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GEOG 100--Lecture 11--The Lithosphere

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The document discusses how geologists date rocks using relative and absolute dating methods. It explains that relative dating involves determining rock layers' ages based on the principle of superposition, where older rocks are on the bottom and younger on top. Absolute dating uses radiometric dating to measure radioactive isotopes' decay to determine a sample's precise age. The document provides examples of the oldest dated rocks on Earth and discusses the concept of uniformitarianism, that current geologic processes can explain past events.

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The Lithosphere Chapter 9
Geologic Time • Human time is mere seconds when compared to the time frame over which geologic processes have been operating to develop landforms
Geologic Time
How do we date rocks? 4
How do we date rocks? –Relative time 4
How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion 4
How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top 4
How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time 4
How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating 4
How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating –Atoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into stable forms 4
How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating –Atoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into stable forms –Each isotope has a specific decay rate 4
How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating –Atoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into stable forms –Each isotope has a specific decay rate –Half-life--the length of time it takes one half the isotope to decay 4
How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating –Atoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into stable forms –Each isotope has a specific decay rate –Half-life--the length of time it takes one half the isotope to decay –Measuring the ratio of unstable to stable material gives a date (1:1 means one half-life has passed) 4
The oldest rocks 5
The oldest rocks  Earth first condensed and formed into a planet about 4.6 billion years ago. 5
The oldest rocks  Earth first condensed and formed into a planet about 4.6 billion years ago.  Oldest rocks are from the Acasta Gneiss in northwestern Canada: 3.96 billion years old 5
The oldest rocks  Earth first condensed and formed into a planet about 4.6 billion years ago.  Oldest rocks are from the Acasta Gneiss in northwestern Canada: 3.96 billion years old  Oldest grains of rock, from Western Australia: bet. 4.2 and 4.4 billion years old 5
Uniformitarianism • Uniformitarianism –“The present is the key to the past.”
Uniformitarianism • Uniformitarianism –“The present is the key to the past.” –In other words: The same physical processes active in the environment today have been operating throughout geologic time.
Earth’s Interior Structure
Earth’s magnetic field • Circulations within Earth’s inner and outer cores may be the mechanism for the magnetic field, called the magnetosphere, that protects Earth from solar wind and cosmic radiation. 8
Earth’s magnetic field • Circulations within Earth’s inner and outer cores may be the mechanism for the magnetic field, called the magnetosphere, that protects Earth from solar wind and cosmic radiation. • The magnetic north and south poles migrate 8
Earth’s magnetic field • Circulations within Earth’s inner and outer cores may be the mechanism for the magnetic field, called the magnetosphere, that protects Earth from solar wind and cosmic radiation. • The magnetic north and south poles migrate • Geomagnetic reversal also happens in irregular intervals 8
From the crust on down
Which elements make up Earth’s crust? • Core –Fe, Ni, Si (and/or) O • Mantle –O, Si, Mg, Fe, Ca, Al • 99% of the crust is made up of 8 elements: –O, Si (make up 74.3%) –Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg These elements, and trace others, combine to make up Earth’s minerals and rocks... 10
What is a Mineral?
What is a Mineral? A mineral is…
What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring,
What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid
What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite
What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite (but generally not fixed)
What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition
What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition and a highly-ordered atomic arrangement.
What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition and a highly-ordered atomic arrangement. It is usually formed through inorganic processes.
Okay…quick quiz…
Okay…quick quiz… Does ice fit the definition of a mineral?
Okay…quick quiz… Does ice fit the definition of a mineral?
Okay…quick quiz… Does ice fit the definition of a mineral?
Okay…quick quiz… Does ice fit the definition of a mineral?
...naturally-occurring...
...naturally-occurring... • Diamonds
...naturally-occurring... • Diamonds
...naturally-occurring... • Diamonds
...naturally-occurring... • Diamonds
...naturally-occurring... • Diamonds
...homogeneous solid... • It can’t start out as one mineral and become another mineral halfway through (but it can change color and still be the same mineral)
...homogeneous solid... • It can’t start out as one mineral and become another mineral halfway through (but it can change color and still be the same mineral) Tourmaline (Elbaite variety): Na(Li1.5,Al1.5)Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)4
...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition...
...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition... • Quartz
...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition... • Quartz –SiO2 (silicon dioxide)
...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition... • Quartz –SiO2 (silicon dioxide) • Olivine
...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition... • Quartz –SiO2 (silicon dioxide) • Olivine –(Mg, Fe)2SiO4
...highly-ordered atomic arrangement. • Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that are not all bonded together into a structure.
...highly-ordered atomic arrangement. • Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that are not all bonded together into a structure. • When frozen, CO2 IS bonded together... forming...what?
