Flyash based Papercrete building bricks

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STUDIES ON DURABILITY, STRENGTH AND
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF FLYASH
BASED PAPERCRETE BUILDING BRICK
A Thesis
Submitted by
SATYAJIT BEHERA
Roll No. 1707320012
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of Degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
In
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Under the guidance of
Mr. Barada Prasanna Sahu
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
ARYAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
BHUBANESWAR-75205

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “STUDIES ON DURABILITY,
STRENGTH AND STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF FLYASH BASED
PAPERCRETE BUILDING BRICK” submitted by Mr. Satyajit Behera in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Master of Technology Degree
in Civil Engineering with specialization in Structural Engineering at the Aryan
Institute of Engineering and technology is an authentic work carried out by him
under my supervision.
To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the thesis has not been
submitted to any other University/Institute for the award of any degree or diploma.
PLACE: BHUBANESWAR
DATE:
Project
Guide
AIET BBSR
HOD
Dept.of Civil Engineering
AIET BBSR
Project
External

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to the Dept. of Civil Engineering, AIET, BHUBANESWAR, for
giving me the opportunity to execute this project, which is an integral part of the
curriculum in M.Tech programme at the ARIYAN INSTITUTE OF
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, Bhubaneswar. I express my deepest
gratitude to my project guide Barada Prasanna Sahu, whose encouragement,
guidance and support from the initial to the final level enabled me to develop an
understanding of the subject. My special thanks to Prof. M.P. Panda, Head of the
Civil Engineering Department, for all the facilities provided to successfully
complete this work and I thank full to Mrs. Truptimala Sahu for her mental support
and other project work support. I am also thankful to all of my friends who made
M.Tech journey memorable with their timely suggestions and constant help. Last
but not least I would like to thank my parents and younger brother for their
constant support and encouragement.
Satyajit Behera

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Contents
CERTIFICATE 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3
Contents 4
ABSTRACT 8
CHAPTER 1 10
INTRODUCTION 10
GENERAL 10
INNOVATION OF PAPERCRETE 10
HISTORY OF BRICKS 11
PAPER 11
FLYASH 12
CURRENT RESEARCH TRENDS 13
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY 13
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 14
Collection Of Material 16
Preparation of Specimen 16
Optimization of Mix Through Preliminary Tests 17
Studies on Papercrete Bricks and Masonry Unit 17
Comparison of Results 18
Viability and Cost Analysis 18
ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS 18
CHAPTER 2 20
LITERATURE REVIEW 20
GENERAL 20

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WASTE UTILIZATION IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY 20
FLYASH BRICKS 22
PAPERCRETE BRICKS 23
MASONRY INFILLED WALLS 24
SUMMARY OF EARLIER WORKS 24
SCOPE OF THE STUDY 25
CHAPTER 3 26
MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF PAPERCRETE BRICKS 26
GENERAL 26
PAPERCRETE 26
PAPERCRETE ADDITIVES 26
Paper 26
Cement 27
Flyash 28
Rice husk-Ash(RHA) 28
Micro Silica 29
Sand 30
Water Proofing Admixtures 31
CHAPTER 4 33
EFFECT OF MINERAL ADMIXTURE FOR STRENGTH AND DURABILITY
PROPERTIES IN PAPERCRETE BRICKS 33
GENERAL 33
MINERAL ADMIXTURES 33
Mix Proportion of Papercrete Bricks 33
Generation of Pulp for Papercrete Bricks 35
Casting of Specimen for Papercrete Bricks 36
Preliminary Tests on Papercrete Brick 37
Compressive Strength Development of Papercrete Bricks 37
Water Absorption 38
Effect and Performance Evaluation of Papercrete Bricks 38
CONCLUDING REMARKS 40
CHAPTER 5 41

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PAPERCRETE MIX OPTIMIZATION WITH FLYASH 41
GENERAL 41
Effect of addition of water proofing materials to the papercrete mix 41
Effect of addition of Conplast WP90 as Trial mix – I 42
Effect of addition of Powder water proof 105 as Trial Mix – II 42
Test Result on Trial Mix-I and Trial Mix-II 42
Effect of addition of SBR Latex polymer with powder water proof 105 as Trial Mix-III 44
Test Results on Trial Mix – III 44
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON TRIAL MIXES 45
EXTERNAL COATING ON PAPERCRETE BRICKS 47
CHAPTER 6 48
STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF FLYASH BASED PAPERCRETE
BUILDING BRICKS 48
GENERAL 48
PREPARATION OF PAPERCRTE SPECIMEN 48
Papercrete Bricks 48
TESTING PROCEDURE 49
Compression Test 49
Test on Chemical Attack 50
Acid Attack 50
Chloride Attack 51
Sulphate attack 51
Behaviour of Papercrete Bricks Under Elevated Temperature 51
Sorptivity of Papercrete bricks 52
RESULTS 52
CHAPTER 7 54
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF FLYASH BASED 54
PAPERCRETE BRICK MASONRY WALL WITH ANSYS 54
GENERAL 54
ANSYS Software 54

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Behaviour of Masonry 54
Verification of the Results 56
CHAPTER 8 57
COST ANALYSIS 57
GENERAL 57
CEMENT 57
FLYASH 57
SAND 57
PAPER 57
ADMIXTURES 58
PRODUCTION CHARGES 58
COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL BRICKS 58
CHAPTER 9 59
CONCLUSIONS 59
GENERAL 59
RESEARCH FINDINGS BASED ON MATERIALS 59
RESEARCH FINDINGS BASED ON STRUCTURAL PROPERTYOFMASONRY 59
CONCLUSION 60
SCOPE FOR FURTHER WORK 60
REFERENCES 62

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ABSTRACT
Nowadays, time invite us to make everything recycle and use that recycle
product. A large amount of non-renewable energy is consumed every day in the
construction industry. There are tons of waste papers are discarded as dump sites or
landfill those recycled for making products. The majority of abandoned paper waste
is accumulated from countries all over the world causes a certain series of
environmental problems(1). It is learnt that it takes about fifteen trees to make a ton
of paper which means that 720 million trees are used once and then buried as landfills
each year(2). In order to prevent these misuse of paper waste, it has become
imperative to push the boundaries of research in the field of innovative sustainable
construction materials. This project deals a parametric experimental study which
investigates the potential use of paper waste for producing a low-cost and
lightweight concrete as a building material.
An investigation was carried out to evaluate the durability, strength, and
optimization of the mix for papercrete depending upon the compressive strength and
flexural strength. Then after the results were noted and compared with the
conventional bricks. Then after the behaviour of papercrete masonry unit results
were verified by the software analysis(ANSYS).
The strength and the durability of the cement composite containing flyash,
rice husk ash, micro silica, and waste paper have been studied in the details and
obtained the final proper proportion. This finalised optimum mix was considered for
making the flyash based papercrete bricks and their properties have been studied.
For improving the durability, a number of techniques have been tried and a suitable
technique arrived for it.

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Papercrete bricks have been tested for their water absorption, acid resistance,
compressive strength, hardness test, impact test, structure test, soundness test,
thermal conductivity. The performance of the newly developed bricks is compared
with the conventional clay bricks. The results were studied by ansys software.
At last, the thesis concluded that the papercrete bricks are lightweight and
more flexible which are most suitable for the earthquake-prone areas. The uncoated
bricks are not suitable for the use in external walls and also in waterlogged areas.
That’s why they only can be used in inner partition walls. The papercrete brick does
not only reduce the dead load of the structure it also gives the much more ductility
and also the energy characteristics. So the papercrete bricks are the most beneficial
and important material for the earthquake-prone areas.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
The constant development and growing construction industry need the
building materials which satisfy all the stringent requirements for the short-term and
long-term performance for the structure. As tomorrow structures become taller and
more complex, so there must be need of the required material must have more
efficiency than those in force today.
According to the census data of 2011 India have 137.49lakh HH slums present
now(3). According to the data, there is the requirement of large construction activity.
Such large housing construction required a huge amount of money for it. Out of the
total cost of the construction, the building material contributes to about 70% of it.
The increase in the popularity of using lightweight, low cost and environment-
friendly construction material in the building industry have bought about to
investigate how to achieve the desired quality material with maintaining the
environmental quality.
Building technology is heading towards an entirely new era because of current
technology and usage of industrial waste in different forms of building material
production in construction industries. For example, glass powder, industrial waste
fibres, waste rubber, wood sawdust wastes and limestone powder wastes in the
building material production has received the most attention from the last few years.
INNOVATION OF PAPERCRETE
Papercrete is a material originally developed 80 years ago but it is only
recently rediscovered(4). Papercrete is a fibrous cementitious compound which
contains Portland cement and waste paper. These two material mixes with the water
to create a paper cement plup. After that, it can be poured into a mould & allowed
to dry. It should be noted that papercrete is a new concept with a limited scope.
Papercrete is known by alternative names such as fibrous concrete, Padobe
and Fidobe(5). The fibrous concrete can be made up of Portland cement, water and
fibre. Here we used the waste paper as the material of fibre. There are no harmful
by-products or excessive energy use in the production of papercrete. Padobe has no
Portland cement. It is a mix of paper, water and earth with clay. Here clay is the
binding material. Instead of using the cement, the earth is used in this type of brick.

