicator coded for male characters amassed to the highest of 30.6% (N = 42) from
Gameinformer, with the lowest percentage coded from Gamespot at 19.2% (N = 20).
The final coded indicator of scantily clad for male characters was noted at its highest
amount from Gameinformer with a total of 18.9% (N = 26), with the lowest amount
coded from Kotaku which depicted males 6.4% (N = 6).

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Chapter 5: Discussion
Due to the increasingly popular medium of video games amongst more women, the
primary purpose of this study was to determine, through the method of content analysis
of video game journalism websites, the representation of gender in video game reviews.
Content analysis through a host of previous studies on the subject matter have
determined that women are frequently underrepresented as well as being consistently
portrayed as objects of sexual desire, helpless damsels in distress, and sexualized
heroines (Dietz, 1998). This current study’s content analysis found a consistent trend of
the themes mentioned previously, with video game reviews screenshots portraying
female characters to a greater extent as hypersexualized, aggressive 33.4% (N = 147),
scantily clad 36.4% (N = 160) and helpless 12.3% (N = 54) compared to male
characters who were depicted more ‘positively’ as hypermasculine 24.1% (N = 106) and
heroic 19.8% (N = 87).
Negative Representations of Female Characters: Women as Pinups
It is important to note that an abundance of studies have argued and criticized video
game content for its depictions of women as hypersexualized objects of desire (Downs
& Smith, 2009; Dietz, 1998). Frequent descriptions through text and depictions of
women in images seen throughout various reviews repeatedly focused on female
characters physical attributes. This study found that an abundance of screenshots as well
as journalists characterizations of female characters artistic digital skins (appearances)
were undeniably negative, as they focused on scantily clad women as well as
highlighting women as pinups through screenshots. As this section refers to women as
“pinups,” for the benefit of clarification, the dictionary defines the word as, “a large
photograph, of a sexually attractive person, suitable for pinning on a wall” (Anon,

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2015). This study found that comments on male character design were notably more
positive as writers commented on their capabilities and strengths as playable characters.
This was evident as journalist Stephen Lambrechts from IGN makes a general comment
on how, “character designs are nicely detailed” (Lambcrechts, 2012) for the largely
popular fighting game Soul Calibur V, while utilizing two examples of both a male and
female character, Voldo and Ivy. He outlines how, “Voldo’s cod piece is more terrifying
than ever, while Ivy’s … many assets also leap out of the screen” (Lambrechts, 2012),
see Figure 2. The writer evidently makes a sexually objective comment on Ivy’s
enhanced breast proportions, referring to them as ‘assets’, as if they were part of her
unique arsenal of weaponry.
Figure 2: Screenshot of character “Ivy Valentine” from “Soul Calibur V” Review (IGN,
2012)
Almost all of the female playable characters from Soul Calibur V are hypersexualized
and scantily clad, which is significant considering they make up a small ratio of eight
from a total of 28 fighters available in-game.

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It would therefore be expected that the inclusion and referencing of such screenshots
and of these women in reviews is unavoidable as they are explicitly apart of the games
content. However, Fisher (2015) in his study argued that it is the video game websites
and magazines, “themselves [who] seem to laud these women as pinnacle of digital
creation simply because the women can contain their exaggerated bosoms in bikini-style
‘armour’ when they go to fight” (5). In light of such facts, it was the choice made by
journalists to include overtly hypersexualized and scantily clad female characters in
highly suggestive screenshots, which were selected to represent the female fighters in
the reviews as seen in Figure 2 of Ivy, “Well aren’t we cheeky? All right, then”
(Lambcrechts, 2012).
Another predominant female figure utilized for ‘coverage’ by being depicted as a pinup
in various reviews of the Soul Calibur V game alongside Ivy was the fighter Natsu (See
Figure 3). Both these female avatars exhibit attributes of hypersexuality, aggressiveness
and are scantily clad. Both Ivy and Natsu had been featured in 9 screenshots out of 30
from Gameinformer’s January 31, 2012 review; and both female avatars have two large
scaled screenshots from Gamespot’s January 31, 2012 review.