...highly-ordered atomic arrangement. • Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that are not all bonded together into a structure. • When frozen, CO2 IS bonded together... forming...what?
...highly-ordered atomic arrangement. • Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that are not all bonded together into a structure. • When frozen, CO2 IS bonded together... forming...what?
The shape of the mineral crystal is the result of its internal atomic structure. rhombohedrons flat sheets muscovite mica chains cubes rhodochrosite asbestos (crocidolite) galena
What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition?
What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition? • It’s a mineraloid.
What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition? • It’s a mineraloid. Some substances look like minerals--but they LIE.
What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition? • It’s a mineraloid. Some substances look like minerals--but they LIE. • Glass is a mineraloid. It has an “amorphous” atomic structure.
What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition? • It’s a mineraloid. Some substances look like minerals--but they LIE. • Glass is a mineraloid. It has an “amorphous” atomic structure. -O - Si
GEOG 100--Lecture 11--The Lithosphere
As light passes through the glass panels, it is distorted by the ripples in the glass. Which panel is the new one?
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean • Silicate minerals
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean • Silicate minerals • Their skeletons are used as polishing agents...
Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean • Silicate minerals • Their skeletons are used as polishing agents... ...(in your toothpaste!)
Is coal a mineral?
Is coal a mineral?
Is coal a mineral?
Is coal a mineral?
Is coal a mineral? No.
Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals.
Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition
Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition –They have no ordered atomic arrangement
Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition –They have no ordered atomic arrangement Petroleum, coal and peat are mineraloids
Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition –They have no ordered atomic arrangement Petroleum, coal and peat are mineraloids But…They can form minerals under certain conditions
Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition –They have no ordered atomic arrangement Petroleum, coal and peat are mineraloids But…They can form minerals under certain conditions –If coal beds are heated to high temperatures and the carbon in them is crystallized, they can form the mineral, graphite
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from:
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from: –Magma
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from: –Magma –Steam (these minerals are called vaporites)
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from: –Magma –Steam (these minerals are called vaporites) –Mineral components left behind when water evaporates (these are called evaporites)
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from: –Magma –Steam (these minerals are called vaporites) –Mineral components left behind when water evaporates (these are called evaporites) –Mineral components dissolved in water that solidify again (these are called precipitates)
From cooled magma • The mineral components come together in the melt and harden as molten rock material solidifies
From steam: vaporites
From steam: vaporites • Vaporite
From steam: vaporites • Vaporite –Water near a magma source heats up, dissolves mineral components in surrounding rocks, and carries them away
From steam: vaporites • Vaporite –Water near a magma source heats up, dissolves mineral components in surrounding rocks, and carries them away –The steam condenses at the surface. The mineral compounds also “condense” and solidify.
From steam: vaporites • Vaporite –Water near a magma source heats up, dissolves mineral components in surrounding rocks, and carries them away –The steam condenses at the surface. The mineral compounds also “condense” and solidify.
From steam: vaporites • Vaporite Harvesting sulfur crystals from a volcano in Indonesia –Water near a magma source heats up, dissolves mineral components in surrounding rocks, and carries them away –The steam condenses at the surface. The mineral compounds also “condense” and solidify. –Commonly found around volcanic vents, these sulfur crystals are forming around Kilauea Crater, Hawaii. Also found near oceanic volcanic vents (at spreading centers).
From steam: vaporites Harvesting sulfur crystals from a volcano in Indonesia
From evaporating water: evaporites
From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite
From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite –Water evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral compounds that were dissolved in the water
From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite –Water evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral compounds that were dissolved in the water
From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite –Water evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral compounds that were dissolved in the water –Hint: “Please pass the halite!”
From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite –Water evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral compounds that were dissolved in the water –Hint: “Please pass the halite!” Salt crystals like these form in salt beds along the edge of Highway 84, just before the Dumbarton Bridge.
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Precipitate
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Precipitate –When in too high a concentration to remain dissolved in a liquid, the mineral components condense and may actually “rain” out of the solution
Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Precipitate –When in too high a concentration to remain dissolved in a liquid, the mineral components condense and may actually “rain” out of the solution –Often occurs when warmer water, which can hold more dissolved solids, cools slightly
From dissolved solids: precipitates Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium carbonate precipitating out of the water
From dissolved solids: precipitates Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium carbonate precipitating out of the water
From dissolved solids: precipitates Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium carbonate precipitating out of the water
From dissolved solids: precipitates Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium carbonate precipitating out of the water
From dissolved solids: precipitates Pyrite “sand dollars” form in sea water and collect on the ocean floor
Experiment • Make a precipitate mineral at home...
Experiment • Make a precipitate mineral at home...
Experiment • Make a precipitate mineral at home...
What is a Rock?
