Financial Statements.ppt
- 2. • Ratios are an analyst's microscope; they allow us get a better view of the firm's financial health than just looking at the raw financial statements. Ratios are useful both to internal and external analysts of the firm.
- 3. • Internal purposes: • Ratios can be useful in planning for the future, setting goals, and evaluating the performance of managers. • External purposes: • External analysts use ratios to decide whether to grant credit, to monitor financial performance, to forecast financial performance, and to decide whether to invest in the company.
- 4. Categories of Ratios: 1. Liquidity ratios: describe the ability of a firm to meets its current obligations. 2. Efficiency ratios: describe how well the firm is using its investment in assets to produce sales. 3. Leverage ratios: reveal the degree to which debt has been used to finance the firm's asset purchases. 4. Coverage ratios: are similar to liquidity ratios in that they describe the ability of a firm to pay certain expenses. 5. Profitability ratios: provide indications of how profitable a firm has been over a period of time.
- 5. Liquidity Ratios • The term liquidity refers to the speed with which an asset can be converted into cash without large discounts to its value. Some assets, such as accounts receivable, can easily be converted to cash with only small discounts. Other assets, such as buildings, can be converted into cash very quickly only if large price concessions are given. We therefore say that accounts receivable are more liquid than buildings. All other things being equal, a firm with more liquid assets will be more able to meet its maturing obligations (i.e., its bills) than a firm with fewer liquid assets.
- 6. The Current Ratio • Generally, a firm's current assets are converted to cash (e.g., collecting on accounts receivables or selling its inventories) and this cash is used to retire its current liabilities. • The higher the current ratio, the higher the likelihood that a firm will be able to pay its bills.
- 7. The Quick Ratio • Inventories are often the least liquid of the firm's current assets. For this reason, many believe that a better measure of liquidity can be obtained by ignoring inventories. The result is known as the quick ratio (sometimes called the acid-test ratio), and is calculated as: • Quick ratio will always be less than the current ratio. This is by design. However, a quick ratio that is too low relative to the current ratio may indicate that inventories are higher than they should be.
- 8. Efficiency Ratios • Efficiency ratios provide information about how well the company is using its assets to generate sales.
- 9. Inventory Turnover Ratio • The inventory turnover ratio measures the number of dollars of sales that are generated per dollar of inventory. It also tells us the number of times that a firm replaces its inventories during a year. It is calculated as: • Note that it is also common to use sales in the numerator. Since the only difference between sales and cost of goods sold is a markup, this causes no problems. In addition, you will frequently see the average level of inventories throughout the year in the denominator. Whenever using ratios, you need to be aware of the method of calculation to be sure that you are comparing apples to apples.
- 10. Accounts Receivable Turnover Ratio • Businesses grant credit for one main reason: to increase sales. It is important, therefore, to know how well the firm is managing its accounts receivable. The accounts receivable turnover ratio (and the average collection period, below) • We can say that higher is generally better, but too high might indicate that the firm is denying credit to creditworthy customers (thereby losing sales). If the ratio is too low, it would suggest that the firm is having difficulty collecting on its sales. This is particularly true if we find that accounts receivable are increasing faster than sales over a prolonged period.
- 11. Average Collection Period • The average collection period tells us, on average, how many days it takes to collection a credit sale. • Note that this ratio actually provides us with the same information as the accounts receivable turnover ratio.
- 12. • In fact, it can easily be demonstrated by simple algebraic manipulation: • • Since the average collection period is (in a sense) the inverse of the accounts receivable turnover ratio, it should be apparent that the inverse criteria apply to judging this ratio. In other words, lower is usually better, but too low may indicate lost sales.
- 13. Fixed Asset Turnover Ratio • The fixed asset turnover ratio describes the dollar amount of sales that are generated by each dollar invested in fixed assets. It is given by:
- 14. Total Asset Turnover Ratio • The total asset turnover ratio describes how efficiently the firm is using its assets to generate sales. In this case, we look at the firm's total asset investment: • We can interpret the asset turnover ratios as follows: Higher is better. However, We should be aware that some industries will naturally have lower turnover ratios than others.
- 15. Leverage Ratios • Leverage refers to a multiplication of changes in profitability measures. For example, a 10% increase in sales might lead to a 20% increase in net income The amount of leverage depends on the amount of debt that a firm uses to finance its operations, so a firm which uses a lot of debt is said to be highly leveraged. Leverage ratios describe the degree to which the firm uses debt in its capital structure.
- 16. Leverage Ratios • This is important information for creditors and investors in the firm. Creditors might be concerned that a firm has too much debt and will therefore have of debt can lead to a large amount of volatility in the firms earnings. However, most firms use some debt. This is because the tax deductibility of interest can increase the wealth of the firm's shareholders.
