Geography Fundamentals" Class - 12" NCERT

FOREWORD iii
UNIT I 1-7
1. Human Geography
Nature and Scope 1
UNIT II 8-30
2. The World Population
Distribution, Density and Growth 8
3. Population Composition 17
4. Human Development 22
UNIT III 31-90
5. Primary Activities 31
6. Secondary Activities 45
7. Tertiary and Quaternary Activities 55
8. Transport and Communication 65
9. International Trade 81
UNIT IV 91-102
10. Human Settlements 90
APPENDIX I 103
APPENDIX II 107
GLOSSARY 110
Contents
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Unit-IUnit-IUnit-IUnit-IUnit-I
Chapter-1
Human Geography
Nature and Scope
You have already studied ‘Geography as a
Discipline’ in Chapter I of the book,
Fundamentals of Physical Geography (NCERT,
2006). Do you recall the contents? This chapter
has broadly covered and introduced you to the
nature of geography. You are also acquainted
with the important branches that sprout from
the body of geography. If you re-read the
chapter you will be able to recall the link of
human geography with the mother discipline
i.e. geography. As you know geography as a
field of study is integrative, empirical, and
practical. Thus, the reach of geography is
extensive and each and every event or
phenomenon which varies over space and time
can be studied geographically. How do you see
the earth’s surface? Do you realise that the earth
comprises two major components: nature
(physical environment) and life forms including
human beings? Make a list of physical and
human components of your surroundings.
Physical geography studies physical
environment and human geography studies
“the relationship between the physical/natural
and the human worlds, the spatial distributions
of human phenomena and how they come
about, the social and economic differences
between different parts of the world”.1
You are already aware of the fact that the
core concern of geography as a discipline is to
understand the earth as home of human beings
and to study all those elements which have
sustained them. Thus, emphasis is on study of
nature and human beings. You will realise that
geography got subjected to dualism and the
wide-ranging debates started whether
geography as a discipline should be a law
making/theorising (nomothetic) or
descriptive (idiographic). Whether its subject
matter should be organised and approach of
the study should be regional or systematic?
Whether geographical phenomena be
interpreted theoretically or through historic-
institutional approach? These have been issues
for intellectual exercise but finally you will
appreciate that the dichotomy between physical
and human is not a very valid one because
nature and human are inseparable elements
and should be seen holistically. It is interesting
to note that both physical and human
1
Agnew J. Livingstone, David N. and Rogers, A.; (1996) Blackwell
Publishing Limited, Malden, U.S.A. p. 1 and 2.

2 Fundamentals of Human Geography
phenomena are described in metaphors using
symbols from the human anatomy.
We often talk of the ‘face’ of the earth, ‘eye’
of the storm, ‘mouth’ of the river, ‘snout’ (nose)
of the glacier, ‘neck’ of the isthmus and ‘profile’
of the soil. Similarly regions, villages, towns
have been described as ‘organisms’. German
geographers describe the ‘state/country’ as a
‘living organism’. Networks of road, railways
and water ways have often been described as
“arteries of circulation”. Can you collect such
terms and expressions from your own
language? The basic questions now arises, can
we separate nature and human when they are
so intricately intertwined?
Human Geography DefinedHuman Geography DefinedHuman Geography DefinedHuman Geography DefinedHuman Geography Defined
• “Human geography is the synthetic study
of relationship between human societies and
earth’s surface”. Ratzel
Synthesis has been emphasised in the
above definition.
• “Human geography is the study of “the
changing relationship between the unresting
man and the unstable earth.”
Ellen C. Semple
Dynamism in the relationship is the keyword
in Semple’s definition.
• “Conception resulting from a more
synthetic knowledge of thephysical laws
governing our earth and of the relations
between the living beings which inhabit it”.
Paul Vidal de la Blache
Human geography offers a new conception
of the interrelationships between earth and
human beings.
NATURE OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
Human geography studies the inter-relationship
between the physical environment and socio-
cultural environment created by human beings
through mutual interaction with each other. You
have already studied the elements of physical
environment in class XI in the book entitled
Fundamentals of Physical Geography (NCERT
2006). You know that these elements are
landforms,soils,climate,water,naturalvegetation
and diverse flora and fauna. Can you make a list
of elements which human beings have created
through their activities on the stage provided by
the physical environment? Houses, villages, cities,
road-rail networks, industries, farms, ports, items
of our daily use and all other elements of material
culture have been created by human beings
using the resources provided by the physical
environment. While physical environment has
been greatly modified by human beings, it has
also, in turn, impacted human lives.
Naturalisation of Humans and
Humanisation of Nature
Human beings interact with their physical
environment with the help of technology. It is
not important what human beings produce and
create but it is extremely important ‘with the
help of what tools and techniques do they
produce and create’.
Technology indicates the level of cultural
development of society. Human beings were
able to develop technology after they developed
better understanding of natural laws. For
example, the understanding of concepts of
friction and heat helped us discover fire.
Similarly, understanding of the secrets of DNA
and genetics enabled us to conquer many
diseases. We use the laws of aerodynamics to
develop faster planes. You can see that
knowledge about Nature is extremely important
to develop technology and technology loosens
the shackles of environment on human beings.
In the early stages of their interaction with their
natural environment humans were greatly
influenced by it. They adapted to the dictates
of Nature. This is so because the level of
technology was very low and the stage of
human social development was also primitive.
This type of interaction between primitive
human society and strong forces of nature was
termed as environmental determinism. At
that stage of very low technological development
we can imagine the presence of a naturalised
human, who listened to Nature, was afraid of
its fury and worshipped it.

Human Geography: Nature and Scope 3
The Naturalisation of HumansThe Naturalisation of HumansThe Naturalisation of HumansThe Naturalisation of HumansThe Naturalisation of Humans
Benda lives in the wilds of the Abujh Maad
area of central India. His village consists of
three huts deep in the wilds. Not even birds
or stray dogs that usually crowd villages can
be seen in these areas. Wearing a small
loin cloth and armed with his axe he slowly
surveys the penda (forest) where his tribe
practices a primitive form of agriculture called
shifting cultivation. Benda and his friends
burn small patches of forest to clear them
for cultivation. The ash is used for making
the soil fertile. Benda is happy that the
Mahua trees around him are in bloom. How
lucky I am to be a part of this beautiful
universe, he thinks as he looks up to see
the Mahua, Palash and Sal trees that have
sheltered him since childhood. Crossing the
penda in a gliding motion, Benda makes
his way to a stream. As he bends down to
scoop up a palmful of water, he remembers
to thank Loi-Lugi, the spirit of the forest for
allowing him to quench his thirst. Moving
on with his friends, Benda chews on
succulent leaves and roots. The boys have
been trying to collect Gajjhara and Kuchla,
from the forest. These are special plants
that Benda and his people use. He hopes
the spirits of the forest will be kind and lead
him to these herbs. These are needed to
barter in the madhai or tribal fair coming up
the next full moon. He closes his eyes and
tries hard to recall what the elders had taught
him about these herbs and the places they
are found in. He wishes he had listened more
carefully. Suddenly there is a rustling of
leaves. Benda and his friends know it is the
outsiders who have come searching for them
in the wilds. In a single fluid motion Benda
and his friends disappear behind the thick
canopy of trees and become one with the
spirit of the forest.
The story in the box represents the direct
relationship of a household belonging to an
economically primitive society with nature. Read
about other primitive societies which live in
complete harmony with their natural
environment. You will realise that in all such cases
nature is a powerful force, worshipped, revered
and conserved. There is direct dependence of
human beings on nature for resources which
sustain them. The physical environment for such
societies becomes the “Mother Nature”.
The people begin to understand their
environment and the forces of nature with the
passage of time. With social and cultural
development, humans develop better and more
efficient technology. They move from a state of
necessity to a state of freedom. They create
possibilities with the resources obtained from
the environment. The human activities create
cultural landscape. The imprints of human
activities are created everywhere; health resorts
on highlands, huge urban sprawls, fields,
orchards and pastures in plains and rolling
hills, ports on the coasts, oceanic routes on the
oceanic surface and satellites in the space. The
earlier scholars termed this as possibilism.
Nature provides opportunities and human
being make use of these and slowly nature gets
humanised and starts bearing the imprints of
human endeavour.
Humanisation of Nature
WintersinthetownofTrondheimmeanfierce
winds and heavy snow. The skies are dark
for months. Kari drives to work in the dark at
8 am. She has special tyres for the winter
and keeps the headlights of her powerful car
switched on. Her office is artificially heated
at a comfortable 23 degrees Celsius. The
campus of the university she works in is built
under a huge glass dome. This dome keeps
thesnowoutinwinterandletsinthesunshine
in the summer.The temperature is controlled
carefully and there is adequate lighting. Even
thoughfreshvegetablesandplantsdon’tgrow
in such harsh weather, Kari keeps an orchid
on her desk and enjoys eating tropical fruits
like banana and kiwi. These are flown in from
warmer areas regularly. With a click of the
mouse, Kari can network with colleagues in
New Delhi. She frequently takes a morning
flight to London and returns in the evening in
time to watch her favourite television serial.
Though Kari is fifty-eight years old, she is
fitter and looks younger than many thirty-
year- olds in other parts of the world.