What is a Rock? • A solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral materials –A few rock varieties are made up almost entirely of one mineral—this is called a pegmatite
What is a Rock? • A solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral materials –A few rock varieties are made up almost entirely of one mineral—this is called a pegmatite • Example: massive accumulations of halite
The Rock Cycle • Rocks have been continuously forming and reforming over millions and millions of years • The rock cycle is a closed flow system
The Rock Cycle
What drives the rock cycle?
What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat
What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation
What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation • the power source for the flow system
What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation • the power source for the flow system • The sun
What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation • the power source for the flow system • The sun –Secondary power source
What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation • the power source for the flow system • The sun –Secondary power source –Drives weather systems that erode material
Convection Currents
Convection Currents • Slow-moving convection currents within the mantle transfer heat from the outer core to the upper mantle
Convection Currents • Slow-moving convection currents within the mantle transfer heat from the outer core to the upper mantle
Convection Currents • Slow-moving convection currents within the mantle transfer heat from the outer core to the upper mantle • The convergence and divergence of these currents near the surface is believed to be one of the driving forces behind the movement of Earth’s crustal plates
The 3 Classes of Rock
The 3 Classes of Rock • Classified based on the processes which form them
The 3 Classes of Rock • Classified based on the processes which form them –Igneous rocks
The 3 Classes of Rock • Classified based on the processes which form them –Igneous rocks –Sedimentary rocks
The 3 Classes of Rock • Classified based on the processes which form them –Igneous rocks –Sedimentary rocks –Metamorphic rocks
Igneous Rocks from cooling magmas • The kinds of rocks you end up with (and ultimately the kinds of structures built by the formation of those rocks) are determined by the chemistry of the magmas you start with
Felsic Magmas
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O)
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2)
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow)
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow) • High concentration of gases under high pressure
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow) • High concentration of gases under high pressure • Gases can’t rise easily, so they stay trapped until near the surface
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow) • High concentration of gases under high pressure • Gases can’t rise easily, so they stay trapped until near the surface • As pressure is released at the surface, these pressurized gases tend to explode
Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow) • High concentration of gases under high pressure • Gases can’t rise easily, so they stay trapped until near the surface • As pressure is released at the surface, these pressurized gases tend to explode – (Example: Mount St. Helens)
Mount Saint Helens • The explosion blew off 1,300 feet of the mountain's top and sent ash and debris more than 12 miles into the sky covering three states - Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Sixty two people were dead, beautiful forests and lakes were destroyed resulting in $3 billion worth of damage. • ‘[At about 10:00 a.m.] in the city of Yakima, Washington… a black cloud covered the city and "snowed" ash. [Not] a street light nor a neighbor's porch light could be seen. The ash was so heavy it sank swimming pool covers and caved in old roofs. Businesses and schools were closed down and all normal activity… ceased to exist.” From Disasters: Blowing Your Top http://www.boisestate.edu/history/ ncasner/hy210/volcano.htm
Felsic Magmas Explosive Mount St. Helens (Pre-eruption)
Felsic Magmas Explosive Mount St. Helens (May 18, 1980)
Felsic Magmas Explosive Mount St. Helens Mt. St. Helens Today
Mafic Minerals and Rocks
Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca)
Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density
Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic
Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic • Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances)
Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic • Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances) • Very little gas content, relatively little SiO2
Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic • Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances) • Very little gas content, relatively little SiO2 • Hotter magmas, so gasses stay dissolved
Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic • Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances) • Very little gas content, relatively little SiO2 • Hotter magmas, so gasses stay dissolved • Rarely explosive – (Example: Hawaiian volcanoes)
Mafic Magmas Hawaii 2002-10-11 view northwest across coastal plain of Kilauea from West Highcastle lava delta to Pu`u `O`o in upper right skyline
Intrusive vs. Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Intrusive vs. Extrusive Igneous Rocks • Intrusive igneous rocks—magma cools beneath the crust; crystals have more time to form; harder, more erosion-resistant rocks
Intrusive vs. Extrusive Igneous Rocks • Intrusive igneous rocks—magma cools beneath the crust; crystals have more time to form; harder, more erosion-resistant rocks • Extrusive igneous rocks—magma cools on the surface (lava); crystals don’t have time to form good crystal faces, if it cools fast enough, no crystals will form (obsidian--“volcanic glass”)
Extrusive Igneous Rocks Basalt and Obsidian
Intrusive Igneous Rock Granite
Intrusive Igneous Rock Granite …vs. extrusive rhyolite
Sedimentary Rocks From hardened sediment
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks • The result of erosion, transportation, deposition, and lithification
Sedimentary Rocks • The result of erosion, transportation, deposition, and lithification
Sedimentary Rocks • The result of erosion, transportation, deposition, and lithification • Sediment—Weathered rock fragments that have been transported and deposited, usually by water (or by air or by glacial ice movements)
Erosion Mechanical or Chemical
Erosion Mechanical or Chemical • Mechanical weathering—The physical force of a particular process acting on rocks, such as hydraulic action pounding rocks in a riverbed