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This earth should have a clay content of more than 30%. With regular brick, if the
clay content is too high the brick may crack while drying, but adding paper fibre to
the earth mix strengthens the drying block. It gives flexibility which helps to prevent
cracking. Fidobe is like padobe, but it may contain other fibrous material(6).
HISTORY OF BRICKS
One of the oldest building material is brick, which is used from 7000BC. They
were discovered in southern Turkey at the site of an ancient settlement around the
city of Jericho. The first bricks, made in areas with warm climates, were mud bricks
dried in the sun for hardening. During the 12th century, bricks were reintroduced to
northern Germany from northern Italy. This created the brick gothic period with
buildings mainly built from fired red clay bricks. The examples of the Brick Gothic
style buildings can be found in the Baltic countries such as Sweden, Denmark,
Poland, Germany, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus and Russia. In the
16th century, Brick Gothic was replaced by Brick Renaissance architecture. After
the great fire of London in 1666, the city was rebuilt with main bricks(7). In our
country, the process of brick manufacturing has not changed since many centuries
except in some minor refinements. Also, the structures in the view of their structural
stability, compressive strength and relatively low cost have not undergone any
drastic change. But it has two major drawbacks which are self-weight and brittleness.
PAPER
Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose
pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets(8).
Cellulose is made up of polysaccharide (monomer glucose). The links in the
cellulose chain are a type of sugar as ß-D-glucose. Despite containing several
hydroxyl groups, cellulose is water insoluble. The reason is the stiffness of the chains
and hydrogen bonding between two OH groups on adjacent chains. The chains pack
regularly in places to form hard, stable crystalline regions that give the bundled
chains even more stability and strength. This hydrogen bonding is the papercrete’s
strength. By applying a force on the paper the hydrogen bond between the water and
the cellulose molecule is broken. Coating cellulose fibres with Portland cement
creates a cement matrix, which encases the fibres for extra strength to the mix.
Cellulose hydrogen bonds are shown in below Figure.

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Cellulose hydrogen bonds in the paper
The links in the cellulose chain are a type of sugar: ß-D-glucose. The cellulose
chain bristles with polar -OH groups. These groups form many hydrogen bonds with
OH groups on adjacent chains, bundling the chains together. The chains also pack
regularly in places to form hard, stable crystalline regions that give the bundled
chains even more stability and strength(9).
Fibrils network Fibrils are offshoots of fibres
The upper figure shows fibril and fibre network to form a matrix, which
becomes coated with Portland cement. When fibres and fibrils networks dry, they
interlock and cling together with the power of the hydrogen bond.
FLYASH
Fly ash is the finely divided residue that results from the combustion of
pulverized coal and is transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases.
Over 61 million metric tons (68 million tons) of fly ash were produced in 2001(10).
Fly ash is produced by coal-fired electric and steam generating plants. Typically,
coal is pulverized and blown with air into the boiler's combustion chamber where it
immediately ignites, generating heat and producing a molten mineral residue. Boiler
tubes extract heat from the boiler, cooling the flue gas and causing the molten
mineral residue to harden and form ash. Coarse ash particles, referred to as bottom
ash or slag, fall to the bottom of the combustion chamber, while the lighter fine ash
particles, termed fly ash, remain suspended in the flue gas(10). It is thus important

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to recognize that all the ash is not flyash and the flyash produced by different power
plants is not equally pozzolanic.
According to the testing the bricks meet or exceed the performance of
standards which are listed in ASTM C 216 for conventional clay brick. It is also
allowable shrinkage limits for concrete brick in ASTM C 55, and standard
specification for Concrete Building Brick. It is estimated that the production method
used in fly ash bricks will reduce the embodied energy of masonry construction by
up to 90%.
CURRENT RESEARCH TRENDS
A large amount of demand has been placed on the building material industry
from last decade. The increasing of the population which causes a chronic shortage
of building material. For this result, civil engineers have been challenged to convert
industrial waste into useful building construction materials. Disposing of waste has
huge environmental impacts and can cause serious problems(11). Recycling of such
wastes into building materials appears to be a viable solution not only to such
pollution problems but also to the problem of the economic design of buildings.
The current pool of knowledge pertaining to papercrete was obtained
predominately through many anecdotal field observations and experiments. Yet very
little by way of peer-reviewed research exists in regard for this material.
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
The objective of the present investigation are:
 To utilize the waste materials like paper, flyash etc, in the process of
manufacturing a new type of eco-friendly bricks, namely papercrete bricks.
 To manufacture and study the durability and strength of the papercrete bricks
in order to effectively use these papercrete bricks commercially for
construction purposes.
 To extend the investigation further to study the structural behaviour of the
papercrete brick masonry theoretically and experimentally.

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METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
In order to accomplish the aforesaid objectives, the research work has been
divided into nine major parts. They are:
1. Material collection
2. Study of properties of materials
3. Specimen making
4. Preliminary tests
5. Optimization of mix
6. Behavioural studies on the papercrete bricks and masonry units
7. Comparison of results with conventional bricks
8. Comparison of results with software analysis
9. Viability and cost analysis

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Methodology – Flow chart
STUDIES ON BEHAVIOUR OF
PAPERCRETE MASONARY UNIT
STUDIES ON STRENGTH OF
PAPERCRETE BRICKS
COMPARISON WITH FEM
ANALYSIS
COMPARISON WITH
CONVENTIONAL BRICKS
VIABILITY AND COST ANALYSIS
CONCLUSION/
SUGGESTION
MIX OPTIMIZATION
PERCENTAGE OF WATER
ABSORPTION
MAKING THE SPECIMEN
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
PRILIMINARY TEST
BIO DEGRADATIONCOMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

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The flowchart represents the methodology of the present work which
describes each and every stage of work as well.
Collection Of Material
To complete these goals, materials were collected from various sources. The
material collection is an important and basic step in any project. Yet, the material
that is used in a project should not cause any harm to the environment. In this study,
the paper is the main constituent material. A lot of small paper mills (Cardboard
manufacturing factories) are surrounded by our locality. Papers are collected in two
forms. (i) slurry form and (ii) dry form. Slurry form (Paper pulp) was bought from
SPB and TNPL. Dry form i.e. old newspapers especially The Samaj is collected from
college hostel and college Library. Of these two forms, the slurry form is not good
enough in fibre content because the slurries are the final output effluent after the
recycling process.
So, the newspapers were collected and converted to a slurry form (paper pulp)
using small flour machine. Flyash was collected from nearest Plant (dry ash) and
the properties were studied. Rice-husk-ash and micro silica were purchased from
online dealer and those properties were studied. Sand and 43-grade cement were
collected and the properties were studied as per BIS standard. Also, the
waterproofing materials were bought from various dealers and the properties were
studied and it was confirmed with the respective companies.
Preparation of Specimen
Waste papers or old newspapers were collected from in and around the locality
and shredded into little pieces and then immersed in the water bucket.
After 15 days, wet papers were taken out and poured into the flavor machine.
The machine pulverized the paper and it was converted to the paper slurry (paper
pulp). Normally the paper pulp would be in wet condition at that time. Using pressed
filtering process, the excess amount of water was expelled. Now, the paper pulp with
some residual water content was ready to mix with other ingredients which are
already collected. All the ingredients (excluding paper pulp) were in the dry state.
All the ingredients were poured into the mixer container and mixed uniformly
electrically. Then the papercrete matrix was sent to collecting drum through the
conveyor belt. Here the moulds received the matrix and pressing unit compressed
the fresh matrix with 10 kN/mm2
hydraulically. Then the bricks were taken out from

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the mould. The dimension of the papercrete bricks was 230mm X 110mm X 70mm.
Within 15days, i.e. after hearing the metallic sound when strikeout the brick surface,
the specimen was ready for testing purpose.
Optimization of Mix Through Preliminary Tests
As per Indian standards, BIS recommends (IS:1077-1992 and IS:3495-1992)
only four tests for clay bricks, i.e.
a) Compressive strength,
b) Water absorption test,
c) Efflorescence test,
d) Warpage test.
Of these tests, warpage and efflorescence are observation tests. In this regard,
compressive strength and percentage of water absorption are the main criteria for
manipulating the optimization of papercrete mix.
In these stages, paper and cement are the key materials for papercrete matrix.
Additionally, flyash and/or rice husk ash and/or silica fume are added with and
without sand. From more than 24 trial mixes, the successive mix was found out.
In order to improve the resistant of water absorption, different types of
waterproofing agents were added in desirable dosage to papercrete matrixes.
Finally, depending upon the compressive strength, percentage of water
absorption and also bio-degradation test, the papercrete mix was optimized.
Studies on Papercrete Bricks and Masonry Unit
The flyash based coated papercrete bricks were studied for compressive
strength, the percentage of water absorption, acid resistance, behaviour under
elevated temperature, sorptivity and thermal conductivity. Before the masonry
construction, the loading frames were designed and the set up was installed on the
rigid firmed floor in a structural engineering laboratory. In the first stage, the loading
frame was tested without infilled masonry and recorded the behaviour of the frame
using Prosof software. Then, flyash based papercrete brick masonry and
conventional clay brick masonry were infilled in the loading frame separately. The
behaviour of infilled masonry walls was studied.