Can you imagine what has made such a
life style possible? It is technology that has
allowed the people of Trondheim and others to
overcome the constraints imposed by nature. Do
you know about some other such instances?
Such examples are not difficult to find.
A geographer, Griffith Taylor introduced
another concept which reflects a middle path
(Madhyam Marg) between the two ideas of
environmental determinism and possibilism.
He termed it as Neodeterminism or stop and
go determinism. Those of you who live in cities
and those who have visited a city, might have
seen that traffic is regulated by lights on the
cross-roads. Red light means ‘stop’, amber light
provides a gap between red and green lights ‘to
get set’ and green light means ‘go’. The concept
shows that neither is there a situation of
absolute necessity (environmental determinism)
nor is there a condition of absolute freedom
(possibilism). It means that human beings can
conquer nature by obeying it. They have to
respond to the red signals and can proceed in
their pursuits of development when nature
permits the modifications. It means that
possibilities can be created within the limits
which do not damage the environment and there
is no free run without accidents. The free run
which the developed economies attempted to
take has already resulted in the green house
effect, ozone layer depletion, global warming,
receding glaciers and degrading lands. The
neo-determinism conceptually attempts to
bring a balance nullifying the ‘either’ ‘or’
dichotomy.
Human Geography through
the Corridors of Time
The process of adaptation, adjustment with and
modification of the environment started with the
appearance of human beings over the surface
of the earth in different ecological niches. Thus,
if we imagine the beginning of human
geography with the interaction of environment
and human beings, it has its roots deep in
history. Thus, the concerns of human
geography have a long temporal continuum
though the approaches to articulate them have
changed over time. This dynamism in
approaches and thrusts shows the vibrant
nature of the discipline. Earlier there was little
interaction between different societies and the
knowledge about each other was limited.
Travellers and explorers used to disseminate
information about the areas of their visits.
Navigational skills were not developed and
voyages were fraught with dangers. The late
fifteenth century witnessed attempts of
explorations in Europe and slowly the myths
and mysteries about countries and people
started to open up. The colonial period provided
impetus to further explorations in order to
access the resources of the regions and to obtain
inventorised information. The intention here is
not to present an in-depth historical account
but to make you aware of the processes of steady
development of human geography. The
summarised Table 1.1 will introduce you to the
broad stages and the thrust of human
geography as a sub-field of geography.
• Welfare or humanistic school of thought
in human geography was mainly concerned
with the different aspects of social well-being
of the people. These included aspects such
as housing, health and education.
Geographers have already introduced a
paper as Geography of Social well-being in
the Post Graduate curriculum’.
• Radical school of thought employed
Marxian theory to explain the basic cause
of poverty, deprivation and social inequality.
Contemporary social problems were related
to the development of capitalism.
• Behavioural school of thought laid great
emphasis on lived experience and also on
the perception of space by social categories
based on ethnicity, race and religion, etc.
Fields and Sub-fields of Human Geography
Human geography, as you have seen, attempts
to explain the relationship between all elements
of human life and the space they occur over.
Thus, human geography assumes a highly
inter-disciplinary nature. It develops close

Table 1.1: Broad Stages and Thrust of Human Geography
interface with other sister disciplines in social
sciences in order to understand and explain
human elements on the surface of the earth.
With the expansion of knowledge, new sub-
fields emerge and it has also happened to
human geography. Let us examine these fields
and sub-fields of Human Geography (Table 1.2).
You would have noticed that the list is
large and comprehensive. It reflects the
expanding realm of human geography. The
boundaries between sub-fields often overlap.
What follows in this book in the form of
chapters will provide you a fairly widespread
coverage of different aspects of human
geography. The exercises, the activities and the
case studies will provide you with some
empirical instances so as to have a batter
understanding of its subject matter.
Broad Features
Imperial and trade interests prompted the discovery and
exploration of new areas. An encyclopaedic description of
the area formed an important aspect of the geographer’s
account.
Elaborate description of all aspects of a region were
undertaken. The idea was that all the regions were part of
a whole, ie (the earth); so, understanding the parts in
totality would lead to an understanding of the whole.
The focus was on identifying the uniqueness of any region
and understanding how and why it was different from
others.
Marked by the use of computers and sophisticated
statistical tools. Laws of physics were often applied to
map and analyse human phenomena. This phase was
called the quantitative revolution. The main objective was
to identify mappable patterns for different human
activities.
Discontentment with the quantitative revolution and its
dehumanised manner of doing geography led to the
emergence of three new schools of thought of human
geography in the 1970s. Human geography was made more
relevant to the socio-political reality by the emergence of
these schools of thought. Consult the box below to know
a little bit more about these schools of thought.
The grand generalisations and the applicability of universal
theories to explain the human conditions were questioned.
The importance of understanding each local context in
its own right was emphasised.
Approaches
Exploration and
description
Regional analysis
Areal differentiation
Spatial organisation
Emergence of
humanistic, radical
and behavioural
schools
Post-modernism in
geography
Period
Colonial period
Colonial period
1930s through the
inter-War period
Late 1950s to the
late 1960s
1970s
1990s

Table 1.2: Human Geography and Sister Disciplines of Social Sciences
EXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following statements does not describe geography?
(a) an integrative discipline
(b) study of the inter-relationship between humans and environment
Fields of Sub-fields Interface with Sister
Human Disciplines of Social Sciences
Geography
Social — Social Sciences – Sociology
Geography Behavioural Geography Psychology
Geography of Social Welfare Economics
Well-being
Geography of Leisure Sociology
Cultural Geography Anthropology
Gender Geography Sociology, Anthropology, Women’s Studies
Historical Geography History
Medical Geography Epidemology
Urban — Urban Studies and Planning
Geography
Political — Political Science
Geography Electoral Geography Psephology
Military Geography Military Science
Population — Demography
Geography
Settlement — Urban/Rural Planning
Geography
Economic — Economics
Geography Geography of Resources Resource Economics
Geography of Agriculture Agricultural Sciences
Geography of Industries Industrial Economics
Geography of Marketing Business Studies, Economics, Commerce
Geography of Tourism Tourism and Travel Management
Geography of International International Trade
Trade

(c) subjected to dualism
(d) not relevant in the present time due to the development of technology.
(ii) Which one of the following is not a source of geographical information?
(a) traveller’s accounts
(b) old maps
(c) samples of rock materials from the moon
(d) ancient epics
(iii) Which one of the following is the most important factor in the interaction
between people and environment?
(a) human intelligence (c) technology
(b) people’s perception (d) human brotherhood
(iv) Which one of the following is not an approach in human geography?
(a) Areal differentiation (c) Quantitative revolution
(b) Spatial organisation (d) Exploration and description
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Define human geography.
(ii) Name some sub-fields of human geography.
(iii) How is human geography related to other social sciences?
3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.
(i) Explain naturalisation of humans.
(ii) Write a note on the scope of human geography.

Unit-IIUnit-IIUnit-IIUnit-IIUnit-II
Chapter-2
The World Population
Distribution, Density and
Growth
The people of a country are its real wealth. It
is they who make use of the country’s resources
and decide its policies. Ultimately a country is
known by its people.
It is important to know how many women
and men a country has, how many children are
born each year, how many people die and how?
Whether they live in cities or villages, can they
read or write and what work do they do? These
are what you will study about in this unit.
The world at the beginning of 21st
century
recorded the presence of over 6 billion
population. We shall discuss the patterns of
their distribution and density here.
Why do people prefer to live in certain
regions and not in others?
The population of the world is unevenly
distributed. The remark of George B. Cressey
about the population of Asia that “Asia has many
places where people are few and few place where
people are very many” is true about the pattern
of population distribution of the world also.
PATTERNS OF POPULATION
DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD
Patterns of population distribution and density
help us to understand the demographic
characteristics of any area. The term population
distribution refers to the way people are spaced
over the earth’s surface. Broadly, 90 per cent of
the world population lives in about 10 per cent
of its land area.
The 10 most populous countries of the
world contribute about 60 per cent of the world’s
population. Of these 10 countries, 6 are located
in Asia. Identify these six countries of Asia.
102.7
28.14
21.21
17.01
15.65
14.69
12.92
12.69
11.15
127.76
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
China
India
USAIndonesia
Brazil
Pakistan
CIS
Bangladesh
Japan
Nigeria
Population(incrore)
Fig. 2.1: Most Populous Countries
Not gold but only (Wo)men can make
a people great and strong.
(Wo)men who for truth and
honour’s sake, stand fast and suffer
long (Wo)men who toil while others
sleep – who dare while others flee –
they build a nation’s pillars deep and
lift it to the sky.
Ralph Waldo Emerson

DENSITY OF POPULATION
Each unit of land has limited capacity to
support people living on it. Hence, it is
necessary to understand the ratio between the
numbers of people to the size of land. This ratio
is the density of population. It is usually
measured in persons per sq km
Population
Density of Population =
Area
For example, area of Region X is 100 sq
km and the population is 1,50,000 persons.
The density of population is calculated as:
1,50,000
Density
100
=
= 1,500 person/sq km
What does this tell you about Region X?
Look at the map given below:
Do you observe that some areas are really
crowded? These are the densely populated
parts of the world with more than 200 persons
on every sq km. These are the North -Eastern
part of U.S.A., North-Western part of Europe,
South, South-East and East Asia.
Other areas like those near the North and
South Poles, the hot and the cold deserts and
high rainfall zones near the Equator have very
low density of population. These are the
sparsely populated regions of the world with
less than 01 person per sq km.
In between these two types are the areas
of medium density. There are 11 to 50 persons
per sq km in these areas. Western China,
Southern India in Asia, Norway, Sweden in
Europe are some examples. Look at the Fig. 2.2
and identify some other areas.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
I. Geographical Factors
(i) Availability of water: It is the most
important factor for life. So, people prefer
Fig. 2.2: World Density of Population, 2001
The World Population: Distribution, Density and Growth 9

