Focus Groups Theory And Practice 3rd Edition David W Stewart
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- 6. APPLIED SOCIAL RESEARCH ¡r1ETHODS SERIES l. SURVEY RESEARCH METHODS (Fifth Edition) 28. EVENT HISTORY ANALYSIS by FLOYD J. FOWLER. Jr. by KAZUO YAMAGUCHI 2. SYNTHESIZING RESEARCH (Third Edition) 29. RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS by HARRIS COOPER by GEOFFREY MARUYAMA 3. METHODS FOR POL!CY RESEARCH and STANLEY DENO (SCcond Edition) 30. RESEARCHING PERSONS WITH by ANN MAJCHRZAK nnd M. LYNNE MARKUS MENTAL ILLNESS 4. SECONDARY RESEARCH (Sccond Edition) by ROSALIND J. DWORKIN by DAVID W. STEWART and MJCHAELA. KAMINS 31. PLANNING ETHICALLY 5. CASE STUDY RESEARCH (Fifth Edition) RESPONSIBLE RESEARCH (Sccond Edition) by ROBERT K. YIN by JOAN E. SIEBER nnd MARTIN B. TOLICH 6. META-ANALYTIC PROCEDURES FOR SOCIAL 32. APPL!ED RESEARCH DESIGN RESEARCH (Rcviscd Edition) by TERRY E. HEDRICK, by ROBERT ROSENTHAL LEONARD BICKMAN, and DEBRA J. ROG 7. TELEPHONE SURVEY METHODS (Sccond Edition) 33. DOING URBAN RESEARCH by PAUL J. LAVRAKAS by GREGORY D. ANDRANOVICH 8. DIAGNOSING ORGANIZATIONS (Second Edition) and GERRY RIPOSA by MICHAEL l. HARRISON 34. APPLICATIONS OF CASE STUDY RESEARCH (Third Edition) 9. GROUP TECHNIQUES FOR by ROBERT K. YIN IDEA BUILDING (Sccond Edition) 35. INTRODUCTION TO FACET THEORY by CARL M. MOORE by SAMUEL SHYE and DOV ELIZUR 10. NEED ANALYSIS with MICHAEL HOFFMAN by JACK McKILLIP 36. GRAPHING DATA 11. LINKING AUDITING AND META EVALUATION by GARY T. HENRY by THOMAS A. SCHWANDT 37. RESEARCH METHODS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION and EDWARD S. HALPERN by DONNA M. MERTENS 12. ETHJCS AND VALUES and JOHN A. McLAUGHLIN IN APPL!ED SOCIAL RESEARCH 38. !MPROVING SURVEY QUESTIONS by ALLAN J.1.'1MMEL by FLOYD J. FOWLER, Jr. 13. ON TIME AND METHOD 39. DATA COil.ECTION AND MANAGEMENT by JANICE R. KELLY by MAGDA STOUTHAMER-LOEBER and fOSEPH E. McGRATH and WELMOET BOK VAN KAMMEN 14. RESEARCH IN HEALTH CARE SETTINGS 40. MAIL SURVEYS by KATHLEEN E. GRADY by THOMAS W. MANGIONE and BARBARA STRUDLER WALLSTON 41. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 15. PARTIC!PANT ODSERVATlON (Third Edition) by DANNY L. fOR< iENSLN by JOSEPH A. MAXWELL 16. !NTERl'RETIVE lHTllRACTIONISM (Second Editlon) 42. ANALYZING COSTS, PROCEDURES, by NORMAN K. DENZIN PROCESSES, AND OUTCOMES 17. ETHNOGRAPHY (Thlrd Edltlon) IN HUMAN SERVICES by DAVID M. FETTER.MAN by BRIAN T. YATES 18. STANDARDIZED SURVEY fNTERVIEWING 43. DOING LEGAL RESEARCH by FLOYD J. FOWLER, fr., by ROBERT A. MORRIS, BRUCE D. SALES, and THOMAS W. MANGJONE and DANIEL W. SHUMAN 19. PRODUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT 44. RANDOMIZED EXPERIMENTS FOR PLANNING by RODERT O. BRINKERHOFF AND EVALUATION and DENN!S E. DRESSLER by ROBERT F. BORUCH 20. FOCUS GROUPS (Third Edition) 45. MEASURING COMMUNITY INDICATORS by DAVID W. STEWART and by PAUL J. GRUENEWALD, ANDREW J. TRENO, PREM N, SHAMDASANI GAlL TAFF, and MICHAEL KLITZNER 21. PRACTICAL SAMPLING 46. MIXED METHODOLOGY by GART T. HENRY by ABBAS TASHAKKORI and CHARLES TEDDLIE 22. DECISION RESEARCH 47. NARRATIVE RESEARCH by fOHN S. CARROLL and ERIC f. JOHNSON by AMIA LIEBLICH, RIVKA TUVAL-MASHIACH, and 23. RESEARCH WITH HISPANIC POPULATIONS TAMAR.ZILBER by GERARDO MARIN 48. COMMUNICATING SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH arld BARBARA VANOSS MARIN TO POLICY-MAKERS 24. INTERNAL EVALUAT!ON by ROGER VAUGHAN and TERRY E BUSS by ARNOLD J. LOVE 49. PRACTICAL META-ANALYSIS 25. COMPUTER SIMULATION APPLICATIONS by MARK W. LIPSEY and DAVID B. WILSON by MARCIA LYNN WH!CKER and LEE SIGELMAN so. CONCEPT MAPPING FOR PLANNING 26. SCALE DEVELOPMENT (Third Edition) AND EVALUATION by ROBERT F. DeVELLIS by MARY KANE and WILLIAM M. K. TROCHIM 27. S.TUDYING FAMILIES 51. CONF!GURATIONAL COMPARATIVE METHODS by ANNE P. COPELAND and KATHLEEN M. WHITE by BENOIT RIHOUX and CHARLES C. RAGIN Focus Groups Theory and Practice Third Edition David W. Stewart Prem N. Shamdasani ($)SAGE Los Angeles 1London 1New Delhi Singapore !.Washington DC
- 7. ($)SAGE Los Angeles 1 London 1 New Delhi Singapore 1Washing1on DC FOR INFORMATION: SAGE Publlcations, lnc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: order@sagepub.com SAGE Publications Ud. 1Oliver's Yard 55 City Road London EC1 Y1SP United Kingdorn SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ud. BM 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 11O044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Ple. Ud. 3Church Street #10-04 Sarnsung Hub Singapore 049483 Acquisitions Editor: Helen Salman Editorial Assistant: Kaitlin Coghill Production Editor: Olivia Weber-Stenis Copy Editor. QuADS Prepress (P) Ud. Typesetter. C&M Digitals (P) Ud. Proofreader: Susan Schon lndexer: Will Ragsdale Cover Designar: Karine Hovsepian Marketing Manager. Nico!e Elliott Copyright© 2015 by SAGE Publications, !ne. Ali rights reserved. No part ofthis book may be reproduced or utilized in any forro or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States ofAmerica Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stewart, David W. Focus groups : theory and practice / David W. Stewart, Prem N. Shamdasani. - Third edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4522-7098-2 (alk paper) l. Focus groups. 