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Comparison of Results
The results from compressive strength, the percentage of water absorption,
acid resistance and sorptivity of flyash based papercrete bricks were compared with
conventional clay bricks and modular flyash bricks. The results from the behaviour
of infilled flyash based papercrete brick masonry wall were noted and compared
with conventional clay brick masonry wall. Also, a model infilled flyash based
papercrete brick masonry wall is created by using ANSYS software and compared
with experimental results.
Viability and Cost Analysis
The preliminary test results show some negative points. But by taking the
efforts from literature support and discussing with field and academic professionals,
the negative points were rectified by using internal and external waterproofing
admixtures. So the coated papercrete bricks are the viable and sustainable material
in nature and the environment.
The cost of the material plays an important role in the construction industry.
The cost analysis of papercrete bricks was studied at the end of the project and it was
compared with conventional clay and modular flyash bricks. The cost of
conventional clay bricks and modular flyash bricks were calculated based on March
2019 Bhubaneswar, Khurdha District Odisha.
ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS
The thesis consists of nine chapters. The first chapter gives a brief introduction
to the study carried out and explains the research significance of the proposed
investigation. Chapter 1 presents the objectives of the study and methodology to be
followed for the research work. Chapter 2 reviews critically the previous studies in
the fields of utilization of waste resources and papercrete. Towards the end of this
chapter, a summary of earlier works and the scope of the present study are discussed
in detail. Chapter 3 describes the properties of papercrete ingredients.
Chapter 4 deals with the outcome of mineral admixture in papercrete bricks.
In this chapter, the effects of addition of flyash, micro silica, rice husk ash, sand and
cement on the various mechanical properties like compressive strength, water
absorption were studied. Concluding remarks of these studies are presented at the
end of the chapter. Based on chapter 4, some negative observations have been faced.

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Rectifications of these difficulties are given in Chapter 5 under the title of Papercrete
mix optimization with flyash and based on the trial mixes, the papercrete mix was
optimized. In view of that, bio-degradation test was conducted on flyash based
papercrete building bricks. The chapter deals with the studies on the micro
characterization of
papercrete bricks also and at the end of the chapter concluding remarks of the
studies are noted. Chapter 6 is devoted to studying the strength and durability of the
coated flyash based papercrete bricks. Finally, it presents a judgment of these results
with conventional brick results.
In Chapter 7, the strength and behaviour of flyash based papercrete masonry
are delineated. In this chapter, ANSYS modal has been suggested in order to
compare and verify the results. Cost analysis of flyash based papercrete brick is done
in Chapter 8 and also it is compared with the cost of the conventional brick. Finally,
the conclusions arrived at in each chapter are shortened in Chapter 9. At the end of
this chapter, the social outcome of the project in the present research work is
highlighted and the scope for future work is also suggested.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
GENERAL
The present investigation deals with studies on the Papercrete building bricks and
so an attempt has been made to review briefly the available literature on the
following topics:
1. Waste utilization in the construction industry
2. Flyash bricks
3. Papercrete bricks and
4. Masonry infilled walls
A large number of investigations are available in the literature on the above
topics and only those investigations that are related to the strength, durability,
ductility and energy absorption capacity on the above topics are discussed here.
The scope of the present study is mentioned at the end of the Chapter.
WASTE UTILIZATION IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
In our country, there is a great demand for construction materials in the civil
engineering field. So, it is a very difficult problem for the availability of materials.
The researchers have developed the waste management strategies to apply for
replacement of materials for their specific need(12). One of the construction sector’s
major contributions to the preservation of the environment and sustainable
development is the reuse and recycling of the waste materials it generates, i.e.
reducing, reusing, recycling and regenerating the residues that originate the
constructive activity. This has increased the life cycle of these materials, thereby
reducing the amount of waste dumping and natural resource extraction.
Bricks with a range of rice husk contents were prepared and then after fired in
either small electric kiln or a commercial Hoffman kiln. The properties like density,
compressive strength, modulus of rupture, water absorption and the initial state of
absorption were measured. They concluded from the results that it was possible to
incorporate up to 50% rice husks (by volume of clay) into bricks without causing
brick properties in developing countries to fall outside the limits which are
acceptable(13).

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To produce structural lightweight concrete using solid waste, namely the oil
palm shell, as a coarse aggregate. Reported in this paper are the compressive
strength, bond strength, modulus of elasticity and flexural behaviour of oil palm shell
concrete. It was found that although oil palm shell concrete has a low modulus of
elasticity, full-scale beam tests revealed that the deflection under the design service
load was acceptable as the span-deflection ratios range between 252 and 263. These
ratios are within the allowable limits provided by BS 8110. It was observed that the
ultimate experimental moment for the singly reinforced beams was about 19% to
35% greater compared to the predicted moments from BS 8110(14).
The reuse of by-products or waste from industrial processes in construction is
an increasingly common practice. In this article, we present an experimental study
aimed at evaluating the reuse of paper pulp waste generated in the manufacture of
paper for nonstructural elements in the form of a plaster–pulp composite material.
The analysis of several variables, such as the proportion of pulp added or the mix
procedure, in respect to aspects relating to the properties of the fresh and hard
material, has demonstrated that it is feasible, although the natural state of the waste
material used, with high water content and extensive caking, makes prior treatment
advisable(15).
The study was directed towards determining the usability of clay and fine
wastes (CW and FW) of boron from the concentrator plant in Kirka (Turkey) as a
fluxing agent in the production of red mud (RM) brick. Both laboratory studies on
the characterization of materials and industrial-scale tests for production of bricks
were carried out. CW and FW, which have similar chemical composition but include
different types and amounts of oxides, were added in amounts of 5, 10 and 15 wt%
to RM, which consists of high amounts of Fe2O3, Al2O3, SiO2 and alkalies. Six
different sets of samples have been produced and fired at 700, 800 and 900 1C. Dry
shrinkage of the green body, bending and compressive strength, firing shrinkage,
water absorption, frost resistance and harmful magnesia and lime tests on heat-
treated bodies have been performed. The mineralogical and mechanical tests showed
that the usability of boron wastes as a fluxing agent in the production of RM bricks
was possible. In addition, the samples obtained by adding 15 wt% CW and FW to
RM showed the best mechanical characteristic(16).
The effects of processed waste tea material addition on the durability and
mechanical properties of the bricks were investigated. Due to the organic nature of
PWT, pore-forming (in the fired body) and binding (unfired body) ability in clay
body was investigated. First, PWT material was dispersed in water for 24 h.
Afterwards, in order to get comparable results, different ratios of the waste (0, 2.5,

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and 5% by mass) were added to the raw-brick clay. Test specimens were produced
by the extrusion method. The samples were tested using the standard test methods
and compared with the specifications. The compressive strength of the unfired and
fired samples significantly increased as compared to pure samples. As a result, it
was concluded that PWT can be utilized in unfired and fired building bricks by
taking advantage of low cost and environmental protection(17).
The physical and mechanical properties of brick samples with WSW and LPW
are investigated. The test results show that the WSW–LPW combination provides
results which are of potential to be used in the production of lighter and economical
new brick material. The observations during the tests show that the effect of 10–30%
WSW replacements in WSW–LPW matrix does not exhibit a sudden brittle fracture
even beyond the failure loads and indicates high energy absorption capacity by
allowing lower labouring cost. This composition produces a comparatively lighter
composite which is about 65% lighter than the conventional concrete bricks.
Concrete with 30% replacement level of WSW which attained 7.2 MPa compressive
and 3.08 MPa flexural strength values, satisfies the requirements in BS6073 for
building material to be used in the structural applications(18).
FLYASH BRICKS
The addition of fly ash up to 60% at a firing temperature as 950°C has no
significant harmful effects on the brick quality. It seems that the fly ash added
building bricks show reasonably good properties and may become competitive with
the conventional building bricks. Use of fly ash as a raw material for the production
of building bricks is not only a viable alternative to clay but also a solution to a
difficult and expensive waste disposal problem(19).
The test conducted by taking high-performance flyash bricks. Flyash brick
had 24% better compressive strength and 44% higher bond strength than the good
quality clay bricks. The resistance of the bricks to repeated cycles of salt exposure
showed zero loss of mass and indicated excellent resistance to sulphate attack. The
density of Flyash Bricks is 28% less than that of standard clay bricks. This reduction
in the weight of bricks results in a great deal of savings amongst which are savings
in the raw materials and transportation costs and savings to the consumer, that result
from the increased number of units and reduction in the loads on structural
elements(20).
Fly ash bricks pass the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)
test recommended by EPA with large margins. This means that when fly ash bricks
are broken and must be disposed of in landfills, they can enter any ordinary landfill
for non-hazardous waste materials without any problem. Fly ash bricks can absorb

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carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in a chemical process called “carbonation.” This
process causes carbon sequestration, reducing the CO2 in the atmosphere, which
helps to mitigate global warming(21).
PAPERCRETE BRICKS
According to the data, India is the top 5th
country consuming paper, i.e 17.2
million metric ton(22). During the first half of last year, there was a 200% rise in
waste paper exports from the European Union to India, according to the
Confederation of European Paper Industries. And from the US exports rose by more
than 100% between January and October last year compared to the same period in
2017, according to the International Scrap Recycling Institute (ISRI). The Indian
recycling industry needs nearly 14 million tonnes of waste paper to meet current
demands. Domestic recycling only produces 30% of that amount, and recycling
levels are only half the global average. So the demand for waste paper from abroad
is likely to remain strong(23).the chemical behaviour of the paper is suitable for the
papercrete and the tensile strength of the paper also seems to be sufficient for the
task. When applying a pull on a single sheet of paper on its edges, it has great
strength. Ripping a piece of paper is easier than pulling it apart. So it denotes the
shear strength of the paper is not as great as its tensile strength. But ripping hundreds
of sheets of paper is not an easy task. So it shows that it has more shear strength.
Managing sludges in a sustainable manner require the availability of a wide
spectrum of recycling alternatives to enable the determination of the most
economically feasible solution near the production site. It has been shown here that
more than half of the sludges analyzed could be reused in the paper and board
industry, generally in applications where the optical properties of the final product
are not of critical importance(24).
Lime additions to quartz-rich clayey material for adobe bricks elaboration
induced the development of calcite and calcium silicate hydrate, which is mainly
formed from the reaction of lime and tiny silica. The presence of the latter compound
contributed to the reinforcement of adobe bricks. However, the excessive formation
of portlandite and calcite, and the minor development of CSH affected negatively
the mechanical resistance of adobe bricks. Finally, for the elaboration of
strengthening and compacted lime-clayey adobe bricks, it may be recommended to
reduce the grain size of quartz, increase the duration of hydration and preserve the
paste from the air(25).