Erosion Mechanical or Chemical • Mechanical weathering—The physical force of a particular process acting on rocks, such as hydraulic action pounding rocks in a riverbed - OR -
Erosion Mechanical or Chemical • Mechanical weathering—The physical force of a particular process acting on rocks, such as hydraulic action pounding rocks in a riverbed - OR - • Chemical weathering—Chemical reactions, usually in the presence of water, which operate to change the structure of the minerals, and break them apart – (Example: iron in the presence of water and oxygen, incorporating those elements into its structure, expanding as it becomes rust, breaking rock apart)
Transportation • Distance of transport and speed of the fluid medium determine size, roundness and sorting of transported material
Transportation • Distance of transport and speed of the fluid medium determine size, roundness and sorting of transported material
Deposition
Deposition • Deposition generally occurs in flat layers called strata (or “beds”) • Principle of Original Horizontality states that material is originally deposited in horizontal layers and later is shifted as it is affected by crustal movements
Deposition • Deposition generally occurs in flat layers called strata (or “beds”) • Principle of Original Horizontality states that material is originally deposited in horizontal layers and later is shifted as it is affected by crustal movements
Deposition • Deposition generally occurs in flat layers called strata (or “beds”) • Principle of Original Horizontality states that material is originally deposited in horizontal layers and later is shifted as it is affected by crustal movements
Sedimentary Rocks Badlands National Park, SD
Horizontal layers after tectonic movement
Lithification
Lithification Compaction and cementation
Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock
Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock –As sediment is deposited, the addition of more layers causes compaction
Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock –As sediment is deposited, the addition of more layers causes compaction • (“trash compactor”)
Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock –As sediment is deposited, the addition of more layers causes compaction • (“trash compactor”) –Dissolved minerals such as silica recrystallize in pore spaces
Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock –As sediment is deposited, the addition of more layers causes compaction • (“trash compactor”) –Dissolved minerals such as silica recrystallize in pore spaces –Sediment grains are cemented together
Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital)
Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks
Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks • Chemical
Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks • Chemical – Dissolved mineral compounds that solidify again (precipitates/ evaporites)
Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks • Chemical – Dissolved mineral compounds that solidify again (precipitates/ evaporites) • Organic
Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks • Chemical – Dissolved mineral compounds that solidify again (precipitates/ evaporites) • Organic – Formed from the tissues of living things
Metamorphic Rocks Any kind of rock subjected to heat and/or pressure
Two types of metamorphism
Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism
Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles
Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles –Common in subduction zones
Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles –Common in subduction zones • Contact metamorphism
Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles –Common in subduction zones • Contact metamorphism –Localized
Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles –Common in subduction zones • Contact metamorphism –Localized –Heat and pressure of rising, intruding magmas “bakes” surrounding rocks
Contact Metamorphism
Parent Rock • Parent rock—Name given to the original rock before the addition of heat and/or pressure – what you start with will determine what you end up with quartzite gneiss
Parent Rock • Parent rock—Name given to the original rock before the addition of heat and/or pressure – what you start with will determine what you end up with quartzite gneiss
Foliation
Foliation • The arrangement of mineral crystals into parallel or nearly parallel bands
Foliation • The arrangement of mineral crystals into parallel or nearly parallel bands –The classification of metamorphic rocks is generally based on the amount of foliation in the rock
Metamorphic Rock Foliation

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GEOG 100--Lecture 11--The Lithosphere

  • 1. The Lithosphere Chapter 9
  • 2. Geologic Time • Human time is mere seconds when compared to the time frame over which geologic processes have been operating to develop landforms
  • 4. How do we date rocks? 4
  • 5. How do we date rocks? –Relative time 4
  • 6. How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion 4
  • 7. How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top 4
  • 8. How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time 4
  • 9. How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating 4
  • 10. How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating –Atoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into stable forms 4
  • 11. How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating –Atoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into stable forms –Each isotope has a specific decay rate 4
  • 12. How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating –Atoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into stable forms –Each isotope has a specific decay rate –Half-life--the length of time it takes one half the isotope to decay 4
  • 13. How do we date rocks? –Relative time • Superpostion –Oldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top –Absolute time • Radiometric dating –Atoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into stable forms –Each isotope has a specific decay rate –Half-life--the length of time it takes one half the isotope to decay –Measuring the ratio of unstable to stable material gives a date (1:1 means one half-life has passed) 4
  • 15. The oldest rocks  Earth first condensed and formed into a planet about 4.6 billion years ago. 5
  • 16. The oldest rocks  Earth first condensed and formed into a planet about 4.6 billion years ago.  Oldest rocks are from the Acasta Gneiss in northwestern Canada: 3.96 billion years old 5
  • 17. The oldest rocks  Earth first condensed and formed into a planet about 4.6 billion years ago.  Oldest rocks are from the Acasta Gneiss in northwestern Canada: 3.96 billion years old  Oldest grains of rock, from Western Australia: bet. 4.2 and 4.4 billion years old 5
  • 18. Uniformitarianism • Uniformitarianism –“The present is the key to the past.”
