![Fig. 1.1 Typical reflectance spectra of some land cover.
Figure 1.2(c) shows how the three classes are distinctly
separated, which was not possible by using either band 3 or
band 4 alone. Here, we have chosen three classes to explain
the concept. In practice, in a scene, the number of classes
are not limited to three. As the number of classes increases,
the possibility of overlap between the classes increases [Fig.
1.2(d)] which will require additional bands for separating
the classes. However, it does not mean that separability (or
more rigorously referred to as classification accuracy)
increases linearly with an increasing number of bands. After
3–4 bands, for most features, the classification accuracy
increases only marginally, while the computer time
requirement increases faster. In fact, more than the number
of bands, the specific choice of band locations is crucial in
feature separation for specific themes.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-40-320.jpg)
![particular feature of imagery. The reflectance value
measured by a sensor for the same feature will not be
identical for all pixels. For example, in a wheat field, all the
pixels will not have identical reflectance values. That is,
response variation within a class is to be expected for any
earth surface cover due to various reasons. Therefore the
radiance value for a class will have a mean and a variance,
as seen in Fig. 1.2. We have seen in the feature space [Fig.
1.2(c)] a natural clustering of classes in three groups
indicating the signature differences of the three classes.
When the clusters corresponding to different ground covers
are distinct, it is possible to associate localised regions of
the feature space with specific ground covers. Such distinct
clusters do not happen in real life situations. The digital
classification technique essentially partitions this feature
space in some fashion so that each pixel in the feature space
can be uniquely associated with one of the classes (when we
have n bands, we can have an n-dimensional feature space).
The partitioning is achieved by suitable statistical methods
and a number of such algorithms are established and
available.
1.3.5 END UTILISATION
The information generated from remote sensing can be
represented in many ways. It could be generated as tabular
data, say, the area under different crops in each district, or
as maps. Maps illustrate geographic relationships which are
not readily apparent when viewing tabular data. To make a
decision on the strategy of resource management and
various possible options, one requires information from
multiple sources and just one thematic map may not be
adequate. For example, we would like to reclaim wasteland
and put it to productive use. Remote sensing can generate](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-51-320.jpg)
![boasted of "a judge that no king could corrupt," and who believed that they
had armed themselves with "the panoply of God." The pastors laboured with
unfailing zeal, first to kindle the spark of a faith separated from all earthly
interests; next to nourish sincere belief in God as the vital principle of religious
life. Under their influence the Protestants of the upper middle classes and the
Protestants of the lower classes—there were still fewer of the latter than of
the former—not only practised, but lived their religion, giving an example of
good conduct and of intelligent appreciation of the name and the meaning of
their profession. Their adversaries were forced to render them the homage
due to their efforts and their sincerity. They, the Protestants, were charitable
in the true sense of the term; they loved the brethren; they cared for the
bodies as well as for the souls of the poor; they proved their love for their
fellows by guarding the public welfare; they kept the laws and, whenever it
was possible, enforced them. The pastors knew that they must practise what
they preached, and, profiting by the examples of the ignoble priests, they set
a guard upon their words and movements, lest their disciples should question
their sincerity. They were austere, energetic, and devoted to their people and
to their cause. They were convinced that they were warders of the inheritance
of the saints, and they patrolled their circuit, and went about in the name of
Christ proclaiming the mercy of God and warning men of Eternity and of The
Judgment.
Let us be loyal to our convictions and give to those early pastors the credit
due to their candour and to their efforts; they surpassed us in many ways.
They were learned; they were versed in science, kind to strangers, strict in
morality, brotherly to the poor.
François de Sales said of them: "The Protestants were Christians; Catholicism
was not Christian."[104]
So matters stood—the churches ruined and abandoned, Religion mocked and
the priests despised[105]—when a little phalanx of devoted men arose to
rescue the wrecked body of the French Clergy. They organised systematically,
but their plan of action was independent. François de Sales was among the
first who broke ground for the difficult work. He was a calm, cool man,
indifferent to abuse, firm in the conviction that his power was from God.
There were many representatives of the Church, but few like him. One of his
chroniclers dwelt upon his "exalted indifference to insult" another, speaking of
his "supernatural patience," said:
"A Du Perron could not have stopped short in an argument with a heretic, but,
on the other hand, a Du Perron would not have converted the heretic by the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-56-320.jpg)
![proves religion orthodox
By apostolic blows and knocks,
nor was it the contemplative faith which, by living in convents, deprives the
world of the example of its fervour; it was that practical manifestation of the
grace of God "which fits the citizen for civil life and forms him for the world."
In the end Père François's religion became purely practical and he had but
one aim: the awakening of the soul.
His critics talked of his "dreams," his "visions," and his "religio-sentimental
revival." His piety was expressed in the saying: "Religious life is not an
attitude, nor can the practice of religion save a man; the true life of the
Christian springs from a change of heart, from the intimate and profound
transformation of his personality." We know with what ardour Père François
went forward to his goal, manifesting his ideals by his acts. By his words and
by his writings he worked a revolution in men's souls. His success equalled
the success of Honoré d'Urfé; few books have reached the number of the
editions of the Introduction à la vie dévote.[106]
In Paris de Sales had often visited a young priest named Pierre de Bérulle,
who also was deeply grieved by the condition of Catholicism, and who was
ambitious to work a change in the clergy and in the Church. Père Bérulle had
discussed the subject with Vincent de Paul, de Sales, Bourdoise, and other
pious friends, and after serious reflection, he had determined to undertake
the stupendous work of reforming the clergy. In 1611 he founded a mission-
house called the Oratoire. "The chief object of the mission was to put an end
to the uselessness of so many ecclesiastics." The missionaries began their
work cautiously and humbly, but their progress was rapid. Less than fifteen
months after the first Mass was offered upon the altar of the new house, the
Oratoire was represented by fifty branch missions. The brothers of the
company were seen among all classes; their aim, like the individual aim of
Père François, was to make the love of God familiar to men by habituating
man to the love of his brother. They turned aside from their path to help
wherever they saw need; they nursed the sick, they worked among the
common people, they lent their strength to the worn-out labourer.
They were as true, as simple, and as earnest as the men who walked with the
Son of Mary by the Lake of Galilee. Bound by no tie but Christian Charity, free
to act their will, they manifested their faith by their piety, and it was
impossible to deny the beneficence of their example. From the mother-house](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-58-320.jpg)
![they set out for all parts of France, exhorting, imploring the dissolute to
forsake their sin, and proclaiming the love of Christ. Protestants were making
a strong point of the wrath of God; the Oratorians talked of God's mercy. They
passed from province to province, they searched the streets and the lanes of
the cities, they laboured with the labourers, they feasted with the bourgeois.
Dispensing brotherly sympathy, they entered the homes of the poor as
familiar friends, confessing the adults, catechising the children, and restoring
religion to those who had lost it or forgotten it. They demanded hospitality in
the provincial presbyteries, aroused the slothful priests to repentant action,
and, raising the standard of the Faith before all eyes, they pointed men to
Eternal Life and lifted the fallen brethren from the mire.
Shoulder to shoulder with the three chevaliers of the Faith, de Sales, de
Bérulle, and Père Vincent, was the stern Saint Cyran (Jean Duvergier de
Hauranne) who lent to the assistance of the Oratorians the powerful influence
of his magnetic fervour. The impassioned eloquence of the author of Lettres
Chrétiennes et Spirituelles was awe-inspiring. The members of the famous
convent (Port Royal des Champs) were equally devoted; their fervour was
gentler, but always grave and salutary. Saint Cyran's characteristics were well
defined in Joubert's Pensée.
The Jansenists carried into their religious life more depth of thought and
more reflection; they were more firmly bound by religion's sacred liens;
there was an austerity in their ideas and in their minds, and that austerity
incessantly circumscribed their will by the limitations of duty.
They were pervaded, even to their mental habit, by their uncompromising
conception of divine justice; their inclinations were antipathetic to the lusts of
the flesh. The companions of the community of Port Royal were as pure in
heart as the Oratorians, but they were childlike in their simplicity; they
delighted in the beauties of nature and in the society of their friends; they
indulged their humanity whenever such indulgence accorded with their
vocation; they permitted "the fêtes of Christian love," to which we of the
present look back in fancy as to visions of the first days of the early Church.
Jules Lemaître said in his address at Port Royal:[107]
Port Royal is one of the most august of all the awe-inspiring refuges of
the spiritual life of France. It is holy ground; for in this vale was
nourished the most ardent inner life of the nation's Church. Here prayed
and meditated the most profound of thinkers, the souls most self-
contained, most self-dependent, most absorbed by the mystery of man's](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-59-320.jpg)
![of Port Royal and the Oratoire. He foresaw a time when he could dispose of
benefices and of all else. A few years later the Conseil de Conscience was
abolished, and Père Vincent was ignominiously vanquished. Père Vincent
lacked the requisites of the courtier; he was artless, and straightforward, and
intriguers found it easy to make him appear ridiculous in the eyes of the
Queen.[108] Mazarin watched his moment, and when he was sure that Anne
of Austria could not refuse him anything, he drew the table of benefices from
her hand. From that time "pick and choose" was the order of the day.
"Monsieur le Cardinal" visited the appointments secretly, and secured the
lion's share for himself. When he had made his choice, the men who offered
him the highest bids received what he had rejected. In later years Mazarin
was, by his own appointment, Archbishop of Metz and the possessor of thirty
fat benefices. His revenues were considerable.
Nowhere did the Oratorians meet as determined opposition as at Court. The
courtiers had gone to Mass because they lost the King's favour if they did not
go to Mass, but to be inclined to skepticism was generally regarded as a token
of elegance. Men thought that they were evincing superior culture when they
braved God, the Devil, and the King, at one and the same time, by committing
a thousand blasphemies. Despite the pressure of the new ideas, the "Saints'
Party" had been difficult to organise. It was a short-lived party because
Mazarin was not a man to tolerate rivals who were liable to develop power
enough to counteract his influence over Anne of Austria concerning subjects
even more vital than the distribution of the benefices. The petty annoyances
to which the Prime Minister subjected the "Saints' Party" convinced people
that when a man was of the Court, if he felt the indubitable touch of the
finger of Grace, the only way open to him was the road to the cloister. It was
known that wasps sting, and that they are not meet adversaries for the sons
of God, and the wasps were there in swarms. François de Sales called the
constantly recurring annoyances, "that mass of wasps." As there was no hope
of relief in sight, it was generally supposed that the most prudent and the
wisest course for labourers in the vineyard of the Lord was to enter the hive
and take their places in the cells, among the manufacturers of honey. So
when La Grande Mademoiselle looked upon the convent as her natural
destination, she was carrying out the prevalent idea that retreat from the
world was the natural result of conversion to true religion. It was well for her
and for the convent which she had decided to honour with her presence that
just at the moment when she laid her plans her father had one of his rare
attacks of common sense—yes, well for her and well for the convent!](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-64-320.jpg)
![IV
Mademoiselle's crisis covered a period of six months; when she reappeared
patches adorned her face and powder glistened in her hair. She said of her
awakening: "I recovered my taste for diversions, and I attended the play and
other amusements with pleasure, but my worldly life did not obliterate the
memory of my longings; the excessive austerity to which I had reduced
myself was modified, but I could not forget the aspirations which I had
supposed would lead me to the Carmelites!" Not long after she emerged from
her religious retreat politics called her from her frivolity. Political life was the
arena at that hour, and it is not probable that the most radical of the
feministic codes of the future will restore the power which women then
possessed by force of their determined gallantry, their courage, their vivacity,
their beauty, and their coquetry. The women of the future will lack such power
because their rights will be conferred by laws; legal rights are of small
importance compared to rights conferred and confirmed by custom. The
women of Mademoiselle's day ordered the march of war, led armies, dictated
the terms of peace, curbed the will of statesmen, and signed treaties with
kings, not because they had a right to do so, but because they possessed
invincible force. Richelieu, who had a species of force of his own, and at times
wielded it to their temporary detriment, planned his moves with deference to
their tactics, and openly deplored their importance. Mazarin, who dreaded
women, wrote to Don Luis del Haro: "We have three such amazons right here
in France, and they are fully competent to rule three great kingdoms; they are
the Duchesse de Longueville, the Princesse Palatine, and the Duchesse de
Chevreuse." The Duchesse de Chevreuse, having been born in the early
century, was the veteran of the trio. "She had a strong mind," said Richelieu,
[109] "and powerful beauty, which, as she knew well how to use it, she never
lowered by any disgraceful concessions. Her mind was always well balanced."](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-65-320.jpg)
![When Louis XIII. was dying he rallied long enough to enjoin the Duchesse de
Chevreuse from entering France.[110] Standing upon the brink of Eternity, he
remembered the traitress whom he had not seen in ten years. The Duchesse
de Chevreuse was informed of his commands, and, knowing him to be in the
agonies of death, she placed her political schemes in the hands of agents and
hurried back to France to condole with the widow and to assume the control
of the French nation as the deputy of Anne of Austria. She entered the Louvre
June 14, 1643, thinking that the ten years which had passed since she had
last seen her old confidante had made as little change in the Queen as in her
own bright eyes. She found two children at play together,—young Louis XIV.
and little Monsieur, a tall proud girl with ash-blonde hair: La Grande
Mademoiselle, and a mature and matronly Regent who blushed when she
saluted her. One month to a day had passed since Louis XIII. had yielded up
the ghost.
The Duchesse de Chevreuse installed herself in Paris in her old quarters and
bent her energies to the task of dethroning Mazarin.
The Palatine Princess, Anne de Gonzague, was a ravishingly beautiful woman
endowed with great executive ability. "I do not think," said Retz, "that
Elizabeth of England had more capacity for conducting a State." Anne de
Gonzague did not begin her career by politics. When, as a young girl, she
appeared in the world of the Court, she astonished France by the number and
by the piquancy of her adventures. She was another of the exalted dames
who ran upon the highways disguised as cavaliers or as monks. No one was
surprised no matter when or where he saw Anne de Gonzague, though she
was often met far beyond the limits of polite society. Fancy alone—and their
own sweet will—ruled the fair ladies of those heroic days. During five whole
years Anne de Gonzague[111] gave the world to understand that she was
"Mme. de Guise, wife of Henri de Guise, Archbishop of Rheims" (the same
Henri de Guise who afterward married Mme. de Bossut).
Having passed for "Mme. de Guise" sixty months, the Lady Anne appeared at
Court under her own name "as if nothing had happened," reported
Mademoiselle. Whatever may have here "happened," Anne de Gonzague
reappeared at Court as alluring as in the flower of her first youth; and, as the
Chronicle expressed it: "had the talent to marry herself—between two affairs
of womanly gallantry—to the Prince Palatine,[112] one of the most rabidly
jealous of gentlemen," because, as the pious and truthful Bossuet justly
remarked, "everything gave way before the secret charm of her conversation."](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-68-320.jpg)
![Austria the Court was called upon to resist the second junior branch, whose
inferiority of pretensions was more than balanced by its intelligence and
audacity.
The pretensions of the Condés had been the cause of one of Mazarin's first
anxieties. They were vast pretensions, they were unquestionably just, and
they were ably sustained by the father of the great Condé, "Monsieur le
Prince," a superior personage whose appearance belied his character. People
of his own age remembered him as a handsome man; but debauchery,
avarice, and self-neglect had changed the distinguished courtier and made
him a repulsive old man, "dirty and ugly."[113] He was stoop-shouldered and
wrinkled, with great, red eyes, and long, greasy hair, which he wore passed
around his ears in "love-locks." His aspect was formidable. Richelieu was
obliged to warn him that he must make a serious attempt to cleanse his
person, and that he must change his shoes before paying his visits to the
King.[114] His spirit was as sordid as his body. "Monsieur le Prince" was of
very doubtful humour; he was dogged, snappish, peevish, coarse, contrary,
and thoroughly rapacious. He had begun life with ten thousand livres of
income, and he had acquired a million, not counting his appointments or his
revenues from the government.[115] His friends clutched their pockets when
they saw him coming; but their precautions were futile; he had a way of
getting all that he desired. Everything went into his purse and nothing came
out of it; but where his purse was not concerned Monsieur le Prince was a
different man; there he "loved justice and followed that which was good."[116]
He was a rigorous statesman; he defended the national Treasury against the
world. His keen sense of equity made him a precious counsellor and he was
an eminent and upright judge. His knowledge of the institutions of the
kingdom made him valuable as State's reference; he knew the origins, the
systems, and the supposititious issues of the secret aims of all the parties.
The laws of France were as chaotic as the situation of the parties, and no one
but a finished statesman could find his way among them; but to Monsieur le
Prince they were familiar ground. Considerable as were his attainments, his
children were his equals. Mme. de Longueville, though shallow, was as keen a
diplomat as her father, and by far more dangerous; the Duc d'Enghien was an
astute and accomplished politician. The world considered the Condés as
important as the d'Orléans', and fully able to meet the d'Orléans' on the
super-sacred footing of etiquette. We shall see to what the equality of the two
families conducted them. Struggles between them were always imminent;
their quarrels arose from the exigencies of symbolical details: the manner of
the laying of a carpet, the bearing of the train of a State robe, et cetera. Such](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-70-320.jpg)
![frowned upon the gossip and the jealousies of the Court, condemned Mme.
Montbazon to go to the Hôtel de Condé and make apologies for the wrong
that she had done the Princess. All the friends of the House of Condé were
expected to be present to hear and to witness the vindication of Mme. la
Princesse.
Monsieur was there [wrote Mademoiselle], and for my part I could not
stay away. I had no friendship for Mme. la Princesse, or for any of her
friends, but on that occasion I could not have taken a part contrary to
hers with decorum; to be present there was one of the duties of
relationship which one cannot neglect.
On that occasion the relatives of the family were all in the Hôtel de Condé,
but their hearts were not in their protestations, and the Condés were not
deceived. The petty scandal of the letters fed the flame of enmity, which
Mazarin watched and nourished because he knew that it was to his interest
and to the interest of the State to foment the quarrel between the rival
cousins. An anonymous collection of "memoirs" says:
Seeing that he was pressed from all sides, the Cardinal thought that the
safety of his position required him to keep the House of Orleans separate
from the House of Bourbon, so that by balancing one by the other he
could remain firmly poised between the two and make himself equally
necessary to both. It was as if Heaven itself had dropped the affair of the
fallen letters into his hands, and he turned his celestial windfall to such
account that the Luxembourg and the Hôtel de Bourbon found it difficult
to maintain a decent composure; at heart they were at daggers' points.