24
MASONRY INFILLED WALLS
Masonry infill walls are widely used as partitions worldwide. Field evidence
has shown that continuous infill masonry walls can help reduce the vulnerability of
a reinforced concrete structure(26). In this work codes of practice on masonry design
give guidelines to assess masonry compressive strength by considering the
compressive strength of the masonry unit, the height of the masonry unit and the
mortar.
Stress-strain characteristic and strength of the burnt-clay bricks vary depends
upon the minerals present inside the clay used to make the modular clay brick
production and manufacturing process employed. Another important aspect is that
the low strength bricks are used to make low-rise building in India and also in the
developing countries.
Based on the experimental seismic performance investigation conducted on
URBM(unreinforced brick masonry) walls built with stone dust mortar, the results
are a. Vertical splitting may occur in masonry walls supporting point loads at the
ends when subjected to lateral seismic forces. b. The magnitude of the relative pre-
compression level also influenced the extent of cracking in walls. Walls with higher
pre-compression level exhibited more and narrower cracks, whereas walls with
lower pre-compression levels exhibited fewer but wider cracks(27).
A simple analytical model has been proposed by T.Nwofor for prediction of
the modulus of elasticity of masonry, to aid the numerical analysis of masonry
structures. Finally, compressive test result obtained from the test on brick units and
mortar is enough to predict the elastic properly of masonry, as simple relationships
have been obtained for obtaining the modulus of elasticity of bricks, mortar and
masonry from their corresponding compressive strengths(28).
SUMMARY OF EARLIER WORKS
The reviews of the literature study on earlier works reveal the following:
i. Industrial wastes can be consumed as by-products and can especially be
used as fine-aggregate and/or micro filler in concrete mixtures, inducing
benefits on its mechanical properties.
ii. Natural wastes like rice-husk-ash, coconut fibre, durain fibre, wood
sawdust and limestone dust composition produce a comparatively lighter
than conventional concrete brick. It does not exhibit a sudden brittle
fracture even beyond the failure loads and indicates high energy absorption

25
capacity by allowing labouring cost. Also, its compressive and flexural
strength values satisfy the requirements of BS 6073 for building material
to be used in the structural application.
iii. Also, most of the investigations were carried out on a lot of industrial
wastes like flyash, boron waste and blast furnace slag as replacement of
fine aggregates in concrete blocks. Only very few literature surveys were
available in regard to papercrete.
iv. There is a lot of scope for studying the papercrete bricks and its impact on
the various engineering properties.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The review of the literature study indicates that the papercrete building bricks
enhance its various type of properties like mechanical, dimensional, and structural
integrity. The review of the literature also indicates that the addition of paper mill
wastes like paper sludge ash gives the desired strength and durability of brick
significantly. In most of the studies, the industrial and natural waste like rice-husk-
ash, boron waste, fly-ash, wood sawdust, and limestone dust on the strength and
other properties like durability, energy absorption capacity, workability capacity etc.
In this present investigation, we will study the strength and other engineering
properties like energy absorption capacity, durability, and ductility of flyash based
papercrete building bricks.

26
CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF PAPERCRETE BRICKS
GENERAL
Any construction depends on the efficient use of the material whose properties
are satisfying the requirements. The physical and chemical properties of each of the
ingredients invariably affected the papercrete bricks. It can influence the behaviour
of the structure which is made by papercrete. So the physical and chemical properties
of the papercrete ingredients have been studied in this chapter.
PAPERCRETE
Papercrete is a construction material which consists of re-pulped paper fibre
with Portland cement or clay and/or other soil added(29). Papercrete may be mixed
in many ways and different types of papercrete contain 50-80% of waste paper.
PAPERCRETE ADDITIVES
In this study, paper plays a major role in papercrete. Cement is added to the
matrix as a binding material. In addition to that, waterproofing admixture is added
to the mix for minimizing the percentage of water absorption. The physical and
chemical properties of all the ingredients and admixtures are described below.
Paper
Paper is the main ingredient of papercrete and so its properties depend on
paper’s microstructure. Wood fragments are mechanically treated to dissolve the
lignin binder and to free the cellulose fibers. Paper is then made by pressing the pulp
to remove excess water. Paper is an anisotropic material and the quality and strength
of its fibres differ depending on several factors. They are the type of wood, the
percentage of recycled paper, the amount of water in the pulp, the way of pulping
(chemical or mechanical) and the speed of drying. Today half of the paper fibre
utilized in current production comes from recovered fibers. Yet recovered fibers are
inherently less strong and moving the pulp means orienting the fibres. The below
table shows the properties of the dry paper.

27
Properties of dry paper
Properties Values
Weight 47GMS
Thickness 0.06mm
Moisture 7.5%
Bursting Strength 168kpa
Tearing resistance 12.6kg
Tensile Strength 1.13kg
Porosity 475mls/minute
Cement
The cement is obtained by burning at a very high temperature of the mixture
of calcareous and argillaceous materials. The mixture of ingredients should be
intimate and they should be in correct proportion. The calcined product is known as
clinker. A small quantity of gypsum is added to the clinker and it is then pulverized
into a very fine powder, which turns into cement. In this study, 43 grade Ordinary
Portland Cement was used for the entire work.
Physical properties of cement
Properties Result Obtained Requirements
of IS 8112-1989
Fineness
(by sieve
analysis)
4.6% Less than 10%
Specific surface
area(cm2
/g)
2,880 Not less than
2250
Specific gravity 3.15 3.15
Initial setting
time(Minutes)
32 Not less than 30
Final setting
time(Minutes)
490 Not less than
600
Compressive
Strength(MPa)
At 3 days
At 7 days
At 28 days
28
41
52
23
33
43

28
Flyash
Fly ash or flue ash, also known as pulverised fuel ash in the United Kingdom,
is a coal combustion product that is composed of the particulates (fine particles of
burned fuel) that are driven out of coal-fired boilers together with the flue gases. Ash
that falls to the bottom of the boiler is called bottom ash. In modern coal-fired power
plants, fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle
filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys(30). In 2007, the
United States produced 131 million tons of coal combustion products. While 43
percent were used beneficially, nearly 75 million tons were disposed of. By using
coal ash instead of disposing of it in landfills we are avoiding the environmental
degradation and energy costs associated with mining virgin materials. We are
building stronger, longer-lasting structures that save taxpayer dollars and minimize
environmental impacts. For every ton of fly ash used in place of Portland cement
about a ton of carbon dioxide is prevented from entering the Earth’s atmosphere.
Also, it takes the equivalent of 55 gallons of oil to produce a single ton of
cement(31).
Chemical composition of flyash
COMPONENTS PERCENTAGE(%)
BY WEIGHT
Sio2 20-60
Al2o3 5-35
Fe2O3 10-40
CaO 1-12
MgO 0-5
SO3 0-4
Na2O 0-4
K2O 0-3
LOI 0-15
Rice husk-Ash(RHA)
Rice milling generates a by-product known as a husk. This surrounds the
paddy grain. During milling of paddy, about 78 % of the weight is received as rice,
broken rice and bran. Rest 22 % of the weight of paddy is received as a husk. This
husk is used as fuel in the rice mills to generate steam for the parboiling process.
This husk contains about 75 % organic volatile matter and the balance 25 % of the
weight of this husk is converted into ash during the firing process, is known as rice

29
husk ash ( RHA ). This RHA, in turn, contains around 85 % - 90 % amorphous
silica(32).
RHA is a good super-pozzolans. Adding RHA to the concrete mix even in low
replacement will dramatically increase the workability, strength and impermeability
of concrete mixes, and making the concrete durable to chemical attacks and abrasion.
Chemical composition of Rice husk-ash
Components Percentage(%) by Weight
SiO2 91.8
Fe2O3 1.9
Al2O3 2.2
CaO 0.9
MgO 1.9
SO3 0.4
Loss On ignition 0.9
Micro Silica
Microsilica is a mineral admixture composed of very fine solid glassy spheres
of silicon dioxide. Most microsilica particles are less than 1 micron (0.00004 inch)
in diameter, generally 50 to 100 times finer than average cement or fly ash particles.
Frequently called condensed silica fume, microsilica is a by-product of the industrial
manufacture of ferrosilicon and metallic silicon in high-temperature electric arc
furnaces(33).
Microsilica in concrete contributes to strength and durability two ways: as a
pozzolan, microsilica provides more uniform distribution and a greater volume of
hydration products; as a filler, microsilica decreases the average size of pores in the
cement paste. Used as an admixture, microsilica can improve the properties of both
fresh and hardened concrete. Used as a partial replacement for cement, microsilica
can substitute for energy-consuming cement without sacrifice of quality(33).
Microsilica reduces the rate of carbonation, decreases permeability to chloride
ions, imparts high electrical resistivity, and has little effect on oxygen transport.
Therefore, microsilica concrete can be expected to be strongly protective of
reinforcement and embedments(33).