  • 19. Uniformitarianism • Uniformitarianism –“The present is the key to the past.” –In other words: The same physical processes active in the environment today have been operating throughout geologic time.
  • 21. Earth’s magnetic field • Circulations within Earth’s inner and outer cores may be the mechanism for the magnetic field, called the magnetosphere, that protects Earth from solar wind and cosmic radiation. 8
  • 22. Earth’s magnetic field • Circulations within Earth’s inner and outer cores may be the mechanism for the magnetic field, called the magnetosphere, that protects Earth from solar wind and cosmic radiation. • The magnetic north and south poles migrate 8
  • 23. Earth’s magnetic field • Circulations within Earth’s inner and outer cores may be the mechanism for the magnetic field, called the magnetosphere, that protects Earth from solar wind and cosmic radiation. • The magnetic north and south poles migrate • Geomagnetic reversal also happens in irregular intervals 8
  • 24. From the crust on down
  • 25. Which elements make up Earth’s crust? • Core –Fe, Ni, Si (and/or) O • Mantle –O, Si, Mg, Fe, Ca, Al • 99% of the crust is made up of 8 elements: –O, Si (make up 74.3%) –Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg These elements, and trace others, combine to make up Earth’s minerals and rocks... 10
  • 26. What is a Mineral?
  • 27. What is a Mineral? A mineral is…
  • 28. What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring,
  • 29. What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid
  • 30. What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite
  • 31. What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite (but generally not fixed)
  • 32. What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition
  • 33. What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition and a highly-ordered atomic arrangement.
  • 34. What is a Mineral? A mineral is… a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition and a highly-ordered atomic arrangement. It is usually formed through inorganic processes.
  • 36. Okay…quick quiz… Does ice fit the definition of a mineral?
  • 37. Okay…quick quiz… Does ice fit the definition of a mineral?
  • 38. Okay…quick quiz… Does ice fit the definition of a mineral?
  • 39. Okay…quick quiz… Does ice fit the definition of a mineral?
  • 46. ...homogeneous solid... • It can’t start out as one mineral and become another mineral halfway through (but it can change color and still be the same mineral)
  • 47. ...homogeneous solid... • It can’t start out as one mineral and become another mineral halfway through (but it can change color and still be the same mineral) Tourmaline (Elbaite variety): Na(Li1.5,Al1.5)Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)4
  • 48. ...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition...
  • 49. ...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition... • Quartz
  • 50. ...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition... • Quartz –SiO2 (silicon dioxide)
  • 51. ...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition... • Quartz –SiO2 (silicon dioxide) • Olivine
  • 52. ...definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition... • Quartz –SiO2 (silicon dioxide) • Olivine –(Mg, Fe)2SiO4
  • 53. ...highly-ordered atomic arrangement. • Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that are not all bonded together into a structure.
  • 54. ...highly-ordered atomic arrangement. • Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that are not all bonded together into a structure. • When frozen, CO2 IS bonded together... forming...what?
  • 55. ...highly-ordered atomic arrangement. • Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that are not all bonded together into a structure. • When frozen, CO2 IS bonded together... forming...what?
  • 56. ...highly-ordered atomic arrangement. • Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that are not all bonded together into a structure. • When frozen, CO2 IS bonded together... forming...what?
  • 57. The shape of the mineral crystal is the result of its internal atomic structure. rhombohedrons flat sheets muscovite mica chains cubes rhodochrosite asbestos (crocidolite) galena
  • 58. What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition?
  • 59. What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition? • It’s a mineraloid.
  • 60. What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition? • It’s a mineraloid. Some substances look like minerals--but they LIE.
  • 61. What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition? • It’s a mineraloid. Some substances look like minerals--but they LIE. • Glass is a mineraloid. It has an “amorphous” atomic structure.
  • 62. What if a substance doesn’t fit the whole definition? • It’s a mineraloid. Some substances look like minerals--but they LIE. • Glass is a mineraloid. It has an “amorphous” atomic structure. -O - Si
  • 64. As light passes through the glass panels, it is distorted by the ripples in the glass. Which panel is the new one?