2. Social sciences-Research-Methodology. 3. Social groups. l. Shamdasani, Prem N. II. Title. H61.28.S74 2015 300.72'3-dc23 2013051223 This book is printed on acid-free paper. ./J, Pa~!~Óm F SC. respons.1b1e sources WWW.fOO.O'lJ FSC® C014174 14 15 16 17 18 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 l. 2. Contents Preface to the First Edition xi Preface to the Second Edition xiii Preface to the Third Edition XV About the Authors xvii Introduction: Focus Group History, Theory, and Practice 1 Border Crossl.ngs: The Behavioral Science Origins of Focus Groups 2 Contributions From Sociology and Social Psychology 5 Contributions From Clinical Psychology 6 Contributions From Marketing Research 7 Separation ofPractice From Theory 8 Focl.ls Group Theory 9 Focused Research 9 Group Interactions 10 In-Depth Data 12 Humanistic Interview 13 Purpose of the Book 14 Plan for the Book 14 Conclusion 15 Review Questions 16 Group Dynamics and Focus Group Research 17 Influences ofIntrapersonal Factors and Individual Differences 18 Demographic Factors 19 Physical Characteristics 21 Personality 21 Interpersonal Influences 23 Group Cohesiveness 24 Group Compatibility, Homogeneity!Heterogeneity 26
- 8. Social Power 27 Making Contact 61 Group Participation and Nonverbal Communication 29 Incentives 62 Environmental Influences 30 Location 63 The Material Environment fO How Many Participants.? 64 Territoriality !n Recruiting Hard-to-Reach Individuals 65 Spatial Arrangements 31 The Language ofthe Group 66 Interpersonal Distance 32 Recruiting Participants Across Cultures 67 Moderated Groupings ofStrangers 32 Developing the Interview Guide 68 Group Dynamics in Cross-Cultural Focus Groups 34 Formulating Questions 69 Interpersonal Style and Communication Pattern 35 How Many Questions? 70 Nonverbal Communication 36 How Much Structure? 71 Social Power 36 Wording ofQuestions 73 Group Compatibility, Homogeneity, and Heterogeneity 36 Pretesting 74 Environmental Influences 37 Issues and Trends for the Future 74 Conclusion 37 Conclusion 75 Review Questions 38 Review Questions 76 3. Focus Groups and the Research Toolbox 39 5. The Focus Group Moderator 77 Focus Group Basics: Structure, Process, and Data 39 Leadership and Group Dynamics 78 Place 40 Interviewing Styles and Tactics 81 The Moderator 40 Moderator Selection 86 Topies 41 Moderator Preparation 88 Analysis 42 Cultural Dimensions ofFocus Group Moderation 92 The Role ofFocus Groups Among Research Tools 43 Moderator Selection in Cross-Cultural Research 92 Applications, Advantages, and Limitations 44 Moderator Preparation in Cross-Cultural Research 93 Applications ofFocus Groups 44 Moderator Bias in Focus Group Interviews 94 Advantages ofFocus Groups 45 Conclusion 95 Limitations ofFocus Groups 47 Review Questions 96 Steps in the Design and Use of Focus Groups 49 6. Conducting the Focus Group 97 Problem Definition 49 Identifying the Participants 51 The Physical Arrangement ofthe Group 98 The Moderator and Interview Guide 51 Interviewing Style 99 The Interview 52 Discussion Aids 100 Analysis and Interpretation 52 Intimacy 101 Sorne Practica/ Considerations 52 Observers and Recordings 101 The Logistics of Focus Groups 52 Beginning the Interview 102 Institutional Review Boards 53 Ensuring Participation 104 Conclusion 54 Time Management 104 Review Questions 54 Probing 105 Dealing With Problems 106 4. Recruiting Focus Group Participants Experts 107 and Designing the Interview Guide 57 Friends 107 Establishing the Research Agenda 58 Hostile Group Members 108 Recruiting Participants 60 Special Issues 108
- 9. Children as Foeus Group Participants 108 Foeus Groups With Participants With Special Needs 109 Observational Techniques uo Dealing With Sensitive and Embarrassing Tapies 1¡10 Focus Groups in International Settings iru Conclusion 112 Types ofVirtual Focus Groups 160 Platforms Availablefar Condueting Virtual Foeus Groups 163 Reeruitingfor Virtual Focus Groups 165 Benefits ofVirtual Foeus Group Reeruitment 165 Challenges ofVirtual Foeus Group Recruitment 165 Moderating Virtual Focus Groups 166 Review Questions 113 The Next Phase ofVirtual Focus Groups 168 Other Group Techniques 168 7. Analyzing Focus Group Data 115 The Nominal Group Technique 168 How Much Analysis? 