30
Chemical Properties of micro Silica
Components Percentage(%) by Weight
SiO2 89.6
Fe2O3 1.6
Al2O3 0.9
CaO 0.6
MgO 1.0
Na2O 1.3
Loss on ignition 5
Physical Properties of Flyash, Rice husk-ash and micro Silica
Values
Properties
Flyash
Rice Husk- Mico
ash Silica
Moisture content (%) 0.5 1.47 Nil
Blaine Specific Surface Area 29,969 5,750 29,800
(cm2
/g)
Specific gravity 2.4 2.27 2.45
Strength index compares with 84 82 86
control mortars (%) at 28 days
Water absorption (by weight) 13% to 15% 18% to 22% Up to 10%
Sand
Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral
particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can
also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e., a soil containing more than 85
percent sand-sized particles by mass. The composition of sand varies, depending on
the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in
inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide,
or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz. The second most common type of sand is
calcium carbonate, for example, aragonite, which has mostly been created, over the
past half billion years, by various forms of life, like coral and shellfish. For example,
it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the
ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean. ISO 14688 grades sands as fine,
medium, and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to 0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the

31
United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size: very
fine sand (1⁄16 – 1⁄8 mm diameter), fine sand (1⁄8 mm – 1⁄4 mm), medium sand (1⁄4
mm – 1⁄2 mm), coarse sand (1⁄2 mm – 1 mm), and very coarse sand (1 mm – 2
mm)(34).
Water Proofing Admixtures
In this study, paper is the major ingredient in papercrete mix and it is a full
water-absorbable material. Hence to minimize the water absorption, waterproofing
admixtures were used as one of additives in papercrete mix. Generally, the water
proofing admixtures consist of two approaches, namely internally and externally. In
the study, internal and external waterproofing admixtures are used by means of mix
optimization. ‘Conplast WP 90’, ‘Powder Waterproof 105’ and Styrene Butadiene
Rubber (SBR) latex polymer are used as internal waterproofing admixtures and
‘Zycosil’ and ‘Prime seal 604’ with ‘Raincoat’ are used as external waterproofing
admixture. Its properties given by the manufacturer of the respective waterproofing
admixtures are arrayed in Table below.
Properties of internal water proofing admixtures
Values
S.No. Properties Conplast WP
Powder
SBR Latex
Waterproof
90 Polymer
105
1. Appearance Free flowing Free flowing Free flowing
powder powder liquid
2. Bulk density 1.15 ± 0.05 0.8 ± 0.05 1.04 ± 0.05
@ 25°C (g/cc)
3. Setting time 30 minutes / 30 minutes / 30 minutes /
600 minutes 600 minutes 600 minutes
4. Compressive Matches to Matches to --
strength control mix control mix
5. Water 38% of control 35% of control 32% of control
permeability mix mix mix

32
Zycosil and Prime seal 604 with ‘Raincoat’ are used as external waterproofing
admixture and they serve as external coating agents applied over the surface of the
papercrete bricks. The properties of the materials are provided in the Table below.
Properties of external waterproofing admixtures
S.No. Properties
Values
Zycosil Prime seal 604 Raincoat
1. Appearance Transparent Transparent or
White Gel
clear film
2. Bulk density @
1.03± 0.05 1.10 ± 0.05 1.06 ± 0.05
25°C (g/cc)
3. Solid Content
>25 .>35 >35
(%)
4. Tensile strength
-- > 2.0 >1.76(N/mm2
)
5. Elongation at
-- >100 --
Break (%)

33
CHAPTER 4
EFFECT OF MINERAL ADMIXTURE FOR STRENGTH
AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES IN PAPERCRETE
BRICKS
GENERAL
The effect of mineral admixture in papercrete bricks has been studied and
focused on the chapter. Flyash, Rice husk-ash and Micro silica are used as
admixtures in the papercrete brick matrix. The effect of mineral admixture was
studied based on the compressive strength and percentage of water absorption of the
papercrete bricks. Based on the test results, the problem was faced by means of water
absorption. In this chapter, the problem findings are discussed in detail.
MINERAL ADMIXTURES
Admixtures are added in concrete to improve the quality of concrete. Mineral
admixtures include fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF), ground granulated blast furnace
slag (GGBS), metakaolin (MK), and rice husk ash (RHA) which possess certain
characteristics through which they influence the properties of concrete differently.
The reported benefits of mineral admixtures are often associated with the harden
properties of concrete; however, mineral admixtures may also influence the
properties of wet concrete between the time of mixing and hardening in one or more
of the following ways such as they may affect water demand, heat of hydration,
setting time, bleeding, and reactivity(35).
Mix Proportion of Papercrete Bricks
Paper is the major constituent of the mix proportions. From literature support,
papers with cement, fly ash, rice husk-ash, micro silica with and without sand are
used as ingredients of the mix with various proportions. From these materials, 24
mix proportions were used and studied in terms of compressive strength and the
percentage of water absorption. Below table shows the details of mix proportions
used in the study.

34
Details of Mix Proportions
Mix Proportions Material Requirement per m3
( in kg)
S.No.
Mix Rice
MicroDesignation C:FA:RHA:MS:S:P Cement Flyash husk- Sand Paper
ash silica
1 A1 1:2:0:0:0:4 185 370 -- -- -- 740
2 A2 1:3:0:0:0:6 130 390 -- -- -- 780
3 A3 1:1.5:0:0:0.5:4 185 278 -- -- 92.5 740
4 A4 1:2.5:0:0:0.5:6 130 325 -- -- 65 780
5 B1 1:0:2:0:0:4 185 -- 370 -- -- 740
6 B2 1:0:3:0:0:6 130 -- 390 -- -- 780
7 B3 1:0: 1.5:0:0.5:4 185 -- 278 -- 92.3 740
8 B4 1:0: 2.5:0:0.5:6 130 -- 325 -- 65 780
9 C1 1:1.9:0:0.1:0:4 185 351 -- 18.5 -- 740
10 C2 1:2.9:0:0.1:0:6 130 377 -- 13 -- 780
11 C3 1:1.4:0:0.1:0.5:4 185 259 -- 18.5 93. 740
12 C4 1:2.4:0:0.1:0.5:6 130 312 -- 13 65 780
13 D1 1:0:1.9:0.1:0:4 185 -- 352 18.5 -- 740
14 D2 1:0:2.9:0.1:0:6 130 -- 377 13 -- 780
15 D3 1:0:1.4:0.1:0.5:4 185 -- 259 18.5 92.5 740
16 D4 1:0:2.4:0.1:0.5:6 130 -- 312 13 65 780
17 E1 1:0:0:0:0:1 648 -- -- -- -- 1
18
E2
1:0:0:0:0:3
324 -- -- -- --
972
19 F1 1:0:0:0:0.5:3 235 -- -- -- 352.50 705
20 F2 1:0:0:0:2:4 185 -- -- -- 370 740
21 F3 1:0:0:0:3:6 130 -- -- -- 390 780
22 G1 1:0:0:0.1:1.5:3 235 -- -- 23.5 352 705
23 G2 1:0:0:0.1:2:4 185 -- -- 18.5 370 740
24 G3 1:0:0:0.1:3:6 130 -- -- 13 390 780

35
Ingredients of papercrete mix
All the proportions were taken on a weight basis. Papers were taken in wet
condition, i.e. slurry form. Flyash was taken from near Plants. Rice husk was
purchased from outsourcing and it was converted to ash form by a calcination
process. Micro Silica was bought from IndiaMart. In this project, the same company
43 grade ordinary Portland cement has been used in all times. Then the properties of
all the ingredients were studied and checked within the limits of BIS specification.
Generation of Pulp for Papercrete Bricks
The papers which were collected could not be used directly. Before mixing
with other ingredients, papers were converted into slurry form, known as pulp. First,
the pins, threads and other materials were removed. Then the papers were torn into
small pieces and all the torn pieces of papers were immersed in water. The papers
were kept in water for 3 to 5 days, and they soon degraded into a paste like a form.
After that period, the papers were taken out from the water tank and shredded into
little pieces. Using the small flavor machine, the shredded papers were converted
into pulp. The various stages of pulp generation are shown in Figure. The paper pulp
had residual water in itself, and it was not good enough for mixing the ingredients.
So the required amount of water was added at the time of mixing.

36
a. Tearing the paper b. Papers immersed in water
c. Small flavor machine d. Paper Pulp
Pulp Generation for papercrete bricks
Casting of Specimen for Papercrete Bricks
After the paper pulp was generated, first dry ingredients were taken out on the
weight basis and all the dry mixes were mixed uniformly. Then, these dry mixes
were sprinkled over the required amount of paper pulp and mixed uniformly
manually. After mixing, the mixes were placed in the mould for 30 minutes. From
this process, six moulds were used at a time to make the process very fast. In this
study, the bricks were moulded manually by hand i.e. hand moulding. And these
bricks were ground moulded bricks. Before mixing, the wooden mould was ready
for casting the brick specimen. Machine oil was applied to the inner surfaces of
mould for easy removing of mould and without causing any damage to the specimen.
The size of the specimen was 230mm x 110mm x 75mm. The specimen was kept on
the vibrating table. Papercrete fibrous mix was poured into the mould by three layers
and fully compacted mechanically. The casting was completed and then the
specimen was laid on the laying table. After 15 minutes, the mould was removed
carefully from the specimen. After 28 days of air drying, i.e. on hearing the metallic
sound when striking out the brick surface, the specimen was ready for testing.