  • 65. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule
  • 66. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things
  • 67. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters
  • 68. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters
  • 69. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite
  • 70. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth
  • 71. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite
  • 72. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean
  • 73. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean
  • 74. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean
  • 75. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean • Silicate minerals
  • 76. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean • Silicate minerals • Their skeletons are used as polishing agents...
  • 77. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to the “inorganic processes” rule Formed by living things – The pearl and shells of oysters • Aragonite – The main mineral found in human bones and teeth • Apatite – Diatoms and radiolarians in the ocean • Silicate minerals • Their skeletons are used as polishing agents... ...(in your toothpaste!)
  • 78. Is coal a mineral?
  • 79. Is coal a mineral?
  • 80. Is coal a mineral?
  • 81. Is coal a mineral?
  • 82. Is coal a mineral? No.
  • 83. Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals.
  • 84. Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition
  • 85. Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition –They have no ordered atomic arrangement
  • 86. Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition –They have no ordered atomic arrangement Petroleum, coal and peat are mineraloids
  • 87. Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition –They have no ordered atomic arrangement Petroleum, coal and peat are mineraloids But…They can form minerals under certain conditions
  • 88. Is coal a mineral? No. Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals. –They have no definite chemical composition –They have no ordered atomic arrangement Petroleum, coal and peat are mineraloids But…They can form minerals under certain conditions –If coal beds are heated to high temperatures and the carbon in them is crystallized, they can form the mineral, graphite
  • 90. Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from:
  • 91. Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from: –Magma
  • 92. Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from: –Magma –Steam (these minerals are called vaporites)
  • 93. Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from: –Magma –Steam (these minerals are called vaporites) –Mineral components left behind when water evaporates (these are called evaporites)
  • 94. Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Minerals can form from: –Magma –Steam (these minerals are called vaporites) –Mineral components left behind when water evaporates (these are called evaporites) –Mineral components dissolved in water that solidify again (these are called precipitates)
  • 95. From cooled magma • The mineral components come together in the melt and harden as molten rock material solidifies
  • 98. From steam: vaporites • Vaporite –Water near a magma source heats up, dissolves mineral components in surrounding rocks, and carries them away
  • 99. From steam: vaporites • Vaporite –Water near a magma source heats up, dissolves mineral components in surrounding rocks, and carries them away –The steam condenses at the surface. The mineral compounds also “condense” and solidify.
  • 100. From steam: vaporites • Vaporite –Water near a magma source heats up, dissolves mineral components in surrounding rocks, and carries them away –The steam condenses at the surface. The mineral compounds also “condense” and solidify.
  • 101. From steam: vaporites • Vaporite Harvesting sulfur crystals from a volcano in Indonesia –Water near a magma source heats up, dissolves mineral components in surrounding rocks, and carries them away –The steam condenses at the surface. The mineral compounds also “condense” and solidify. –Commonly found around volcanic vents, these sulfur crystals are forming around Kilauea Crater, Hawaii. Also found near oceanic volcanic vents (at spreading centers).
  • 102. From steam: vaporites Harvesting sulfur crystals from a volcano in Indonesia
  • 103. From evaporating water: evaporites
  • 104. From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite
  • 105. From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite –Water evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral compounds that were dissolved in the water
  • 106. From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite –Water evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral compounds that were dissolved in the water
  • 107. From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite –Water evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral compounds that were dissolved in the water –Hint: “Please pass the halite!”
  • 108. From evaporating water: evaporites • Evaporite –Water evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral compounds that were dissolved in the water –Hint: “Please pass the halite!” Salt crystals like these form in salt beds along the edge of Highway 84, just before the Dumbarton Bridge.
  • 110. Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Precipitate
  • 111. Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Precipitate –When in too high a concentration to remain dissolved in a liquid, the mineral components condense and may actually “rain” out of the solution
  • 112. Mineral Formation: Non-organic formation • Precipitate –When in too high a concentration to remain dissolved in a liquid, the mineral components condense and may actually “rain” out of the solution –Often occurs when warmer water, which can hold more dissolved solids, cools slightly
  • 113. From dissolved solids: precipitates Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium carbonate precipitating out of the water
  • 114. From dissolved solids: precipitates Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium carbonate precipitating out of the water
  • 115. From dissolved solids: precipitates Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium carbonate precipitating out of the water
  • 116. From dissolved solids: precipitates Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium carbonate precipitating out of the water
  • 117. From dissolved solids: precipitates Pyrite “sand dollars” form in sea water and collect on the ocean floor
  • 118. Experiment • Make a precipitate mineral at home...
  • 119. Experiment • Make a precipitate mineral at home...
  • 120. Experiment • Make a precipitate mineral at home...
  • 121. What is a Rock?