The Duc d'Orléans and the Duc d'Enghien were regarded as the chiefs of
the two hostile parties, and the courtiers rallied to the side of either as
their interests or their inclinations led them![117]
Apparently Mazarin's position was impregnable. The world would have been
blind had it failed to see that the arguments used by the Prime Minister when
he conferred with his sovereign were of a character essentially differing from
the arguments generally used by politicians, but it was believed that the
Cardinal's method was well fitted to his purpose, and that to any woman—and
particularly to a woman who had passed maturity—it would be, by force of
nature, more acceptable and more weighty than the abstract method of a
purely political economist, and more convincing than the reasons given by
statesmen,—or, in fact, any reason.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-72-320.jpg)
![Anne of Austria had not been a widow four months when Olivier d'Ormesson
noted, in his journal, that the Cardinal "was recognised as the All-Powerful."
For his sake the Queen committed the imprudences of a love-sick schoolgirl.
She began by receiving his visits in the evening. The doors were left open,
and the Queen said that the Cardinal visited her for the purpose of giving her
instructions regarding the business of the State. As time went on the
Cardinal's visits lengthened; after a certain time the doors were closed, and,
to the scandal of the Court, they remained closed. At Rueil the Queen tried to
make Mazarin sit with her in her little garden carriage. Mazarin "had the
wisdom to resist her wish, but he had the folly to accompany her with his hat
upon his head." As no one ever approached the Queen with head covered,
the spectacle of the behatted minister astonished the public. (September,
1644.) A few weeks later every one in Paris knew that an apartment or suite
of rooms in the Palais Royal, was being repaired, and that it was to be
connected with the Queen's apartments by a secret passage. The public
learned gradually, detail by detail, that Mazarin was to occupy the repaired
apartment, and that the secret passage had been prepared so that the Prime
Minister might "proceed commodiously" to the royal apartments to hold
political conferences with the Queen. When everything was ready, the Gazette
(19th November) published the following announcement:
The Queen in full Council made it plain that, considering the indisposition
of Cardinal Mazarin, and considering that he is forced, with great
difficulty, to cross the whole length of the great garden of the Palais
Royal,[118] and considering that some new business is constantly
presenting itself to him, and demanding to be communicated to the
Queen, the Queen deems it appropriate to give the Cardinal an
apartment in the Palais Royal, so that she may confer with him more
conveniently concerning her business. Her Majesty's intention has been
approved by Messieurs, her ministers, and with applause, so that next
Monday (21st November), his Eminence will take possession of his new
residence.
The Queen's indiscretion won the heart of the favourite, and he longed for her
presence. Twice, once at Rueil and once at Fontainebleau, he displaced La
Grande Mademoiselle and installed himself in her room at the Queen's house.
The first time that Mazarin supplanted Mademoiselle, the haughty Princess
swallowed the affront and found a lodging in the village, but the second time
she lost her patience. "It is rumoured in Paris," wrote d'Ormesson, "that](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-73-320.jpg)
![Mademoiselle spoke to the Queen boldly, because the Cardinal wished to take
her room in order to be near her Majesty." (September, 1645.)
Some historians have inferred that the Queen had been secretly married to
her Minister. We have no proof of any such thing, unless we accept as proof
the very ambiguous letter which the Cardinal wrote to the Queen when he
was in exile. In that letter he spoke of people who tried to injure him in the
Queen's mind. "They will gain nothing by it," wrote Mazarin; "the heart of the
Queen and the heart of Mazarin are joined[119] by liens which cannot be
broken either by time or by any effort,—as you yourself have agreed with me
more than once." In the same letter he implores the Queen to pity him: "for I
deserve pity! it is so strange for this child to be married, then, at the same
time, separated from ... and always pursued by them to whom I am indebted
for the obstacles to my marriage." (27th October, 1651.) These words are of
obscure meaning, and they may as easily be interpreted figuratively as
literally. They who believed that the Queen had married Mazarin secretly must
have drawn their conclusions from the intimate fondness of her manner. Anne
of Austria was infatuated, and her infatuation made it impossible for her to
guard her conduct; her behaviour betrayed the irregularity of the situation,
and it is probable that her friends were loth to believe that anything less than
marriage could induce such familiarity. However that may have been,
Mazarin's letters give no proof of marriage, nor has it ever been proved that
he claimed that he had married the Queen.
When judgment is rendered according to evidence deduced from personal
manners, changes in time and in the differences of localities should be
considered. Our consideration of the Queen's romance dates from the period
of the legitimate, or illegitimate, honeymoon. (August, 1643, or within six
weeks of that time.)
The public watched the royal romance with irritation. Having greeted the
Mazarin ministry with a good grace, they (the people) were unanimously
seized by a feeling of shame and hatred for the handsome Italian who made
use of woman's favour to attain success. The friends of the Queen redoubled
their warnings, and retired from the royal presence in disgrace. One of her
oldest servitors, who had given unquestionable proof of his devotion,[120]
dared to tell her to her face that "all the world was talking about her and
about his Eminence, and in a way which ought to make her reflect upon her
position." ... "She asked me," said La Porte, 'Who said that?' I answered,
'Everybody! it is so common that no one talks of anything else.' She reddened
and became angry."[121] Mme. de Brienne, wife of the Secretary of State, who](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-74-320.jpg)
![had spoken to the Queen on the same subject, told her friends that "More
than once the Queen had blushed to the whites of her eyes."[122] Every one
wrote to the Queen; she found anonymous letters even in her bed. When she
went through the streets she heard people humming songs whose meaning
she knew only too well. Her piety and her maternity had endeared her to the
common people, and they, the people, had looked indulgently upon her
passing weaknesses; but now things had come to a crisis. One day, when the
Regent was attending a service in Notre Dame, she was surprised by a band
of women of the people, who surrounded her and fell at her feet crying that
she was dissipating the fortune of her ward. "Queen," they cried, "you have a
man in your house who is taking everything!"[123]
The fact that the young King was being despoiled was a greater grief to the
people than the abasement of the Queen. It must be avowed that Mazarin
was the most shameless thief who ever devoured a kingdom in the name of
official duty and under the eyes and by the favour of a sovereign. His cry was
the cry of the daughters of the horseleech. It was understood that Mazarin
would not grant a service, or a demand of any kind, until his price had been
put down, and in some cases the commission was demanded and paid twice.
Bussy-Rabutin received a letter commanding him to "pay over and without
delay" the sum of seven hundred livres. The letter is still in existence. Condé
wrote it and despatched it, but it bears his personal endorsement to the effect
that he had been "ordered" to write it. Montglat states that Anne of Austria
asked for a fat office for one of her creatures, that the office was immediately
granted, and that the appointee was taxed one hundred thousand écus. Anne
of Austria was piqued: she had supposed that her position exempted her from
the requirements of the ministerial tariff; she expostulated, but the Cardinal-
Minister was firm; he made it clear, even to the dim perceptions of his royal
lady, that the duties of the director of the French nation ranked the tender
impulses of the lover. Patriotic duty nerved his hand, and the Queen,
recognising the futility of resistance, trembling with excitement, and watering
her fevered persuasions with her tears, opened her purse and paid Mazarin
his commission. By a closely calculated policy the State's coffers were
subjected to systematic drainage, the national expenses were cut, and
millions, diverted from their regular channels, found their way into the strong
box of the favourite. The soldiers of France were dying of starvation on the
frontiers, the State's creditors were clamouring for their money, the Court was
in need of the comforts of life[124]; the country had been ravaged by passing
armies, pillaged by thieving politicians, harrowed by abuses of all kinds. The
taxes were wrung from the beggared people by armed men; yet "poor](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-75-320.jpg)
![Monsieur, the Cardinal," as the Queen always called him, gave insolently
luxurious fêtes and expended millions upon his extravagant fancies. No one
cared for his foreign policy. Would political triumphs bring back the dead, feed
the starving, rehabilitate the dishonoured wives and daughters of the
peasants, restore verdure to the ruined farms?
The Queen's anxiety to create an affection strong enough to blind the eyes of
her courtiers to her intimacy with Mazarin had inspired her with a desire to
lavish gifts. "The Queen gives everything" had become a proverb; the
courtiers knew the value of their complaisancy, and they flocked to the Palais
Royal with petitions; offices, benefices, privileges, monopolies either to
exploit, to concede, or to sell were freely bestowed upon all who demanded
them. Each courtier had some new and unheard-of fancy to gratify, either for
his own pleasure or for the pleasure of his friends; anything that could be
made visible, anything that could be so represented as to appear visible to the
imagination, was scheduled in the minds of the courtiers as dutiable and some
one drew revenues from it. One of the ladies of the Court obtained from the
Queen the right to tax all the Masses said in Paris.[125] "The 13th January,
1644, the Council of the King employed part of its session in refusing 'a
quantity of gifts' which the Queen had accorded, and which were all of a
character to excite laughter." The royal horn had ceased to pour; the Queen's
strong-box was empty. The courtiers knew that there was nothing more to
gain; one and all they raised their voices, and the threatening growl of the
people of Paris echoed them. The day of reckoning was at hand; had Anne of
Austria possessed all that she had given to buy the indulgence of her world,
and had she willed to give it all again, she could not have stilled the tumult; to
quote Mme. de Motteville's record: "The people's love for the Queen had
diminished; the absolute power which the Queen had placed in the hand of
Mazarin had destroyed her own influence, and from too fondly desiring that
the Parisians should love her lover she had made them hate him." In the
beginning of the Regency Mazarin had been popular; after a time the people
had lost confidence in him, and the hatred which followed their distrust was
mingled with contempt.
Mazarin had emptied the treasury of France. No better statement of his
conduct was ever given than Fénelon gave his pupil, the Duc de Bourgogne,
in his Dialogues des Morts. Mazarin and Richelieu are the persons speaking.
Each makes known the value of his own work; each criticises the work of the
other. Mazarin reproaches Richelieu for his cruelty and thirst for blood;
Richelieu answers:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-76-320.jpg)
![He knew that he was jealous of his rights and of all that belonged to him; he
knew that the power of the Condés was a menace, that his daughter was a
powerful ally for any party, that her championship was, and always had been,
his strongest arm against an unappreciative world, and after one of the
senseless exhibitions of anger against Mademoiselle to which Anne of Austria,
impelled by Mazarin, frequently incited him, he asked himself why he
maltreated his daughter when she resisted the usurpations of his hated
cousins, the Condés.
"Why," he queried piteously, "should I plunge the knife into my own breast?"
Why he did so, and why many another as astute as he moved heaven and
earth to effect his own downfall was the secret of Mazarin.
Mademoiselle wept bitter tears for the loss of her father's friendship; then she
arose in her pride, resolved to tread the path of life alone, according to her
independent will. She was twenty years old and in the fulness of her beauty.
She described her appearance with complaisancy[126]:
I am tall; I am neither fat nor lean; I have a graceful and freely moving
figure, and my bearing is natural and easy. My bust is well formed. My
hands and feet are not beautiful, but there is great beauty in their flesh,
and the flesh of my throat is also very pretty. My leg is straight, and my
foot is well formed. My hair is a beautiful ash-blonde. My face is long, and
its contour is fine. The nose is large and aquiline. The mouth neither
large nor little, but distinctly outlined and of a very agreeable form. The
lips are the colour of vermilion. My teeth are not handsome, but neither
are they horrible. My eyes are blue, neither large nor small, but brilliant,
gentle, and proud, like my mien. I have a haughty, but not self-glorified
air; I am polite and familiar, but of a manner to excite respect rather than
to attract the lack of it. I am indeed very indifferent about my dress, but
my negligence does not go as far as untidiness. I hate that! I am neat,
and whether I am laced or loosely robed, everything that I wear looks
well. This is not because I do not look incomparably better with tightly
fitting garments, but it is because negligence and loose garments sit less
ill upon me than upon another, for I may say, without boasting, that I
become whatever I put on better than anything that I put on becomes
me.... God ... has given me unparalleled health and strength. Nothing
breaks me down; nothing fatigues me; and it is difficult to judge of the
events and the changes in my fortunes by my face, for my face rarely
shows any change. I had forgotten to say that I have a healthy](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-81-320.jpg)
![soon as the President's eyes were opened to the truth he rushed headlong
into the arms of the Opposition. Anne of Austria scorned "his treachery to the
Crown." His impassioned thoughts of divine justice were enigmatical to the
sovereign understanding. She was enraged by the obstinacy of her old friend,
and by her orders he was cast into the prison of Saint Piguerol, where he
died, as the just Motteville said, "regretted by every one." Barillon was the
precursor of the "Idealogues" of the eighteenth century and of the Socialists
of our own day.
The Queen was one of the people who seem to have received eyes because
they could not be blind without eyes. The King's porringer was empty because
the King had no money. The Queen, his mother, had pawned the jewels of the
crown to appease her creditors, yet she was indignant when the bourgeois
said that France was bankrupt. She did not attach any importance to "that
canaille,"—as she called the Parliament,—but she regarded criticism or
disapproval as an attempt upon the authority of her son. As she expressed
her exotic ideas freely, the bourgeois knew what she thought of them, and
her abusive epithets were scored to the credit of the Opposition. As much
from interest as from sympathy the Opposition invariably sustained the claims
of the people. "The bourgeois were all infected with love for the public
welfare," said the gentle Motteville bitterly. So the Court knew that in case of
difficulty it could not count upon "that canaille."
Neither could Parliament count upon itself. There were too many counter-
currents in its channels, too many individual interests, too many ambitions,
too many selfish intrigues, to say nothing of the instinct of self-preservation
which had turned the thoughts of the nobles toward a last desperate attempt
to prevent the establishment of the absolute monarchy. They had resolved to
make the attempt, and by it they hoped to save the remnant of their ancient
privileges. They would have been justified in saving anything that they could
lay their hands on, for no man is morally bound to commit suicide. In point of
fact the only thing which they were morally bound to do was to remember
that duty to country precedes all other duties, but in that day people had a
very dim idea of duty to country. La Grande Mademoiselle believed that the
King's right was divine, but she did not hesitate to act against the Court when
her personal interests or the interests of her house demanded such action.
After the "Affair Saujon,[127]" she practically retired from Court. Alluding to
that fact, she said: "I did not think that the presence of a person whom the
Queen had so maltreated could be agreeable to her Majesty."
She made long visits at her château of Bois-le-Vicomte, near Meaux. Her little
court knew her prejudices and respected her feelings. She regarded the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-86-320.jpg)
![success of the French arms as a personal misfortune, because a French
victory conferred more glory upon Monsieur le Prince. The death of the elder
Condé had not lessened the insolent pretensions of the second junior branch,
and the honours claimed by the hawk-eyed general afflicted the haughty
Princess d'Orléans, who had no valiant soldier to add glory to her name.
Referring to the battle of Lens Mademoiselle said:
No one dared to tell me of it; the paper containing the account of it was
sent to me from Paris, and they placed it on my table, where I saw it as
soon as I arose. I read it with astonishment and grief. On that occasion I
was less of a good Frenchman than an enemy.
This avowal is worthy of note because it furnishes a key to the approaching
national crisis. Mademoiselle's treason was the crime of architects of the
Fronde; of the Nobility first, afterward of all France. Mademoiselle wept over
the battle of Lens, and when her father commanded her to return to Paris to
appear with the Queen and to join in the public rejoicings her grief knew no
bounds. The scene in the Palais Royal had destroyed her confidence and her
sympathy, and she could not have "rejoiced with the Queen" on any occasion;
but her father's commands were formal, and she was forced to assist with the
Court (August 26th) at Notre Dame, when the Te Deum was chanted in
thanksgiving for the victory of France.
On that occasion [said Mademoiselle] I placed myself beside Cardinal
Mazarin, and as he was in a good humour I spoke to him of liberating
Saujon. He promised me to do all in his power. He said that he should try
to influence the Queen. I left them all at the Palais Royal and went away
to get my dinner, and when I arrived I was informed of the clamour in
the city; the bourgeois had taken arms.
The bourgeois had taken arms because of the unexpected arrest of two
members of Parliament. "Old Broussel" was one of the two, and to the people
he personified the democratic and humanitarian doctrines of President
Barillon, who had died in his prison because he had angered the Queen by
pleading the people's cause. The news of his arrest fell like a thunderbolt, and
the people sprang to arms. The general excitement dispelled Mademoiselle's
grief; she was not sorry for the uprising. She could not see anything to regret
in the disturbance of the monarchy. Monsieur and the Queen had shown her
that her interests were not theirs, they had tormented and humiliated her, and
it pleased her wounded pride to think that her enemies were to be punished.
The Tuileries were admirably situated for the occasion. Should there be a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-87-320.jpg)
![highwaymen and other malefactors, who enshrined themselves among the
shadows and lay in wait for the weak or the unwary.
At that time the Duc d'Angoulême, the illegitimate son of Charles IX., used to
send his servants into the streets to collect their wages from the passers-by.
Having collected their money, the clever fellows returned to the ducal palace.
The Duc d'Angoulême possessed the right of shelter, and his palace was
vested with all the power of the horns of the altar: once within his gates, the
criminal was in safety and "inviolable."
The Duc de Beaufort used to send his servants out into the streets to rob
travellers for his personal benefit. When the robbers were arrested their
proprietor demanded their release and made great talk of an indemnification.
The excessively mobile Parisian character has changed many times since the
day of the Duc de Beaufort; but the people of the present are counterparts of
the people of the times[128] of Louis XIII. and the Regency. One of
Mademoiselle's contemporaries said: "The true Parisians love to work; they
love the novelty of things; they love changes in their habits; they even love
changes in their business. They are very pious, and very—credulous. They are
not in the least drunkards; they are polite to strangers."
Subtract the piety and add absinthe, the mother of Folly, and we have the
Parisians of our own day. They too are industrious; they are always changing
something; they are changeable in themselves; they are credulous; they call
religion "superstition," but they believe in "systems," in "panaceas," in high-
sounding words, and in "great men"—men truly great, or spuriously great;
they still cherish a belief in revolutions. They are as ready now as they were
centuries ago to die for an idea, for a Broussel, and for much less than a
Broussel. Just such Parisians as we meet in our daily walks raised the
barricades in 1648. Broussel's windows looked out upon the river; the
boatmen and the people of the water were the first to hear of his arrest, and
they rushed crying into the streets; the people of the Halles joined them; and
the "good bourgeoisie" followed the people's lead. The tradesmen closed their
shops, the chains were drawn across the streets; and in the twinkling of an
eye Paris bristled with antiquated firearms like an historical procession.