37
a. Mixing of papercrete ingredients b. Moulding of bricks
c. Demoulding d. Dry bricks
Casting the papercrete brick
Preliminary Tests on Papercrete Brick
The testing of the materials was an important study for the fitness of material
at a desirable location in the structural system. All the tests were carried out with
BIS specifications. As per IS:3495 (Part 1 to 4)-1992 recommendation, compressive
strength and percentage of water absorption were examined.
Compressive Strength Development of Papercrete Bricks
Compression test is the main and important test for bricks. This test was
carried out by a Universal Testing Machine (UTM). This test was carried out on the
28th day from the date of the casting of brick. Figure 4.4 shows the compression test
being done. The bricks were then tested under a uni-axial compressive force
using100-tonne universal testing machine. While testing the brick, great care must
be taken, because papercrete bricks never failed catastrophically, it just compressed
like squeezing rubber. Even though the brick failed at a higher load, the structure did
not collapse. Only the outer faces cracked and peeled out. So the papercrete bricks
showed elastic behaviour and less brittleness.

38
Compression test on papercrete bricks
Water Absorption
Five numbers of bricks from each proportion should be taken for this test.
First, the specimen was dried in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 105°C to 115°C
till it attained substantially constant mass. Next, the specimen was taken from the
oven then cooled to room temperature and obtained its weight as W1. Then the dried
specimen was immersed completely in clean water at a temperature of 27 ± 2°C for
24 hours then the specimen was removed and wiped out to remove any traces of
water with a damp cloth. Later, the specimen was weighed after it had been removed
from the water as W2. The percentage of water absorption by mass, after 24 hours
immersion in water was noted and the average of the result of each proportion was
noted.
Effect and Performance Evaluation of Papercrete Bricks
From the tests on compressive strength, it was observed that sand mixed
proportions attained high compressive strength compared to other mixes. The
mixture of sand and flyash/rice husk-ash produces higher compressive strength than
other mixtures. When adding 10% of micro Silica to the sand, flyash/rice husk-ash
mixture, the compressive strength was increased by 20 %. The compressive strength
was decreased while increasing the paper percentage into papercrete mix.
From the test on percentage water absorption, it is seen that sand mixed
proportions were absorbed less amount of water compared to the other mix
proportions. The proportion of paper was increased in the mix and the percentage of

39
water absorption was also increased. In addition to micro silica, 3% to 18% of water
absorption was minimized.
Compressive strength of different types of papercrete bricks
Water absorption of different types of papercrete bricks
In the mix, micro silica acted as a filling material. So the voids in between the
cement grains were filled. The micro silica present in the mix became densified and
resisted the more compressive strength and prevented the percentage of water
absorption compared to other mixes. When the paper content became high in the
mix, the brick did not appear brittle in nature. It compressed like squeezing rubber.
Also, more paper absorbed more water and retained in a particular period.

40
From the next figure, it may be observed that flyash based papercrete bricks
had a high strength to weight ratio. It was 6% higher than rice husk ash based
papercrete bricks but showed almost the same value compared with micro silica-
based papercrete bricks. Normally, the percentage of the paper in the mix exhibited
higher strength by weight ratio as the brick became lesser in value.
Strength to weight ratio of different types of papercrete bricks
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In this chapter, various mix proportions were made with different mineral
admixtures with and without sand. As per IS: 3495-1984, compression test and water
absorption test played a vital role in the mix finalization. From the study, it is seen
that if the percentage of paper increased, the percentage of water absorption also
increased. It is also observed that compression strength of the mix was increased
when the sand proportion was high in the mix.

41
CHAPTER 5
PAPERCRETE MIX OPTIMIZATION WITH FLYASH
GENERAL
The tests on compressive strength and percentage of water absorption tests
showed that the mix proportion was high in compressive strength, which was weak
in terms of the percentage of water absorption and vice versa. The lightweight
papercrete brick was fInd by rectifying these problems. In view of that, trial mixes
were used to found the optimized mix proportions with waterproofing agents, and
the brick was studied for bio-degradable ground because the paper is the major
constituent. This chapter delineates the characterization study of flyash based
papercrete brick and its optimization.
Effect of addition of waterproofing materials to the papercrete mix
From the preliminary test results, fly-ash based mix proportions only gave the
pragmatic results and they are also cost-effective. Among all the proportions, flyash
based papercrete bricks were taken for optimum study by means of water absorption.
So, papercrete mix was optimized by adding waterproofing materials. Three
different types of waterproofing materials were added to flyash based papercrete mix
proportions and the optimized mix was found by trial basis. Below table shows the
various trial mix proportions for flyash based papercrete bricks. Here T1, T2 and T2
stand for Trial mix-I, Trial mix-II and Trial mix-III respectively.

42
Mix Proportions of Trial Mixes
Mix Proportions Material Requirement per m3
( in kg)
S. Mix
Powder
SBR
Conplast water
No. ID. C:FA:S:P:CP:F:SBR Cement Flyash Sand Paper Latex
WP 90 proof
Polymer
105
1 T1-1 1:2:0:4:0.2:0:0 185 370 -- 740 37 -- --
2 T1-2 1:3:0:6:0.2:0:0 130 390 -- 780 26 -- --
3 T1-3 1:1.5:0.5:4:0.2:0:0 178 278 93 740 35.6 -- --
4 T2-1 1:2:0:4:0:0.2:0 185 370 -- 740 -- 37 --
5 T2-2 1:3:0:6:0:0.2:0 130 390 -- 780 -- 26 --
6 T2-3 1:1.5:0.5:4:0:0.2:0 178 278 93 740 -- 35.6 --
7 T3-1 1:2:0:4:0:0.2:0.2 185 370 -- 740 -- 37 92.5
8 T3-2 1:3:0:6:0:0.2:0.2 130 390 -- 780 -- 26 65
9 T3-3 1:1.5:0.5:4:0:0.2:0.2 178 278 93 740 -- 35.6 89
Effect of addition of Conplast WP90 as a Trial mix – I
In trial mix-I, internal waterproofing admixture Conplast WP90 was used as
waterproofing admixture. The Conplast WP90 was manufactured by Fosroc,
Bangalore. The company recommends 20% of Conplast WP 90 to the weight of
cement as successful dosage.
Effect of addition of Powder waterproof 105 as Trial Mix – II
In trial mix-II, Dr Fixit 105 powder waterproof manufactured by Pidilite, India
is used as waterproofing admixture. It recommends 20% of powder waterproof 105
to the weight of cement as the successful dosage in this Trial mix-II.
Test Result on Trial Mix-I and Trial Mix-II
A compression test was conducted by using 100 tonne UTM with the loading
rate of 10mm per minute. The test results are shown in Figure below As per IS: 3495,
the percentage of water absorption was calculated. It became clear that From the
compression and percentage of water absorption test results, powder waterproof 105
added flyash based papercrete brick showed lesser water absorption value than
conplast added flyash based papercrete brick. However, it did not attain the strength

43
of conventional clay brick value (5N/mm2
). Hence, trial mix –III was tried to
minimize the percentage of water absorption to bring it closer to the value of
conventional clay brick.
Compressive strength of trial –I and Trial-II
Water absorption of Trial-I and Trial-II

44
Effect of addition of SBR Latex polymer with powder waterproof 105 as Trial
Mix-III
From the observation of Trial mix I and II, Trial mix-II gave the desirable
result. While reducing the percentage of water absorption value, Styrene Butadiene
Rubber (SBR) latex polymer was used as waterproofing liquid and it was added at
the mixing stage of ingredients. 50 ml of polymer per 1kg of cement was added to
the mix as the final ingredient. This mix is named as Trial mix-III.
Test Results on Trial Mix – III
In the trial mix – I and trial mix – II, the effect of the addition of conplast WP
90 and powder waterproof 105 in the mix, in terms of the compressive strength of
flyash based papercrete bricks there is no marked change. But the percentage of
water absorption of flyash based papercrete brick was minimized to nearer to
conventional bricks. The test results are shown in Figure below.
Compression test result for Trial-II and Trial-III

45
Water absorption for Trial-II and Trial-III
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON TRIAL MIXES
From the compression test results on Trial Mix-I and Trail Mix-II, it is
observed that the sand mixed proportion had 10% to 13% higher compression value
compared to the other two mix proportions. More paper in proportions (T1-2 and
T2-2) has a little lower (2%) compressive strength than the mix T1-1and T2-1. From
the water absorption test results on Trial Mix-I and Trail Mix-II, the paper
percentage was higher. It meant (T1-2 and T2-1) that the percentage of water
absorption was high. But the sand mixed proportion (T1-3 and T2-3) had 45% to
30% lower percentage of water absorption than the other mixes.
Compression test result for Trial mixes- I, II and III