Fundamentals of Human Geography10
to live in areas where fresh water is easily
available. Water is used for drinking,
bathing and cooking – and also for cattle,
crops, industries and navigation. It is
because of this that river valleys are among
the most densely populated areas of the
world.
(ii) Landforms: People prefer living on flat
plains and gentle slopes. This is because
such areas are favourable for the
production of crops and to build roads and
industries. The mountainous and hilly
areas hinder the development of transport
network and hence initially do not favour
agricultural and industrial development.
So, these areas tend to be less populated.
The Ganga plains are among the most
densely populated areas of the world while
the mountains zones in the Himalayas are
scarcely populated.
(iii) Climate: An extreme climate such as very
hot or cold deserts are uncomfortable for
human habitation. Areas with a
comfortable climate, where there is not
much seasonal variation attract more
people. Areas with very heavy rainfall or
extreme and harsh climates have low
population. Mediterranean regions were
inhabited from early periods in history due
to their pleasant climate.
(iv) Soils: Fertile soils are important for
agricultural and allied activities. Therefore,
areas which have fertile loamy soils have
more people living on them as these can
support intensive agriculture. Can you
name some areas in India which are thinly
populated due to poor soils?
II. Economic Factors
(i) Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits
attract industries. Mining and industrial
activities generate employment. So, skilled
and semi–skilled workers move to these
areas and make them densely populated.
Katanga Zambia copper belt in Africa is
one such good example.
(ii) Urbanisation: Cities offer better
employment opportunities, educational
and medical facilities, better means of
transport and communication. Good civic
amenities and the attraction of city life draw
people to the cities. It leads to rural to
urban migration and cities grow in size.
Mega cities of the world continue to attract
large number of migrants every year.
Yet city life can be very taxing…. think
of some of the unpleasant aspects of city
life.
(iii) Industrialisation: Industrial belts provide
job opportunities and attract large
numbers of people. These include not just
factory workers but also transport
operators, shopkeepers, bank employees,
doctors, teachers and other service
providers. The Kobe-Osaka region of
Japan is thickly populated because of the
presence of a number of industries.
III. Social and Cultural Factors
Some places attract more people because they
have religious or cultural significance. In the
same way – people tend to move away from
places where there is social and political
unrest. Many a times governments offer
incentives to people to live in sparsely
populated areas or move away from
overcrowded places. Can you think of some
examples from your region?
POPULATION GROWTH
The population growth or population change
refers to the change in number of inhabitants of
a territory during a specific period of time. This
change may be positive as well as negative. It
can be expressed either in terms of absolute
numbers or in terms of percentage. Population
change in an area is an important indicator of
economic development, social upliftment and
historical and cultural background of the region.
Some Basic Concepts of
Population Geography
Growth of Population : Change of
population in particular area between two
points of time is known as growth of

population. For example, if we deduct the
population of India 1991 (84.63 crore) from
population of 2001 (102.70 crore) then we
shall get the growth of population (18.07
crores) in actual numbers.
Growth Rate of Population : This is the
change of population expressed in
percentage.
Natural Growth of Population: This is the
population increased by difference between
births and deaths in a particular region
between two points of time.
Natural Growth = Births – Deaths
Actual Growth of Population : This is
Births – Deaths + In Migration – Out
Migration
Positive Growth of Population: This
happens when the birth rate is more than
the death rate between two points of time
or when people from other countries migrate
permanently to a region.
Negative Growth of Population: If the
population decreases between two points
of time it is known as negative growth of
population. It occurs when the birth rate falls
below the death rate or people migrate to
other countries.
Components of Population Change
There are three components of population
change – births, deaths and migration.
The crude birth rate (CBR) is expressed as
number of live births in a year per thousand of
women. It is calculated as:
Bi
CBR 1000
P
= ¥
Here, CBR = Crude Birth Rate; Bi = live
births during the year; P=Mid year population
of the area.
Death rate plays an active role in
population change. Population growth occurs
not only by increasing births rate but also due
to decreasing death rate. Crude Death Rate
(CDR) is a simple method of measuring
mortality of any area. CDR is expressed in terms
of number of deaths in a particular year per
thousand of population in a particular region.
CDR is calculated as:
D
CDR 1000
P
= ¥
Here, CDR=Crude Death Rate; D= Number
of deaths; P=Estimated mid-year population of
that year.
By and large mortality rates are affected
by the region’s demographic structure, social
advancement and levels of its economic
development.
Migration
Apart from birth and death there is another way
by which the population size changes.
When people move from one place to
another, the place they move from is called the
Place of Origin and the place they move to is
called the Place of Destination. The place of
origin shows a decrease in population while the
population increases in the place of destination.
Migration may be interpreted as a spontaneous
effort to achieve a better balance between
population and resources.
Migration may be permanent, temporary
or seasonal. It may take place from rural to
rural areas, rural to urban areas, urban to
urban areas and urban to rural areas.
Do you realise that the same person is both
an immigrant and an emigrant?
Immigration: Migrants who move into a new
place are called Immigrants.
Emigration: Migrants who move out of a
place are called Emigrants.
Can you think of reasons why people
migrate?
People migrate for a better economic and
social life. There are two sets of factors that
influence migration.
The Push factors make the place of origin
seem less attractive for reasons like
unemployment, poor living conditions, political
turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters,
epidemics and socio-economic backwardness.
The Pull factors make the place of
destination seem more attractive than the place

Technological revolutions
1650 to present
Information and computers
Biotechnology
Sanitation and Medical
Transportation
Industrial
Development and
spread of agriculture
(0.25 billion)
(0.5 billion)
12000 years
before
present
Birth of
Christ
1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Present
Time
World
population
in billions
Number of years for world
population to increase
by 1 billion
6 billion
5 billion
4 billion
3 billion
2 billion
1999
1987
1975
1960
1930
(12 years)
(12 years)
(15 years)
(30 years)
1 billion 1830
(100 years)
Age of European exploration,
colonisation and settlement
Fig. 2.3: Resource, Technology and Population Growth
of origin for reasons like better job opportunities
and living conditions, peace and stability,
security of life and property and pleasant climate.
TRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTH
The population on the earth is more than six
billion. It has grown to this size over centuries.
In the early periods population of the world
grew very slowly. It is only during the last few
hundred years that population has increased
at an alarming rate.
Fig. 2.3 tells the story of population
growth. After the evolution and introduction
of agriculture about 8,000 to 12,000 years
ago, the size of population was small – roughly
8 million. In the first century A.D. it was below
Observethenewsitemsandthinkofsomereasonswhycertaincountriesbecomeattractivedestinationsformigrants.
Migration to cities are traditionally age and sex selective i.e. more men of working age groups move to cities.
Can you think of some reason why 22 per cent of migrants to Mumbai are kids?

300 million. The expanding world trade during
the sixteenth and seventeenth century, set the
stage for rapid population growth. Around
1750, at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution,
the world population was 550 million. World
population exploded in the eighteenth century
after the Industrial Revolution. Technological
advancement achieved so far helped in the
reduction of birth rate and provided a stage for
accelerated population growth.
How Science and TechnologyHow Science and TechnologyHow Science and TechnologyHow Science and TechnologyHow Science and Technology
helped Population Growth?helped Population Growth?helped Population Growth?helped Population Growth?helped Population Growth?
The steam engine replaced human and
animal energy and also provided
mechanised energy of water and wind. This
increased agricultural and industrial
production.
Inoculation against epidemics and other
communicable diseases, improvement in
medical facilities and sanitation contributed
to a rapid decline in death rates throughout
the world.
Human population increased more than ten times in
the past 500 hundred years.
In the twentieth century itself the population has
increased four times.
Nearly 80 million people are added each year.
DOUBLING TIME OF WORLD POPULATION
It took more than a million years for the human
population to attain the one billion mark. But
Table 2.1: Doubling Time of World Population
Period Population Time in which
Population Doubles
10,000 B.C. 5 million
1650 A.D. 500 million 1,500 years
1850 A.D. 1,000 million 200 years
2012 A.D. 8,000 million projected figure 37 years
it took only 12 years for it to rise from 5 billion
to 6 billion. See the Table 2.1 carefully which
shows that doubling time of world population
is reducing fast.
There is a great variation among regions
in doubling their population. Table 2.2 shows
that developed countries are taking more time
to double their population as compared to
developing countries. Most of the population
growth is taking place in the developing world,
where population is exploding. Why is this so?
Table 2.2: Population Growth Rates (%) 1995-2000
High Low
Liberia 8.2 Latvia –1.5
Somalia 4.2 Estonia –1.2
Yemen 3.7 Russia, Ukraine –0.6
Saudi Arabia 3.4 Albania, Bulgaria
Oman 3.3 Croatia
Slovania, Czech Republic
Germany, Portugal –0.1
Spain, Italy
Denmark 0
SPATIALPATTERNOFPOPULATIONCHANGE
Population growth in different parts of the world
can be compared. The growth of population is
low in developed countries as compared to
developing countries. There is negative
correlation between economic development and
population growth.
Although the annual rate of population
change (1.4 per cent) seems to be low (Table
2.3), it is actually not so. This is because:
• When a small annual rate is applied to a
very large population, it will lead to a large
population change.