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Figure 3: Screenshot of character “Natsu” from “Soul Calibur V” Review
(Gameinformer, 2012)
Writers’ opinions on physical appearance took precedence with female characters, while
mention of female characters fighting capabilities or weapon attributes were either
heavily downplayed or completely left out of the review in comparison to male
characters. This was apparent when Biessener commented on character attributes in
Soul Calibur V between the physical appearance of a female character and the fighting
capabilities of a male character:
“Z.W.E.I. is harder to get a handle on; his toolset focuses on summoning a
spirit wolf and is unusual to the point that I had a heck of a time coming up
with any decent tactics” (Biessener, 2012a)
This comment is in stark contrast to descriptions provided below in the same
review, as the writer constructively comments on his experience playing as
Z.W.E.I, however when it came to mentioning a female playable character, it was
only to remark on her physical appearance in the character customization mode
for the game, highly perpetuating the women as pinup trope.
“Want to put a big purple afro on Ivy? Go nuts. If you’re really dedicated,
you may even unlock something for a lady fighter to wear on the TV when
your mother walks into the room” (Biessener, 2012a).
Although this could be interpreted as a slight criticism of the games female character
designs, the writer had failed to comment on any one of the eight female characters
fighting style and in-game capabilities throughout the entire review, as there are
significant differences between every single character.

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However, when it came to reviewing male characters, all four writers in their reviews
on the game had frequently mentioned male playable characters and their
experiences with those selected characters, with only Gamespot’s writer McGee
briefly mentioning a single female character, Viola:
“Z.W.E.I is a short-range fighter who can summon a familiar to help extend
combos and attack from a distance. Viola is an indirect fighter who uses a
crystal ball. The ball can be deployed on the battlefield and recalled to strike
opponents from behind” (McGee, 2012)
It could be argued that the brief mention of her indirect fighting style and effective
use of her signature weapon is minor and more so underrepresented, however it can
also be interpreted as a positive step forward in comparison to being included as a
pinup for the sole purpose of being ogled at by male players. Another example of
video game journalists portraying women as hypersexualized pinups can be seen
through the coverage of the Wii U action game Bayonetta 2. Screenshots analysed in
accordance to the five indicators in reviews had showed female avatars in Bayonetta
2 as hypersexualized, aggressive N = 30 and scantily clad N = 20 out of 54 images
from all four reviews. Gamespot’s review had the highest depiction in their
screenshots of both previously mentioned indicators with the large scaled image seen
in Figure 4 headlining the review.

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Figure 4: Banner image of character “Bayonetta” from “Bayonetta 2” Review
(Gamespot, 2014)
In light of such facts, Gamespot’s writer for the Bayonetta 2 review had contradicted
himself by arguing that although the female protagonist suffers, “crotch shots and
blatant innuendos – [Bayonetta] remains one of the most charismatic and powerful
heroines in the medium” (Walton, 2014). The contradiction is evident from the image
seen in Figure 4, as well as the inclusion of various screenshots scattered throughout the
review, showcasing Bayonetta in suggestive poses and dressed in scantily clad clothing
– things the writer critiqued the game of doing, but yet includes said screenshots in the
review to “represent” the game and its leading protagonist without cutlines. The writer
further into the review added that, “the sexualisation here serves to empower, not
belittle” (Walton, 2014).
Another journalist from IGN reviewing Bayonetta 2 commented that the real crime of
the game was not the female protagonist’s excessive hypersexualization, but the game’s
bad attempts at humour:

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“I’m not too put off by her hypsersualized character design; the writing does
have a bad habit of occasionally slipping into annoyingly juvenile territory
with bad attempts at humour” (Otero, 2014).
The same instance occurred however this time it was a female video game
journalist reviewing the Xbox 360 and PS3 action game Lollipop Chainsaw. In
her review of the game she commented like Otero in his review of Bayonetta 2,
that the games humour was juvenile and unfunny.
Amini stated that when rescuing a fellow classmate from being turned into a
zombie in Lollipop Chainsaw, his response was, “I never thought I’d be saved by
someone with such great tits” (Amini, 2012). The writer commented in her review
that she couldn’t bring herself to laugh:
“Some people will be bothered by the message it sends, and offended by
how juvenile it is. I’m bothered that it’s not funny. I can see what it’s trying
to do. I know that the game and its developers don’t want me to take it
seriously, and I sure don’t. But it misses the mark of humour that it’s also
trying to go for” (Amini, 2012).
When a female video game journalist has a position as a highly valued opinion
leader and fails to combat against or criticise sexist remarks embedded in video
game content and plays it down as ‘juvenile humour’, the question remains
whether a journalist of either gender will.