46
The results indicate if the percentage of sand is increased the compressive
strength also is increased. If the percentage of paper is increased, the percentage of
water absorption is also increased. Therefore it is important to reduce water
absorption but increase compressive strength without any reduction in its strength.
So T3-3, i.e. 1:2.5:0.5:4 (Cement: Flyash: Sand: Paper with powder waterproof 105
+ SBR Latex Polymer) mix proportion of Trail Mix-III gave the desired result and
this mix was considered as the optimized mix of papercrete.
Water absorption of Trial mixes- I, II and III
Finally, the optimized mix was arrived based on the trial mix results. Below figure
shows the percentage of ingredients of flyash based papercrete by weight basis.
Ingredients in optimum mix

47
EXTERNAL COATING ON PAPERCRETE BRICKS
Depending upon the test result from trial mixes, flyash group papercrete mix
(T3-3) was chosen as the optimized mix. During the biodegradation test, the external
coating was applied over the exposed surfaces. In view of that, raincoat with
primseal 604 and Zycosil was taken as external coating admixture. Both the external
coating (2 coats) was applied individually and kept for 180 days at room
temperature. Then a test was conducted. It should no more change in compression
strength. But in the water absorption test, raincoat with primeseal 604 external
coated flyash based papercrete brick gave 8.5% and 46% less than flyash based
papercrete brick with zycosil and Trail Mix-III respectively.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
From the optimization of the mix, the percentage of water absorption of flyash
based papercrete brick was minimized without loss of strength. The percentage of
paper above 50 % of the total mass of the papercrete was maintained. The results
obtained from trial mixes indicate that the internal waterproofing admixture plays an
important role in papercrete mix. By means of the bio-degradation test, external
coating improves the durability of the papercrete bricks. Finally, two coats of
Raincoat with prime seal 604 coated flyash based papercrete mix were chosen as an
optimized mix for further work. The biodegradation test was carried out in a standard
clay brick sample also. But, no inference was observed.

48
CHAPTER 6
STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF FLYASH BASED
PAPERCRETE BUILDING BRICKS
GENERAL
Strength and durability are the important parameters of any building material.
This chapter focuses on flyash based papercrete building bricks and shows how they
are cast along with a discussion of its properties. Normally, properties of building
materials are studied depending on their strength and durability. Compression test,
water absorption, acid resistance, resistance to high temperature, sorptivity and
thermal conductivity tests are also studied.
PREPARATION OF PAPERCRETE SPECIMEN
As per the mix optimization, cement, flyash, sand and paper were mixed with
1: 1.5: 0.5: 4 proportion by weight basis. powder waterproof 105 admixture added
as 20% of cement weight to the mix and 50ml of SBR latex modified polymer also
added to the mix at the time of mixing. Depending on the strength and durability
study, the papercrete was cast as a brick (size: 230mm x 110mm x 70mm), disc (size:
180mm diameter and 25mm thickness) and prism (size: 230mm x 230mm x 460mm,
using papercrete bricks and 10mm thickness of 1:3 cement sand mortar).
Papercrete Bricks
The bricks were manufactured by brick pressing machine. All the ingredients
were mixed as per mix proportion, ground and mixed by mechanically. After
uniform mixing, the mixtures of ingredients were transported to a pressing unit by
conveyor belt. The mixtures were poured into the brick mould and pressed with 10
N/mm2 hydraulically. Immediately then, the bricks were taken out from the mould
and kept in the open air. After being dried in the air, i.e. on hearing the metallic
sound when striking out the brick surface, the specimen was coated externally with
waterproofing admixture (Primeseal 604 + Raincoat) and it was dried 24 hours. Then
the brick was ready for testing.

49
The casting of flyash based papercrete bricks
TESTING PROCEDURE
During the testing procedure, the strength and durability of flyash based
papercrete building bricks were studied experimentally and compared with
conventional bricks.
Compression Test
Brick is one of the building elements used in the construction of a wall and
the wall is a compression member. So the use of good brick indicates how much
amount of compressive strength it has. This test is carried out as per the guidelines
are given in IS 3495-1992. A compression test of flyash based papercrete brick was
carried out by 100-tonne capacity UTM. Since the longitudinal deformation rises
more and more, the plunger of the UTM comes out of the cylinder in a fast manner.
To safeguard the machine, the machine movement of the plunger has to be rectified.
Because of this, the ultimate load was determined based on the deformation capacity.
When the brick failed at the higher load, the brick did not fully collapse because
papercrete bricks never failed catastrophically. It just compressed like squeezing
rubber. So only the outer faces cracked and peeled out. From the inference of this
test, the papercrete bricks are found to have elastic behaviour and less brittleness.
Below image shows the compression test set up of papercrete brick.

50
Compression test setup of papercrete brick
Test on Chemical Attack
The failure mechanism for the disintegration of building material due to
chemical attack is complicated, but the major cause involves expansive chemical
reactions. It is also known that the chemical composition and physical properties of
building material are the two main factors affecting the concrete deterioration. The
test was carried out as per the guidelines are given in IS 14959 (Part-2) 2001.
In the present study, the deteriorating effects of sulfuric acid, sodium chloride
and sodium sulphate solution on concrete were ascertained through strength
reduction tests. Brick samples were immersed in the respective solutions with
controlled pH values. For the sodium chloride and sodium sulphate, the pH values
were controlled between 8 and 9.5, while the pH value for the acid was kept between
1.9 and 3.2. The reduction in strength was found after 7, 14, 21, 28 days of
immersion in each solution and used for comparing the durability of the brick
samples in the three cases.
Acid Attack
The acid attack was one of the primary chemical deterioration conditions of
building material for many years. Brick was not a chemically stable material under
the condition of acidic environment. Acids came from the external sources to the
wall such as the earth surrounding the structure, groundwater, rainwater and
pollutants in the air. Flyash based papercrete building bricks also contain silica and
calcium. Silica is not attacked by acid, but calcium readily reacts with acids. Mineral

51
acids like hydrochloric, nitric, sulfuric and chromic acids are some of the most
dangerous substances to the building material. The sulfuric acid solution in sewage,
wastewater treatment plants and hot springs deteriorates building structures hard by
reacting with cement hydrates.
The brick samples were placed in a sulfuric acid solution (0.1N normality) for
one month. The weight and the compressive strength of the specimens were
measured after 7, 14, 21, 28 days.
Chloride Attack
Large numbers of structures are exposed to seawater either directly or
indirectly. The coastal and offshore structures are also exposed to the simultaneous
action of a number of physical and chemical deterioration processes. Similarly, the
structures in seawater are subjected to chloride-induced freezing and thawing, salt
weathering, abrasion by sand held in water and other floating bodies.
In the study, the brick samples were placed in a sodium chloride solution
(0.02N normality) for one month. The weight and the compressive strength of the
specimens were tested after 7, 14, 21,28days.
Sulphate attack
Most soils contain sulphate in the form of Calcium, Sodium, Potassium and
Magnesium. They occur in soil or groundwater. Because of the solubility of calcium
sulphate being low ground waters contain more of other sulphates and less of
calcium sulphate. Ammonium sulphate is frequently present in agricultural soil and
water from the use of fertilizers or from sewage and industrial effluents. The decay
of organic matters in marshy land, shallow lakes often leads to the formation of
hydrogen sulphide, which can be transformed into sulphuric acid by bacterial action.
The water used in the construction of a building can also be a potential source of
sulphate attack on buildings. Therefore sulphate attack is a common occurrence in
natural and industrial situations.
In the Thesis, the brick samples were placed in a sodium sulphate solution (0.1N)
for one month. The weight and the compressive strength of the specimens were
measured after 7, 14, 21,28days.
Behaviour of Papercrete Bricks Under Elevated Temperature
The property of a building element, component or assembly, prevents or
retards the passage of excessive heat, hot gases or flames under conditions of use.
The duration of time, determined by the test on resistance to high temperature (up to
300°C) based on a building element, component or assembly, maintains the ability
to confine heat and continues to perform a given structural function. The papercrete

52
brick samples are laid down in a hot air oven as shown in Figure. After the bricks
were subjected to elevated temperature, the bricks were kept in open dry place. After
24 hours of open-air curing, the sample was tested.
Papercrete brick samples in a hot air oven
Sorptivity of Papercrete bricks
Sorptivity measures the rate of penetration of water into the pores of mortar
by capillary suction. To determine the sorptivity of mortar specimens, oven dry
specimens due to water absorption were measured. The test was conducted by
ASTM C1585. Sorptivity of the mortar is given by,
𝑠 =
𝑄
𝐴√ 𝑡
where S – Sorptivity in kg/mm2/√min
Q – Quantity of water penetrated in kg
A – Surface area of the specimen through which water
penetrated t – Soaking time (30 minutes)
RESULTS
From the compression test, it could be seen that coated flyash based papercrete
building bricks attained 4.20 N/mm2. The coated flyash based papercrete bricks
resist the compressive strength more than 4.5% of the uncoated bricks and also they
are 65% less than the conventional clay bricks. As per IS:3495, the brick which has
a compressive strength of more than 3.5N/mm2 was applicable for masonry work.
But it is more suitable for non-load bearing wall, because of the ductile nature of the
brick.