116 The Delphi Technique 169 Transcribing the Interview 117 Brainstorming and Synectics 172 Qualitative Analytic Approaches 118 Epistemologieal Orientation 118 Leaderless Discussion Groups 174 Conclusion 175 Disciplinary Foeus 119 W:orkbeneh Issues 120 The Order ofTapies in a Group Diseussion 120 Review Questions 175 10. Conclusion 177 What Is Diseussed and What Is Not? 120 Time Spent on an Issue 121 Intensity and Emotional Content ofthe Diseussion Expression 122 References 181 Reasons Versus Responses 122 Index 193 What Is Believable? 122 Individuals Versus the Group 123 Methods ofAnalysis 123 The Scissor-and-Sort Teehnique 123 Content Analysis 124 Quantitative Analysis 132 Computer-Assisted Content Analysis 133 Conclusion 139 Review Questions 139 8. Focus Groups in Practice 141 Political Campaigns and Focus Groups 143 Television Ads the Public Will Never See 144 Impulsive Consumers, Shoplifters, and Focus Groups 145 A Representative Focus Group Report: Buying a New Car 146 New Car Purchasing Experiences: A Sample Report 146 Purpose 146 Composition ofthe Groups 148 Majar Faetors Influencing Vehicle Purchase 148 Summary 154 Conclusion 155 Review Questions 155 9. Virtual Focus Groups and Other Group Research Methods 157 Virtual Focus Groups 158
- 10. Preface to the First Edition 1 n late 1986, when we were asked to write a book on focus groups for the Sage series on Applied Social Research Methods, there were few extant sources on the use of focus groups. There were a few collections of readings and sorne chapters in various handbooks, but these tended to be either dated or quite superficial, and Merton and Kendall's (1946) classic The Focussed Interviewwas long out of print. By the time we completed the book in late 1989, numerous treatments ofthe conduct and application offocus groups had appeared. Most of these books were by experienced focus group moderators and provided considerable detall about the recruitment of focus group participants, the actual conduct of groups, and the interpretation of data generated by focus groups. We have referenced a number of these books in our own monograph, - and we feel that the reader will find them useful supplements to the material we offer. · Despite the recent appearance ofother books on the topic, we feel that our own work offers a unique perspective on focus groups. Our original intent- and we think we have adhered to it-was to produce a relatively short volume that provides a simple guide to the conduct and application offocus groups and places the use and interpretation offocus groups within a theoretical context. Focus group research had its origins in early research on group dynamics, persuasive co~munication, and the effects of mass media. These origins and the rich empirical and theoretical foundations they provide are infrequently acknowledged and used. We have revisited the origins offocus group research in our text and have tried to tie focus group research more closely to its origins in mainstream social science. In doing so, we believe we have set our own book apart from others on the same topic that tend to provide considerable detall on the conduct of groups, as well as detailed examples, but tend to place less emphasis on the theoretical dimension. The reader will find three chapters are especially concerned with the the- oretical dimensions offocus groups. Chapter 2 draws heavlly on the literature of group dynamics and the social psychology of groups. Focus groups are, by xi
- 11. xii FOCUS GROUPS: THEORY AND PRACTICE definition, an exercise in group dynamics, and the conduct ofa group-as well as the interpretation of results obtained from focus groups-must be under- stood within the context of group interaction. Chapter 4 considers the liter- ature on interviewer and moderator effects, including the interaction of ¡:he group and the moderator. This chapter not only emphasizes the importancé of the moderator in determining the quality offocus group data but suggests that the data are themselves the result ofa unique interaction ofthe moderator and the group. Only an understanding ofthis interaction and the factors that con- tribute to it provides a sound basis for the interpretation of focus group data. Chapter 6 also includes sorne discussion of the theory of content analysis. Because this chapter is concerned ~-h-the interpretation offocus group results, it seemed particularly appropriate to treat the theoretical underpinnings ofthis interpretation. The remaining chapters of the book, as well as portions of the chapters already discussed, are devoted to the mechanics of designing, conducting, and interpreting the outcome of focus groups. We hope the result is a balance of theory and practice that suggests that focus groups need not be ad hoc, atheo- rétical, or unscientific exercises. Rather, we have tried to convey the notion that focus groups can be useful