Mademoiselle, who heard the noise, ordered her carriage, and went out to
pass the barricades. She had never seen the mob as she saw it then. The
people swayed forward to meet the insolent noble who dared to defy them;
but when they recognised their Princess, their hoarse cries turned to shouts of
welcome, and eager hands raised the chains. Then, haughtily ignoring their
fond smiles, Mademoiselle passed and the chains fell behind her.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23995097-250509121315-494ab9b0/85/Fundamentals-Of-Remote-Sensing-Third-Edition-3rd-Edition-George-Joseph-C-Jeganathan-89-320.jpg)
Fundamentals Of Remote Sensing Third Edition 3rd Edition George Joseph C Jeganathan
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- 6. FUNDAMENTALS OF Remote Sensing THIRD EDITION George Joseph Former Director, Space Applications Centre ISRO, Ahmedabad and C Jeganathan Professor, Department of Remote Sensing BIT, Mesra
- 7. FUNDAMENTALS OF REMOTE SENSING (Third Edition) Universities Press (India) Private Limited Registered Office 3-6-747/1/A & 3-6-754/1. Himayatnagar, Hyderabad 500 029, Telangana, India info@universitiespress.com; www.universitiespress.com Distributed by Orient Blackswan Private Limited Registered Office 3-6-752, Himayatnagar, Hyderabad 500 029, Telangana, India Other Offices Bengaluru / Chennai / Guwahati / Hyderabad / Kolkata Mumbai / New Delhi / Noida / Patna / Visakhapatnam © Universities Press (India) Private Limited 2018 e-edition: First published 2021 eISBN: 9789389211849 Published by Universities Press (India) Private Limited 3-6-747/1/A & 3-6-754/1, Himayatnagar, Hyderabad 500 029, Telangana, India All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests write to the publisher.
- 8. About the Book The Third Edition of this book retains the basic principles of remote sensing, introduced in the earlier editions. It covers all aspects of the subject from electromagnetic radiation, its interaction with objects, various sensors, platforms, data processing, data product generation and end utilisation for earth resource monitoring and management. Apart from material that has retained value since the previous edition, this revised and updated edition presents additional information to keep the readers abreast of the emerging trends. The newer developments in sensor technology, supplementary information on image processing, data product generation, applications of remote sensing in disciplines such as archaeology, desertification and drought assessment are included. A relatively newer theme in remote sensing – GNSS remote sensing – has been introduced. Since remote sensing is used by professionals from varied disciplines, the book is designed to cater to readers from various backgrounds. For those intending to pursue graduate studies in remote sensing, this book serves as an overview and introduction, so that the basic concepts of all topics – science, technology and applications – of remote sensing are clear. This directs them to delve deeper into their specific field of interest. The book serves as a source of information for professionals who come across remote sensing in their work and would like to learn more about its principles and practical uses to support their professional/research activity. For faculty who want to
- 9. widen their horizons, the comprehensive bibliography and relevant websites will be extremely helpful. Overall the book serves as a 'single window' source to comprehend the basics of the subject.
- 10. Authors’ Profiles Dr George Joseph started his research career at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Mumbai. He has been at the Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad since 1973 where he was instrumental in developing a variety of electro-optical sensors for earth observation which were the first of their kind in India. He served SAC in various capacities including as its director from 1994–1998 and has made substantial contributions toward the realisation of various remote-sensing-related activities for shaping the long-term remote sensing programme of ISRO. He has served in a number of national and international committees/organisations—President of Technical Commission-1 of the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS) during 1996–2000, Director of the Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE–AP) affiliated to the United Nations during 2006–2009, to name a few. He is a Fellow of a number of national academies and professional bodies and is a recipient of several awards, including the Padma Bhushan in 1999 for his outstanding
- 11. contributions to remote sensing in India. (http://www.profgeorgej.com/) Dr Jeganathan Chockalingam has been working in the field of geo-spatial Science and Technology since 1993, and possesses extensive teaching and research experience. He started his scientific career at the Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre (RRSSC, ISRO-Dehradun: 1993– 1996), then worked at the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS, Department of Space, Dehradun: 1996– 2008) followed by the University of Southampton, United Kingdom (2008–2011). He has participated and contributed in the development of various RS–GIS educational programs at IIRS. He has also contributed significantly in many National Mission Projects (involving RS–GIS) of ISRO and developed many software packages (SPLAM, STAMP, ADAMS for ISRO, ICIMOD and IWMI, to mention a few). Since 2011, he has been Professor in the Department of Remote Sensing, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India. His main research interests include geoinformatics, geostatistics, space–time dynamics of vegetation, natural resources monitoring and modelling, spatial decision modelling and downscaling. He is the recipient of the Indian National Geospatial Award (2015) and Klaas Jan Beek Award (2003).
- 12. Foreword The science of remote sensing has emerged as one of the most fascinating subjects over the past three decades. Earth observation from space through various remote sensing instruments has provided a vantage means of monitoring land surface dynamics, natural resources management, and the overall state of the environment itself. With the increasing concern for the earth’s habitability due to the increasing anthropogenic interference with the natural systems, the emphasis on the study of earth system processes has also assumed greater importance. Deriving information about geophysical parameters from the satellite observed reflected or emitted radiation field with appropriate modelling and alogrithm development has indeed been a matter of great scientific importance. Advances in optics, devices, signal processing and materials have enabled a quantum jump in imaging and non-imaging sensor systems, providing information about the earth system, hitherto considered not possible, from satellites. Remote sensing science, thus, has been marked by significant progress in recent decades, spurred further by the advances in enabling tools such as the Geographical Information System, advanced image processing techniques, the Global Positioning System, as well as powerful computing systems. These rapid developments have pushed earth observation research and development to the forefront of scientific endeavour, challenging in the process, the traditional approaches followed in diverse fields such as meteorology, oceanography, hydrology and
- 13. geology to name only a few. In the course of this progress, a multitude of new techniques and concepts have been evolved, making it imperative for the professionals in the field to understand and absorb these for their effective functioning. Obviously, the emergence of such a broad, interdisciplinary field of study calls for a complete understanding of the spectrum of systems involved. With this in mind, it is strongly felt that there is a compelling need to provide students and other professionals, with a basic understanding of remote sensing science, technology and applications in a simplified manner. I am glad that Dr George Joseph, who has more than three decades of direct involvement with remote sensing in the country, has taken keen interest in bringing out a reader-friendly book on the subject. I am sure that this book, striking a good balance between the wide coverage and depth required at undergraduate and postgraduate levels will serve the needs of many universities offering courses in remote sensing and allied fields. I also fervently hope that the timely publication of this book covering all the relevant disciplines of remote sensing will provide a glimpse of the amazing achievements in this ever-galloping field. This book stands further testimony to the dedication and commitment of Dr George Joseph in spreading the information on the advances in remote sensing technology and applications for which he is well-known in this country. Dr K Kasturirangan Chairman Indian Space Research Organisation March, 2003 Bangalore
- 14. Preface to the Third Edition Since the launch of the Second Edition of this popular book in 2005, there has been steady increase in the technology and applications of remote sensing; nevertheless, many of the fundamentals have substantially remained the same. Therefore, the content of the book is still very relevant since the objective of the book is to present the basic science, principles and concepts covering various aspects of remote sensing from data collection to end utilisation. This new edition presents material that has retained value since those early days, along with additional information to keep the readers informed of the emerging trends in the subject. Though the book is not specifically designed with any syllabus in mind, the content covers much more than required for an undergraduate course. It is gratifying to note that the book has been recommended as one of the textbooks in many universities in India. The contents are organised such that each successive chapter takes the reader to the next level to logically understand the subject. The motivation to write the Third Edition comes from the feedback received from a number of users of the book, to add some topics that are not covered in the earlier edition. Therefore we have updated all chapters except chapters 2, 3, and 4 which primarily deal with the basic physics of the subject. In Chapter 6 newer developments in sensor technology have been added. In Chapter 7, a new topic – GPR – which has many applications in civil
- 15. engineering and mine detection has been added. Newer application potential is added to Chapter 11, which includes, among others, desertification and archaeology. The other chapters have also been expanded with newer information that was not addressed earlier, which will further broaden the understanding of the subject. This edition has a co-author—Prof. C Jeganathan, whose vast experience in research and teaching of remote sensing brings ‘new blood’ to the book. However, we have retained the style and format of the earlier edition where the thrust of the presentation is to present basic concepts in an easily comprehensible manner for students and practitioners from different disciplines. One of the authors (GJ) is grateful to Mr A S Kiran Kumar, the present chairman of ISRO, for giving him an honorary position in ISRO, without which he could not have accomplished this task. He is thankful to Mr Tapan Misra the present director of Space Applications Centre (SAC) who extended the necessary facilities in the course of preparation for this edition. We are grateful to a number of individuals who helped in various ways to complete this edition: Dr Ajai, Dr M B Rajani, Prof. P S Roy, Ankur Garg, S Manthira Moorthi, Smt. G Uma Devi, K L N Sastry, Dr A S Rajawat and Dr S S Ray are some of the scientists who provided inputs for some of the sections. Additions to the Third Edition were reviewed by a number of experts including Dr Senthil Kumar, Director IIRS, Prof. A Jayaraman, Director NARL, Dr R Chandrakanth, Head, Image Processing Division, ADRIN, Dr R P Singh, S A C, Abhineet Shyam , Dr V S Rathore, BIT, Mr Saptarshi Mondal, BIT and others. Ashish Soni helped in making some of the line drawings. We thankfully acknowledge their valuable contributions. Any omissions in mentioning contributions to this endeavour
- 16. are not intentional but inadvertent. Our special thanks to Ashok Gehlot for the secretarial assistance and for the cover design. I (GJ) would like to thank Mr Madhu Reddy, Universities Press Pvt Ltd, for having published the First Edition of this book in 2003 and his persuasion to upgrade the content which resulted in the Second Edition of the book in 2005 and this Third Edition. We also extend our thanks to the editor Dr Gita S Dattatri, whose excellent editing has given the content of the book a new look. Our families need special appreciation for their patient understanding and support during the preparation of this edition. George Joseph Former Director, Space Applications Centre ISRO, Ahmedabad (http://www.profgeorgej.com/) C Jeganathan Professor, Department of Remote Sensing BIT, Mesra
- 17. Preface to the Second Edition It is gratifying to note that the book Fundamentals of Remote Sensing has been well accepted by professionals, students and teaching faculty. I have also received a number of comments and suggestions on the First Edition. I have tried to incorporate some of them in the Second Edition. Major additions are in Chapter 11, dealing with the applications of remote sensing. Four more themes have been added. Some basic concepts of advanced classification techniques have been added in Chapter 10. The latest advancement in the IRS series has also been discussed. In order to benefit those who are approaching the subject for the first time, a list of acronyms and abbreviations has been added. I am grateful to many of my colleagues in ISRO/DOS for helping me with these additional material for the second edition, especially, Dr (Mrs) Anjali Bahuguna and Dr SR Nayak (coastal management), Dr RM Dwivedi (marine fisheries), Dr AV Kulkarni (snow and glacier studies), Dr JK Garg (wetland), Dr B Karthikeyan, Dr A Senthilkumar and Dr R Krishnan for the advanced classification system. I also thankfully acknowledge the pains taken by Dr Ajai and Dr SR Nayak for critically going through the manuscript. However, the list is not complete. I thankfully acknowledge the secretarial assistance of Shri A V Rajesh and for generating all the line drawings on the computer.
- 18. The field of remote sensing is diverse, dynamic and evolving. It is not possible to cover exhaustively in one book all the topics presented here. I have made my best effort to bring out the fundamental concepts, covering all areas of remote sensing in a manner which can be understood by those who are beginning to learn the subject. Please continue to send me your feedback (josephgeor@yahoo.com). George Joseph
- 19. Preface to the First Edition Since the launch of LANDSAT 1, there has been a rapid growth in the science, technology and applications of remote sensing. In order to keep up with the requirement of increased trained manpower in this specialised area, a number of universities and colleges have introduced remote sensing as a separate postgraduate course or as an optional subject. Remote sensing technology and application requires scientists/engineers to cut across various disciplines. This book is an attempt to present the fundamental concepts covering various stages of remote sensing from data collection to end utilisation, which could be appreciated by the reader irrespective of the discipline from which he/she has graduated. I have tried to explain the physical principles on which remote sensing is based, without getting into complicated mathematics. The thrust is to make the concepts clear, in as simple and comprehensive a manner as possible. The book is an outcome of my numerous lectures over the past three decades, at various training programmes conducted in India. It is primarily written for those students who would like to get a basic understanding of remote sensing, with which they can pursue further in-depth studies. The material is organised into eleven chapters. Chapter 1 presents in a nutshell what remote sensing is and sets the tone for further reading. Chapter 1 is expected to give the reader an ‘end-to-end’ idea of remote sensing. It also gives
- 20. a historic perspective and the current status of remote sensing. Chapter 2 explains the properties of electromagnetic radiation of relevance to remote sensing. Since data collection in remote sensing is primarily a measurement of radiance, the third chapter gives an account of radiometry. The fourth chapter presents the physical process leading to various signatures based on which targets are identified. Chapters 5, 6 and 7 deal with sensors used for collection of remote sensing data. Chapter 8 highlights the capabilities and limitations of various platforms to carry the remote sensing sensors. Chapter 9 discusses the process involved in generating data products, which is used for data analysis. Chapter 11 is devoted to the application potential of remote sensing and the role of Geographical Information System (GIS) in decision-making. At the end of each chapter, a reference to further reading material including relevant websites is provided. The five appendices complement and supplement the information provided in the main text. A large number of references to original work are given for those interested in further studies. Some of the details are given in boxes, which could be omitted on first reading without loss of continuity, but could be of use for further in-depth study. Since this book is written for beginners, for easy reading I have deliberately repeated certain statements/concepts in subsequent chapters. I hope those interested in pursuing studies in remote sensing will find this book useful in understanding the basic concepts. I solicit comments and suggestions from the readers (josephgeor@yahoo.com). Information taken from other sources has been fully acknowledged and all efforts have been made to obtain permission from authors and publishers. If any information
- 21. has been used without permission from proper authorities, the lapse, which is not intentional is regretted, and shall be corrected as soon as it is brought to the notice of the author and publisher. I am grateful to a number of my colleagues in the Indian Space Research Organisation and the Department of Space for meticulously going through the manuscript and giving valuable suggestions. I am particularly grateful to Dr J V Thomas of the Earth Observation Programme Office, Bangalore, who has critically gone through the drafts of all the chapters and given very useful comments. The secretarial assistance provided by Shri M N Narayanan during the initial phase and later by Shri A V Rajesh is gratefully acknowledged. Shri Rajesh needs to be complemented for generating most of the line drawings on the computer and for preparing the manuscript with dedication. Finally, it is a pleasure for me to acknowledge the sustained encouragement I received from my wife Mercy for completing this book. George Joseph
- 22. Contents Foreword Preface to the Third Edition Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition 1. Introduction 1.1 Sun and Atmosphere 1.2 Concept of Signatures 1.2.1 Multi-Spectral Concept 1.3 Remote Sensing System 1.3.1 Remote Sensors 1.3.2 Platforms 1.3.3 Data Products Generation 1.3.4 Data Analysis 1.3.5 End Utilisation 1.4 Why Observe Earth from Space? 1.5 Remote Sensing—A Historic Perspective 1.6 Indian Remote Sensing Programme 1.7 The Earth Observation Evolution—The Paradigm Shift 1.8 Legal and Ethical Aspects 2. Electromagnetic Radiation 2.1 Velocity of EM Radiation 2.2 Polarisation
- 23. 2.3 Coherent Radiation 2.4 Propagation of EM Waves from One Medium to Another 2.4.1 Fresnel Relation for Reflection and Transmission 2.4.2 Some More Wave Properties of EM Radiation 2.5 Attenuation 2.5.1 Absorption 2.5.2 Scattering 2.6 Quantum Nature of EM Radiation 2.7 Thermal Radiation 2.7.1 Emissivity 2.8 Source of EM Radiation for Remote Sensing 3. Fundamentals of Radiometry 3.1 Measurement Geometry—Concept of the Solid Angle 3.2 Radiometric Quantities 3.3 Surface Characteristics for Radiometric Measurements 3.4 Observation Geometry in Remote Sensing 3.5 Radiometric Measurement 3.6 Scene Reflectance Measurement 4. Physical Basis of Signatures 4.1 Signature in the Reflective OIR Region 4.1.1 Vegetation 4.1.2 Soil 4.1.3 Water Bodies/Ocean 4.1.4 Snow
- 24. 4.2 Thermal Infrared (TIR) 4.3 Microwave Region 4.3.1 Microwave Emission 4.3.2 Microwave Scattering 5. Remote Sensors—An Overview 5.1 Classification of Remote Sensors 5.2 Selection of Sensor Parameters 5.3 Spatial Resolution 5.4 Spectral Resolution 5.4.1 Location of Spectral Bands 5.5 Radiometric Resolution 5.5.1 Radiometric Quality 5.6 Temporal Resolution 5.7 Performance Specification 6. Optical-Infrared Sensors 6.1 Quality of Image in Optical Systems 6.2 Imaging Mode 6.3 Photographic Camera 6.3.1 Photographic Films 6.3.2 Characterising Film 6.3.3 Distortions in Photographs 6.4 Television Cameras 6.5 Opto-mechanical Scanners 6.5.1 Scanning Systems 6.5.2 Collecting Optics 6.5.3 Spectral Dispersion System 6.5.4 Detectors
- 25. 6.6 Opto-mechanical Scanners Operated from Satellites 6.6.1 LANDSAT Multi-Spectral Sensors 6.6.2 Opto-Mechanical Scanner from Geo- Stationary Orbit 6.7 Pushbroom Cameras 6.7.1 Principle of Operation of Pushbroom Camera 6.7.2 Linear Array for Pushbroom Scanning 6.7.3 Collecting Optics 6.7.4 Pushbroom Cameras Operated from Satellite 6.7.5 High Spatial Resolution Imaging Systems 6.8 Hyper-spectral Imager 6.8.1 The Scanner Approach 6.8.2 Pushbroom Approach 6.8.3 Wedge Imaging Spectrometer 6.9 Hybrid Scanners 6.10 Measuring the Third Dimension 6.11 Image Quality Aspects 6.11.1 Radiometric Considerations 6.11.2 Geometric Quality 6.12 On-Orbit Performance Evaluation 7. Microwave Sensors 7.1 Antenna 7.1.1 Paraboloid Antenna 7.1.2 Horn Antenna 7.1.3 Slotted Antenna 7.1.4 Phased Arrays 7.2 Passive Microwave Sensors 7.2.1 Principle of Microwave Radiometry