• Even if the growth rate continues to decline,
the total population grows each year. The
infant mortality rate may have increased
as has the death rate during childbirth.
Table 2.3: Growth of Population 2004-05 over 1990-95
Growth Rate
Region 1990-95 2004-05
(Estimated)
World 1.6 1.4
Africa 2.4 2.6
Europe 0.2 0.0
North & Central America 1.4 1.1
South America 1.7 1.4
Asia 1.6 1.4
Oceania 1.5 1.3
(Australia, New Zealand and Fiji)
IMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGE
A small increase in population is desirable in a
growing economy. However, population growth
beyond a certain level leads to problems. Of
Figure 2.4: Population Doubling Time
these the depletion of resources is the most
serious. Population decline is also a matter of
concern. It indicates that resources that had
supported a population earlier are now
insufficient to maintain the population.
ThedeadlyHIV/AIDSepidemicsinAfricaand
some parts of the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS) and Asia have pushed up death rates
and reduced average life expectancy. This has
slowed down population growth.
The Doubling Story... It will
take 36 years
The annual population growth rate in India
is 1.9 per cent.At this rate India’s population
of over 1 billion will double in 36 years.
Some developed countries will take 318
years to double their population whereas
some countries still do not show symptoms
of doubling their population.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
Demographic transition theory can be used to
describe and predict the future population of
any area. The theory tells us that population of
any region changes from high births and high
deaths to low births and low deaths as society
progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to
urban industrial and literate society. These
changes occur in stages which are collectively
known as the demographic cycle.
Rural,
Agrarian
Urban,
Industrial
Demographic
Transition
The Fig. 2.5 explains the three-staged
model of Demographic Transition Theory:
35
15
High Fluctuating
Stage
I
Stage
II
Stage
III
CBR/CDR
Natural
Increase in
Population
BR
DR
Bangladesh
Rainforest
tribes
Peru Sri Lanka
Kenya
Canada
Japan
USA
Time
Present
World
examples
Low Fluctuating
Expanding
Fig. 2.5: Demographic Transition Theory
The first stage has high fertility and high
mortality because people reproduce more to
compensate for the deaths due to epidemics
and variable food supply. The population
growth is slow and most of the people are
engaged in agriculture where large families are
an asset. Life expectancy is low, people are
mostly illiterate and have low levels of
technology. Two hundred years ago all the
countries of the world were in this stage.
Fertility remains high in the beginning of
second stage but it declines with time. This is
accompanied by reduced mortality rate.
Improvements in sanitation and health
conditions lead to decline in mortality. Because
of this gap the net addition to population is
high.
In the last stage, both fertility and mortality
decline considerably. The population is either
stable or grows slowly. The population becomes
urbanised, literate and has high technical know-
how and deliberately controls the family size.
This shows that human beings are
extremely flexible and are able to adjust their
fertility.
In the present day, different countries are
at different stages of demographic transition.
POPULATION CONTROL MEASURES
Family planning is the spacing or preventing
the birth of children. Access to family planning
services is a significant factor in limiting
population growth and improving women’s
health. Propaganda, free availability of
contraceptives and tax disincentives for large
families are some of the measures which can
help population control.
Thomas Malthus in his theory (1793)
stated that the number of people would
increase faster than the food supply. Any
further increase would result in a population
crash caused by famine, disease and war. The
preventive checks are better than the physical
checks. For the sustainability of our resources,
the world will have to control the rapid
population increase

(i) Which one of the following continents has the highest growth of
population?
(a) Africa (c) Asia
(b) South America (d) North America
(ii) Which one of the following is not an area of sparse population?
(a) The Atacama (c) Equatorial region
(b) South-east Asia (d) Polar regions
(iii) Which one of the following is not a push factor ?
(a) Water shortage (c) Unemployment
(b) Medical/educational facilities (d) Epidemics
(iv) Which one of the following is not a fact ?
(a) Human population increased more than ten times during the past
500 years.
(b) Nearly 80 million people are added to the world population each year.
(c) It took 100 years for the population to rise from 5 billion to 6 billion.
(d) Population growth is high in the first stage of demographic transition?
(i) Name three geographical factors that influence the distribution of
population.
(ii) There are a number of areas with high population density in the world.
Why does this happen?
(iii) What are the three components of population change?
3. Distinguish between:
(i) Birth rate and death rate.
(ii) Push factors and pull factors of migration.
(i) Discuss the factors influencing the distribution and density of population
in the world.
(ii) Discuss the three stages of demographic transition.
Map SkillMap SkillMap SkillMap SkillMap Skill
On the outline map of the world, show and name the following.
(i) Countries of Europe and Asia with negative growth rate of population.
(ii) African countries with growth rate of population more than three per
cent. (You may refer to Appendix 1).
Project/ActivityProject/ActivityProject/ActivityProject/ActivityProject/Activity
(i) Has someone in your family migrated? Write about her/his place of
destination. What made her/him migrate?
(ii) Write a brief report on the distribution and density of population in
your state.

Chapter-3
People of any country are diverse in many
respects. Each person is unique in her/his own
way. People can be distinguished by their age,
sex and their place of residence. Some of the
other distinguishing attributes of the population
are occupation, education and life expectancy.
SEX COMPOSITION
The number of women and men in a country is
an important demographic characteristic. The
ratio between the number of women and men in
the population is called the Sex Ratio. In some
countries it is calculated by using the formula:
Male Population
× 1000
Female Population
or the number of males per thousand
females.
In India, the sex ratio is worked out using the
formula:
Female Population
× 1000
Male Population
or the number of females per thousand males.
The sex ratio is an important information
about the status of women in a country.
In regions where gender discrimination is
rampant, the sex ratio is bound to be
unfavourable to women. Such areas are those
where the practice of female foeticide, female
infanticide and domestic violence against women
are prevalent. One of the reasons could be lower
socio-economic status of women in these areas.
You must remember that more women in the
population does not mean they have a better
status. It could be that the men might have
migrated to other areas for employment.
Natural Advantage v/s
Social Disadvantage
Females have a biological advantage over
males as they tend to be more resilient than
males yet this advantage is cancelled out
by the social disadvantages and
discriminations that they face.
Population
Composition

On an average, the world population
reflects a sex ratio of 990 females per 1000
males. The highest sex ratio in the world has
been recorded in Latvia which is 1187 females
per 1000 males. In contrast, the lowest sex ratio
occurs in U.A.E. which is 468 females per 1000
males.
The world pattern of sex ratio does not
exhibit variations in the developed regions of
the world. The sex ratio is favourable for females
in 139 countries of the world and unfavourable
for them in the remaining 72 countries listed
by the United Nations.
In general, Asia has a low sex ratio.
Countries like China, India, Saudi Arabia,
Pakistan, Afghanistan have a lower sex ratio.
On the other extreme is greater part of
Europe (including Russia) where males are in
minority. A deficit of males in the populations
of many European countries is attributed to
better status of women, and an excessively
male-dominated out-migration to different
parts of the world in the past.
Age Structure
Age structure represents the number of people
of different age groups. This is an important
indicator of population composition, since a
large size of population in the age group of 15-
59 indicates a large working population. A
greater proportion of population above 60 years
represents an ageing population which requires
more expenditure on health care facilities.
Similarly high proportion of young population
would mean that the region has a high birth
rate and the population is youthful.
Age-Sex Pyramid
The age-sex structure of a population refers
to the number of females and males in
different age groups. A population pyramid
is used to show the age-sex structure of the
population.
The shape of the population pyramid
reflects the characteristics of the population.
The left side shows the percentage of males while
the right side shows the percentage of women
in each age group.
Fig. 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 show different types
of population pyramids.
Expanding Populations
The age-sex pyramid of Nigeria as you can see
is a triangular shaped pyramid with a wide
base and is typical of less developed countries.
These have larger populations in lower age
groups due to high birth rates. If you construct
the pyramids for Bangladesh and Mexico, it
would look the same.
NIGERIA, 2003
Data source: Demographic Year Book, 2003, United Nations Statistics Division.
Data refer to national projection
80+
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
AgeGroupsYears
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
MALE FEMALE
Per cent
Fig. 3.1: Expanding Population
Constant Population
Australia’s age-sex pyramid is bell shaped and
tapered towards the top. This shows birth and
death rates are almost equal leading to a near
constant population.
Per cent
AgeGroupsYears
AUSTRALIA, 2003
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
85+
80-84
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
FEMALEMALE
Fig. 3.2: Constant Population