social science research tools that are well grounded in theory. No work is ever the sole accomplishment ofits authors. Ours is no excep- tion. We would be remiss ifwe <lid not acknowledge the contributions ofothers. Len Bickmann, coeditor ofthis Sage series, was instrumental in encouraging us to undertake the project. Toro O'Guinn ofthe Department ofAdvertising at the University of Illinois reviewed an earlier draft of the manuscript and offered a variety of helpful criticisms and suggestions. Siony Arcilla typed the final ver- sion ofthe manuscript. To all ofthese individuals we extend our gratitude. Any remaining problems and points lacking in clarity are, of course, our responsi- bility and exist despite the generous help ofothers. David W. Stewart Prem N. Shamdasani November 1989 Preface to the Second Edition When we began work on the second edition ofthis book, it became evi- . dent to us that many dimensions of the focus group environment, as well as the underlying methodology itself, had evolved significantly since we wrote the first edition. We believe this evolution has been a positive force and has both expanded the range ofproblems and settings for which focus groups are appropriate and improved the general practice of conducting focus group research. Amorig these trends in focus group re.search are the following: l. A very significant acceleration ofthe diffusion offocus groups into the behav- ioral and health sciences · 2. The globalization offocus group research 3. The consolidation of focus group facility ownership with a consequent increase in advertising by owners using a diversity ofadvertising appeals 4. The growth ofniche positionings among focus group facilities and moderators with specialists emerging to focus on specific ethnic groups, particular age ranges, and specific industries, among others 5. ·The emergence of creative innovations in focus group design and the use of technology These innovations include virtual focus groups that bring people together via Internet or videoconference, th~ use of natural groups (as opposed to the use of groups of strangers), and the conduct of focus groups in the home or office where the natural environment can serve as a stimulus for discussion. · At the same time these positive trends have occurred, there has been growing criticism of focus groups among the traditional heavy users of them-the mar- keting community. The trade and acadernic literature criticizes focus groups for a multitude ofshortcomings: their use as an inappropriate substitute for quantitative résearch and in-depth individual interviews; their use as an evaluative research tool rather than an exploratory tool for discovery; and the conduct of "cookie xiü
- 12. xiv FOCUS GROUPS: THEORY AND PRACTICE cutter" groups conducted by relatively unskilled moderators. Although we believe there is sorne merit in this criticism, it is our view that such criticism is not so much about focus group methodology as about the manner in which the meth- odology is sometimes employed. Even the best oftools will not yield good re~ults when used inappropriately. Ahammer is very useful for driving nails but is a poor substitute when the need is to cut a two-by-four in half. A hammer can certainly be used to break atwo-by-four in half, butthe result is neither prettynor especially helpful. The same may be said ofthe focus group: It is a useful tool for sorne types ofresearch problems but neither pretty nor helpful in ali research contexts. One ofour objectives in writing this book was to better define the research contexts and problems for which focus groups are best suited. We also wanted to provide practica! advice about how to design, implement, and interpret focus group research. We did not, however, want to write just another "how-to" book-there are many available. Rather, we sought to show how focus groups fit into the broader fabric of research in the social and behavioral sciences. In doing this, we also sought to move focus group research from a tool principally used by marketing researchers to a tool more broadly applied. We were grat- ified to find that the first edition of this book found a broad audience in the social, behavioral, and health sciences, as well as among marketers. In this second edition, we have retained our attention to focus groups as a general research tool for the social sciences. We have also attempted to remain close to original source materials when appropriate. Focus group research is a mature methodology, and much that is today considered "best prac!ice" has its origins in earlier work. At the same time, we have updated the book to reflect the positive evolutionary trends in focus group research. We have also added a third author to expand the experience base and perspectives. We would be remiss