- 26. 7.2.2 Radiometer Performance Parameters 7.2.3 Total Power Radiometer 7.2.4 Dicke Radiometer 7.2.5 Satellite-Borne Microwave Radiometers 7.2.6 Pushbroom and Synthetic Aperture Radiometer 7.3 Active Microwave Sensors 7.3.1 Altimeters 7.4 Side Looking Radar 7.4.1 Real Aperture Radar 7.4.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar 7.4.3 Image Quality in Radar Imagery 7.4.4 Spaceborne SAR Systems 7.5 Scatterometer 7.6. Ground Penetrating Radar 7.6.1 GPR Instrument 7.6.2 GPR Operation 7.6.3 Performance Criteria 8. Platforms 8.1 Principles of Satellite Motion 8.2 Locating a Satellite in Space 8.3 Types of Orbit 8.3.1 Geosynchronous and Geostationary Orbits 8.3.2 Sunsynchronous Orbit 8.3.3 Viewing Geometry from Orbit 8.4 Orbital Perturbations 8.5 The Spacecraft 8.6 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
- 27. 9. Data Reception and Data Products 9.1 Data Formats 9.2 Ground Segment Organisation 9.2.1 Remote Sensing Satellite Data Reception Station at NRSC 9.3 Data Pre-Processing 9.3.1 Sources of Errors in Received Data 9.3.2 Georeferencing 9.4 Referencing Scheme 9.5 Data Product Generation 9.5.1 Product Options 9.5.2 Product Request 9.6 Data Products Output Medium 9.6.1 Photoproduct 9.6.2 Digital Products 9.7 Special Processing 9.7.1 Contrast Enhancement 9.7.2 Enhancement by Colour Coding 9.7.3 Spatial Filtering 9.7.4 Image Transforms 9.7.5 Image Fusion 10. Data Analysis 10.1 Visual Image Analysis 10.2 Digital Classification 10.2.1 Optimum Band Selection for Digital Classification 10.2.2 Data Registration 10.2.3 Classification Techniques 10.2.4 Output Stage
- 28. 10.3 Classification Accuracy 11. Applications of Remote Sensing for Earth Resources Management 11.1 Agriculture 11.1.1 Crop Production Forecasting 11.1.2 Multiple In-Season Crop Production Forecast 11.1.3 Precision Farming 11.1.4 Agricultural Drought Assessment 11.2 Forestry Application 11.2.1 Type and Density Mapping 11.2.2 Forest Cover Change 11.2.3 Forest Status in India 11.3 Land Cover/Land Use Mapping 11.3.1 Wastelands 11.3.2 Urban Sprawl 11.4 Water Resources 11.5 Snow and Glacier 11.5.1 Snow Studies 11.5.2 Glacial Investigations 11.6 Wetland Management 11.6.1 Remote Sensing of Wetland Ecosystems 11.6.2 Wetland Inventory of India 11.7 Coastal Zone Management 11.7.1 Coastal Zone Ecosystem 11.7.2 Coastal Regulation Zone 11.7.3 Use of Satellite Data for Coastal Management 11.7.4 Integrated Coastal Zone Management
- 29. 11.8 Marine Fisheries 11.8.1 Introduction 11.9 Desertification 11.9.1 Desertification Status Mapping 11.9.2 Monitoring Change in Desertification Over a Period of Time 11.9.3 Susceptibility to Desertification 11.9.4 Desertification Mitigation 11.10 Archaeology 11.10.1 Archaeological Signatures 11.10.2 Data Collection and Processing 11.10.3 Examples of RS in Archaeology 11.11 Remote Sensing for Earth System Science Studies 12. Geographical Information System (GIS) 12.1 Data Model 12.2 Data Entry 12.3 Data Analysis and Modelling 12.4 A Practical Example—Urban Land Use Suitability 12.5 GIS in the Internet Era 12.6 Spatial Data Infrastructure Colour Plates Appendix 1 Influence of Atmosphere on Remote Sensing A1.1 Optical Depth and Visual Range A1.2 The Radiance Received by the Sensor A1.3 Effect of Turbulence A1.4 Partial Cloud Cover A1.5 Atmospheric Correction
- 30. A1.5.1 Atmospheric Correction Over the Ocean in the OIR Region A1.5.2 Atmospheric Correction for Extraction of Sea Surface Temperature Appendix 2 Atmospheric Sounding A2.1 Principle of Atmospheric Sounding A2.2 Limb Sounding A2.3 Absorption Techniques for Sounding A2.3.1 Solar Backscattering Observation A2.3.2 Occultation Methods A2.4 Active Sounding of Atmosphere A2.4.1 Backscatter LIDAR A2.4.2 Differential Absorption LIDAR (DIAL) A2.4.3 Raman Backscatter LIDAR A2.5 Sensors for Atmospheric Sounding A2.5.1 Spectral Selection Techniques Appendix 3 Decibels Appendix 4 Map Projection A4.1 Projection Geometries Appendix 5 Visual Interpretation Appendix 6 Hyperspectral Image Analysis Appendix 7 GNSS Remote Sensing A7.1 GNSS Meteorology
- 31. A7.1.1 GNSS Radio Occultation (GNSS RO) A7.1.2 GNSS Meteorology—Ground Based A7.2 GNSS Reflectommetrry (GNSS-R) Appendix 8 Acronyms References
- 32. Introduction Remote sensing is a recently coined term, for an activity each one of us has been carrying out since birth. Reading this book and hearing the sounds around you involve remote sensing. However, the associated energy in the two processes is different; in the case of seeing it is light energy while for hearing it is sound energy, the sensors being the eyes and ears respectively. These sensors are not in contact with the object that is being sensed. On the other hand, if we have to measure the body temperature using a clinical thermometer, the thermometer comes in contact with the body whose temperature is to be measured. We may call it in situ measurement. For remote sensing we may give the following generalised definition. Remote sensing is the science of making inferences about objects from measurements, made at a distance, without coming into physical contact with the objects under study. That is, remote sensing refers to any method, which can be used to gather information about an object without actually coming in contact with it. In this context, any force field—acoustic, gravitational, magnetic, electromagnetic, and so on, could be used for remote sensing, covering various disciplines, extending from laboratory testing to astronomy. However, currently the term remote sensing is used commonly to denote identification of the features of
- 33. the earth by detecting the characteristic electromagnetic radiation that is reflected/emitted by the earth system. With extensive application of remote sensing for resource management, the definition used by the United Nations, (as part of the general assembly resolutions A/RES/41/65, 95th Plenary meeting, 3 December, 1986), seems to be more appropriate. Remote sensing means sensing of the earth’s surface from space by making use of the properties of electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or diffracted by the sensed objects, for the purpose of improving natural resource management, land use and the protection of the environment. Before we get to appreciate the profoundness of the scope of coverage of the subject, let us consider some daily experiences to understand the basic principle behind remote sensing. As mentioned earlier, visual perception of objects is the best example of remote sensing. We see an object by the light reflected by it. Here, the eye is the ‘sensor’, the head is the ‘platform’ on which the sensor is placed and the nervous system carries the information to the brain, which acts as an ‘interpreter’ for the identification of the object. In doing so, the brain recalls past experiences and completes the cycle of viewing and understanding. Let us consider a common experience. We all know that a papaya is ripe when it turns yellow. The following process takes place in leading us to this conclusion. (i) Ripe papaya has a characteristic colour due to certain processes in the fruit. (ii) We have been told by knowledgeable persons with previous experience that when papaya turns yellow, it is ripe.
- 34. (iii) This information is stored in our brain and comes in handy when we come across a similar situation. (iv) When we see the characteristic colour of the skin of the fruit, this ‘data’ is compared with the information stored in our brain and if it matches we conclude that the fruit is ripe. (We cannot say whether it is sweet; that requires in situ sensing!) Modern remote sensing is an extension of this natural phenomenon. However, apart from visible light, electromagnetic radiation extending from the ultraviolet to the far infrared and the microwave regions is also used for remote sensing of the earth resources. If the observation is made based on the electromagnetic radiation from the sun or self-emitted radiance, it is called passive remote sensing. It is also possible to produce electromagnetic radiation of a specific wavelength or band of wavelengths to illuminate the object or terrain. The interaction of this radiation can then be studied by sensing the scattered radiance from the target. This is called active remote sensing. The basic process involved in remote sensing is the interaction (or emission) of the electromagnetic radiation with (from) matter. Electromagnetic radiation is made up of electric and magnetic fields and spans a large spectrum of wavelengths—from very short wavelength gamma rays (10– 10 m) to long radio waves (106 m). The entire range of the electromagnetic radiation is called electromagnetic spectrum. Visible light occupies only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extending from about 0.4 to 0.7 μm wavelength. While remote sensing may avail of a much broader part of the spectrum in comparison to what is useful for human eyes, the whole of the electromagnetic spectrum is not available for remote sensing for reasons that we may dwell upon at a later stage.
- 35. 1.1 SUN AND ATMOSPHERE The sun is the most important source of electromagnetic radiation used in passive optical remote sensing. The sun may be assumed to be a blackbody with surface temperature around 6000 K. The sun’s radiation covers ultraviolet, visible, infrared and radio frequency regions. Maximum radiation occurs around 0.55 μm which is in the visible region. However, solar radiation reaching the surface of earth is modified by the atmospheric effects. All bodies at temperatures above absolute zero emit electromagnetic radiation at different wavelengths as per Planck’s Law (Section 2.7). Hence, if the earth can be treated as a blackbody at 300 K, it emits electromagnetic radiation with a peak at around 9.5 μm. Thus during the day, if we observe the earth, we have solar radiation reflected by the earth’s surface and the emission from the surface. Further, beyond about 5 μm, the radiation from the earth is mainly due to the emission process. Solar radiation has to pass through the atmosphere before it interacts with the earth’s surface. In passing through the atmosphere, the radiation is scattered and absorbed by gases and particulates. The strongest absorption occurs at wavelengths shorter than 0.3 μm primarily due to ozone. However, certain spectral regions of the electromagnetic radiation pass through the atmosphere without much attenuation. These are called atmospheric windows. Remote sensing of the earth’s surface is generally confined to these wavelength regions: 0.4–1.3, 1.5–1.8, 2.2– 2.6, 3.0–3.6, 4.2–5.0, 7.0–15.0 μm and 1 cm to 30 cm. Even in the regions of atmospheric windows, the scattering by the atmospheric molecules and aerosols
- 36. produces spatial redistribution of energy. The scattered/diffused radiance entering the field of view of a remote sensor, other than that from the target of interest, is called path radiance. The path radiance reduces the contrast of the image generated by the sensor, and thereby the visual ‘sharpness’ of the image is reduced. In addition, it corrupts the actual radiance leaving the target, that is characteristic to it. That is, the apparent radiance of the ground targets, as measured by the remote sensor, differs from the intrinsic surface radiance because of the intervening atmosphere, thus producing radiometric error. Since the aerosol concentration in the atmosphere varies with position and time, the amount of correction to be applied in order to remove the radiometric error, also varies. In principle, the additional radiance rendered by path radiance could be removed if the concentration and optical properties of the aerosol are known throughout the field of observation. A number of methodologies have been developed to provide at least approximate corrections. The atmosphere including haze and clouds, is much more transparent to microwave than to optical and infrared regions. Hence, microwave remote sensing using active sensors such as Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR), Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), and so on, have an all- weather capability. However, emission from the atmosphere can affect the brightness temperatures of the target under observation even in the microwave regions, thus producing a certain amount of radiometric error. But the advantage of this is that the atmospheric absorption/emission can be used to derive information on atmospheric constituents and the vertical temperature profile.
- 37. 1.2 CONCEPT OF SIGNATURES Electromagnetic radiation when incident on a surface gets reflected, absorbed, re-radiated or transmitted through the material depending upon the nature of the object and the wavelength of the incident radiation. Since the nature of interaction of the electromagnetic radiation with an object depends on its cumulative properties, the study of these interactions can lead to an understanding of the objects under observation. In remote sensing, the basic property which allows identification of an object is called the signature. In the example of the papaya cited above, the yellow colour is the signature showing that the fruit is ripe. In general parlance, the concept of signature in remote sensing is similar to how you are identified at the bank with your signature (or fingerprint) in your transactions. The basic assumption is that each individual has an unique signature or fingerprint, with which he can be identified. In general, we can say that any set of observable characteristics, which directly or indirectly leads to the identification of an object and/or its condition is termed as its signature. Spectral, spatial, temporal and polarisation variations are four major characteristics of the targets which facilitate discrimination. Spectral variations are the changes in the reflectance or emittance of objects as a function of wavelength. The colour of objects is a manifestation of spectral variation in reflectance in the visible region. Spatial arrangements of terrain features providing attributes such as shape, size and texture of objects which lead to their identification are termed as spatial variations.
- 38. Temporal variations are the changes in the reflectivity or emissivity with time. They can be diurnal and/or seasonal. The variation in reflectivity during the growing cycle of a crop helps to distinguish crops which may have similar spectral reflectances, but whose growing cycles may not be the same. A plot of spectral reflectance vs growth stages of a crop provides a phenologic pattern, which is characteristic of a crop, even at the species level. Therefore, remote sensing data acquired over the same area at different times can make use of the temporal characteristics to discriminate between crops in a better way. Polarisation variations relate to the changes in the polarisation of the radiation reflected or emitted by an object. The degree of polarisation is a characteristic of the object and hence can help in distinguishing the object. Such observations have been particularly useful in the microwave region. Signatures are not however, completely deterministic. They are statistical in nature with a certain mean value and some dispersion around it. 1.2.1 MULTI-SPECTRAL CONCEPT Spectral variation is the most often used signature, especially in the optical-IR region. Figure 1.1 gives the spectral variation of some of the natural objects in the 0.4 to 2.4 μm range. However, it is not easy (though not impossible) to generate continuous spectra for identifying objects. Therefore a practical solution is to make observations in a number of discrete spectral regions, usually referred to as spectral bands. To understand the advantage of taking measurements in a multiple wavelength region to separate different classes of
- 39. objects, let us consider some actual data from the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) camera LISS-III (Chapter 6). We have chosen three classes—crop, water (turbid) and barren soil. The radiance values of these are extracted from the image for two spectral bands—red (band 3) and near IR (band 4). (These are pure classes based on ground identification.) The radiance values in the image are at times referred to as DN (digital numbers), since they are transmitted as digital values or grey level values. Figure 1.2(b) gives the number of times each DN value has occurred in band 3 for the whole data consisting of the three classes. Such a plot is called a histogram. To separate each class from the observation of band 3 alone, the histogram should have shown the distinct distribution for the three classes. Figure 1.2(b) shows that barren is distinct from the rest, while water and crop classes are mixed. Figure 1.2(a) gives a similar plot for band 4 data. Here crop and barren are mixed. This simple example shows that information from only a single band cannot distinguish all the classes. In Fig. 1.2(c), we combine the information from both bands. Here for each picture element (pixel), the band 3 values are plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding band 4 values are plotted on the y-axis. Such a plot is called a scatter plot, since it represents how the DN values are ‘scattered’ in two dimensional space. (This is also referred to as feature space.) With n number of bands, we can have an n-dimensional feature space.
- 40. Fig. 1.1 Typical reflectance spectra of some land cover. Figure 1.2(c) shows how the three classes are distinctly separated, which was not possible by using either band 3 or band 4 alone. Here, we have chosen three classes to explain the concept. In practice, in a scene, the number of classes are not limited to three. As the number of classes increases, the possibility of overlap between the classes increases [Fig. 1.2(d)] which will require additional bands for separating the classes. However, it does not mean that separability (or more rigorously referred to as classification accuracy) increases linearly with an increasing number of bands. After 3–4 bands, for most features, the classification accuracy increases only marginally, while the computer time requirement increases faster. In fact, more than the number of bands, the specific choice of band locations is crucial in feature separation for specific themes.
- 41. Fig. 1.2 Schematics showing the advantage of multi-spectral imaging for class separation. Multi-spectral classification is only one of the ‘multi’ approaches in remote sensing. Other ‘multi approaches’ include multi-temporal (imaging the same area at different times/seasons), multi-directional, multi-polarisation, and so on.
- 42. 1.3 REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM With the general background treatise on remote sensing we have made so far, it would now be easier to make an analysis of the different stages in remote sensing. They are • Origin of electromagnetic energy (sun, transmitter carried by the sensor). • Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth and its interaction with the intervening atmosphere. • Interaction of energy with the earth’s surface (reflection/absorption/transmission) or self-emission. • Transmission of the reflected/emitted energy to the remote sensor placed on a suitable platform, through the intervening atmosphere. • Detection of the energy by the sensor, converting it into a photographic image or electrical output. • Transmission/recording of the sensor output. • Pre-processing of the data and generation of the data products. • Collection of ground truth and other collateral information. • Data analysis and interpretation. • Integration of interpreted images with other data towards deriving management strategies for various themes, or other applications. Figure 1.3 gives a simplified schematic of the whole process of remote sensing, from the source to the end user of the technology. A remote sensing system consists of a sensor to collect radiation and a platform – an aircraft, a balloon, rocket,
- 43. satellite or even a ground-based sensor-supporting stand – on which a sensor can be mounted. The information received by the sensor is suitably manipulated and transported back to the earth—may be telemetered as in the case of unmanned spacecraft, or brought back through films, magnetic tapes, and so on, as in aircraft or manned spacecraft systems. The data are re-formatted and processed on the ground to produce photographs, computer compatible magnetic tapes (CCT) or other digital data storage media. The photographs/digital data are interpreted visually/digitally to produce thematic maps and other resource information. The interpreted data so generated need to be used along with other data/information to arrive at a management plan. This is generally carried out using Geographic Information System (GIS). We shall now briefly describe the various components of a remote sensing system. 1.3.1 REMOTE SENSORS The instruments used to measure the electromagnetic radiation reflected/emitted by the target under study are usually referred to as remote sensors. Henceforth, we shall just refer to them as sensors. Sensors, which sense natural radiations, either emitted or reflected from the earth, are called passive sensors. Sensors which carry electromagnetic radiation of a specific wavelength or band of wavelengths to illuminate the earth’s surface are called active sensors.