53
CONCLUDING REMARKS
From the test results, it is found that the papercrete bricks satisfy the limits
specified by the code for conventional clay bricks. Coating of the papercrete bricks
is absolutely necessary for durability purpose.
From the test results, it is observed that the coated and uncoated flyash based
papercrete bricks are higher than 4 N/mm2. As per IS code recommendation, the
brick that contains a minimum 3.5 N/mm2 of compressive strength is acceptable for
masonry work. So flyash based papercrete bricks are acceptable in building
construction and also they are applicable only for framed structures because of the
ductile nature. The uncoated papercrete bricks are not suitable for the construction
of exterior unprotected walls because they have very high water absorption. The
coated papercrete bricks may be used for the construction of exterior walls if the
plastering has to be done.

54
CHAPTER 7
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF FLYASH BASED
PAPERCRETE BRICK MASONRY WALL WITH ANSYS
GENERAL
In this chapter the conventional and papercrete brick masonry tested by the
software simulation. The chapter discusses how the ANSYS model was created and
the experimental results were verified.
ANSYS Software
ANSYS is one of the most popular software packages for the use of FEM
techniques. In the thesis, the behaviour of papercrete brick masonry was compared
with ANSYS models. A solid element brick of 8 nodes 45 types were chosen for the
model creation. Papercrete brick and 1:3 cement sand mortar were chosen as
Material 1 and Material 2 respectively and considered as linear isotropic materials.
The value of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio was assigned to both the
materials. After completing the model creation, meshing was done through glue
options and it defined the loads applied over the area on the lateral side. In Ansys,
pressure option was taken to apply the jacking force to the lateral side of the infilled
wall. Then a perform analysis was done. Afterwards, the results were obtained and
plotted as contour type deformation by itself.
Behaviour of Masonry
From the experimental results, the ANSYS model was created. After the creation of
masonry model, the support condition is assigned. In the thesis, the bottom side of
the masonry assigned as fixed condition and load was considered as pressure load
acting on the side of the masonry. Then the programme is run and deformation shape
of the various coordinates was noted and recorded in the computer. Below figures
reveal the behaviour of flyash based papercrete brick masonry and conventional clay
brick masonry.

55
Deformed shape of papercrete brick masonry
Deformation of papercrete brick masonry

56
Deformation of conventional brick masonry
Verification of the Results
Load Vs Deformation behaviour of Prism and masonry was compared with the
behaviour of the ANSYS model. Deformation behaviour of ANSYS model of prism
and masonry was improved compared with the experimental values. The differences
between the results from the masonry model in ANSYS and the values obtained from
the experiment were 3% to 5% because there was no incidental error in theoretical
value compared to the experimental value.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
From the test results on Flyash based Papercrete building brick masonry, the
following conclusions are arrived at:
 Flyash based papercrete brick masonry had a high energy absorption capacity
(4 times) in comparison to conventional clay brick masonry.
 It had 1.7 times higher ductility factor than conventional clay brick masonry.
 The stiffness of the masonry was very low and it proved the ductile nature.
 From these results, it is established that the masonry is suitable for the
construction in earthquake-prone zone areas.

57
CHAPTER 8
COST ANALYSIS
GENERAL
Cost is an important criterion in every material transaction. This chapter deals
with the cost of coated flyash based papercrete building brick. The cost for the
production of 1 lakh brick is calculated. From that estimate, the cost of one brick is
calculated. Similarly, the cost of all the ingredients, cement, flyash, sand and waste
papers is also calculated. In addition to that, the expenses to be incurred for internal
waterproofing admixtures, Powder waterproof 105, SBR Latex Polymer and 2 coats
of external coating materials, Prime seal 604 and Raincoat are calculated. Finally,
the cost of the individual flyash based papercrete building brick is compared to the
conventional building bricks and the results are described here. Consequently, the
cost of all the ingredients and individual conventional building bricks existing in the
month of January 2013 rates in Tiruchengode Taluk, Namakkal District, TamilNadu,
India is estimated.
CEMENT
Normally, cement is used as a binding material in the mix and for the
experimental study discussed in the thesis 43 grade ordinary Portland cement is used.
Unit weight of cement is 1440 kg/m3 and its market rate stands at Rs. 350 per 50kg
bag.
FLYASH
Flyash was used as filling material in the mix and its proportion was higher
next to paper. It's unit weight is 694 kg/m3 and it is freely available in Mettur
Thermal Power Plant. Only the transport charges of flyash were considered in the
cost analysis.
SAND
River sand was used as one of the ingredients in the mix but it was used in the
least percentage, which is half of the weight of cement. It's unit weight is 1548kg/m3
and its cost at the site is Rs.1000/m3.
PAPER
As mentioned earlier, the paper is the major constituent in the mix proportion.
It is freely available everywhere. In the cost analysis, Rs.2.50/kg is considered as the
cost in the preparation of paper pulp from waste paper.

58
ADMIXTURES
Powder waterproof 105 and SBR Latex polymer was used as internal and
external waterproofing material respectively. In the cost analysis, Rs.70/kg and
Rs.200/liter are considered as the cost in the preparation of paper pulp from waste
paper.
PRODUCTION CHARGES
In the production process, the usage of tools and plants and labour charges had
been included. In the process, labourers were needed at the time of manufacture of
bricks and coating of bricks. Of this, 10% and 5% of the total cost is considered for
labour and T&P charges respectively in the cost calculation.
COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL BRICKS
Flyash based papercrete building bricks were compared with conventional
bricks, which are available in the market. Based on January 2013 market value, the
rates of the conventional clay bricks and flyash bricks were Rs.10,500/- and
Rs.11,700/- per 3000 bricks respectively. A comparison of the cost of bricks is
illustrated in Figure below.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
From the cost analysis of individual brick, coated flyash based papercrete
brick was more than 28% in relation to the cost of conventional clay brick and it was
also more than 12% of the cost of flyash brick. The cost of flyash based papercrete
brick was worked out as rupees 6/- per brick and it is marginally costlier than
conventional bricks.

59
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS
GENERAL
In the present research work, experimental investigations were carried out first to
study the physical and chemical properties of papercrete additives like flyash, rice
husk ash and silica fume. They also were concerned with the effect of additives of
papercrete on the properties like compressive strength and percentage of water
absorption with various proportions. From the combined effect of additives with and
without sand on the papercrete, the mix was optimized. Finally, the strength,
ductility, energy absorption capacity and stiffness of flyash based papercrete
building brick masonry were studied and the results were compared with those of
conventional brick masonry. Besides, analytical studies were also conducted on
flyash based Papercrete building. The conclusions drawn from the above studies are
summarized in this chapter.
RESEARCH FINDINGS BASED ON MATERIALS
The optimum proportion of flyash is found to be 21% of the weight of the mix out
of various mix proportions obtained. Flyash based papercrete brick cement: flyash:
sand: paper mix (1: 1.5: 0.5: 4) was considered for the entire study.
The percentage of water absorption of flyash based papercrete brick was very high
and it can be reduced by means of waterproofing admixture added to the mix.
Based on the test results, it is found that two coats of external coating agent applied
over the surface are necessary to improve the durability of the papercrete bricks.
The resistance to chemical attack and acid attack is measured and compared with
that of conventional bricks. To improve the resistance, the special external coating
admixture applied over the surface of the specimen with the required thickness is
needed.
RESEARCH FINDINGS BASED ON STRUCTURAL
PROPERTYOFMASONRY
The load carrying capacity of the papercrete brick masonry is 30% less than
conventional brick masonry. But papercrete brick masonry can withstand the load
beyond the ultimate level. Beyond the ultimate load level, the papercrete bricks tend
to separate from masonry because of their ductile nature. So it is suitable in framed
structure.

60
The lateral deformation for the papercrete brick masonry is 54 mm which is
higher than that of conventional brick masonry (14 mm). The papercrete brick
masonry offers very large inelastic deformation.
The ductility value of papercrete brick masonry is 70% higher than the
conventional brick masonry. The energy absorption capacity of the papercrete brick
masonry is 4 times greater than that of conventional brick masonry.
The initial stiffness of the papercrete brick masonry is 10 times less than that
of the conventional brick masonry. This implies that the papercrete brick masonry is
more flexible than the conventional brick masonry.
CONCLUSION
It is evidently concluded that the flyash based papercrete building bricks can
be used for the construction of non-load bearing walls, partition walls, infilled walls
etc.
The cost of individual coated flyash based papercrete brick was more than
28% of the cost of conventional clay brick and also more than 12% of the cost of
flyash brick as per the present rate. Even though, the overall cost of the building may
reduce because of the reduction in self-weight of the brick wall.
In the manufacture of conventional clay bricks, a large amount of fuel is
needed in order to burn the bricks. This causes social deforestation and the non-
cultivation of land. It may be avoided or minimized by adopting papercrete bricks.
The adoption of the aforesaid composite material helps to construct a cost-
effective and green building. The research work also focuses on job opportunities
that can arise due to this activity.
This type of prefabricated building blocks may be used for the speedy
construction of projects.
SCOPE FOR FURTHER WORK
There is a lot of scope for further research and meaningful work in this endeavour.
Some of these include the study of
 The effect of other supplementary cementitious materials like metakoline,
blast furnace slag, ground granulated blast furnace slag, etc., on the strength
and durability of lightweight papercrete, can be rewarding.
 The strength and durability of other papercrete building elements like wall
panels, floor slabs, etc, are to be studied.

61
 The structural behaviour of reinforced papercrete structural members like
beams, slabs, etc, needs to be investigated in depth.
 The performance of the infilled frame with papercrete bricks under earthquake
is to be studied further with respect to ductility and other performances with
more number of specimens and to be validated analytically also.

62
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