ifwe did not thank the many readers ofthe first edi- tion who have offered us numerous suggestions and thoughts over the years. Our students and our research clients have also challenged us to better explain the role offocus group research as a social science research method and to help improve the general level of research practice revolving around focus groups. Finally, we thank the editors of this series for inviting us to write the first edition, encouraging us to develop a revised second edition, and offering helpful and constructive comments about how the book could be improved. David W. Stewart Prem N. Shamdasani Dennis W. Rook January 2006 _/ Preface to the Third Edition Almost 25 years have passed since the appear~c_e of the first edition of this book. At the time we wrote the first ed1tlon, focus groups were l~gely the domain of marketing researchers, and there were few books that provided guidance for the design, conduct, and interpretation of focus group research. Our objectives in writing the first edition were to fill this gap with a short and accessible treatment ofthe method and to place focus group research within the broader context of social science research. We were gratified with the reception of the ·book, but shortly after the book appeared, a number of other very good, and more comprehensive, books on the "how" offocus group . research appeared. The following two decades saw an explosion of the use of ' focus groups and a broadening of their use to a diverse array of social science and professional disciplines. By the time we wrote the second edition, focus groi.lp research was widely employed, but much ofthe work using such groups seemed to have lost the strong theoretical and disciplinary history that pro- vided the original foundations of group depth interviews. For this reason, the second edition of the book sought to more fully explore the historical origins of focus group research and demonstrate the very deep epistemological and theoretical underpinnings of. the method. We wanted to make the case that in-depth group interviews are a tool for serious social science research and not just something that is done to ihform real science. The second edition appears to have accomplished this objective, and it has been cited more than 3,500 times si~ce it appeared. · As we began the third edition ofthis book, it became very clear that focus group research had both matured and moved into new domains of research questions and methodology. The current edition reflects two of these new domains. The first is the growing use of focus group research to address an increasingly broad array of issues with a global span. In addition to the tradi- tional use offocus group research in marketing, such groups are now employed among rural farmers on the Indian subcontinent, gang members in South XV
- 13. xvi FOCUS GROUPS: THEORY AND PRACTICE Central Los Angeles, parents who home school their children, and individu- als suffering from various physical ailments, to name but a few. Focus group research has certainly extended its reach beyond marketing research applica- tions focused on relatively affluent consumers. The second major change is the growing use ofvirtual groups. The Internet has brought with it a rich array oftools and technologies for conducting focus groups with participating individuals who are separated by considerable time and space. First used as a necessary, if inferior, substitute for physical groups, virtual focus groups are proving to have very unique advantages of their own. In this edition ofthe book, we have greatly expanded our treatments ofthe use offocus groups in an international context and the use ofvirtual focus groups. We have also sought to update the book with new and updated source materials while retaining dassic and timeless materials that were a part ofthe ear- lier editions ofthe book. We have added new materials about procedural details, such as the role ofinstitutional review board approval and the recruiting ofpar- ticipants. We have also expanded our treatment ofthe role ofthe moderator, the conduct offocus groups, and software tools for the analysis offocus group data. The second edition of the book was enriched by the contributions of a third author, Dennis Rook. Dennis was not able to join in our effort to produce the third edition, but many of his earlier contributions remain in the present edition. We thank Dennis for his collaboration and acknowledge his earlier work by including him as a contributing author. Th is editlon ofthe book has been informed by the comment ofII1any read- ers, including our students, colleagues, clients, and reviewers. We especiallywish to express our gratitude to the reviewers who provided us with comments about the earlier edition: Michael B. Blank, University