- 44. Fig. 1.3 Schematics showing remote sensing system for resource management from source to end use. The major parameters of a sensing system which can be considered as indicators of the quality of data and which have bearing on optimum utilisation for specific end use include: • Spatial resolution—the capability of the sensor to discriminate the smallest object on the ground of different sizes; usually specified in terms of linear dimension. As a general rule, higher the resolution, smaller the object that can be identified (Plate 1.1). • Spectral resolution—the spectral bandwidth with which the data is collected. • Radiometric resolution—the capability of the sensor to discriminate two targets based on its reflectance/emittance difference; it is measured in terms of the smallest reflectance/emittance that can be detected. Higher the radiometric resolution, smaller the
- 45. radiance differences that can be detected between two targets. • Temporal resolution—the capability to view the same target, under similar conditions, at regular intervals. These four resolutions are the most basic requirements of any sensor system. There are no unique acceptable values for them. It depends on specific applications. For example, to study the motion of clouds (cloud motion vector), spatial resolution of about a km is acceptable, while the frequency of observation (temporal resolution), should be 30 min. or better. This is because cloud formation characteristics are spatially large, but they are subject to dynamic mobility. On the other hand, for agricultural studies, a few tens of metres of spatial resolution is desirable with a few days temporal resolution. This is because, the land use changes in small spatial units, while change due to growth occurs gradually over a few days. There are other aspects like dynamic range (the minimum to maximum radiance that can be faithfully measured), radiometric accuracy, geometric fidelity, and so on which should be borne in mind, while designing, realising and utilising a sensor. Photographic cameras are the oldest and probably the most widely used imaging systems. They have been successfully used from aircraft, balloons and manned and unmanned spacecraft. Photography has a number of limitations as a remote sensor. These include their limited spectral response (about 0.45 to 0.9 μm) and dynamic range, non-amenability to direct digital processing and problems associated with reproducibility of the quality of the imagery. Recovering the data from unmanned satellite missions is very cumbersome and difficult. In the early phase of earth imaging from space, television cameras were used. The basic principle of these TV cameras
- 46. is similar to that used for commercial TV. However, these are not used now due to the limited spectral response, dynamic range and geometric fidelity. Of late, remote sensing sensors are designed to use solid state detectors which convert light energy into electrical signals. These signals are either recorded on board or transmitted to the ground using techniques similar to TV or radio transmission. In the microwave region, the most widely used sensors are radiometers and radars. Radiometers are passive sensors, while radars are active sensors. Radars can be used as just a distance measuring device, as in the case of altimeters or for imaging as in the case of Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) or Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). 1.3.2 PLATFORMS Sensor systems need to be placed on suitable observation platforms and lifted to a pre-defined altitude. Platforms can be stationary (like a tripod for field observation) or mobile (aircraft, spacecraft) depending upon the needs of the observation mission and the constraints. For an imaging system, in general, spatial resolution becomes poorer as the platform height increases, but the area coverage increases (Fig. 1.4). Thus a trade-off has to be carried out between resolution and synoptic view in choosing the platform altitude. Further, the platform’s ability to support the sensor system, in terms of weight, volume, power, and so on, and the platform stability have to be considered. Though aircraft, balloons, rockets and satellites have been used as platforms, the most extensively used ones are aircraft and satellites and hence our discussion will be restricted to them.
- 47. Aircraft are mainly useful for surveys of local or limited regional interest. One of the major advantages is their ability to be available at a particular location at short notice. Aerial remote sensing can be done from low altitudes (~1 km) to few tens of kilometers depending on the aircraft. Currently there are aircraft fitted with multiple sensors, capable of observations covering the whole range of the electromagnetic spectrum. The major limitation is the high cost for global coverage and for regional coverage on a repetitive basis. Earth observation from a satellite platform provides a synoptic view of a large area. Further, it can be made under near constant solar zenith angles providing similar illumination conditions. Another major advantage of the satellite is its ability to provide repetitive observations of the same area with intervals of a few minutes to a few weeks depending on the sensor and the orbit. This capability is very useful to monitor dynamic phenomena such as cloud evolution, vegetation cover, snow cover and forest fires. As the distance of a satellite from the earth increases, the period of revolution also increases. At about 36000 km, the period of the satellite is exactly equal to that of the earth’s revolution and a satellite kept at the equatorial plane at that height (called geostationary orbit), it appears stationary with respect to earth. Thus the satellite can have a constant view of a particular part of the earth.
- 48. Fig. 1.4 Schematics showing the increase in viewing area with height. Observation from the geostationary orbit is generally used to derive information on meteorological parameters. The frequently used near-earth orbit height varies from a few hundred kilometers to a few thousand kilometers. The most useful orbit in this category for remote sensing is the circular, near polar, sun-synchronous orbit. In a sun- synchronous orbit, all points at a given latitude (say on a descending pass) will have the same local mean solar time. Further, the ground trace of the sun-synchronous satellite can be made to recur over a scene exactly at intervals of a fixed number of days by maintaining the height and inclination of the orbit to a close tolerance, thus ensuring repetitive observations of a scene at the same local time. Since fixed local time provides near identical solar illumination, it provides definitive advantages for interpretation of satellite data, while monitoring dynamic changes that occur on earth.
- 49. 1.3.3 DATA PRODUCTS GENERATION Acquired data has number of errors due to • imaging characteristics of the sensor, • stability and orbit characteristics of the platform, • scene/surface characteristics, • motion of the earth, and • atmospheric effects. Data products are generated after correcting these errors so that the inherent quality of the original information of the scene (such as geometry, radiometry and information content) is retained. The data product is generated in standardised formats either in photographic or digital form to allow further analysis. A photographic product (or a computer display) generated from each spectral band gives different shades of grey-black to white. We may say that we can produce ‘black and white’ pictures from each band of digital data. However any three bands can be combined to give a colour imagery. If images are taken in blue, green and red bands, they can be combined to give natural colour. In the case of vegetation, the maximum reflectance normally takes place in the near-IR. To take advantage of this, remote sensing data usually combines green, red and IR bands, representing blue, green and red respectively for image formation. This results in what is commonly referred to as False Colour Composite (FCC), since the colour represented is not the actual colour perceived by us (Plate 1.2). Now you can reason out why in FCC, vegetation appears red. 1.3.4 DATA ANALYSIS
- 50. Visual interpretation and digital image processing are two important techniques of data analysis needed to extract resource-related information either independently or in combination with other data. Visual Interpretation Visual interpretation has been the traditional method for extracting information from a photograph based on the characteristics such as tone, texture, shadow, shape, size, association, and so on. Though this approach is simple and straightforward, it has some shortcomings. The range of gray values produced on a film or print is limited in comparison to what can be recorded in digital form. Though the number of colour tones recognised by the human brain is quite large, it is still limited. Hence full advantage of radiometric resolution of the instrument cannot be made use of while visually interpreting the data. In addition, the interpreter is likely to be subjective in discerning subtle differences in tones and hence visual interpretation tends to be qualitative rather than quantitative. In addition, when photographic products are generated from digital data, the contrast is further degraded. Visual interpretation poses serious limitations when we want to combine data from various sources. Above all, when a large volume of data has to be analysed, it cannot meet the throughput requirements. Digital Techniques Digital techniques facilitate quantitative analysis, make use of full spectral information and avoid individual bias. Simultaneous analysis of multi-temporal and multi-sensor data is greatly facilitated in digital methods. In digital classification, the computer analyses the spectral signature, in order to associate each pixel with a
- 51. particular feature of imagery. The reflectance value measured by a sensor for the same feature will not be identical for all pixels. For example, in a wheat field, all the pixels will not have identical reflectance values. That is, response variation within a class is to be expected for any earth surface cover due to various reasons. Therefore the radiance value for a class will have a mean and a variance, as seen in Fig. 1.2. We have seen in the feature space [Fig. 1.2(c)] a natural clustering of classes in three groups indicating the signature differences of the three classes. When the clusters corresponding to different ground covers are distinct, it is possible to associate localised regions of the feature space with specific ground covers. Such distinct clusters do not happen in real life situations. The digital classification technique essentially partitions this feature space in some fashion so that each pixel in the feature space can be uniquely associated with one of the classes (when we have n bands, we can have an n-dimensional feature space). The partitioning is achieved by suitable statistical methods and a number of such algorithms are established and available. 1.3.5 END UTILISATION The information generated from remote sensing can be represented in many ways. It could be generated as tabular data, say, the area under different crops in each district, or as maps. Maps illustrate geographic relationships which are not readily apparent when viewing tabular data. To make a decision on the strategy of resource management and various possible options, one requires information from multiple sources and just one thematic map may not be adequate. For example, we would like to reclaim wasteland and put it to productive use. Remote sensing can generate
- 52. images of wasteland from which thematic experts may produce wasteland maps. For what purpose the wasteland can be used, will require other information such as soil type, groundwater potential, road network, and so on. Each of this can be represented as thematic maps from the remote sensing data. Apart from these, we would like to know the socio-economic status of the people in that village/district or the funds available for development. To have an optimal solution, we need to take into consideration all of these factors. The importance and priority one attaches to each of these inputs could be different. Traditionally the analyst has been doing this manually by overlaying different maps and integrating all the data. This has been found to be time- consuming and manual methods have very limited capabilities to generate various development scenarios. Currently this task is carried out by the Geographic Information System (GIS). GIS is essentially a computer- based system designed for capturing and storing both spatial and tabular (attribute) data and combining them, to which one can apply spatial analysis tools as per the analyst’s requirements/models. Because GIS-based analysis can be performed quickly, multiple scenarios can be evaluated efficiently and effectively. Although these development plans for resources can be generated in the confines of the office rooms, it would be prudent to involve the end user and stake holders such as farmers and fishermen for the efficient and useful implementation of such plans.
- 53. 1.4 WHY OBSERVE EARTH FROM SPACE? You may be wondering why we need to observe the earth and that too from space involving all these technical intricacies of science. It has been often said that the earth is a self-contained spaceship. The only external supply is solar energy; the rest of the resources are with us and cannot be replenished. However, the increase in population and increasing consumerism place a heavy burden on the limited natural resources, due to the increasing demand for food, fodder, fuel and minerals. Recurring natural disasters such as floods, droughts, landslides, earthquakes and forest fires further erode the natural resource base. The industrial era along with the comforts it promised to humankind also brought about environmental pollution and degradation, thus affecting our fragile ecosystems. Therefore, the highly competing and conflicting demands on our natural resources from the increasing population and the aspiration for improving the quality of life, need management strategies to use our resources optimally, to meet the present day need while not endangering our earth so that the needs of the future generation can be met—this is referred to as sustainable development. Even localised over- exploitation of certain resources, such as uncontrolled depletion of forests, has measurable global impact. Remote sensing, by providing timely and repetitive information on the phenomena occurring on earth and its environment can help in achieving worldwide economic and social development, by managing natural resources while minimising adverse impact on the earth’s resources, environment and climate.
- 54. Fig. 1.5 Information requirement scenario for increasing food grain supply. To realise any objective, one has a number of possible options, and a manager chooses the route that optimally uses the available resources without degrading the ecosystem. To arrive at such a decision, the manager requires reliable information about various aspects related to the problem he is contemplating to solve. Let us consider the issue of meeting the increased demand for food. Figure 1.5 gives some of the possible options. One temporary possibility is to import foodgrains (if you have the money!) but it is not a long-term solution. Other possible alternatives are shown in Fig. 1.5. Let us consider the option of increasing the land under cultivation which in our view is a possible path to sustainable development. To pursue this path, we require
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- 56. boasted of "a judge that no king could corrupt," and who believed that they had armed themselves with "the panoply of God." The pastors laboured with unfailing zeal, first to kindle the spark of a faith separated from all earthly interests; next to nourish sincere belief in God as the vital principle of religious life. Under their influence the Protestants of the upper middle classes and the Protestants of the lower classes—there were still fewer of the latter than of the former—not only practised, but lived their religion, giving an example of good conduct and of intelligent appreciation of the name and the meaning of their profession. Their adversaries were forced to render them the homage due to their efforts and their sincerity. They, the Protestants, were charitable in the true sense of the term; they loved the brethren; they cared for the bodies as well as for the souls of the poor; they proved their love for their fellows by guarding the public welfare; they kept the laws and, whenever it was possible, enforced them. The pastors knew that they must practise what they preached, and, profiting by the examples of the ignoble priests, they set a guard upon their words and movements, lest their disciples should question their sincerity. They were austere, energetic, and devoted to their people and to their cause. They were convinced that they were warders of the inheritance of the saints, and they patrolled their circuit, and went about in the name of Christ proclaiming the mercy of God and warning men of Eternity and of The Judgment. Let us be loyal to our convictions and give to those early pastors the credit due to their candour and to their efforts; they surpassed us in many ways. They were learned; they were versed in science, kind to strangers, strict in morality, brotherly to the poor. François de Sales said of them: "The Protestants were Christians; Catholicism was not Christian."[104] So matters stood—the churches ruined and abandoned, Religion mocked and the priests despised[105]—when a little phalanx of devoted men arose to rescue the wrecked body of the French Clergy. They organised systematically, but their plan of action was independent. François de Sales was among the first who broke ground for the difficult work. He was a calm, cool man, indifferent to abuse, firm in the conviction that his power was from God. There were many representatives of the Church, but few like him. One of his chroniclers dwelt upon his "exalted indifference to insult" another, speaking of his "supernatural patience," said: "A Du Perron could not have stopped short in an argument with a heretic, but, on the other hand, a Du Perron would not have converted the heretic by the
- 57. ardour of his forbearing kindness." Strowski said of de Sales that he "saw as the wise see, and lived among men not as a nominal Christian but as a man of God, gifted with omniscience." By living in the world de Sales had learned that a germ of religion was still alive in many of the abandoned souls; he knew that there were a few who were truly Catholic; he knew that those few were cherishing their faith, but he saw that they lived isolated lives, away from the world, and he believed that the limitations of their spiritual hermitage hindered their usefulness. De Sales believed in a community of religion and Christian love. The few who cherished their religion were a class by themselves. They knew and respected each other, they theorised abstractly upon the prevailing evils, but they had no thought of bettering man's condition. Their sorrows had turned their thoughts to woeful contemplation of their helplessness, and all their hopes were straining forward toward the peaceful cloister and the silent intimacy of monachism. For them the uses of life were as a tale that is told. They had no thought of public service, they were timid, they abhorred sin and shrank from sinners, their isolation had developed their tendency to mysticism, and the best efforts of their minds were concentrated upon hypotheses. Père François believed that they and all who loved God could do good work in the world. He did not believe in controversy, he did not believe in silencing skeptics with overwhelming arguments. He used his own means in his own way; but his task was hard and his progress slow, and months passed before he was able to form a working plan. His idea was to revive religious feeling and spiritual zeal, to increase the piety of life in community, to exemplify the love which teaches man to live at peace with his brother, to fulfil his mission as the son of man made in the likeness of God, and to act his part as an intelligent member of an orderly solidarity. De Sales's first work was difficult, but not long after his mission-house was established he saw that his success was sure, and he then appointed deputies and began his individual labour for the revival of religious thought. He knew that the people loved to reason, and he had resolved to develop their intelligence and to open their minds to Truth: the strong principle of all reform. His doubt of the utility of controversy had been confirmed by the spectacle of the recluses of the Church. Study had convinced him that theologians had taken the wrong road and exaggerated the spiritual influence of the "power of piety." He believed in the practical piety of Charity, and he accepted as his appointed task the awakening of Christian love. His impelling force was not the bigotry which
- 58. proves religion orthodox By apostolic blows and knocks, nor was it the contemplative faith which, by living in convents, deprives the world of the example of its fervour; it was that practical manifestation of the grace of God "which fits the citizen for civil life and forms him for the world." In the end Père François's religion became purely practical and he had but one aim: the awakening of the soul. His critics talked of his "dreams," his "visions," and his "religio-sentimental revival." His piety was expressed in the saying: "Religious life is not an attitude, nor can the practice of religion save a man; the true life of the Christian springs from a change of heart, from the intimate and profound transformation of his personality." We know with what ardour Père François went forward to his goal, manifesting his ideals by his acts. By his words and by his writings he worked a revolution in men's souls. His success equalled the success of Honoré d'Urfé; few books have reached the number of the editions of the Introduction à la vie dévote.[106] In Paris de Sales had often visited a young priest named Pierre de Bérulle, who also was deeply grieved by the condition of Catholicism, and who was ambitious to work a change in the clergy and in the Church. Père Bérulle had discussed the subject with Vincent de Paul, de Sales, Bourdoise, and other pious friends, and after serious reflection, he had determined to undertake the stupendous work of reforming the clergy. In 1611 he founded a mission- house called the Oratoire. "The chief object of the mission was to put an end to the uselessness of so many ecclesiastics." The missionaries began their work cautiously and humbly, but their progress was rapid. Less than fifteen months after the first Mass was offered upon the altar of the new house, the Oratoire was represented by fifty branch missions. The brothers of the company were seen among all classes; their aim, like the individual aim of Père François, was to make the love of God familiar to men by habituating man to the love of his brother. They turned aside from their path to help wherever they saw need; they nursed the sick, they worked among the common people, they lent their strength to the worn-out labourer. They were as true, as simple, and as earnest as the men who walked with the Son of Mary by the Lake of Galilee. Bound by no tie but Christian Charity, free to act their will, they manifested their faith by their piety, and it was impossible to deny the beneficence of their example. From the mother-house
- 59. they set out for all parts of France, exhorting, imploring the dissolute to forsake their sin, and proclaiming the love of Christ. Protestants were making a strong point of the wrath of God; the Oratorians talked of God's mercy. They passed from province to province, they searched the streets and the lanes of the cities, they laboured with the labourers, they feasted with the bourgeois. Dispensing brotherly sympathy, they entered the homes of the poor as familiar friends, confessing the adults, catechising the children, and restoring religion to those who had lost it or forgotten it. They demanded hospitality in the provincial presbyteries, aroused the slothful priests to repentant action, and, raising the standard of the Faith before all eyes, they pointed men to Eternal Life and lifted the fallen brethren from the mire. Shoulder to shoulder with the three chevaliers of the Faith, de Sales, de Bérulle, and Père Vincent, was the stern Saint Cyran (Jean Duvergier de Hauranne) who lent to the assistance of the Oratorians the powerful influence of his magnetic fervour. The impassioned eloquence of the author of Lettres Chrétiennes et Spirituelles was awe-inspiring. The members of the famous convent (Port Royal des Champs) were equally devoted; their fervour was gentler, but always grave and salutary. Saint Cyran's characteristics were well defined in Joubert's Pensée. The Jansenists carried into their religious life more depth of thought and more reflection; they were more firmly bound by religion's sacred liens; there was an austerity in their ideas and in their minds, and that austerity incessantly circumscribed their will by the limitations of duty. They were pervaded, even to their mental habit, by their uncompromising conception of divine justice; their inclinations were antipathetic to the lusts of the flesh. The companions of the community of Port Royal were as pure in heart as the Oratorians, but they were childlike in their simplicity; they delighted in the beauties of nature and in the society of their friends; they indulged their humanity whenever such indulgence accorded with their vocation; they permitted "the fêtes of Christian love," to which we of the present look back in fancy as to visions of the first days of the early Church. Jules Lemaître said in his address at Port Royal:[107] Port Royal is one of the most august of all the awe-inspiring refuges of the spiritual life of France. It is holy ground; for in this vale was nourished the most ardent inner life of the nation's Church. Here prayed and meditated the most profound of thinkers, the souls most self- contained, most self-dependent, most absorbed by the mystery of man's
- 60. eternal destiny. None caught in the whirlpool of earthly life ever seemed more convinced of the powerlessness of human liberty to arrest the evolution of the inexorable Plan, and yet none ever manifested firmer will to battle and to endure than those first heralds of the resurrection of Catholicism. François de Sales loved the convent of Port Royal; he called it his "place of dear delight"! In its shaded cloisters de Bérulle, Père Vincent, and Saint Cyran laboured together to purify the Church, until the time came when the closest friends were separated by dogmatic differences; and even then the tempest that wrecked Port Royal could not sweep away the memory of the peaceful days when the four friends lent their united efforts to the work which gave the decisive impulsion to the Catholic Renaissance. Whenever the Church established religious communities, men were called to direct them from all the branches of de Bérulle's Oratoire, because it was generally known that the Oratorians inspired the labourers of the Faith with religious ardour, and in time the theological knowledge gained in the Oratoire and in its branches was considered essential to the true spiritual establishment of the priest. Men about to enter the service of the Church went to the Oratoire to learn how to dispense the sacramental lessons with proper understanding of their meaning; new faces were continually appearing, then vanishing aglow with celestial fire. Once when an Oratorian complained that too many of their body were leaving Paris, de Bérulle answered: "I thank God for it! This congregation was established for nothing else; its mission is to furnish worthy ministers and workmen fitted for the service of the Church."