  • 122. What is a Rock? • A solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral materials –A few rock varieties are made up almost entirely of one mineral—this is called a pegmatite
  • 123. What is a Rock? • A solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral materials –A few rock varieties are made up almost entirely of one mineral—this is called a pegmatite • Example: massive accumulations of halite
  • 124. The Rock Cycle • Rocks have been continuously forming and reforming over millions and millions of years • The rock cycle is a closed flow system
  • 126. What drives the rock cycle?
  • 127. What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat
  • 128. What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation
  • 129. What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation • the power source for the flow system
  • 130. What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation • the power source for the flow system • The sun
  • 131. What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation • the power source for the flow system • The sun –Secondary power source
  • 132. What drives the rock cycle? • Earth’s internal heat –Radioactive decay from its initial formation • the power source for the flow system • The sun –Secondary power source –Drives weather systems that erode material
  • 134. Convection Currents • Slow-moving convection currents within the mantle transfer heat from the outer core to the upper mantle
  • 135. Convection Currents • Slow-moving convection currents within the mantle transfer heat from the outer core to the upper mantle
  • 136. Convection Currents • Slow-moving convection currents within the mantle transfer heat from the outer core to the upper mantle • The convergence and divergence of these currents near the surface is believed to be one of the driving forces behind the movement of Earth’s crustal plates
  • 137. The 3 Classes of Rock
  • 138. The 3 Classes of Rock • Classified based on the processes which form them
  • 139. The 3 Classes of Rock • Classified based on the processes which form them –Igneous rocks
  • 140. The 3 Classes of Rock • Classified based on the processes which form them –Igneous rocks –Sedimentary rocks
  • 141. The 3 Classes of Rock • Classified based on the processes which form them –Igneous rocks –Sedimentary rocks –Metamorphic rocks
  • 142. Igneous Rocks from cooling magmas • The kinds of rocks you end up with (and ultimately the kinds of structures built by the formation of those rocks) are determined by the chemistry of the magmas you start with
  • 144. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O)
  • 145. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
  • 146. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
  • 147. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
  • 148. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2)
  • 149. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow)
  • 150. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow) • High concentration of gases under high pressure
  • 151. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow) • High concentration of gases under high pressure • Gases can’t rise easily, so they stay trapped until near the surface
  • 152. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow) • High concentration of gases under high pressure • Gases can’t rise easily, so they stay trapped until near the surface • As pressure is released at the surface, these pressurized gases tend to explode
  • 153. Felsic Magmas • The “fel” is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), “si” is for silicates (made from Si and O) • Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals • Continental crust is predominantly felsic material • Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2) • Highly viscous (resistant to flow) • High concentration of gases under high pressure • Gases can’t rise easily, so they stay trapped until near the surface • As pressure is released at the surface, these pressurized gases tend to explode – (Example: Mount St. Helens)
  • 154. Mount Saint Helens • The explosion blew off 1,300 feet of the mountain's top and sent ash and debris more than 12 miles into the sky covering three states - Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Sixty two people were dead, beautiful forests and lakes were destroyed resulting in $3 billion worth of damage. • ‘[At about 10:00 a.m.] in the city of Yakima, Washington… a black cloud covered the city and "snowed" ash. [Not] a street light nor a neighbor's porch light could be seen. The ash was so heavy it sank swimming pool covers and caved in old roofs. Businesses and schools were closed down and all normal activity… ceased to exist.” From Disasters: Blowing Your Top http://www.boisestate.edu/history/ ncasner/hy210/volcano.htm
  • 155. Felsic Magmas Explosive Mount St. Helens (Pre-eruption)
  • 156. Felsic Magmas Explosive Mount St. Helens (May 18, 1980)
  • 157. Felsic Magmas Explosive Mount St. Helens Mt. St. Helens Today
  • 159. Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca)
  • 160. Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density
  • 161. Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic
  • 162. Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic • Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances)
  • 163. Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic • Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances) • Very little gas content, relatively little SiO2
  • 164. Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic • Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances) • Very little gas content, relatively little SiO2 • Hotter magmas, so gasses stay dissolved
  • 165. Mafic Minerals and Rocks • The “ma” is for magnesium, the “f” for iron (Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca) • Darker in color, higher in density • Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic • Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances) • Very little gas content, relatively little SiO2 • Hotter magmas, so gasses stay dissolved • Rarely explosive – (Example: Hawaiian volcanoes)
  • 166. Mafic Magmas Hawaii 2002-10-11 view northwest across coastal plain of Kilauea from West Highcastle lava delta to Pu`u `O`o in upper right skyline