of Pennsylvania; Christina Harnett, Johns Hopkins University; Jane Hunt, Keele University; Sheri Oden, Oakland University; and Marilyn E. Swisher, University ofFlorida. The insights and suggestions made by these reviewers provided us with direction and guid- ance for improving and updating the book. We have also heard from many reséarchers who have used the book as a resource for their research. We very much appreciate their suggestions, and we have tried to be responsive to sugges- tions. We would be remiss ifwe did not thank the editorial staffat Sage for their encouragement and pátience. We hope that our new edition continues to be as useful as the earlier ones. We thank the editors of this series for inviting us to write the first edition and staffofSage for encouraging us to persist in our work. David W. Stewart Prem N. Shamdasani September 2013 ) About the Authors David W. Stewart, PhD, is President's Professor of Marketing and Law at Loyola Marymount University and editor of the Journal ofPublic Policy and Marketing. He has previously seryed as a member of the faculty of the Owen Graduate School of Management at Vanderbilt University, the Marshall School ofBusiness at the University ofSouthern California, and the University ofCalifornia, Riverside. In.addition to his responsibilities as a faculty member, he has served in a number ofadministrative roles in higher education. He is a past editor ofboth the Journal ofMarketing and the Journal ofthe Academy of Marketing Science. He has served on the Board of Governors of the Academy of Marketing Science and as Vice President, Finance, and a member of the Board of Directors of the American Marketing Association. He has also served on the Board of the American Marketing Association Foundation. He is a past president of the Academic Council of the American Marketing Ássociation, a past chairman of the Section on Statistics in Marketing of the American Statistical Association, a past president ofthe Societyfor Consumer Psychology, and a Fellow of both the American Psychological Association and the Association for Psychological Science. He is also a former member and a past chairman of the U.S. Census Bureau's Advisory Committee of Professional Associations. Stewart has authored or coauthored more than 250 publications and 8 books. His research has examined a wide range of issues induding marketing strategy, the analysis of markets, cpnsumer information search and decision making, effectiveness of marketing communications, public policy issues related to marketing and methodological approaches to the collection and aríalysis of marketing data. His research and commentary are frequently fea- tured in the business and popular press. In 2007, Stewart was awarded the Elsevier Distinguished Marketing Scholar Award by the Society for Marketing Advances, and in 2006, he was honored by the Academy of Marketing Science with the Cutco/Vector Distinguished Educator Award for lifetime contributions to marketing. In xvii
- 14. xviii FOCUS GROUPS: THEORY AND PRACTICE 2005, he received the Omicron Delta Kappa Men of Merit Award from his alma mater, Baylor University. He has also been honored for innovation in teaching by the Decision Sciences Institute, and he was a member o~ a four-person faculty team honored by the U.S. Distance Learning Associati?n for the "Best Distance Learning Program 1996-Continuing Education'' :in 1996. In 1998, he received the American Academy of Advertising Award for Outstanding Contribution to Advertising Research for his long-term contri- butions to research in advertising. His article on warning messages was named the best article published in the Journal ofPublic Policy and Marketing during 1992-1994, and he was recipient of the American Academy of Advertising Award for best article in the Journal of Advertising in 1989. In 1988, he was Marketing Science Institute Visiting Scholar at the General Motors Corporation. He has been included in Whos Who in America, Whos Who of the World, Whos Who in American Education, and Whos Who in Advertising. Stewart's experience includes work as a manager ofresearch for Needham, Harper, and Steers Advertising, Chicago (now DDB) and consulting proj- ects for a wide range of organizations. Among the organizations for which he has consulted are Hewlett Packard, Agilent Technologies, the Coca-Cola Company, Hughes, NCR, Texas Instruments, IBM, Intel, Cadence Design Systems, Century 21 Real Estate, Samsung, American Home Products, Visa Services, Xerox, the U.S. Census Bureau and the U.S. Federal Trade Commission, among others. He has served as an expert witness befare the Federal Trade Commission, in U.S. Federal Court, and in State Cour~s in cases involving deceptive advertising claims and unfair business practices, in matters related to