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Negative Representations of Female Characters: Damsel in Distress Trope
As mentioned in the Results chapter (Chapter 4), another example of negative portrayals
of female characters which perpetuated various reviews was the damsel in distress
trope. In addition to the depiction of female characters as damsels in distress, women
were also portrayed as passive/static in-game characters, while male characters were
highlighted through text and screenshots as active/heroic in-game characters. These
themes were prevalent in the Xbox 360 & PS3 first-person shooter BioShock Infinite.
Many reviews described the female protagonist as, “a girl named Elizabeth” (Marcos,
2013) or, “a supernaturally powered young woman named Elizabeth” (Narcisse, 2013a),
however rarely extending beyond those descriptions. When select writers commented
on the female protagonist Elizabeth, it was almost always with reference to the active
male characters task of, “fetching” or “retrieving” her, in order to wipe the slate clean of
his gambling debts, portraying Elizabeth as a passive object used as leverage between
male characters in order to achieve their goal:
“Debt weighs heavy on his [Bookers] soul and the only way he can come
clear of it is to fetch a supernaturally powered young woman named
Elizabeth. If he gets her to people who want her, then he might be able to
get on with the rest of his life” (Narcisse, 2013a)
The damsel in distress trope is defined as a plot device, “in which a female character
placed in a perilous situation from which she cannot escape on her own, must be
rescued by a male character” (Sarkeesian, 2013).

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This trope has been highlighted in Gamespot’s review of BioShock Infinite when the
writer comments how Elizabeth’s relationship with Booker is complicated, “but she
needs him if she wants to escape her Columbian prison and head to Paris, the city of her
dreams” (VanOrd, 2013). IGN journalist Ryan McCaffrey in his review also accentuates
the damsel in distress trope by criticizing the game for its unnecessary repetitiveness.
He comments that, “at several points you will be about to reach one destination before
being told, ‘Oh sorry, our princess is in another castle. You have to go over there first”
(McCaffrey, 2013). This popular cultural reference of the princess being in another
castle undeniably points to Princess Peach from the Super Mario games. As Princess
Peach underscores, “the quintessential stock character version of the damsel in distress”
(Sarkeesian, 2013), by referencing such a line, the writers portrayal of Elizabeth as a
damsel in need of rescuing is evident.
Representations of the female characters helplessness as the damsel in distress had been
depicted in various screenshots in select reviews. Screenshots from Gameinformer seen
in Figure 5 shows a helpless, crying Elizabeth being taken away from the male
protagonist, while Gamespot’s review of the action game shows a screenshot of a
bloodstained note pinned to a door stating, ““DeWitt – Bring us the girl and wipe away
the debt (VanOrd, 2013). Finally in one screenshot taken from Kotaku, the image shows
the male protagonist holding a gun towards a frightened Elizabeth, highlighting her
powerlessness in her situation. Such screenshots accentuate the woman as a powerless
object, used as a prize to be won as well as leverage in a game between men.

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Figure 5: Screenshot of “Elizabeth” from “BioShock Infinite” Review (Gameinformer,
2013)
Criticism of Female Representation
As this study has shown that various reviews written about popular video games from
previously mentioned websites have either completely ignored and/or underrepresented
female avatars as positive playable characters, while simultaneously presenting women
as hypersexualized pinups through screenshots, for the sole purpose of eye-candy for
the assumed male reader, there were examples where reviews were overtly critical of
the portrayal of female avatars digital skins.
The same instance of journalists focusing on female characters physical appearances as
opposed to their in-game playable capabilities occurred in Gamespot’s review of the
MMORPG7 Tera, which like Soul Calibur V features both female and male playable
characters. The writer mentions opting for a female character based on her appearance
as opposed to choosing her for special in-game abilities.
7 MMORPG abbreviation for Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game