  • 167. Intrusive vs. Extrusive Igneous Rocks
  • 168. Intrusive vs. Extrusive Igneous Rocks • Intrusive igneous rocks—magma cools beneath the crust; crystals have more time to form; harder, more erosion-resistant rocks
  • 169. Intrusive vs. Extrusive Igneous Rocks • Intrusive igneous rocks—magma cools beneath the crust; crystals have more time to form; harder, more erosion-resistant rocks • Extrusive igneous rocks—magma cools on the surface (lava); crystals don’t have time to form good crystal faces, if it cools fast enough, no crystals will form (obsidian--“volcanic glass”)
  • 170. Extrusive Igneous Rocks Basalt and Obsidian
  • 172. Intrusive Igneous Rock Granite …vs. extrusive rhyolite
  • 173. Sedimentary Rocks From hardened sediment
  • 175. Sedimentary Rocks • The result of erosion, transportation, deposition, and lithification
  • 176. Sedimentary Rocks • The result of erosion, transportation, deposition, and lithification
  • 177. Sedimentary Rocks • The result of erosion, transportation, deposition, and lithification • Sediment—Weathered rock fragments that have been transported and deposited, usually by water (or by air or by glacial ice movements)
  • 179. Erosion Mechanical or Chemical • Mechanical weathering—The physical force of a particular process acting on rocks, such as hydraulic action pounding rocks in a riverbed
  • 180. Erosion Mechanical or Chemical • Mechanical weathering—The physical force of a particular process acting on rocks, such as hydraulic action pounding rocks in a riverbed - OR -
  • 181. Erosion Mechanical or Chemical • Mechanical weathering—The physical force of a particular process acting on rocks, such as hydraulic action pounding rocks in a riverbed - OR - • Chemical weathering—Chemical reactions, usually in the presence of water, which operate to change the structure of the minerals, and break them apart – (Example: iron in the presence of water and oxygen, incorporating those elements into its structure, expanding as it becomes rust, breaking rock apart)
  • 182. Transportation • Distance of transport and speed of the fluid medium determine size, roundness and sorting of transported material
  • 183. Transportation • Distance of transport and speed of the fluid medium determine size, roundness and sorting of transported material
  • 185. Deposition • Deposition generally occurs in flat layers called strata (or “beds”) • Principle of Original Horizontality states that material is originally deposited in horizontal layers and later is shifted as it is affected by crustal movements
  • 186. Deposition • Deposition generally occurs in flat layers called strata (or “beds”) • Principle of Original Horizontality states that material is originally deposited in horizontal layers and later is shifted as it is affected by crustal movements
  • 187. Deposition • Deposition generally occurs in flat layers called strata (or “beds”) • Principle of Original Horizontality states that material is originally deposited in horizontal layers and later is shifted as it is affected by crustal movements
  • 192. Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock
  • 193. Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock –As sediment is deposited, the addition of more layers causes compaction
  • 194. Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock –As sediment is deposited, the addition of more layers causes compaction • (“trash compactor”)
  • 195. Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock –As sediment is deposited, the addition of more layers causes compaction • (“trash compactor”) –Dissolved minerals such as silica recrystallize in pore spaces
  • 196. Lithification Compaction and cementation • Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock –As sediment is deposited, the addition of more layers causes compaction • (“trash compactor”) –Dissolved minerals such as silica recrystallize in pore spaces –Sediment grains are cemented together
  • 197. Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks
  • 198. Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital)
  • 199. Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks
  • 200. Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks • Chemical
  • 201. Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks • Chemical – Dissolved mineral compounds that solidify again (precipitates/ evaporites)
  • 202. Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks • Chemical – Dissolved mineral compounds that solidify again (precipitates/ evaporites) • Organic
  • 203. Three Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks • Clastic (or detrital) – Formed from pieces of other rocks • Chemical – Dissolved mineral compounds that solidify again (precipitates/ evaporites) • Organic – Formed from the tissues of living things
  • 204. Metamorphic Rocks Any kind of rock subjected to heat and/or pressure
  • 205. Two types of metamorphism
  • 206. Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism
  • 207. Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles
  • 208. Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles –Common in subduction zones
  • 209. Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles –Common in subduction zones • Contact metamorphism
  • 210. Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles –Common in subduction zones • Contact metamorphism –Localized
  • 211. Two types of metamorphism • Regional metamorphism –Occurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles –Common in subduction zones • Contact metamorphism –Localized –Heat and pressure of rising, intruding magmas “bakes” surrounding rocks
  • 213. Parent Rock • Parent rock—Name given to the original rock before the addition of heat and/or pressure – what you start with will determine what you end up with quartzite gneiss
  • 214. Parent Rock • Parent rock—Name given to the original rock before the addition of heat and/or pressure – what you start with will determine what you end up with quartzite gneiss
  • 216. Foliation • The arrangement of mineral crystals into parallel or nearly parallel bands
  • 217. Foliation • The arrangement of mineral crystals into parallel or nearly parallel bands –The classification of metamorphic rocks is generally based on the amount of foliation in the rock

Editor's Notes