- 61. ST. VINCENT DE PAUL FROM A STEEL ENGRAVING De Bérulle knew that, were he to give all the members of his community, their number would be too feeble to regenerate the vast and vitiated body of the French clergy. He could not hope to reap the harvest, but he counted it as glory to be permitted to sow the seed. Vincent de Paul was the third collaborator of the company. It was said of him that he was "created to fill men's minds with love of spiritual things and with love for the Creator." Père Vincent was a simple countryman. In appearance he resembled the disciples of Christ, as represented in ancient pictures. His rugged features rose above a faded and patched soutane, but his face expressed such kindness and such sympathy that, like his heavenly Ensample, he drew men after him. Bernard of Cluny deplored the evil days; but the time of Louis XIII. was worse than the time of Bernard. The mercy proclaimed by the Gospel had been effaced from the minds of men, and the Charity of God had been dishonoured even by the guides sent to make it manifest. Mercy
- 62. and Charity incarnate entered France with Père Vincent, and childlike fondness and gentle patience crept back into human relations—not rapidly— the influences against them were too strong—but steadily and surely. Père Vincent was amusing; it was said of him that he was "like no one else"; the courtiers first watched and ridiculed, then imitated him. When they saw him lift the fallen and attach importance to the sufferings of the common people, and when they heard him insist that criminals were men and that they had a right to demand the treatment due to men, they shrugged their shoulders, but they knew that through the influence of the simple peasant-priest something unknown and very sweet had entered France. Vincent de Paul was a worker. He founded the Order of the Sisters of Charity, the Convicts' Mission-Refuge, a refuge for the unfortunate, the Foundling Hospital, and a great general hospital and asylum where twenty thousand men and women were lodged and nourished. To the people of France Père Vincent was a man apart from all others, the impersonation of human love and the manifestation of God's mercy. By the force of his example pity penetrated and pervaded a society in which pity had been unknown, or if known, despised. The people whose past life had prepared them for anything but good works sprang with ardour upon the road opened by the gentle saint who had taught France the way of mercy. Even the great essayed to be like Père Vincent; every one, high and low, each in his own way and to the extent of his power, followed the unique example. Saint Vincent became the national standard; the nobles pressed forward in his footsteps, concerning themselves with the sick and the poor and trying to do the work of priests. They laboured earnestly lavishing their money and their time, and, fired by the strength of their purpose, they came to love their duty better than they had loved their pleasure. They imitated the Oratorians as closely as they had imitated the shepherds of Astrée, and "the monsters of the will," Indifference, Infidelity, and Licence, hid their heads for a time, and Charity became the fashion of the day. Père Vincent's religious zeal equalled his brotherly tenderness; he was de Bérulle's best ally. A special community, under his direction, assisted in the labours of the Oratoire. The chief purpose of the mother-house and its branches was the purification of the priesthood and the increase of religion. When a young priest was ready to be ordained he was sent to Père Vincent's mission, where, by means of systematic retreats, he received the deep impression of the spiritual devotion and the charity peculiar to the Oratorians. Bossuet remembered with profound gratitude the retreats that he made in Père Vincent's Oratoire. But there was one at Court to whom the piety of Père
- 63. Vincent was a thorn in the flesh. We have seen that de Bérulle's work was the purification of the clergy, and that Père Vincent was de Bérulle's chief ally. Mazarin was the Queen's guardian, and the Queen held the list of ecclesiastical appointments. A Council called the Conseil de Conscience had been instituted to guide the Regent in her "Collation of Benefices." The nominees were subject to the approbation of the Council. When their names were read the points in their favour and against them were discussed. In this Conseil de Conscience Père Vincent confronted Mazarin ten years. Before Père Vincent appeared men were appointed abbots regardless of their characters. Chantelauze says in Saint Vincent de Paul et les Gondis that "Mazarin raised Simony to honour." The Cardinal gave the benefices to people whom he was sure of: people who were willing to devote themselves, body and soul, to his purposes. Père Vincent had awakened the minds of many influential prelates, and a few men and women prominent at Court had been aroused to a sense of the condition of the Church. These few priests and laymen were called the "Saints' Party." They sat in the Council convened for the avowed purpose of purifying the Church. When Mazarin made an ignoble appointment, Père Vincent objected, and the influential prelates and the others of their party echoed his objections. Through the energy of the "Saints," as they were flippantly called by the courtiers, many scandalous appointments were prevented, and gradually the church positions were filled by sincere and devoted men. The determined and earnest objections of so many undeniably disinterested, well- known, and unimpeachable people aroused the superstitious scruples of the Queen, and when her scruples were aroused, she was obstinate. Mazarin knew this. He knew that Anne of Austria was a peculiar woman, he knew that she had been a Queen before he had had any hold upon her, and he knew that he had not been her first favourite. He was quick, keen-sighted, flexible. He was cautious. He had no intention of changing the sustained coo of his turtle-dove for the shrill "Tais-toi!" of the Regent of France. But he was not comfortable. His little diaries contain many allusions to the distress caused by his inability to digest the interference of the "Saints." He looked forward to the time when he should be so strong that it would be safe for him to take steps to free himself from the obsessions of the Conseil de Conscience. He was amiable and indulgent in his intercourse with all the cabals and with all the conflicting agitations; he studied motives and forestalled results; he brought down his own larks with the mirrors of his enemies. He had a thousand different ways of working out the same aims. He did nothing to actively offend, but there was a persistence in his gentle tenacity which exasperated men like Condé and disheartened the frank soldiers of the Faith of the mission
- 64. of Port Royal and the Oratoire. He foresaw a time when he could dispose of benefices and of all else. A few years later the Conseil de Conscience was abolished, and Père Vincent was ignominiously vanquished. Père Vincent lacked the requisites of the courtier; he was artless, and straightforward, and intriguers found it easy to make him appear ridiculous in the eyes of the Queen.[108] Mazarin watched his moment, and when he was sure that Anne of Austria could not refuse him anything, he drew the table of benefices from her hand. From that time "pick and choose" was the order of the day. "Monsieur le Cardinal" visited the appointments secretly, and secured the lion's share for himself. When he had made his choice, the men who offered him the highest bids received what he had rejected. In later years Mazarin was, by his own appointment, Archbishop of Metz and the possessor of thirty fat benefices. His revenues were considerable. Nowhere did the Oratorians meet as determined opposition as at Court. The courtiers had gone to Mass because they lost the King's favour if they did not go to Mass, but to be inclined to skepticism was generally regarded as a token of elegance. Men thought that they were evincing superior culture when they braved God, the Devil, and the King, at one and the same time, by committing a thousand blasphemies. Despite the pressure of the new ideas, the "Saints' Party" had been difficult to organise. It was a short-lived party because Mazarin was not a man to tolerate rivals who were liable to develop power enough to counteract his influence over Anne of Austria concerning subjects even more vital than the distribution of the benefices. The petty annoyances to which the Prime Minister subjected the "Saints' Party" convinced people that when a man was of the Court, if he felt the indubitable touch of the finger of Grace, the only way open to him was the road to the cloister. It was known that wasps sting, and that they are not meet adversaries for the sons of God, and the wasps were there in swarms. François de Sales called the constantly recurring annoyances, "that mass of wasps." As there was no hope of relief in sight, it was generally supposed that the most prudent and the wisest course for labourers in the vineyard of the Lord was to enter the hive and take their places in the cells, among the manufacturers of honey. So when La Grande Mademoiselle looked upon the convent as her natural destination, she was carrying out the prevalent idea that retreat from the world was the natural result of conversion to true religion. It was well for her and for the convent which she had decided to honour with her presence that just at the moment when she laid her plans her father had one of his rare attacks of common sense—yes, well for her and well for the convent!
- 65. IV Mademoiselle's crisis covered a period of six months; when she reappeared patches adorned her face and powder glistened in her hair. She said of her awakening: "I recovered my taste for diversions, and I attended the play and other amusements with pleasure, but my worldly life did not obliterate the memory of my longings; the excessive austerity to which I had reduced myself was modified, but I could not forget the aspirations which I had supposed would lead me to the Carmelites!" Not long after she emerged from her religious retreat politics called her from her frivolity. Political life was the arena at that hour, and it is not probable that the most radical of the feministic codes of the future will restore the power which women then possessed by force of their determined gallantry, their courage, their vivacity, their beauty, and their coquetry. The women of the future will lack such power because their rights will be conferred by laws; legal rights are of small importance compared to rights conferred and confirmed by custom. The women of Mademoiselle's day ordered the march of war, led armies, dictated the terms of peace, curbed the will of statesmen, and signed treaties with kings, not because they had a right to do so, but because they possessed invincible force. Richelieu, who had a species of force of his own, and at times wielded it to their temporary detriment, planned his moves with deference to their tactics, and openly deplored their importance. Mazarin, who dreaded women, wrote to Don Luis del Haro: "We have three such amazons right here in France, and they are fully competent to rule three great kingdoms; they are the Duchesse de Longueville, the Princesse Palatine, and the Duchesse de Chevreuse." The Duchesse de Chevreuse, having been born in the early century, was the veteran of the trio. "She had a strong mind," said Richelieu, [109] "and powerful beauty, which, as she knew well how to use it, she never lowered by any disgraceful concessions. Her mind was always well balanced."
- 66. DUCHESSE DE CHEVREUSE Retz completed the portrait: "She loved without any choice of objects for the simple reason that it was necessary for her to love some one; and when once the plan was laid it was not difficult to give her a lover. But from the moment when she began to love her lover, she loved him faithfully,—and she loved no one else." She was witty, spirited, and of a very vigorous mind. Some of her ideas were so brilliant that they were like flashes of lightning; and some of them were so wise and so profound that the wisest men known to history might have been proud to claim them. Rare genius and keen wits which she had trained to intrigue from early youth had made her one of the most dangerous politicians in France. She had been an intimate friend of Anne of Austria, and the chief architect of the Chalais conspiracy. After the exposure of the conspiracy, Richelieu sentenced her to banishment for a term of twenty- five years, and no old political war-horse could have taken revenge sterner than hers. She did not rest on her wrongs; her entrance upon foreign territory was marked by the awakening of all the foreign animosities. Alone and single- handed, the unique Duchess formed a league against France, and when
- 67. events reached a crisis she had attained such importance in the minds of the allies that England, though vanquished and suing for peace, made it a condition of her surrender that the Duchesse de Chevreuse, "a woman for whom the King of England entertained a particular esteem," should be recalled to France. Richelieu yielded the point instantly; he was too wise to invest it with the importance of a parley; he recalled the woman who had convened a foreign league against her own people, and eliminated the banishment of powerful women from his list of penalties. He had learned an important political lesson; thereafter the presence of the Duchesse de Chevreuse was considered in high diplomatic circles the one thing needful for the even balance of the State of France. After the Spanish intrigue, which ended in Val de Grâce, the Cardinal, fearing another "league," made efforts to keep the versatile Duchess under his hand, but she slipped through his fingers and was seen all over France actively pursuing her own peculiar business. (1637.) The Duchesse de Chevreuse once traversed France on horseback, disguised as a man, and she used to say that nothing had ever amused her as well as that journey. She must have been a judge of amusements, as she had tried them all. When she ran away disguised as a man, her husband and Richelieu both ran after her, to implore her to remain in France, and, in her efforts to escape her pursuers, she was forced to hide in many strange places, and to resort to stratagems of all kinds. In one place where she passed the night, her hostess, considering her a handsome boy, made her a declaration of love. Her guides, deceived by her appearance gave her a fair idea of the manners worn by a certain class of men when they think that they are among men and free from the constraint of woman's presence. On her journeys through Europe, she slept one night or more in a barn, on a pile of straw, the next night in a field, under a hedge, or in one of the vast beds in which our fathers bedded a dozen persons at once without regard to their circumstances. Alone, or in close quarters, the Duchesse de Chevreuse maintained her identity. Hers was a resolute spirit; she kept her own counsel, and she feared neither man nor devil. Thus, in boys' clothes, in company with cavaliers who lisped the language of the Précieuses, or with troopers from whose mouths rushed the fat oaths of the Cossacks, sleeping now on straw and now with a dozen strangers, drunk and sober, she crossed the Pyrenees and reached Madrid, where she turned the head of the King of Spain and passed on to London, where she was fêted as a powerful ally, and where, incidentally, she became the chief official agent of the enemies of Richelieu.
- 68. When Louis XIII. was dying he rallied long enough to enjoin the Duchesse de Chevreuse from entering France.[110] Standing upon the brink of Eternity, he remembered the traitress whom he had not seen in ten years. The Duchesse de Chevreuse was informed of his commands, and, knowing him to be in the agonies of death, she placed her political schemes in the hands of agents and hurried back to France to condole with the widow and to assume the control of the French nation as the deputy of Anne of Austria. She entered the Louvre June 14, 1643, thinking that the ten years which had passed since she had last seen her old confidante had made as little change in the Queen as in her own bright eyes. She found two children at play together,—young Louis XIV. and little Monsieur, a tall proud girl with ash-blonde hair: La Grande Mademoiselle, and a mature and matronly Regent who blushed when she saluted her. One month to a day had passed since Louis XIII. had yielded up the ghost. The Duchesse de Chevreuse installed herself in Paris in her old quarters and bent her energies to the task of dethroning Mazarin. The Palatine Princess, Anne de Gonzague, was a ravishingly beautiful woman endowed with great executive ability. "I do not think," said Retz, "that Elizabeth of England had more capacity for conducting a State." Anne de Gonzague did not begin her career by politics. When, as a young girl, she appeared in the world of the Court, she astonished France by the number and by the piquancy of her adventures. She was another of the exalted dames who ran upon the highways disguised as cavaliers or as monks. No one was surprised no matter when or where he saw Anne de Gonzague, though she was often met far beyond the limits of polite society. Fancy alone—and their own sweet will—ruled the fair ladies of those heroic days. During five whole years Anne de Gonzague[111] gave the world to understand that she was "Mme. de Guise, wife of Henri de Guise, Archbishop of Rheims" (the same Henri de Guise who afterward married Mme. de Bossut). Having passed for "Mme. de Guise" sixty months, the Lady Anne appeared at Court under her own name "as if nothing had happened," reported Mademoiselle. Whatever may have here "happened," Anne de Gonzague reappeared at Court as alluring as in the flower of her first youth; and, as the Chronicle expressed it: "had the talent to marry herself—between two affairs of womanly gallantry—to the Prince Palatine,[112] one of the most rabidly jealous of gentlemen," because, as the pious and truthful Bossuet justly remarked, "everything gave way before the secret charm of her conversation."