Population Composition 19
Declining Populations
The Japan pyramid has a narrow base and a
tapered top showing low birth and death rates.
The population growth in developed countries
is usually zero or negative.
Excluding diplomatic personnel outside the country and foreign military and
civilian personnel and their dependants stationed in the area
JAPAN, 2003
Per cent
AgeGroupsYears
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
85+
80-84
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
FEMALEMALE
Fig. 3.3: Declining Population
Draw a population pyramid of the children in your school
and describe its characteristics.
Ageing Population
Population ageing is the process by which
the share of the older population becomes
proportionally larger. This is a new
phenomenonofthetwentiethcentury.Inmost
of the developed countries of the world,
populationinhigheragegroupshasincreased
due to increased life expectancy. With a
reduction in birth rates, the proportion of
children in the population has declined.
RURAL URBAN COMPOSITION
The division of population into rural and urban
is based on the residence. This division is
necessary because rural and urban life styles
differ from each other in terms of their livelihood
and social conditions. The age-sex-occupational
structure, density of population and level of
development vary between rural and urban areas.
The criteria for differentiating rural and
urban population varies from country to country.
In general terms rural areas are those where
peopleareengagedinprimaryactivitiesandurban
areas are those when majority of the working
population is engaged in non-primary activities.
Fig. 3.4 shows rural urban sex composition
of selected countries. The rural and urban
differences in sex ratio in Canada and West
European countries like Finland are just the
opposite of those in African and Asian countries
like Zimbabwe and Nepal respectively. In
Western countries, males outnumber females
in rural areas and females outnumber the males
in urban areas. In countries like Nepal, Pakistan
and India the case is reverse. The excess of
females in urban areas of U.S.A., Canada and
Europe is the result of influx of females from
rural areas to avail of the vast job opportunities.
Farming in these developed countries is also
highly mechanised and remains largely a male
occupation. By contrast the sex ratio in Asian
urban areas remains male dominated due to
the predominance of male migration. It is also
worth noting that in countries like India, female
participation in farming activity in rural area is
fairly high. Shortage of housing, high cost of
living, paucity of job opportunities and lack of
security in cities, discourage women to migrate
from rural to urban areas.
Literacy
Proportion of literate population of a country
in an indicator of its socio-economic
development as it reveals the standard of living,
social status of females, availability of
educational facilities and policies of
government. Level of economic development is
both a cause and consequence of literacy. In
India – literacy rate denotes the percentage of
population above 7 years of age, who is able to
read, write and have the ability to do arithmetic
calculations with understanding.
Occupational Structure
The working population (i.e. women and men
of the age group – 15 to 59) take part in various
occupations ranging from agriculture, forestry,

(i) Which one of the following has caused the sex ratio of the United Arab
Emirates to be low?
(a) Selective migration of male working population
(b) High birth rate of males
(c) Low birth rate of females
(d) High out migration of females
fishing, manufacturing construction,
commercial transport, services, communication
and other unclassified services.
Agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining
are classified as primary activities
manufacturing as secondary, transport,
communication and other services as tertiary
and the jobs related to research and developing
ideas as quaternary activities. The proportion
of working population engaged in these four
sectors is a good indicator of the levels of
economic development of a nation. This is
because only a developed economy with
industries and infrastructure can
accommodate more workers in the secondary,
tertiary and quaternary sector. If the economy
is still in the primitive stages, then the
proportion of people engaged in primary
activities world be high as it involves extraction
of natural resources.
986
1083
941
1040
935
1051
908
1063
1129
1007 1012
939
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Finland Canada New Zealand Brazil Zimbabwe Nepal
Rural
Urban
Femalesper1000Males
Fig. 3.4: Rural Urban Sex Composition, 2003 (Selected Countries)

Population Composition 21
(ii) Which one of the following figures represents the working age group of the
population?
(a) 15 to 65 years (c) 15 to 66 years
(b) 15 to 64 years (d) 15 to 59 years
(iii) Which one of the following countries has the highest sex ratio in the world?
(a) Latvia (c) Japan
(b) United Arab Emirates (d) France
(i) What do you understand by population composition?
(ii) What is the significance of age-structure?
(iii) How is sex-ratio measured?
(i) Describe the rural-urban composition of the population.
(ii) Discuss the factors responsible for imbalances in the sex-age found in
different parts of the world and occupational structure.
Project/Activity
Construct an age-sex pyramid for your district/state.

Chapter-4
Human Development
The words ‘growth’ and ‘development’ are not
new to you. Look around you, almost everything
that you can see (and many that you cannot)
grows and develops. These may be plants, cities,
ideas, nations, relationships or even you
yourself! What does this mean?
Do growth and development mean
the same thing?
Do they accompany each other?
This chapter discusses the concept of
human development as it pertains to nations
and communities.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Both growth and development refer to changes
over a period of time. The difference is that
growth is quantitative and value neutral. It may
have a positive or a negative sign. This means
that the change may be either positive (showing
an increase) or negative (indicating a decrease).
Development means a qualitative change
which is always value positive. This means that
development cannot take place unless there is
an increment or addition to the existing
conditions. Development occurs when positive
growth takes place. Yet, positive growth does
not always lead to development. Development
occurs when there is a positive change in
quality.
For example, if the population of a city
grows from one lakh to two lakhs over a period
of time, we say the city has grown. However, if a
facilities like housing, provision of basic services
and other characteristics remain the same, then
this growth has not been accompanied by
development.
Can you think of a few more examples to
differentiate between growth and development?
Write a short essay or draw a set of pictures illustrating
growth without development and growth with
development.
For many decades, a country’s level of
development was measured only in terms of its

economic growth. This meant that the bigger
the economy of the country, the more developed
it was considered, even though this growth did
not really mean much change in the lives of most
people.
The idea that the quality of life people enjoy
in a country, the opportunities they have and
freedoms they enjoy, are important aspects of
development, is not new.
These ideas were clearly spelt out for the
first time in the late eighties and early nineties.
The works of two South Asian economists,
Mahbub-ul-Haq and Amartya Sen are
important in this regard.
The concept of human development was
introduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq. Dr Haq has
described human development as development
that enlarges people’s choices and improves
their lives. People are central to all development
under this concept. These choices are not fixed
but keep on changing. The basic goal of
development is to create conditions where
people can live meaningful lives.
A meaningful life is not just a long one. It
must be a life with some purpose. This means
that people must be healthy, be able to develop
their talents, participate in society and be free
to achieve their goals.
Do you know that cities can also grow negatively? Look at the photographs of this tsunami
affected city. Are natural disasters the only reasons for negative growth in a city’s size?
Band Aceh, June, 2004 Band Aceh, December, 2004
Human Development 23
Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq and ProfAmartya Sen were close friends and have worked together under the leadership of Dr
Haq to bring out the initial Human Development Reports. Both these SouthAsian economists have been able to
provide an alternative view of development.
A man of vision and compassion, Pakistani economist Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq created the Human Development
Index in 1990. According to him, development is all about enlarging people’s choices in order to lead long,
healthy lives with dignity.The United Nations Development Programme has used his concept of human development
to publish the Human Development Report annually since 1990.
Dr Haq’s flexibility of mind and ability to think out of the box can be illustrated from one of his speeches where
he quoted Shaw saying, “‘You see things that are, and ask why? I dream of things that never were, and ask why
not?’
Nobel Laureate ProfAmartya Sen saw an increase in freedom (or decrease in unfreedom) as the main objective
of development. Interestingly, increasing freedoms is also one of the most effective ways of bringing about
development. His work explores the role of social and political institutions and processes in increasing freedom.
The works of these economists are path breaking and have succeeded in bringing people to the centre of any
discussion on development.

What is a Meaningful Life?What is a Meaningful Life?What is a Meaningful Life?What is a Meaningful Life?What is a Meaningful Life?
Which of these lives is a meaningful life?Which of these lives is a meaningful life?Which of these lives is a meaningful life?Which of these lives is a meaningful life?Which of these lives is a meaningful life?
Who do you think leads more meaningful life? What makes one of these more meaningful than the other?

Leading a long and healthy life, being able
to gain knowledge and having enough means
to be able to live a decent life are the most
important aspects of human development.
Therefore, access to resources, health and
education are the key areas in human
development. Suitable indicators have been
developed to measure each of these aspects. Can
you think of some?
Very often, people do not have the
capability and freedom to make even basic
choices. This may be due to their inability to
acquire knowledge, their material poverty,
social discrimination, inefficiency of institutions
and other reasons. This prevents them from
leading healthy lives, being able to get educated
or to have the means to live a decent life.
Building people’s capabilities in the areas
of health, education and access to resources is
therefore, important in enlarging their choices.
If people do not have capabilities in these areas,
their choices also get limited.
For example, an uneducated child cannot
make the choice to be a doctor because her
choice has got limited by her lack of education.
Similarly, very often poor people cannot choose
to take medical treatment for disease because
their choice is limited by their lack of resources.
Enact a five-minute play with your classmates showing
how choices are limited due to lack of capability in the
areas of either income, education or health.
THE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Just as any building is supported by pillars,
the idea of human development is supported
by the concepts of equity, sustainability,
productivity and empowerment.
Equity refers to making equal access to
opportunities available to everybody. The
opportunities available to people must be equal
irrespective of their gender, race, income and
in the Indian case, caste. Yet this is very often
not the case and happens in almost every
society.
For example, in any country, it is interesting
to see which group the most of the school
dropouts belong to. This should then lead to an
understanding of the reasons for such behaviour.
In India, a large number of women and persons
belonging to socially and economically
backward groups drop out of school. This shows
how the choices of these groups get limited by
not having access to knowledge.
Sustainability means continuity in the
availability of opportunities. To have
sustainable human development, each
generation must have the same opportunities.
All environmental, financial and human
resources must be used keeping in mind the
future. Misuse of any of these resources will
lead to fewer opportunities for future
generations.
A good example is about the importance
of sending girls to school. If a community does
not stress the importance of sending its girl
children to school, many opportunities will be
lost to these young women when they grow up.
Their career choices will be severely curtailed
and this would affect other aspects of their lives.
So each generation must ensure the availability
of choices and opportunities to its future
generations.
Productivity here means human labour
productivity or productivity in terms of human
work. Such productivity must be constantly
enriched by building capabilities in people.
Ultimately, it is people who are the real wealth
of nations. Therefore, efforts to increase their
knowledge, or provide better health facilities
ultimately leads to better work efficiency.
Empowerment means to have the power
to make choices. Such power comes from
increasing freedom and capability. Good
governance and people-oriented policies are
required to empower people. The empowerment
of socially and economically disadvantaged
groups is of special importance.
Talk to the vegetable vendor in your neighbourhood and
find out if she has gone to school. Did she drop out of
school? Why? What does this tell you about her choices
and the freedom she has? Note how her opportunities
were limited because of her gender, caste and income.