trademarks and intellectual property, and in antitrust actions. He has delivered executive education programs throughout the United States and in 20 other nations on 4 continents. A native ofBaton Rouge, Louisiana, he receivedhis BA from the Northeast Louisiana University (now the University ofLouisiana at Monroe) and his MA and PhD in psychology from Baylor University. Prem N. Shamdasani, PhD, is Associate Professor of Marketing; Associate Dean, Executive Education; Academic Director, Asia-Pacific Executive (APEX) MBA Program; Ca-Director, Stanford-NUS Executive Program in International Management Program; and Director, Advanced Management Program at the NUS Business School, National University of Singapore. He has taught in Singapore and other countries and has received numerous commendations and awards for teaching excellence. Apart from teaching grad- uate and executive MBA courses, he is very active in executive development and training and has worked with more than 80 companies globally, such as Caterpillar, J&J, I.:Oreal, McDonalds, Nokia, Sony, Samsung, IBM, Microsoft, 3M, DuPont, Asahi Glass, Philips, Siemens, Alcatel-Lucent, Singapore Airlines, ) About the Authors xix UPS, AP Moeller Maersk, Roche, Bayer Healthcare, GSK, Deutsche Bank, HSBC, Barclays, Ernst & Young, KPMG, Deloitte, Danone, Nestle, Suntory, Volvo, Ikea, Carrefour, Royal Ahold, NTUC Incheon Int'l Airport, Wipro, Singapore Tourism Board, UNICEF, USDA, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Singapore), and Commonwealth Secretariat (UK). He is also actively involved in focus group research for consumer prod- ucts companies and social marketing programs. His research publications have appeared in the leading regional and international journals and include the Journal of Consumer Research, European Journal of Marketing, Journal of Advertising Research, Asían Journal of Marketing, Asia Pacific Journal of Management, and the Journal ofRetailing and Consumer Services. He holds a BBA degree with first class honors from the National University of Singapore and received his PhD in marketing from the University of Southern California, Los Angeles. His research and teaching interests include Brand Management, New Product Marketing, Retail Strategy, Relationship Marketing, and Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior.
- 15. 1 lntroduction Focus Group History, Theory, and Practice Among the most widely used research tools in the social sciences are group depth interviews, or focus groups. Originally called "focussed" (Merton's preferred spelling) interviews (Merton & Kendall, 1946), this technique carne into vogue after World War II and has been a part ofthe social scientist's tool kit ever since. Focus groups emerged in behavioral science research as a distinctive mem- ber of the qualitative research family, which also includes individual depth inter- viewing, ethnographic participant observation, and projective methods, among others. Like its qualitative siblings, the popularity and status of focus groups among behavioral researchers has ebbed and flowed over the years, with distinc- tive patterns in particular fields. Por example, in qualitative marketing studies, the use offocus groups has grown steadily for more than 50 years, and today, by one estímate, more than a quarter ofa i:nillion focus groups are conducted annually in the United States alone (FocusVision, 2012). Also, focus groups no longer solely involve small research projects that rely on two or three groups meeting face-to- face in a small room. Focus groups are now conducted via webcams, in virtual worlds, by teleprescence and through social media (McDermott, 2013). It is also corÍunon to conduct focus groups across the globe and in large numbers. Both Airbus and Boeing for example, conducted hundreds offocus groups all over the world to assist the developmentof their new planes, the A380 and 787, respec- tively (Babej & Pollack, 2006; Emerson, Johnson, & Koh, 2000). In sociology, arguably the first field to embrace group research- qualitative research-flourished through the 1950s, faded away in the 1960s