- 69. When nearly thirty years of age she obeyed the instincts of her genius and engaged in politics, with other politically inclined ladies, including Mme. de Longueville, whose only talent lay in her blonde hair and charming eyes. Despite the poverty of her mental resources, Mme. de Longueville was a natural director of men, and she was but one of a very brilliant coterie. The prominent and fiery amazons of the politics of that epoch are too historically known to require detailed mention. They were: the haughty, dazzlingly superb, but too vicious and too practical in vice, Montbazon; the Duchesse de Chatillon (the imperious beauty who had her hand painted upon a painted lion whose face was the face of the great Condé), and many others who to the measure of their ability played with the honour and the lives of men, with Universal Suffrage, and with the stability of France, and who, like La Grande Mademoiselle, were called from their revelries by the dangers which threatened them. The daughter of Gaston d'Orléans had grown up firmly convinced that the younger branch of the House of Paris (her own branch) could do anything. That had been the lesson taught for more than a century of history. From Charles VIII. to Louis XIII. the throne had been transmitted from father to son but three times; in all other cases it had passed to brothers or to cousins. The collaterals of the royal family had become accustomed to think of themselves as very near the throne, and at times that habit of thought had been detrimental to the country. Before the birth of Louis XIV. Gaston d'Orléans had touched the crown with the tips of his fingers, and he had made use of his title as heir-presumptive to work out some very unsavoury ends. After the birth of his nephews he had lived in a dream of possible results; he had waited to see what "his star" would bring him, and his hopes had blazed among their ashes at the first hint of the possibility of a change. When Louis XIV. was nine years old he was very sick and his doctors expected him to die; he had the smallpox. Monsieur was jubilant: he exhibited his joy publicly, and the courtiers drank to the health of "Gaston I." Olivier d'Ormesson stated that the courtiers distributed all the offices in the King's gift and planned to dispose of the King's brother. Anne of Austria, agonising in prayer for the life of the King, was horrified to learn that a plot was on foot to abduct little Monsieur. She was warned that the child was to be stolen some time in the night between Saturday and Sunday. Maréchal de Schomberg passed that night on his horse, accompanied by armed men who watched all the windows and doors of the palace. When the King recovered Monsieur apologised for his conduct, and the sponge of the royal forgiveness was passed over that episode as it had been over many others. Under the Regency of Anne of
- 70. Austria the Court was called upon to resist the second junior branch, whose inferiority of pretensions was more than balanced by its intelligence and audacity. The pretensions of the Condés had been the cause of one of Mazarin's first anxieties. They were vast pretensions, they were unquestionably just, and they were ably sustained by the father of the great Condé, "Monsieur le Prince," a superior personage whose appearance belied his character. People of his own age remembered him as a handsome man; but debauchery, avarice, and self-neglect had changed the distinguished courtier and made him a repulsive old man, "dirty and ugly."[113] He was stoop-shouldered and wrinkled, with great, red eyes, and long, greasy hair, which he wore passed around his ears in "love-locks." His aspect was formidable. Richelieu was obliged to warn him that he must make a serious attempt to cleanse his person, and that he must change his shoes before paying his visits to the King.[114] His spirit was as sordid as his body. "Monsieur le Prince" was of very doubtful humour; he was dogged, snappish, peevish, coarse, contrary, and thoroughly rapacious. He had begun life with ten thousand livres of income, and he had acquired a million, not counting his appointments or his revenues from the government.[115] His friends clutched their pockets when they saw him coming; but their precautions were futile; he had a way of getting all that he desired. Everything went into his purse and nothing came out of it; but where his purse was not concerned Monsieur le Prince was a different man; there he "loved justice and followed that which was good."[116] He was a rigorous statesman; he defended the national Treasury against the world. His keen sense of equity made him a precious counsellor and he was an eminent and upright judge. His knowledge of the institutions of the kingdom made him valuable as State's reference; he knew the origins, the systems, and the supposititious issues of the secret aims of all the parties. The laws of France were as chaotic as the situation of the parties, and no one but a finished statesman could find his way among them; but to Monsieur le Prince they were familiar ground. Considerable as were his attainments, his children were his equals. Mme. de Longueville, though shallow, was as keen a diplomat as her father, and by far more dangerous; the Duc d'Enghien was an astute and accomplished politician. The world considered the Condés as important as the d'Orléans', and fully able to meet the d'Orléans' on the super-sacred footing of etiquette. We shall see to what the equality of the two families conducted them. Struggles between them were always imminent; their quarrels arose from the exigencies of symbolical details: the manner of the laying of a carpet, the bearing of the train of a State robe, et cetera. Such
- 71. details seem insignificant to us, but that they do so is because we have lost the habit of monarchical traditions. When things are done according to hierarchical custom, details are very important. At every session of the King's Council "peckotings" passed between Gaston d'Orléans and Monsieur le Prince and an attentive gallery looked on and listened. But something of sterner stuff than "peckotings" was the order of the day when the Court met for a ceremonious function; material battles marked the meetings between Mlle. de Montpensier and Mme. la Princesse de Condé; Mme. de Longueville was brave, and La Grande Mademoiselle was not only brave, but fully determined to justify her title and defend her honour as the Granddaughter of France. The two princely ladies entered the lists with the same ardour, and they were as heroic as they were burlesque. The 5th December the Court was scheduled to attend a solemn Mass at Notre Dame, and by the law of precedence Mademoiselle was to be followed by Mme. la Princesse de Condé. The latter summoned her physician who bled her in order to enable her to be physically incapable of taking her place behind Mademoiselle. Gossips told Anne-Marie- Louise of her cousin's stratagem, and Mademoiselle resorted to an equally efficient, though entirely different, means of medical art calculated to make bodily motion temporarily undesirable, if not impossible. Mademoiselle was determined that she would not humiliate her quality by appearing at Mass without her attendant satellite (Saint Simon would have applauded the sufferings of both of the heroic ladies, for like them he had been gifted by nature with a subtle appreciation of the duties and the privileges of rank), but the incident was not closed. By a strange fatality, at that instant Church came in conflict with State. Cardinal Mazarin, representing the Church, inspired Queen Anne to resent her niece's indisposition. The Queen became very angry at Mademoiselle, and impelled by her anger, Monsieur commanded his daughter to set out immediately for Notre Dame; he told her rudely that if she was too sick to walk, she had plenty of people to carry her. "You will either go or be carried!" he cried violently, and Mademoiselle, much the worse for her stratagem, was forced to yield. She deplored her fate, and wept because she had lost her father's sympathy. The reciprocal acidity of the junior branches was constantly manifested by fatalities like the event just noted, and by episodes like the affair of "the fallen letters" (August, 1643). Although all the writers of that day believed that the reaction of that puerile matter was felt in the Fronde, the quarrel, like all the other quarrels, was of so senseless a character that it awakened the shame of the nation. The story is soon told: Mme. de Montbazon picked up—no one knew where—some love letters in which, as she said, she recognised the writing of Mme. de Longueville. Her story was false, and Anne of Austria, who
- 72. frowned upon the gossip and the jealousies of the Court, condemned Mme. Montbazon to go to the Hôtel de Condé and make apologies for the wrong that she had done the Princess. All the friends of the House of Condé were expected to be present to hear and to witness the vindication of Mme. la Princesse. Monsieur was there [wrote Mademoiselle], and for my part I could not stay away. I had no friendship for Mme. la Princesse, or for any of her friends, but on that occasion I could not have taken a part contrary to hers with decorum; to be present there was one of the duties of relationship which one cannot neglect. On that occasion the relatives of the family were all in the Hôtel de Condé, but their hearts were not in their protestations, and the Condés were not deceived. The petty scandal of the letters fed the flame of enmity, which Mazarin watched and nourished because he knew that it was to his interest and to the interest of the State to foment the quarrel between the rival cousins. An anonymous collection of "memoirs" says: Seeing that he was pressed from all sides, the Cardinal thought that the safety of his position required him to keep the House of Orleans separate from the House of Bourbon, so that by balancing one by the other he could remain firmly poised between the two and make himself equally necessary to both. It was as if Heaven itself had dropped the affair of the fallen letters into his hands, and he turned his celestial windfall to such account that the Luxembourg and the Hôtel de Bourbon found it difficult to maintain a decent composure; at heart they were at daggers' points. The Duc d'Orléans and the Duc d'Enghien were regarded as the chiefs of the two hostile parties, and the courtiers rallied to the side of either as their interests or their inclinations led them![117] Apparently Mazarin's position was impregnable. The world would have been blind had it failed to see that the arguments used by the Prime Minister when he conferred with his sovereign were of a character essentially differing from the arguments generally used by politicians, but it was believed that the Cardinal's method was well fitted to his purpose, and that to any woman—and particularly to a woman who had passed maturity—it would be, by force of nature, more acceptable and more weighty than the abstract method of a purely political economist, and more convincing than the reasons given by statesmen,—or, in fact, any reason.
- 73. Anne of Austria had not been a widow four months when Olivier d'Ormesson noted, in his journal, that the Cardinal "was recognised as the All-Powerful." For his sake the Queen committed the imprudences of a love-sick schoolgirl. She began by receiving his visits in the evening. The doors were left open, and the Queen said that the Cardinal visited her for the purpose of giving her instructions regarding the business of the State. As time went on the Cardinal's visits lengthened; after a certain time the doors were closed, and, to the scandal of the Court, they remained closed. At Rueil the Queen tried to make Mazarin sit with her in her little garden carriage. Mazarin "had the wisdom to resist her wish, but he had the folly to accompany her with his hat upon his head." As no one ever approached the Queen with head covered, the spectacle of the behatted minister astonished the public. (September, 1644.) A few weeks later every one in Paris knew that an apartment or suite of rooms in the Palais Royal, was being repaired, and that it was to be connected with the Queen's apartments by a secret passage. The public learned gradually, detail by detail, that Mazarin was to occupy the repaired apartment, and that the secret passage had been prepared so that the Prime Minister might "proceed commodiously" to the royal apartments to hold political conferences with the Queen. When everything was ready, the Gazette (19th November) published the following announcement: The Queen in full Council made it plain that, considering the indisposition of Cardinal Mazarin, and considering that he is forced, with great difficulty, to cross the whole length of the great garden of the Palais Royal,[118] and considering that some new business is constantly presenting itself to him, and demanding to be communicated to the Queen, the Queen deems it appropriate to give the Cardinal an apartment in the Palais Royal, so that she may confer with him more conveniently concerning her business. Her Majesty's intention has been approved by Messieurs, her ministers, and with applause, so that next Monday (21st November), his Eminence will take possession of his new residence. The Queen's indiscretion won the heart of the favourite, and he longed for her presence. Twice, once at Rueil and once at Fontainebleau, he displaced La Grande Mademoiselle and installed himself in her room at the Queen's house. The first time that Mazarin supplanted Mademoiselle, the haughty Princess swallowed the affront and found a lodging in the village, but the second time she lost her patience. "It is rumoured in Paris," wrote d'Ormesson, "that
- 74. Mademoiselle spoke to the Queen boldly, because the Cardinal wished to take her room in order to be near her Majesty." (September, 1645.) Some historians have inferred that the Queen had been secretly married to her Minister. We have no proof of any such thing, unless we accept as proof the very ambiguous letter which the Cardinal wrote to the Queen when he was in exile. In that letter he spoke of people who tried to injure him in the Queen's mind. "They will gain nothing by it," wrote Mazarin; "the heart of the Queen and the heart of Mazarin are joined[119] by liens which cannot be broken either by time or by any effort,—as you yourself have agreed with me more than once." In the same letter he implores the Queen to pity him: "for I deserve pity! it is so strange for this child to be married, then, at the same time, separated from ... and always pursued by them to whom I am indebted for the obstacles to my marriage." (27th October, 1651.) These words are of obscure meaning, and they may as easily be interpreted figuratively as literally. They who believed that the Queen had married Mazarin secretly must have drawn their conclusions from the intimate fondness of her manner. Anne of Austria was infatuated, and her infatuation made it impossible for her to guard her conduct; her behaviour betrayed the irregularity of the situation, and it is probable that her friends were loth to believe that anything less than marriage could induce such familiarity. However that may have been, Mazarin's letters give no proof of marriage, nor has it ever been proved that he claimed that he had married the Queen. When judgment is rendered according to evidence deduced from personal manners, changes in time and in the differences of localities should be considered. Our consideration of the Queen's romance dates from the period of the legitimate, or illegitimate, honeymoon. (August, 1643, or within six weeks of that time.) The public watched the royal romance with irritation. Having greeted the Mazarin ministry with a good grace, they (the people) were unanimously seized by a feeling of shame and hatred for the handsome Italian who made use of woman's favour to attain success. The friends of the Queen redoubled their warnings, and retired from the royal presence in disgrace. One of her oldest servitors, who had given unquestionable proof of his devotion,[120] dared to tell her to her face that "all the world was talking about her and about his Eminence, and in a way which ought to make her reflect upon her position." ... "She asked me," said La Porte, 'Who said that?' I answered, 'Everybody! it is so common that no one talks of anything else.' She reddened and became angry."[121] Mme. de Brienne, wife of the Secretary of State, who
- 75. had spoken to the Queen on the same subject, told her friends that "More than once the Queen had blushed to the whites of her eyes."[122] Every one wrote to the Queen; she found anonymous letters even in her bed. When she went through the streets she heard people humming songs whose meaning she knew only too well. Her piety and her maternity had endeared her to the common people, and they, the people, had looked indulgently upon her passing weaknesses; but now things had come to a crisis. One day, when the Regent was attending a service in Notre Dame, she was surprised by a band of women of the people, who surrounded her and fell at her feet crying that she was dissipating the fortune of her ward. "Queen," they cried, "you have a man in your house who is taking everything!"[123] The fact that the young King was being despoiled was a greater grief to the people than the abasement of the Queen. It must be avowed that Mazarin was the most shameless thief who ever devoured a kingdom in the name of official duty and under the eyes and by the favour of a sovereign. His cry was the cry of the daughters of the horseleech. It was understood that Mazarin would not grant a service, or a demand of any kind, until his price had been put down, and in some cases the commission was demanded and paid twice. Bussy-Rabutin received a letter commanding him to "pay over and without delay" the sum of seven hundred livres. The letter is still in existence. Condé wrote it and despatched it, but it bears his personal endorsement to the effect that he had been "ordered" to write it. Montglat states that Anne of Austria asked for a fat office for one of her creatures, that the office was immediately granted, and that the appointee was taxed one hundred thousand écus. Anne of Austria was piqued: she had supposed that her position exempted her from the requirements of the ministerial tariff; she expostulated, but the Cardinal- Minister was firm; he made it clear, even to the dim perceptions of his royal lady, that the duties of the director of the French nation ranked the tender impulses of the lover. Patriotic duty nerved his hand, and the Queen, recognising the futility of resistance, trembling with excitement, and watering her fevered persuasions with her tears, opened her purse and paid Mazarin his commission. By a closely calculated policy the State's coffers were subjected to systematic drainage, the national expenses were cut, and millions, diverted from their regular channels, found their way into the strong box of the favourite. The soldiers of France were dying of starvation on the frontiers, the State's creditors were clamouring for their money, the Court was in need of the comforts of life[124]; the country had been ravaged by passing armies, pillaged by thieving politicians, harrowed by abuses of all kinds. The taxes were wrung from the beggared people by armed men; yet "poor
- 76. Monsieur, the Cardinal," as the Queen always called him, gave insolently luxurious fêtes and expended millions upon his extravagant fancies. No one cared for his foreign policy. Would political triumphs bring back the dead, feed the starving, rehabilitate the dishonoured wives and daughters of the peasants, restore verdure to the ruined farms? The Queen's anxiety to create an affection strong enough to blind the eyes of her courtiers to her intimacy with Mazarin had inspired her with a desire to lavish gifts. "The Queen gives everything" had become a proverb; the courtiers knew the value of their complaisancy, and they flocked to the Palais Royal with petitions; offices, benefices, privileges, monopolies either to exploit, to concede, or to sell were freely bestowed upon all who demanded them. Each courtier had some new and unheard-of fancy to gratify, either for his own pleasure or for the pleasure of his friends; anything that could be made visible, anything that could be so represented as to appear visible to the imagination, was scheduled in the minds of the courtiers as dutiable and some one drew revenues from it. One of the ladies of the Court obtained from the Queen the right to tax all the Masses said in Paris.[125] "The 13th January, 1644, the Council of the King employed part of its session in refusing 'a quantity of gifts' which the Queen had accorded, and which were all of a character to excite laughter." The royal horn had ceased to pour; the Queen's strong-box was empty. The courtiers knew that there was nothing more to gain; one and all they raised their voices, and the threatening growl of the people of Paris echoed them. The day of reckoning was at hand; had Anne of Austria possessed all that she had given to buy the indulgence of her world, and had she willed to give it all again, she could not have stilled the tumult; to quote Mme. de Motteville's record: "The people's love for the Queen had diminished; the absolute power which the Queen had placed in the hand of Mazarin had destroyed her own influence, and from too fondly desiring that the Parisians should love her lover she had made them hate him." In the beginning of the Regency Mazarin had been popular; after a time the people had lost confidence in him, and the hatred which followed their distrust was mingled with contempt. Mazarin had emptied the treasury of France. No better statement of his conduct was ever given than Fénelon gave his pupil, the Duc de Bourgogne, in his Dialogues des Morts. Mazarin and Richelieu are the persons speaking. Each makes known the value of his own work; each criticises the work of the other. Mazarin reproaches Richelieu for his cruelty and thirst for blood; Richelieu answers:
- 77. "You did worse to the French than to spill their blood. You corrupted the deep sources of their manners and their life. You made probity a mask. I laid my hand upon the great to repress their insolence; you beat them down and trampled upon their courage. You degraded nobility. You confounded conditions. You rendered all graces venal. You were afraid of the influence of merit. You permitted no man to approach you unless he could give you proof of a low, supple nature,—a nature complaisant to the solicitations of mischievous intrigue. You never received a true impression. You never had any real knowledge of men. You never believed anything but evil. You saw the worst in a man and drew your profit from it. To your base mind honour and virtue were fables. You needed knaves who could deceive the dupes whom you entrapped in business; you needed traffickers to consummate your schemes. So your name shall be reviled and odious." CARDINAL MAZARIN This is a fair portrayal, as far as it goes; but it shows only one side (the worst side) of Mazarin's character. The portrait is peculiarly interesting from the fact
- 78. that it was especially depicted and set forth for the instruction of the great- grandson of the woman who loved Mazarin. It is probable that stern appreciation of the duty of the representative of Divine Justice primed the virulence of the pious Fénelon, when he seated himself to point out an historical moral for the descendant of the weak Queen who sacrificed the prosperity of France on the altar of an insensate passion. La Grande Mademoiselle was one of Mazarin's most hostile enemies, and her memoirs evince unbending severity. The weakness of her criticism detracts from the importance of a work otherwise valuable as a contemporary chronicle. She regarded Mazarin's "lack of intelligence" as his worst fault. She was convinced that he possessed neither capacity nor judgment "because he acted from the belief that he could reject the talents of a Gaston d'Orléans with impunity. His conduct to Princes of the Blood proved that he lacked wisdom; he stinted the junior branches of their legitimate influence; he would not yield to the pillars of the throne the power that belonged to them by right; he thrust aside the heirs-presumptive, when he might have leaned upon them! Manifestly he was witless, stupid, unworthy the consideration of a prince." Mademoiselle asserted that Mazarin deserved the worst of fates and the scorn of the people. She believed that many evils could have been averted had Monsieur been consulted in regard to the government of the kingdom. She affirmed that it was her conviction that all good servants of the Crown owed it to their patriotism to arm and drive the Cardinal across the frontier of France. That was her conception of duty, and it smiled upon her from all points of the compass. Not long before the beginning of the Fronde, the fine world of Paris, stirred to action by the spectacle of the royal infatuation and by the subjection of the national welfare to the suppositive exigencies of "the foreigner," embraced the theory of Opposition, and to be of the Opposition was the fashion of the hour. All who aspired to elegance wore their rebellion as a badge, unless they had private reasons for appearing as the friends of Mazarin. The women who were entering politics found it to their interest to join the opposing body. Politics had become the favourite pastime of the highways and the little streets. Men and women, not only in Paris, but in the châteaux and homes of the provinces, and children—boys and girls—began to express political opinions in early youth. "Come, then, Grandmamma," said little Montausier to Mme. de Rambouillet, "now that I am five years old, let us talk about affairs of State." Her
- 79. grandmother could not have reproved with a good grace, because her own "Blue Room" had been one of the chief agents responsible for the new diversion just before the Fronde. A mocking but virile force arose in the Opposition to check the ultra-refinements of the high art, the high intellectual ability, and the other superfine characteristics of the school of Arthénice. The mockery of the Opposition was as keen and its irony was as effective as the mental sword-play of the literary extremists. Wit was its chief weapon and its barbed words, and merry yet sarcastic thrusts had power to overthrow a ministry. The country knew it and gloried in it. The people of France would have entered upon revolution before they would have renounced their "spirituality." In the polemics of the new party the turn of a sentence meant a dozen things at once; a syllable stung like a dagger. Frenchmen are the natural artists of conversation, and they never found field more favourable to their art than the broad plains of the Opposition. Avowed animosity to the pretensions of the pedants and light mockery of the preciosity of the Précieuses offered a varied choice of subjects and an equally varied choice of accessories for their work. The daring cavaliers of the Opposition passed like wild huntsmen over the exhausted ground, with eyes bent upon the trail, and found delicate and amusing shades of meaning in phrases scorned and stigmatised as "common" by the hyper-spiritual enthusiasts of the Salons.
- 80. MADEMOISELLE DE MONTPENSIER FROM A STEEL ENGRAVING In the exercise of free wit, the women of the new political school found an influence which before their day had been monopolised by the polemists of the State's Councils. They—the women of the Opposition—swept forward and seized positions previously held by men, and since then, either from deep purpose or from pure conviction, they have held their ground and exercised their right to share, or to attempt to share, in the creation and in the destruction of governments. Mademoiselle followed the fashion of the day when she frequented the society of people who were in disgrace at Court. She ridiculed the King's Minister, and as she was influential and popular, outspoken and eager to declare her principles, she was called an agitator, though in the words of Mme. de Motteville, "she was not quite sure what she was trying to do." Mazarin, whom Mademoiselle considered "stupid," had entangled the wires of the cabals and confused the minds of the pretenders with such consummate art that the keenest intriguers gazed in bewilderment upon their own interests, and doubted their truest friends. For instance, Monsieur, who had mind and wit "to burn," could not explain, even to himself, why he repudiated Mademoiselle when she quarrelled with the second junior branch.