APPROACHES TO HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
There are many ways of looking at the problem
of human development. Some of the important
approaches are: (a) The income approach; (b) The
welfare approach; (c) Minimum needs approach;
and (d) Capabilities approach (Table 4.1).
MEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The human development index (HDI) ranks the
countries based on their performance in the key
areas of health, education and access to
resources. These rankings are based on a score
between 0 to 1 that a country earns from its
record in the key areas of human development.
The indicator chosen to assess health is
the life expectancy at birth. A higher life
expectancy means that people have a greater
chance of living longer and healthier lives.
The adult literacy rate and the gross
enrolment ratio represent access to knowledge.
The number of adults who are able to read and
write and the number of children enrolled in
schools show how easy or difficult it is to access
knowledge in a particular country.
Access to resources is measured in terms
of purchasing power (in U.S. dollars).
Each of these dimensions is given a
weightage of 1/3. The human development
index is a sum total of the weights assigned to
all these dimensions.
The closer a score is to one, the greater is
the level of human development. Therefore, a
score of 0.983 would be considered very high
while 0.268 would mean a very low level of
human development.
The human development index measures
attainments in human development. It reflects
what has been achieved in the key areas of
human development. Yet it is not the most
reliable measure. This is because it does not
say anything about the distribution.
The human poverty index is related to the
human development index. This index
measures the shortfall in human development.
(a) Income Approach This is one of the oldest approaches to human
development. Human development is seen as being
linked to income. The idea is that the level of income
reflects the level of freedom an individual enjoys.
Higher the level of income, the higher is the level of
human development.
(b) Welfare Approach This approach looks at human beings as beneficiaries
or targets of all development activities. The approach
argues for higher government expenditure on
education, health, social secondary and amenities.
People are not participants in development but only
passive recipients. The government is responsible for
increasing levels of human development by
maximising expenditure on welfare.
(c) Basic Needs Approach This approach was initially proposed by the
International Labour Organisation (ILO). Six basic
needs i.e.: health, education, food, water supply,
sanitation, and housing were identified. The question
of human choices is ignored and the emphasis is on
the provision of basic needs of defined sections.
(d) Capability Approach This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen.
Building human capabilities in the areas of health,
education and access to resources is the key to
increasing human development.
Table 4.1: Approaches to Human Development

It is a non-income measure. The probability of
not surviving till the age of 40, the adult illiteracy
rate, the number of people who do not have
access to clean water, and the number of small
children who are underweight are all taken into
account to show the shortfall in human
development in any region. Often the human
poverty index is more revealing than the human
development index.
Looking at both these measures of human
development together gives an accurate picture
of the human development situation in a
country.
The ways to measure human development
are constantly being refined and newer ways of
capturing different elements of human
development are being researched. Researchers
have found links between the level of corruption
or political freedom in a particular region. There
is also a discussion regarding a political
freedom index and, a listing of the most corrupt
countries. Can you think of other links to the
level of human development?
Since 1990, the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) has been
publishing the Human Development Report
every year. This report provides a rank-wise
list of all member countries according to the
level of human development. The Human
Development index and the Human Poverty
index are two important indices to measure
human development used by the UNDP.
Bhutan is the only country in the world to
officially proclaim the Gross National
Happiness (GNH) as the measure of the
country’s progress. Material progress and
technological developments are approached
more cautiously taking into consideration the
possible harm they might bring to the
environment or the other aspects of cultural
andspirituallifeoftheBhutanese.Thissimply
means material progress cannot come at the
cost of happiness. GNH encourages us to
think of the spiritual, non-material and
qualitative aspects of development.
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS
International comparisons of human
development are interesting. Size of the territory
and per capita income are not directly related
to human development. Often smaller countries
have done better than larger ones in human
development. Similarly, relatively poorer
nations have been ranked higher than richer
neighbours in terms of human development.
For example, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and
Tobago have a higher rank than India in the
human development index despite having
smaller economies. Similarly, within India,
Kerala performs much better than Punjab and
Gujarat in human development despite having
lower per capita income.
Countries can be classified into three
groups on the basis of the human development
scores earned by them (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2: Human Development: Categories, Criteria
and Countries
Level of Human Score in Number of
Development Development Countries
Index
High above 0.8 57
Medium between 0.5 up to 88
0.799
Low below 0.5 32
Source: Human Development Report, 2005
Countries with High Index Value
Countries with high human development index
are those which have a score of over 0.8.

You will notice that many of these countries
have been the former imperial powers. The degree
of social diversity in these countries is not very
high. Many of the countries with a high human
development score are located in Europe and
represent the industrialised western world. Yet
there are striking numbers of non-European
countries also who have made it to this list.
Countries with Medium Index Value
Countries with medium levels of human
development form the largest group. There are
a total of 88 countries in this group. Most of
these are countries which have emerged in the
period after the Second World War. Some
countries from this group were former colonies
while many others have emerged after the break
up of the erstwhile Soviet Union in 1990. Many
of these countries have been rapidly improving
their human development score by adopting
more people-oriented policies and reducing
social discrimination. Most of these countries
have a much higher social diversity than the
countries with higher human development
scores. Many in this group have faced political
instability and social uprisings at some point
of time in their recent history.
According to the Human Development Report
of 2005, this group includes 57 countries. Table
4.3 shows the countries in this group.
Table 4.3: Top Ten Countries with High Value Index
Sl. No. Country Sl. No. Country
1. Norway 6. Sweden
2. Iceland 7. Switzerland
3. Australia 8. Ireland
4. Luxembourg 9. Belgium
5. Canada 10. United States
Source: Human Development Report, 2005
Try to locate these countries on a map.
Can you see what these countries have in
common? To find out more visit the official
government websites of these countries.
Providing education and healthcare is an
important government priority. Countries with
higher human development are those where a
lot of investment in the social sector has taken
place. Altogether, a higher investment in people
and good governance has set this group of
countries apart from the others.
Try to find out the percentage of the
country’s income spent on these sectors. Can
you think of some other characteristics that
these countries have in common?
What could be
the reasons for
India to be
behind 125
countries in
HDI?

(i) Which one of the following best describes development?
(a) an increase in size (c) a positive change in quality
(b) a constant in size (d) a simple change in the quality
(ii) Which one of the following scholars introduced the concept of Human
Development?
(a) Prof. Amartya Sen (c) Dr Mahabub-ul-Haq
(b) Ellen C. Semple (d) Ratzel
(iii) Which one of the following is not a country with high human development?
(a) Norway (c) Argentina
(b) Japan (d) Egypt
(i) What are the three basic areas of human development?
(ii) Name the four main components of human development?
(iii) How are countries classified on the basis of human development index?
(i) What do you understand by the term human development?
(ii) What do equity and sustainability refer to within the concept of human
development?
Countries with Low Index Value
As many as 32 countries record low levels of
human development. A large proportion of
these are small countries which have been going
through political turmoil and social instability
in the form of civil war, famine or a high
incidence of diseases. There is an urgent need
to address the human development
requirements of this group through well
thought out policies.
International comparisons of human
development can show some very interesting
results. Often people tend to blame low levels
of human development on the culture of the
people. For example, X country has lower
human development because its people follow
Y religion, or belong to Z community. Such
statements are misleading.
To understand why a particular region
keeps reporting low or high levels of human
development it is important to look at the
pattern of government expenditure on the
social sector. The political environment of the
country and the amount of freedom people
have is also important. Countries with high
levels of human development invest more in
the social sectors and are generally free from
political turmoil and instability. Distribution
of the country’s resources is also far more
equitable.
On the other hand, places with low levels
of human development tend to spend more on
defence rather than social sectors. This shows
that these countries tend to be located in areas
of political instability and have not been able
to initiate accelerated economic development.

Make a list of the ten most corrupt countries and ten least corrupt countries.
Compare their scores on the human development index. What inferences can
you draw?
Consult the latest Human Development Report for this.