- 16. 2 FOCUS GROUPS: THEORY AND PRACTICE and 1970s, and reemerged in the 1980s. It has been an important part of the social scientist's toolkit ever since. Various patterns of focus group ascen- dance, decline, and revival characterize other fields, yet it seems reasonable to conclude that focus group research has never enjoyed such widespread us:age across an array of behavioral science disciplines and subfields as it <loes today. Technology that draws the world together and facilitates communication across time and space has provided new means for conducting focus groups, but the basic approach and benefits remain. The diversity ofresearch purposes, theories, and procedures that characterize the behavioral sciences suggests that focus groups will materialize differently in different fields. This, in fact, is the case, and it speaks to the versatility and pro- ductivity offocus group research. What is problematic with focus group research today, as the anthropologist Grant McCracken (1988) observes, is an intellectual climate that reflects "substantially more concern with practice than theory'' (p. 15). This is particularlythe case in applied research, where dozens ofarticles and books tend to emphasize the dos and don'ts surrounding the myriad executional details involving recruiting participants, preparing discussion guides, selecting moderators, blocking time slots, inviting observers, ordering food, analyzing data, and preparing reports. As Rook (2003) observed, the stage management aspects of focus groups often preoccupy researchers to the extent that more basic issues are barely considered. In practice, researchers rarely step backto ask why they want to conductreseareh with groups rather than individuals, and why in a mirrored room instead ofa natural setting? Answers to these and other questions can be found in closer examination ofthe nature and conduct offocus groups within the behavioral science disciplines from which they emerged. Border Crossings: The Behavioral Science Origins of Focus Groups For almost 100 years, researchers in numerous behavioral science disciplines (both basic and applied) have relied on focus groups as a source of primary data. · The fields that have-at various points in time-embraced research with groups include education, sociology, communications, the health sciences, organization behavior, program evaluation, psychotherapy, social psychology, gerontology, political science, policy research, sociology, anthropology, information systems, management, and marketing. The core concerns ofthese disciplines are obviously quite diverse, which suggests that focus groups are likely to be designed, fielded, and analyzed from very different perspectives and with different priorities. In other words, the underlying conceptual domain ofany field influences how its research- ers select samples and construct questions and how moderators probe responses and manage interactions among focus group participants. Introduction 3 The inevitable impact of substantive discipline-based theory on research practices stands in contrast to a tendency today to generalize a one-size-fits-all approach to using focus groups. Focus group methodology may be common to many disciplines, but its uses and applications are varied. This chapter seeks to examine the relationships between focus group theory and practice by identifying their primary historical sources and characterizing their prototypic research designs, which tend to vary dramatically according to their disciplin~ aryorigin. As noted earlier, the lineage of focus group research is most commonly and directly traced to the 20th-century studies of persuasive communications arid the effects of mass media that were conducted in the early 1940s. Table 1.1 provides a summary timeline ofthe development of group interviewing as a research tool with a particular emphasis on its evolution within the field of marketing research where it has found commercial success and a legitimacy that has made it a staple of social science research. Yet this is only part of the story, as today's focus group methodologies also evolved from two additional primary sources: (1) clinical psychological uses of group analysis and therapy and (2) sociological and social psychological studies of group dynamics. The history of focus groups is also replete with the enriching effects of interdisci- plinary collaboration in the early days, as well as the migration of researchers from one field (e.g., clinical psychology) to another (marketing research). Consequently, the theoretical underpinnings of focus group methodology emerged from what the pioneer Alfred Goldman described as a "rich stew of socio-psychological and psychotherapeutic traditions and techniques" (Goldman & McDonald, 1987, p. 3). Table 1.1 Milestones in Focus Group Research 1913 Strong, E. K., Jr., "Psychological Methods as Applied to Advertising;' Journal ofEducatíonal Psychology, 4, 393-395. 1925 Poffenberger, A. T., Psychology in Advertising. Chicago, IL: A.W Shaw. 1926 Bogardus, E. S., "The Group Interview;' fournal ofApplied Sociology, 10, 372-382. 1931 Moreno, J. L., The Fírst Book on Group Psychotherapy. New York, NY: Beacon House. 1934 Lazarsfeld, P. F., "The Psychological Aspects ofMarket Research;' Harvard Business Review, 13(0ctober), 54-71. 1937 Lazarsfeld, P. F., "The Use ofDetailed Interviews in Market Research;' Journal ofMarketing, 2(July), 3-8. (Cqntinued)
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