- 81. He knew that he was jealous of his rights and of all that belonged to him; he knew that the power of the Condés was a menace, that his daughter was a powerful ally for any party, that her championship was, and always had been, his strongest arm against an unappreciative world, and after one of the senseless exhibitions of anger against Mademoiselle to which Anne of Austria, impelled by Mazarin, frequently incited him, he asked himself why he maltreated his daughter when she resisted the usurpations of his hated cousins, the Condés. "Why," he queried piteously, "should I plunge the knife into my own breast?" Why he did so, and why many another as astute as he moved heaven and earth to effect his own downfall was the secret of Mazarin. Mademoiselle wept bitter tears for the loss of her father's friendship; then she arose in her pride, resolved to tread the path of life alone, according to her independent will. She was twenty years old and in the fulness of her beauty. She described her appearance with complaisancy[126]: I am tall; I am neither fat nor lean; I have a graceful and freely moving figure, and my bearing is natural and easy. My bust is well formed. My hands and feet are not beautiful, but there is great beauty in their flesh, and the flesh of my throat is also very pretty. My leg is straight, and my foot is well formed. My hair is a beautiful ash-blonde. My face is long, and its contour is fine. The nose is large and aquiline. The mouth neither large nor little, but distinctly outlined and of a very agreeable form. The lips are the colour of vermilion. My teeth are not handsome, but neither are they horrible. My eyes are blue, neither large nor small, but brilliant, gentle, and proud, like my mien. I have a haughty, but not self-glorified air; I am polite and familiar, but of a manner to excite respect rather than to attract the lack of it. I am indeed very indifferent about my dress, but my negligence does not go as far as untidiness. I hate that! I am neat, and whether I am laced or loosely robed, everything that I wear looks well. This is not because I do not look incomparably better with tightly fitting garments, but it is because negligence and loose garments sit less ill upon me than upon another, for I may say, without boasting, that I become whatever I put on better than anything that I put on becomes me.... God ... has given me unparalleled health and strength. Nothing breaks me down; nothing fatigues me; and it is difficult to judge of the events and the changes in my fortunes by my face, for my face rarely shows any change. I had forgotten to say that I have a healthy
- 82. complexion, which is in accord with what I have just said. My tint is not delicate, but it is fair, and very bright and clear. Before the lessons of experience and evil fortune changed Mademoiselle's handsome face, she was thus vivaciously described by an anonymous contemporary: This Princess of the blood of kings and of princes is haughty, daring, and of a courage much more like the courage of a man than is commonly found in woman. It may be said with truth that she is an amazon, and that she is better fitted to carry a lance than to hold a distaff. She is proud, enterprising, adventurous, quick, and free of speech. She cannot bear to hear anything contrary to her own opinion. As she has never loved either the King's ministers or her father's ministers, she has avoided them; because had she received them in her home, or frequented their society, civility would have constrained her to show them deference. Her humour is impatient, her mind is active, and her heart is ardently set upon whatever she undertakes. As to dissimulation, she does not know the meaning of the term. She tells what she thinks, careless of the opinion of the world. She was described in divers ways, according to the impressions of her associates. One said that her manner gave evidence of serious reflection; another called her too vivacious. It was supposed that she had been the first to assert that the soul ought not to be susceptible to love, and therefore her admirers sang to her of the aversion felt by Pallas for the allurements of Venus. Mademoiselle had said: "Je n'ai point l'âme tendre." and she had meant what she said, and been glad to have it known that she was heart-free. She was blamed for her rude manners and for her outbursts of anger. When she declared that she longed to go to war with the soldiers her critics laughed at her pretensions. It was generally believed that her faults were numerous, and that she had few of the qualities considered desirable in woman; but no one ever called her petty, cowardly, or false. La Grande Mademoiselle was never a liar; she never betrayed friend or foe. She was brave and generous; and it was not her fault if when nature placed her soul in the form of a woman it gave her the mien and the inclinations of a man.
- 83. F CHAPTER V I. The Beginning of Trouble—Paris and the Parisians in 1648—II. The Parliamentary Fronde—Mademoiselle Would Be Queen of France—III. The Fronde of the Princes and the Union of the Frondes—Projects for an Alliance with Condé—IV. La Grande Mademoiselle's Heroic Period—The Capture of Orleans—The Combat in the Faubourg Saint Antoine—The End of the Fronde. I ew political crises have left, either upon participants or upon witnesses, impressions as diverse as the impressions left by the Fronde. As examples of this fact take Retz (whose Mémoires are the epopee of revolutionary Paris), Omer Talon, the Queen's friend, M. de Motteville, La Rochefoucauld, duke and peer, Gaston d'Orléans, de Beaufort, Anne de Gonzague, Mme. de Chevreuse, and all the messieurs and mesdames whose ways of thinking we know. They furnished the divers views of the Fronde from which we gain our knowledge of that event, and as they deduced their impressions from the effect which the Fronde had upon their personal interests or sympathies, and from their mental conditions, it is difficult to form an independent or a just idea. Versatile and brilliant imaginations have left kaleidoscopic visions of a limited number of very plain realities, and as the only means of giving uniformity and sequency to a narrative which, though it covers various periods, is circumscribed by certain limits, is to make a selection from the many means of study furnished by a voluminous mass of documents, I have detached from history nothing but the facts which were connected with the life of the person around whom I have woven this narrative. By relating everything concerning La Grande Mademoiselle and by showing her actively engaged in her daily pursuits when the Fronde took shape and during the war, I have hoped to make visible to the reader at least one figure of the most confused of all the harassed epochs of our modern history. Mademoiselle's point of view may not have been one of the best, but it had at least one merit: it was not the point of view of an ordinary observer. The Fronde was La Grande Mademoiselle's heroic period, and her reasons for embracing the cause were fit for the fabric of a romance. She intended to
- 84. marry, and a marriage appropriate to her high station required the veiling smoke of the battle-field and the booming music of great guns. She entered the army and played her part with such spirit that, according to her own story, she wondered to the end of her days how she could have committed so many follies. These pages are written to explain the mental condition which evolved not only La Grande Mademoiselle's follies but the follies of many of her countrymen. It is evident from the memoirs on record that Mademoiselle did not expect a revolution, but in that respect she was as clear-sighted as her contemporaries; no one looked for any change. Four years had passed since the people raised the barricades, and all that time Paris had growled its discontent. Neither the Regent nor the courtiers had cared to ask what the canaille were thinking. The curés had been driven from the devastated country parishes to beg bread and shelter in the monasteries, and the industrious French people who had always been neat and merry lay in rags on their sordid beds, dying of famine because the usurers of the State—the national note-holders—had seized their tools and confiscated all means of paying the labourer. In 1644 the people invaded the Palais de Justice and noisily protested against the new tax. They ordered Parliament to take their threats to the Queen. The Queen refused to remit the tax, and the city immediately assumed the aspect which it habitually wore on the eve of revolution. Groups of men and women stood about the streets, the people were eager and excited,—they knew not why. Business was suspended. The shopkeepers stood on their doorsteps. The third night after the Queen refused to listen to the appeal of the people, the milk-soup boiled over! Bands of men armed with clubs descended from the faubourgs, crowded the streets of Paris, and, to quote an eye-witness, "they gave fright enough to the city where fear and like emotions were unknown." After a few hours the crowd dispersed and the city became calm. But the road was clear, the canaille had found the way; they knew that it was possible to arm with clubs, or with anything that they could handle, and surge into the streets against the Crown. From that hour forerunners of the approaching storm multiplied. Parliament openly sustained the demands of the people. In Parliament there were natural orators whose denunciations of the causes of the prevailing misery were brilliant and terrible. The people's envoys accused the Regency of permitting the abuses, the injustice, and the oppression which had wrecked the peace of France. They persisted in their protestations, and the Majesty of the Throne could not silence them. At the solemn sessions of the beds of justice and in the Queen's own chambers they presented their
- 85. arguments, and with voices hoarse with indignation, and with hands raised threateningly toward heaven they cried their philippics in the Queen's ears. Seated beside his mother the child-king looked on and listened. He could not understand the meaning of all the vehement words, but he never pardoned the voices which uttered them. The Court listened, astonished. Mademoiselle weighed the words of the people, she paid close attention, but her memoirs do not speak of the revolts of public opinion. She was as unconscious of their meaning as the Queen,—and to say that is to tell the whole story. Only sixty years before that time the barricades of the League had closed the streets of Paris, and only ten years before the theatre lovers had witnessed a comedy called Alizon, in which one of the ancient leaguers had fixed such eyes upon the King as our Communardes fixed upon the Versaillais. No one had forgotten anything! The Parisians had kept their old arms bright; they were looking forward to a time when arms would be needed; yet the Regent thought that when she had issued an order commanding the people not to talk politics she had provided against everything. The nation's depths, as represented by the middle classes, had found a new apostle in the person of a member of the Parliament, "President Barillon." Barillon had been a pillar of the Government, but his feelings had changed. Mme. de Motteville, who was in warm sympathy with the Regent, wrote bitterly of his new opinions. She said: That man has a little of the shade of feeling which colours the actions of some of the men of our century who always hate the happy and the powerful. Such men think that they prove their greatness of heart by loving only the unfortunate, and that idea incessantly involves them in parties, and makes them do things adverse to the Queen. The Court was as blind as the Queen's friend; it could not see that the day was coming when the determination to abolish abuses would sweep away the ancient social forms before their eyes. In the opinion of the Queen the criticisms and the ideas of the King's subjects constituted felony, and it was Barillon's fate to go down. Barillon had been the Queen's devoted friend and champion. After the King died he had worked hard to seat the royal widow on the throne. He believed—no one knew what excuse he had for believing such a thing—that the Queen shared his ideas of the rights of the poor and the humble, and that she believed as he believed: that kings owed certain duties to their subjects. Barillon was not forced to wait long for his enlightenment. Anne of Austria was a woman of short patience, and advice irritated her. As
- 86. soon as the President's eyes were opened to the truth he rushed headlong into the arms of the Opposition. Anne of Austria scorned "his treachery to the Crown." His impassioned thoughts of divine justice were enigmatical to the sovereign understanding. She was enraged by the obstinacy of her old friend, and by her orders he was cast into the prison of Saint Piguerol, where he died, as the just Motteville said, "regretted by every one." Barillon was the precursor of the "Idealogues" of the eighteenth century and of the Socialists of our own day. The Queen was one of the people who seem to have received eyes because they could not be blind without eyes. The King's porringer was empty because the King had no money. The Queen, his mother, had pawned the jewels of the crown to appease her creditors, yet she was indignant when the bourgeois said that France was bankrupt. She did not attach any importance to "that canaille,"—as she called the Parliament,—but she regarded criticism or disapproval as an attempt upon the authority of her son. As she expressed her exotic ideas freely, the bourgeois knew what she thought of them, and her abusive epithets were scored to the credit of the Opposition. As much from interest as from sympathy the Opposition invariably sustained the claims of the people. "The bourgeois were all infected with love for the public welfare," said the gentle Motteville bitterly. So the Court knew that in case of difficulty it could not count upon "that canaille." Neither could Parliament count upon itself. There were too many counter- currents in its channels, too many individual interests, too many ambitions, too many selfish intrigues, to say nothing of the instinct of self-preservation which had turned the thoughts of the nobles toward a last desperate attempt to prevent the establishment of the absolute monarchy. They had resolved to make the attempt, and by it they hoped to save the remnant of their ancient privileges. They would have been justified in saving anything that they could lay their hands on, for no man is morally bound to commit suicide. In point of fact the only thing which they were morally bound to do was to remember that duty to country precedes all other duties, but in that day people had a very dim idea of duty to country. La Grande Mademoiselle believed that the King's right was divine, but she did not hesitate to act against the Court when her personal interests or the interests of her house demanded such action. After the "Affair Saujon,[127]" she practically retired from Court. Alluding to that fact, she said: "I did not think that the presence of a person whom the Queen had so maltreated could be agreeable to her Majesty." She made long visits at her château of Bois-le-Vicomte, near Meaux. Her little court knew her prejudices and respected her feelings. She regarded the
- 87. success of the French arms as a personal misfortune, because a French victory conferred more glory upon Monsieur le Prince. The death of the elder Condé had not lessened the insolent pretensions of the second junior branch, and the honours claimed by the hawk-eyed general afflicted the haughty Princess d'Orléans, who had no valiant soldier to add glory to her name. Referring to the battle of Lens Mademoiselle said: No one dared to tell me of it; the paper containing the account of it was sent to me from Paris, and they placed it on my table, where I saw it as soon as I arose. I read it with astonishment and grief. On that occasion I was less of a good Frenchman than an enemy. This avowal is worthy of note because it furnishes a key to the approaching national crisis. Mademoiselle's treason was the crime of architects of the Fronde; of the Nobility first, afterward of all France. Mademoiselle wept over the battle of Lens, and when her father commanded her to return to Paris to appear with the Queen and to join in the public rejoicings her grief knew no bounds. The scene in the Palais Royal had destroyed her confidence and her sympathy, and she could not have "rejoiced with the Queen" on any occasion; but her father's commands were formal, and she was forced to assist with the Court (August 26th) at Notre Dame, when the Te Deum was chanted in thanksgiving for the victory of France. On that occasion [said Mademoiselle] I placed myself beside Cardinal Mazarin, and as he was in a good humour I spoke to him of liberating Saujon. He promised me to do all in his power. He said that he should try to influence the Queen. I left them all at the Palais Royal and went away to get my dinner, and when I arrived I was informed of the clamour in the city; the bourgeois had taken arms. The bourgeois had taken arms because of the unexpected arrest of two members of Parliament. "Old Broussel" was one of the two, and to the people he personified the democratic and humanitarian doctrines of President Barillon, who had died in his prison because he had angered the Queen by pleading the people's cause. The news of his arrest fell like a thunderbolt, and the people sprang to arms. The general excitement dispelled Mademoiselle's grief; she was not sorry for the uprising. She could not see anything to regret in the disturbance of the monarchy. Monsieur and the Queen had shown her that her interests were not theirs, they had tormented and humiliated her, and it pleased her wounded pride to think that her enemies were to be punished. The Tuileries were admirably situated for the occasion. Should there be a
- 88. revolution it could not fail to take place under her windows, and even were she to be imprisoned—as she had been before—she could still amuse herself and witness the uprising at her ease. At that time there were no boulevards; the Seine was the centre of the capital. It was the great street and the great open hall in which the Parisians gave their fêtes. Entering Paris either from Rouen or from Dijon, travellers knew by the animation on the water when they were near the city. From the Cours la Reine to the little isle Saint Louis the river was edged with open-air shops and markets. On the river were barges laden with merchandise, with rafts, with water-coaches (which looked like floating houses), and with all the objects that man sets in the public view to tempt his fellows and to offer means of conveyance either to business or to pleasure. At various points the bargees and other river-men held jousts. All through the city there were exhibitions of fireworks and "water serenades," and along the shore, or moving swiftly among the delicate shallops and the heavy barges were gilded pleasure galleys with pennants flying in the wind. The light, mirrored by the water, danced upon the damp walls of the streets which opened upon the quays. The Seine was the light and the joy of Paris, the pride of the public life. Its arms enveloped Notre Dame, the mass of buildings called "the Palais," the Houses of the Parliament and the Bourse, an immense bazar whose galleried shops were the meeting-place of strollers and of gossips. A little below the Palais stretched the Pont-Neuf, with its swarms of street peddlers, jugglers, charlatans, and idlers who passed their days watching the parade of the people of Paris. "The disinherited," unfortunate speculators in the public bounty, sat apart from the stream of travellers, preparing for their business by slipping glass eyes into their heads, or by drawing out their teeth the better to amuse the public and to solicit alms. All the emotions of the people were manifested first upon the river. The Seine was a queen; we have made it a sewer. Even then Paris was a great cosmopolitan city, capable of receiving the people of the world; it was the only place in Europe where a palace could be made ready for guests in less than two hours. In less than one hour the hosts of the inns prepared dinner for one hundred guests at twenty écus a cover. Yet in many respects the powerful city was in a barbarous condition; it was neither lighted nor swept, and as its citizens threw everything out of their windows, the streets were paved with black and infected mud. There was little or nothing like a police system, and the city was sown with "places of refuge" (a survival of the Middle Ages), which served as hiding-places for
- 89. highwaymen and other malefactors, who enshrined themselves among the shadows and lay in wait for the weak or the unwary. At that time the Duc d'Angoulême, the illegitimate son of Charles IX., used to send his servants into the streets to collect their wages from the passers-by. Having collected their money, the clever fellows returned to the ducal palace. The Duc d'Angoulême possessed the right of shelter, and his palace was vested with all the power of the horns of the altar: once within his gates, the criminal was in safety and "inviolable." The Duc de Beaufort used to send his servants out into the streets to rob travellers for his personal benefit. When the robbers were arrested their proprietor demanded their release and made great talk of an indemnification. The excessively mobile Parisian character has changed many times since the day of the Duc de Beaufort; but the people of the present are counterparts of the people of the times[128] of Louis XIII. and the Regency. One of Mademoiselle's contemporaries said: "The true Parisians love to work; they love the novelty of things; they love changes in their habits; they even love changes in their business. They are very pious, and very—credulous. They are not in the least drunkards; they are polite to strangers." Subtract the piety and add absinthe, the mother of Folly, and we have the Parisians of our own day. They too are industrious; they are always changing something; they are changeable in themselves; they are credulous; they call religion "superstition," but they believe in "systems," in "panaceas," in high- sounding words, and in "great men"—men truly great, or spuriously great; they still cherish a belief in revolutions. They are as ready now as they were centuries ago to die for an idea, for a Broussel, and for much less than a Broussel. Just such Parisians as we meet in our daily walks raised the barricades in 1648. Broussel's windows looked out upon the river; the boatmen and the people of the water were the first to hear of his arrest, and they rushed crying into the streets; the people of the Halles joined them; and the "good bourgeoisie" followed the people's lead. The tradesmen closed their shops, the chains were drawn across the streets; and in the twinkling of an eye Paris bristled with antiquated firearms like an historical procession. Mademoiselle, who heard the noise, ordered her carriage, and went out to pass the barricades. She had never seen the mob as she saw it then. The people swayed forward to meet the insolent noble who dared to defy them; but when they recognised their Princess, their hoarse cries turned to shouts of welcome, and eager hands raised the chains. Then, haughtily ignoring their fond smiles, Mademoiselle passed and the chains fell behind her.
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