Unit-IIIUnit-IIIUnit-IIIUnit-IIIUnit-III
Chapter-5
Primary Activities
Human activities which generate income are
known as economic activities. Economic
activities are broadly grouped into primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities.
Primary activities are directly dependent on
environment as these refer to utilisation of
earth’s resources such as land, water,
vegetation, building materials and minerals. It,
thus includes, hunting and gathering, pastoral
activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, and
mining and quarrying.
Why inhabitants of coastal and plain
regions are engaged in fishing and
agriculture respectively? What are the
physical and social factors which affect the
type of primary activities in different
regions?
People engaged in primary activities are called red-
collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work.
HUNTING AND GATHERING
The earliest human beings depended on their
immediate environment for their sustenance.
They subsisted on: (a) animals which they
hunted; and (b) the edible plants which they
gathered from forests in the vicinity.
Primitive societies depended on wild
animals. People located in very cold and
extremely hot climates survived on hunting. The
people in the coastal areas still catch fish though
fishing has experienced modernisation due to
technological progress. Many species, now have
become extinct or endangered due to illegal
hunting (poaching). The early hunters used
primitive tools made of stones, twigs or arrows
so the number of animals killed was limited.
Why has hunting been banned in India?
Gathering and hunting are the oldest
economic activity known. These are carried out
at different levels with different orientations.
Gathering is practised in regions with
harsh climatic conditions. It often involves
primitive societies, who extract, both plants and

animals to satisfy their needs for food, shelter
and clothing. This type of activity requires a
small amount of capital investment and
operates at very low level of technology. The
yield per person is very low and little or no
surplus is produced.
Fig. 5.1: Women Gathering Oranges in Mizoram
Fig. 5.2: Areas of Subsistence Gathering
Gathering is practised in: (i) high latitude
zones which include northern Canada, northern
Eurasia and southern Chile; (ii) Low latitude
zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical
Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the
interior parts of Southeast Asia (Fig. 5.2).
In modern times some gathering is market-
oriented and has become commercial. Gatherers
collect valuable plants such as leaves, barks of
trees and medicinal plants and after simple
processing sell the products in the market. They
use various parts of the plants, for example,
the bark is used for quinine, tanin extract and
cork— leaves supply materials for beverages,
drugs, cosmetics, fibres, thatch and fabrics;
nuts for food and oils and tree trunk yield
rubber, balata, gums and resins.
The name of the part of the chewing gum after the flavour
isgone?Itiscalled Chicle — it is made from the milky
juice of zapota tree.
Gathering has little chance of becoming
important at the global level. Products of such an

Primary Activities 33
activity cannot compete in the world market.
Moreover, synthetic products often of better
quality and at lower prices, have replaced many
items supplied by the gatherers in tropical forests.
PASTORALISM
At some stage in history, with the realisation
that hunting is an unsustainable activity,
human beings might have thought of
domestication of animals. People living in
different climatic conditions selected and
domesticated animals found in those regions.
Depending on the geographical factors, and
technological development, animal rearing
today is practised either at the subsistence or
at the commercial level.
Nomadic Herding
Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a
primitive subsistence activity, in which the
herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter,
tools and transport. They move from one place
to another along with their livestock, depending
on the amount and quality of pastures and
water. Each nomadic community occupies a
well-identified territory as a matter of tradition.
Fig. 5.3: Nomads taking their sheep up to the
Mountains at the onset of summer
A wide variety of animals is kept in
different regions. In tropical Africa, cattle are
the most important livestock, while in Sahara
and Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats and camel
are reared. In the mountainous areas of Tibet
and Andes, yak and llamas and in the Arctic
and sub Arctic areas, reindeer are the most
important animals.
Pastoral nomadism is associated with
three important regions. The core region
extends from the Atlantic shores of North Africa
eastwards across the Arabian peninsula into
Mongolia and Central China. The second region
extends over the tundra region of Eurasia. In
the southern hemisphere there are small areas
in South-west Africa and on the island of
Madagascar (Fig. 5.4)
Movement in search of pastures is
undertaken either over vast horizontal
distances or vertically from one elevation to
another in the mountainous regions. The
process of migration from plain areas to
pastures on mountains during summers and
again from mountain pastures to plain areas
during winters is known as transhumance. In
mountain regions, such as Himalayas, Gujjars,
Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate from
plains to the mountains in summers and to the
plains from the high altitude pastures in
winters. Similarly, in the tundra regions, the
nomadic herders move from south to north in
summers and from north to south in winters.
The number of pastoral nomads has been
decreasing and the areas operated by them
shrinking. This is due to (a) imposition of
political boundaries; (b) new settlement plans
by different countries.
Commercial Livestock Rearing
Unlike nomadic herding, commercial livestock
rearing is more organised and capital intensive.
Commercial livestock ranching is essentially
associated with western cultures and is practised
on permanent ranches. These ranches cover
large areas and are divided into a number of
parcels, which are fenced to regulate the grazing.
When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals
are moved to another parcel. The number of
animals in a pasture is kept according to the
carrying capacity of the pasture.
This is a specialised activity in which only
one type of animal is reared. Important animals
include sheep, cattle, goats and horses.
Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin
are processed and packed scientifically and
exported to different world markets.
Rearing of animals in ranching is
organised on a scientific basis. The main

Fig. 5.4: Areas of Nomadic Herding
emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement,
disease control and health care of the animals.
New Zealand, Australia, Argentina,
Uruguay and United States of America are
important countries where commercial livestock
rearing is practised (Fig. 5.6).
Fig. 5.5: Commercial Livestock Rearing
Reindeerrearinginthenorthernregionsof Alaska where
most of the Eskimos own about two-third of the stock.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is practised under multiple
combinations of physical and socio-economic
conditions, which gives rise to different types of
agricultural systems.
Based on methods of farming, different
types of crops are grown and livestock raised.
The following are the main agricultural systems.
Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture is one in which the
farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the
products locally grown. It can be grouped in
two categories — Primitive Subsistence
Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence
Agriculture.
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting
cultivation is widely practised by many tribes
in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and
central America and south east Asia (Fig. 5.7).

Fig. 5.6: Areas of Commercial Livestock Rearing
Fig. 5.7: Areas of Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

The vegetation is usually cleared by fire,
and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil.
Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash
and burn agriculture. The cultivated patches
are very small and cultivation is done with very
primitive tools such as sticks and hoes. After
sometime (3 to 5 years) the soil looses its fertility
and the farmer shifts to another parts and clears
other patch of the forest for cultivation. The
farmer may return to the earlier patch after
sometime. One of the major problems of shifting
cultivation is that the cycle of jhum becomes
less and less due to loss of fertility in different
parcels. It is prevalent in tropical region in
different names, e.g. Jhuming in North eastern
states of India, Milpa in central America and
Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Find out other areas and the names with which
shifting cultivation is done.
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
This type of agriculture is largely found in
densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
Fig. 5.8: Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming
Basically, there are two types of intensive
subsistence agriculture.
(i) Intensive subsistence agriculture
dominated by wet paddy cultivation: This
type of agriculture is characterised by
dominance of the rice crop. Land holdings
are very small due to the high density of
population. Farmers work with the help
of family labour leading to intensive use of
land. Use of machinery is limited and most
of the agricultural operations are done by
manual labour. Farm yard manure is used
to maintain the fertility of the soil. In this
type of agriculture, the yield per unit area
is high but per labour productivity is low.
(ii) Intensive subsidence agriculture
dominated by crops other than paddy:
Due to the difference in relief, climate, soil
and some of the other geographical factors,
it is not practical to grow paddy in many
parts of monsoon Asia. Wheat, soyabean,
barley and sorghum are grown in northern
China, Manchuria, North Korea and North
Japan. In India wheat is grown in western

parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains and
millets are grown in dry parts of western
and southern India. Most of the
characteristics of this type of agriculture
are similar to those dominated by wet
paddy except that irrigation is often used.
The Europeans colonised many parts in
the world and they introduced some other forms
of agriculture such as plantations which were
mainly profit-oriented large scale production
systems.
Plantation Agriculture
Plantation agriculture as mentioned above was
introduced by the Europeans in colonies
situated in the tropics. Some of the important
plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber,
cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas and
pineapples.
The characteristic features of this type of
farming are large estates or plantations, large
capital investment, managerial and technical
support, scientific methods of cultivation,
single crop specialisation, cheap labour, and
a good system of transportation which links
the estates to the factories and markets for the
export of the products.
The French established cocoa and coffee
plantations in west Africa. The British set up
large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka,
rubber plantations in Malaysia and sugarcane
and banana plantations in West Indies.
Spanish and Americans invested heavily in
Fig. 5.9: Rice Transplantation
coconut and sugarcane plantations in the
Philippines. The Dutch once had monopoly
over sugarcane plantation in Indonesia. Some
coffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil are
still managed by Europeans.
Today, ownership of the majority of
plantations has passed into the hands of the
government or the nationals of the countries
concerned.
Fig. 5.10: Tea Plantation
The slopes of hills are used for tea plantations because
of favourable geographical conditions.
Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation
Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the
interior parts of semi-arid lands of the mid-
latitudes. Wheat is the principal crop, though
other crops like corn, barley, oats and rye are
also grown. The size of the farm is very large,
therefore entire operations of cultivation from
ploughing to
harvesting are
mechanised (Fig.
5.11). There is low
yield per acre but
high yield per
person. Why does
this happen?
Fig. 5.11: Mechanised
Grain Farming
Combine crews are
capable of harvesting
grain over many
hectares in a single
day.