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The reviewer accentuates the women as pinup trope, as he emphasizes with the
accompanying screenshot that players can play, “as a hyper-cute fox girl from the Elin
race” (VanOrd, 2012b).
Figure 6: Screenshot of female Elin race from “Tera” Review (Gamespot, 2012)
One particular writer in his review had conveyed a sense of uneasiness on the other
hand with regards to female characters appearance and costume designs for Tera.
Showcasing the same screenshot seen in Figure 6, he comments how female character
design, “is salacious even by fantasy standards, though, which strikes me as needless
adolescent locker room fetishization of the female form” (Biessener, 2012b). Evidently
this can be understood as heavy criticism directed at the game’s designers. The writer in
the same review complimented in game world environments and animations, however
openly criticizes the visual design of the female Elin race:
“The awfully young-looking Elin race and their tiny dresses cross well into
the realm of bad taste. I’m not one to go on gender crusades about gender
politics, but the visual design of the Elin design is over the line for me”
(Biessener, 2012b).

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Various writers from select websites expressed different levels of criticisms with
regards to overtly hypersexualized female characters in their reviews, while other
writers reviewing the same game had expressed little indifference on the portrayal of
female characters, but instead make abundantly clear the extent of the games
hypersexualization of its main protagonist, devoid of meaningful criticisms. In the
action game Lollipop Chainsaw mentioned previously, out of a total 45 screenshots in
all four reviews of the game, N = 27 of those screenshots presented the female
protagonist as hypersexualized and aggressive, and N = 31 depicted the female
protagonist as scantily clad.
Figure 7: Screenshot of “Juliet Starling” from Lollipop Chainsaw Review (Gamespot,
2012)
As seen in Figure 7, the screenshot of the female main protagonist has been allocated at
the top of the reviews webpage essentially taking up the entire screen in Gamespot’s
review.

42 | P a g e
The writer VanOrd comments in his review that, Lollipop Chainsaw is a game which
remains, “tasteless from beginning to end” (VanOrd, 2012a), however all of the
screenshots provided in the review show Juliet as scantily clad cheerleader being groped
by a zombie, while screenshots show her in a sexual pose decapitating a zombie from
bottom to top with the cutline, “the best way to a classmate’s heart is through his
stomach. And spleen. And duodenum” (VanOrd, 2012).
Instead of providing critical commentary on how the game is sexist and degrading
through its dialogue and presentation of the female avatar, the writer comments instead
like Kotaku’s journalist Amini (2012), that the ‘humour is hardly clever’ and instead
capitalizes on Juliet’s sexuality:
“Eye-opening remarks about Juliet’s breasts and anorexia references have
shock value, but many of these early jokes are hardly clever” (VanOrd,
2012a)
“The opening cutscene features a just-18 Juliet welcoming you to her
bedroom while the camera lovingly caresses her bare torso. She complains
that she’s getting fat from sucking on too many lollipops, though she has a
physique women of any age would envy” (VanOrd, 2012a)
On the other hand, journalist from IGN reviewing Lollipop had criticised the game on
its obsession with highlighting money shots up Juliet’s skirt and down her shirt:
“For every zombie Juliet Starling decapitates with her chainsaw, someone
calls her a whore, talks about masturbating to her, or comments on her
gigantic breasts” (Dyer, 2012).

43 | P a g e
“Obscenity eventually hits a point where it’s no longer contributing
anything. When shocking and titillating the player take precedent over the
core gameplay loop, we have problems” (Dyer, 2012).
Although the writer had critiqued the game for its excessive obscenity, arguing that
such shock tactics provided in-game take precedent over core gameplay is an issue, it
seems as though the bigger issue is the treatment and depiction of the female
protagonist, which wasn’t provided at a substantial length to be considered constructive
criticism.
In the highly controversial action-adventure video game Grand Theft Auto V, Gamespot
journalist Carolyn Petit in her review expressed high levels of discontent towards the
games negative portrayal of female NPC’s. She commented that, “GTA V has little
room for women except to portray them as strippers, prostitutes, long-suffering wives,
humourless girlfriends and goofy, new-age feminists we’re meant to laugh at” (Petit,
2013a). At the conclusion of her review, Petit scored the game with a 9/10, while
justifying her reasons for the score the game received in a ‘Cons’ list explaining that it
was not a 10/10 on the basis that it is a, “politically muddled and profoundly
misogynistic game” (Petit, 2013a), however aside from those negatives, the game had
scored a fairly high rating, while giving credit where it was due.
Petit argued in her review that characters in-game frequently glorified male sexuality,
while denigrating women by utilizing advertising billboards and radio stations in the
world of Los Santos to reinforce such misogyny. Petit commented that advertisements:

44 | P a g e
“Equated manhood with sleek sports cars while encouraging women to
purchase a fragrance that will make them ‘smell like a bitch.’ Yes, these are
exaggerations of misogynistic undercurrents in our own society, but not
satirical ones. With nothing in the narrative to underscore how insane and
wrong this is, all the game does is reinforce and celebrate sexism” (Petit,
2013a)
Petit had been heavily criticized for her review on GTA V with accusations of her
trying to push a political agenda whilst claiming how unprofessional she was as a
video game journalist for deducting the game on the basis it perpetrated
misogynistic elements. The most severe backlash Petit endured for her review of
the game had been personal attacks for being transgender as well as people
starting a petition on Change.org to get her fired. Edordogh (2013) asserted that
people accusing Petit for being unprofessional by mentioning the games overt
sexism are in the wrong because it would have been unprofessional if Petit did not
mention the profound levels of sexism in the game as it is her job and duty as a
video game journalist to make such observations about the video games they
review.

45 | P a g e
Positive Representations of Female Characters
Although this study has proven that many reviews from these websites have presented
women as hypersexualized objects of desire, pinups and damsels in distress, it is
important to note that various journalists in their reviews have also depicted female
characters in a positive light as empowered charismatic heroines. A handful of writers in
select reviews praised female playable protagonists as well as NPCs in select games for
their high level of contributions to gameplay mechanics, specifically when those female
characters utilized a special set of skills and abilities which were lacking in the male
characters.
Specifically the first person shooter game Bioshock Infinite was highly commended for
the female NPC’s role throughout the campaign as a great companion who required
‘zero babysitting’ in comparison to the franchises predecessors where you saved the
‘little sisters’ scattered throughout the underwater city of Rapture. Although some
journalists had framed Elizabeth from Bioshock Infinite as a damsel in distress, other
journalists praised for her impressive portal-opening abilities which, “adds a unique
layer to combat that encourages variety and experimentation” (McCaffrey, 2013).
Kotaku journalist Narcisse remarked in his review on how Elizabeth is a complex
character as opposed to being a dull NPC. He stated that in the game Elizabeth can,
“most impressively manipulate tears, which are space-time hiccups that let her pull
things from alternate reality through this world” (Narcisse, 2013a).

46 | P a g e
A plethora of positive appraisals were awarded to the action-adventure game Tomb
Raider and its female protagonist Lara Croft in many reviews. Renowned for being the
video game industry’s busty action-heroine and sex symbol since the franchise’s first
release in 1996, journalists sung their praises in this reboot of the legendary heroine’s
beginnings, shinning a positive light on the transformed fearless protagonist. Female
video game journalist Keza MacDonald (2013b) from IGN commended the games
portrayal of Lara as she comments how players see, “this intelligent, resourceful young
woman become something closer to the Lara Croft we know, fearless in the face of
danger” (MacDonald, 2013b). Further into her review, Lara is praised for her natural
survival skills and confidence, despite her dangerous surroundings, while many
reviewers commended the heroine for her perseverance in the face of extreme danger
against an island of deadly cultists.
Gamespot journalist Petit (2013b) in her review highlights the unpleasantness of a
particular sequence where a male NPC attempts to force himself onto Lara, arguing that
although this scene in the game is distressing to watch, it also marked a crucial:
“Turning point in Lara’s understanding of just how hard she has to fight to
survive. Rather than crumbling under the weight of her physical and
emotional struggles, she emerges from them a stronger person” (Petit,
2013b)
Screenshots showcased throughout the reviews portrayed Lara as the most
adventurous and heroic female video game character with a deadly bow and
arrow, fending off ferocious wolves and cultists or conquering her way to the top
of a shanty radio tower.