- 17. The Total Debt Ratio • The total debt ratio measures the total amount of debt (long-term and short-term) that the firm uses to finance its assets: • Many analysts believe that it is more useful to focus on just the long-term debt (LTD) instead of total debt. The long-term debt ratio is the same as the total debt ratio, except that the numerator includes only long-term debt:
- 18. The Long-Term Debt to Total Capitalization Ratio • The long-term debt to total capitalization ratio tells us the percentage of long-term sources of capital that is provided by long-term debt (LTD). It is calculated by: • Note that common equity is the total of common stock and retained earnings.
- 19. The Debt to Equity Ratio • The debt to equity ratio provides exactly the same information as the total debt ratio, but in a slightly different form that some analysts prefer: • To see that the total debt ratio and the debt to equity ratio provide the same information, realize that:
- 21. The Long-Term Debt to Equity Ratio • Once again, many analysts prefer to focus on the amount of long-term debt that a firm carries. For this reason, many analysts like to use the long- term debt to total equity ratio:
- 22. Coverage Ratios • The coverage ratios are similar to liquidity ratios in that they describe the quantity of funds available to cover certain expenses. We will examine two very similar ratios that describe the firm's ability to meet its interest payment obligations. In both cases, higher ratios are desirable to a degree. However, if they are too high, it may indicate that the firm is under-utilizing its debt capacity, and therefore not maximizing shareholder wealth.
- 23. The Times Interest Earned Ratio • The times interest earned ratio measures the ability of the firm to pay its interest obligations by comparing earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) to interest expense
- 24. The Cash Coverage Ratio • EBIT does not really reflect the cash that is available to pay the firm's interest expense. That is because a non-cash expense (depreciation) has been subtracted in the calculation of EBIT. To correct for this deficiency, some analysts like to use the cash coverage ratio instead of times interest earned. The cash coverage ratio is calculated as:
- 25. • Note that the cash coverage ratio will always be higher than the times interest earned ratio. The difference depends on the amount of depreciation expense, and therefore the investment and age of fixed assets.
- 26. Profitability Ratios • Investors, and therefore managers, are particularly interested in the profitability of the firms that they own. There are many ways to measure profits. Profitability ratios provide an easy way to compare profits to earlier periods or to other firms. Furthermore, by simultaneously examining the first three profitability ratios, an analyst can discover categories of expenses that may be out of line.
- 27. • Profitability ratios are the easiest of all of the ratios to analyze. Without exception, high ratios are preferred. However, the definition of high depends on the industry in which the firm operates. Generally, firms in mature industries with lots of competition will have lower profitability measures than firms in younger industries with less competition.
- 28. The Gross Profit Margin • The gross profit margin measures the gross profit relative to sales. It indicates the amount of funds available to pay the firm.s expenses other than its cost of sales. The gross profit margin is calculated by:
- 29. The Operating Profit Margin • We can calculate the profits that remain after the firm has paid all of its usual (non- financial) expenses.
- 30. The Net Profit Margin • The net profit margin relates net income to sales. Since net income is profit after all expenses, the net profit margin tells us the percentage of sales that remains for the shareholders of the firm:
- 31. • Taken together, the three profit margin ratios that we have examined show a company that may be losing control over its costs. Of course, high expenses mean lower returns, and well see this confirmed by the next three profitability ratios.
- 32. Return on Total Assets • The total assets of a firm are the investment that the shareholders have made. Much like you might be interested in the returns generated by your investments, analysts are often interested in the return that a firm is able to get from its investments. The return on total assets is:
- 33. Return on Equity • While total assets represent the total investment in the firm, the owners. Investment (common stock and retained earnings) usually represent only a portion of this amount (some is debt). For this reason it is useful to calculate the rate of return on the shareholder's invested funds. We can calculate the return on (total) equity as:
- 34. • Note that if a firm uses no debt, then its return on equity will be the same as its return on assets. The higher a firm's debt ratio, the higher its return on equity will be relative to its return on assets.
- 35. Return on Common Equity • For firms that have issued preferred stock in addition to common stock, it is often helpful to determine the rate of return on just the common stockholders investment: • Net income available to common equity is net income less preferred dividends
- 36. The Du Pont Analysis • The return on equity (ROE) is important to both managers and investors. The effectiveness of managers is often measured by changes in ROE over time. Therefore, it is important that they understand what they can do to improve the firm's ROE, and that requires knowledge of what causes changes in ROE over time.
- 37. • The Du Pont system is a way to break down the ROE into its components.
- 38. • The ROA shows the combined effects of profitability (as measured by the net profit margin) and the efficiency of asset usage (the total asset turnover). Therefore, the ROA could be improved by increasing profitability through expense reductions, or by increasing sales relative to total assets.