47 | P a g e
Figure 8: Screenshot of “Lara Croft” in Tomb Raider Review (Gamespot, 2013)
Whilst many journalists praised the new and improved Lara, both female video game
journalists made references to two renowned male explorer/archaeologists, Nathan
Drake from video game franchise Uncharted and Indiana Jones from both highly
acclaimed movies as well as video game franchises. Petit in her review highlights how,
“Lara’s adventures rival those of Indiana Jones and Nathan Drake” (Petit, 2013b),
arguing that the heroines new persona easily competes with the adventures of both
renowned male explorers. MacDonald likewise alludes to the same comparison between
Nathan Drake and Lara Croft, stating that, “it is a superb action game that brings a new
emotional dimension to one of gaming’s most enduring icons, in likeness with Nathan
Drake at the top of gaming’s action hierarchy” (MacDonald, 2013b).
Although this extract does not exhibit overt negative connotations aimed towards the
female protagonist, the positive comment would have sufficed without placing her,
alongside, “Nathan Drake at the top of gaming’s action hierarchy” (ibid).

48 | P a g e
IGN’s journalist essentially insinuates that Lara is a feminized carbon copy of Nathan
Drake, in comparison to just stating that Lara has made her way to the top of gaming’s
action hierarchy, the need to compare and contrast with male characters is slightly
negative.

49 | P a g e
Chapter 6: Conclusion
In accordance to the results presented in this study, there were significant differences in
representation between the gender dichotomies of video game characters that were
reviewed in select video game journalism websites. This research concluded through its
findings that video game journalists were largely misrepresenting female video game
characters by limiting the portrayals of women as one dimensional, hypersexualized
objects of desire, when various video game developers created those characters to be
multi-dimensional, fully scripted personas that were on par with male characters or
created as complex heroines in their own right. There were however journalists who
positively portrayed female characters as well as those who criticized video game
developers for their stereotypical depictions of gender, as was illustrated with Carolyn
Petit’s review of Grand Theft Auto 5. However, it was because of such criticisms of the
games portrayal as profoundly misogynistic, the journalist endured severe backlash with
those who started a petition for her immediate dismissal as a journalist for Gamespot.
The results of this study demonstrated that female characters were frequently
underrepresented and/or ignored throughout various reviews of games which had a
choice between a male and female playable protagonist, with a trend of inclusion to
merely highlight their physical attributes as opposed to their strengths as playable
characters or NPC’s in their respected games. The portrayal of female characters out of
a total 439 screenshots across all 40 reviews were frequently relegated to the status of
attractive hypersexualized pinups 33.4% (N = 147) dressed in scantily clad attire 36.4%
(N = 160) as seen in articles reviewing Bayonetta 2 or Lollipop Chainsaw, while also
depicting various female characters as the proverbial damsel in distress 12.3% (N = 54).

50 | P a g e
These representations were also explicitly visible throughout the main body of text in
various reviews, not solely screenshots. Male characters on the other hand were more
likely to be portrayed in screenshots as hypermasculine 24.1% (N = 106) and heroic
19.8% (N = 87) in comparison to being portrayed more negatively as helpless 2.9% (N
= 13), scantily clad 12.7% (N = 56), hypersexualized and aggressive 2.5% (N = 11).
Finally, this study discovered that although majority of the writers were male, the once
“ruling masculinist discourse” (Newman & Vanderhoef, 2014: 47) in video game
journalism is notably shifting with regards to how both male and female video game
journalists are changing their perceptions and transmitting their opinions to their
audiences. As was illustrated in Figure 1, the changing gender demographics of video
game players has demonstrated that men are no longer the dominant audiences for
which video games are being designed and reviewed. The statistics have shown that
while men make up 52% of video game players, the other 48% is made up of women in
2014. In light of such facts, this study has also shown that video game journalists have
likewise failed to fully comprehend that their positions as opinion leaders can
negatively impact the perceptions of their progressively diverse audiences and how
those representations can affect gamers.
Word Count: 10,993

51 | P a g e
Appendix A: List of Video Games Selected For Review
Male-only protagonists (Xbox 360 & PS3):
 Bioshock Infinite (2013)
 Grand Theft Auto 5 (2013)
 DMC: Devil May Cry (2013)
 Max Payne 3 (2012)
 Catherine (2012)
Female-only protagonists (Xbox 360, PS3 & Wii U):
 Tomb Raider (2013)
 Lollipop Chainsaw (2012)
 Bayonetta 2 (2014)
Male & Female Protagonists (Xbox 360 & PS3)
 Soul Calibur V (2012)
 TERA (2012)

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