- 39. • As mentioned earlier, the amount of leverage a firm uses is the linkage between the ROA and ROE. Specifically
- 40. • We can now see that the ROE is a function of the firm's ROA and the total debt ratio. If two firms have the same ROA, the one using more debt will have a higher ROE. • We can make one more substitution to completely break down the ROE into its components.
- 41. Financial Distress Prediction • The last thing any investor wants is to invest in a firm that is nearing a bankruptcy filing or about to suffer through a period of severe financial distress.
- 42. The Original Z-Score Model • The Z-score model was developed using a statistical technique known as Multiple Discriminant Analysis. This technique allows an analyst to place a company into one of two (or more) groups depending on the score. If the score is below the cutoff point, it is placed into group 1 (soon to be bankrupt), otherwise it is placed into group 2
- 43. • Altman also identified a third group that fell into a so-called gray zone These companies could go either way, but should definitely be considered greater credit risks than those in group 2. Generally, the lower the Zscore, the higher the risk of financial distress or bankruptcy.
- 44. • Where the variables are the following financial ratios: • X1 = net working capital/total assets • X2 = retained earnings/total assets • X3 = EBIT/total assets • X4 = market value of all equity/book value of total liabilities • X5 = sales/total assets
- 45. • Altman reports that this model is between 80.90% accurate if we use a cutoff point of 2.675. That is, a firm with a Z-score below 2.675 can reasonably be expected to experience severe financial distress, and possibly bankruptcy, within the next year.
- 46. • The predictive ability of the model is even better if we use a cutoff point of 1.81. There are, therefore, three ranges of Z-scores: • Z < 1.81 Bankruptcy predicted within one year • 1.81 < Z < 2.675 Financial distress, possible bankruptcy • Z > 2.675 No financial distress predicted
- 47. The Z-Score Model for Private Firms • Because variable X4 in requires knowledge of the firm's market capitalization (including both common and preferred equity), we cannot easily use the model for privately held firms. Estimates of the market value of these firms can be made, but the result is necessarily very uncertain. Alternatively, we could substitute the book value of equity for its market value, but that wouldn't be correct
- 48. • The new model for privately held firms is: • Where all of the variables are defined as before, except that X4 uses the book value of equity. Altman reports that this model is only slightly less accurate than the one for publicly traded firms when we use the new cutoff points shown below.
- 50. Using Financial Ratios • Calculating financial ratios is a pointless exercise unless you understand how to use them. One overriding rule of ratio analysis is this: A single ratio provides very little information, and may be misleading. You should never draw conclusions from a single ratio. Instead, several ratios should support any conclusions that you make.
- 51. Trend Analysis • Trend analysis involves the examination of ratios over time. Trends, or lack of trends, can help managers gauge their progress towards a goal. Furthermore, trends can highlight areas in need of attention. • One potential problem area for trend analysis is seasonality. We must be careful to compare similar time periods.
- 52. Comparing to Industry Averages • one of the most beneficial uses of financial ratios is to compare similar firms within a single industry. Most often this is done by comparing to the industry average ratios. These industry averages provide a standard of comparison so that we can determine how well a firm is performing relative to its peers
- 53. Automating Ratio Analysis • We can use Excel's built-in IF statement to implement our automatic analysis. • Formula for the current ratio would be: =IF(C3/D3>=1,"Good","Bad") • AND(LOGICAL1, LOGICAL2, . . .) • OR(LOGICAL1, LOGICAL2, . . .)
- 54. Economic Profit Measures of Performance • profit earned in excess of the firm's costs, including its implicit opportunity costs (primarily its cost of capital). Accounting profit (net income). • The basic idea behind economic profit measures is that the firm cannot increase shareholder wealth unless it makes a profit in excess of its cost of capital
- 55. • Where NOPAT is net operating profit after taxes. The after-tax cost of operating capital is the dollar cost of all interest- bearing debt instruments (i.e., bonds and notes payable) plus the dollar cost of preferred and common equity. Generally, the firm's after-tax cost of capital (a percentage amount) is calculated and then multiplied by the amount of operating capital to obtain the dollar cost
- 56. • To calculate the economic profit, we must first calculate NOPAT, total operating capital and the firm's cost of capital. For our purposes in this chapter, the cost of capital will be given.8 NOPAT is the after-tax operating profit of the firm:
- 57. • Note that the NOPAT calculation does not include interest expense because it will be explicitly accounted for when we subtract the cost of all capital. • Total operating capital is the sum of non- interest-bearing current assets and net fixed assets, less non-interest-bearing current liabilities. We ignore interest- bearing current assets because they are not operating assets, and we ignore interest-bearing current liabilities (e.g., notes payable) because the cost of these liabilities is included in the cost of capital.