This type of agriculture is best developed
in Eurasian steppes, the Canadian and
American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the
Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs and
the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand. (Locate
these areas on the world map).
Mixed Farming
This form of agriculture is found in the highly
developed parts of the world, e.g. North-western
Europe, Eastern North America, parts of
Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of
Southern continents (Fig. 5.14).
Mixed farms are moderate in size and
usually the crops associated with it are wheat,
barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops.
Fodder crops are an important component of
mixed farming. Crop rotation and intercropping
play an important role in maintaining soil
fertility. Equal emphasis is laid on crop
cultivation and animal husbandry. Animals like
cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main
income along with crops.
Mixed farming is characterised by high
capital expenditure on farm machinery and
Fig. 5.12: Areas of Extensive Commercial Grain Farming
building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers
and green manures and also by the skill and
expertise of the farmers.
Dairy Farming
Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of
rearing of milch animals. It is highly capital
intensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities for
fodder, feeding and milching machines add to
the cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis is
laid on cattle breeding, health care and
veterinary services.
Fig. 5.13: A Dairy Farm in Austria

Fig. 5.14: Areas of Mixed Farming
It is highly labour intensive as it involves
rigorous care in feeding and milching. There is
no off season during the year as in the case of
crop raising.
It is practised mainly near urban and
industrial centres which provide
neighbourhood market for fresh milk and dairy
products. The development of transportation,
refrigeration, pasteurisation and other
preservation processes have increased the
duration of storage of various dairy products.
There are three main regions of commercial
dairy farming. The largest is North Western
Europe the second is Canada and the third belt
includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand
and Tasmania (Fig. 5.16).
Mediterranean Agriculture
Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised
commercial agriculture. It is practised in the
countries on either side of the Mediterranean
Fig. 5.15 (a): A vineyard in Switzerland Fig. 5.15 (b): Collection of
grapes in a collective farm of Kazakhstan

sea in Europe and in north Africa from Tunisia
to Atlantic coast, southern California, central
Chile, south western parts of South Africa and
south and south western parts of Australia.
This region is an important supplier of citrus
fruits.
Viticulture or grape cultivation is a
speciality of the Mediterranean region. Best
quality wines in the world with distinctive
flavours are produced from high quality grapes
in various countries of this region. The inferior
grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This
region also produces olives and figs. The
advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that
more valuable crops such as fruits and
vegetables are grown in winters when there is
great demand in European and North American
markets.
Market Gardening and Horticulture
Market gardening and horticulture specialise
in the cultivation of high value crops such as
vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the
urban markets. Farms are small and are
located where there are good transportation
links with the urban centre where high income
group of consumers is located. It is both labour
and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the
use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers,
insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating
in colder regions.
This type of agriculture is well developed
in densely populated industrial districts of
north west Europe, north eastern United States
of America and the Mediterranean regions. The
Netherlands specialises in growing flowers and
horticultural crops especially tulips, which are
flown to all major cities of Europe.
The regions where farmers specialise in
vegetables only, the farming is know as truck
farming. The distance of truck farms from the
market is governed by the distance that a truck
can cover overnight, hence the name truck
farming.
In addition to market gardening, a modern
development in the industrial regions of Western
Europe and North America is factory farming.
Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle
rearing, is done in stalls and pens, fed on
manufactured feedstuff and carefully
Fig. 5.16: Areas of Dairy Farming

supervised against diseases. This requires heavy
capital investment in terms of building,
machinery for various operations, veterinary
services and heating and lighting. One of the
important features of poultry farming and cattle
rearing is breed selection and scientific
breeding.
Types of farming can also be categorised
according to the farming organisation. Farming
organisation is affected by the way in which
farmers own their farms and various policies of
the government which help to run these farms.
Co-operative Farming
A group of farmers form a co-operative society
by pooling in their resources voluntarily for
more efficient and profitable farming. Individual
farms remain intact and farming is a matter of
cooperative initiative.
Co-operative societies help farmers, to
procure all important inputs of farming, sell the
products at the most favourable terms and help
in processing of quality products at cheaper
rates.
Co-operative movement originated over a
century ago and has been successful in many
western European countries like Denmark,
Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. In
Denmark, the movement has been so successful
that practically every farmer is a member of a
co-operative.
Collective Farming
The basic principal behind this types of farming
Figure 5.17 (a): Vegetables being grown in the
vicinity of the city
Figure 5.17 (b): Vegetables being loaded into a truck
and cycle carts for transporting to city markets
is based on social ownership of the means of
production and collective labour. Collective
farming or the model of Kolkhoz was
introduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improve
upon the inefficiency of the previous methods
of agriculture and to boost agricultural
production for self-sufficiency.
The farmers pool in all their resources like
land, livestock and labour. However, they are
allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops
in order to meet their daily requirements.
Yearly targets are set by the government
and the produce is also sold to the state at fixed
prices. Produce in excess of the fixed amount
is distributed among the members or sold in
the market. The farmers have to pay taxes on
the farm produces, hired machinery etc.
Members are paid according to the nature of
the work allotted to them by the farm
management. Exceptional work is rewarded in
cash or kind. This type of farming was
introduced in former Soviet Union under the
socialist regime which was adopted by the
socialist countries. After its collapse, these have
already been modified.
MINING
The discovery of minerals in the history of
human development, is reflected in many stages
in terms of copper age, bronze age and iron age.
The use of minerals in ancient times was largely
confined to the making of tools, utensils and
weapons. The actual development of mining
began with the industrial revolution and its
importance is continuously increasing.

Fig. 5.18: Oil drilling operation
in the Gulf of Mexico
Factors Affecting Mining Activity
The profitability of mining operations thus,
depends on two main factors:
(i) Physical factors include the size, grade and
the mode of occurrence of the deposits.
(ii) Economic factors such as the demand for
the mineral, technology available and used,
capital to develop infrastructure and the
labour and transport costs.
Methods of Mining
Depending on the mode of occurrence and the
nature of the ore, mining is of two types: surface
and underground mining. The surface mining
also known as open-cast mining is the easiest
and the cheapest way of mining minerals that
occur close to the surface. Overhead costs such
as safety precautions and equipment is
relatively low in this method. The output is both
large and rapid.
SHAFT MINING
OPEN-CAST OR
(STRIP MINING)
Fig. 5.19: Methods of Mining
When the ore lies deep below the surface,
underground mining method (shaft method)
has to be used. In this method, vertical shafts
have to be sunk, from where underground
galleries radiate to reach the minerals.
Minerals are extracted and transported to the
surface through these passages. It requires
specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles,
ventilation system for safety and efficient
movement of people and material. This method
is risky. Poisonous gases, fires, floods and
caving in lead to fatal accidents. Have you ever
read about mine fires and flooding of coal
mines in India?
The developed economies are retreating
from mining, processing and refining stages of
production due to high labour costs, while the
developing countries with large labour force and
striving for higher standard of living are
becoming more important. Several countries
of Africa and few of south America and Asia
have over fifty per cent of the earnings from
minerals alone.

(i) Which one of the following is not a plantation crop?
(a) Coffee (c) Wheat
(b) Sugarcane (d) Rubber
(ii) In which one of the following countries co-operative farming was the most
successful experiment?
(a) Russia (c) India
(b) Denmark (d) The Netherlands
(iii) Growing of flowers is called:
(a) Truck farming (c) Mixed farming
(b) Factory farming (d) Floriculture
(iv) Which one of the following types of cultivation was developed by European
colonists?
(a) Kolkoz (c) Mixed farming
(b) Viticulture (d) Plantation
(v) In which one of the following regions is extensive commercial grain cultivation
not practised?
(a) American Canadian prairies (c) Pampas of Argentina
(b) European Steppes (d) Amazon Basin
(vi) In which of the following types of agriculture is the farming of citrus fruit very
important?
(a) Market gardening (c) Mediterranean agriculture
(b) Plantation agriculture (d) Co-operative farming
(vii) Which one type of agriculture amongst the following is also called ‘slash and
burn agriculture’?
(a) Extensive subsistence agriculture
(b) Primitive subsistence agriculture
(c) Extensive commercial grain cultivation
(d) Mixed farming
(viii) Which one of the following does not follow monoculture?
(a) Dairy farming (c) Plantation agriculture
(b) Mixed farming (d) Commercial grain farming
(i) Future of shifting cultivation is bleak. Discuss.
(ii) Market gardening is practised near urban areas. Why?
(iii) Large scale dairy farming is the result of the development of transportation
and refrigeration.

(i) Differentiate between Nomadic Herding and Commercial Livestock Rearing.
(ii) Discuss the important characteristic features of plantation agriculture. Name
a few important plantation crops from different countries.
Project/Activity
Visit a nearby village and observe the cultivation of some crops. Ask
the farmers and list the various operations.

Chapter-6
Secondary ActivitiesSecondary ActivitiesSecondary ActivitiesSecondary ActivitiesSecondary Activities
All economic activities namely primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary, revolve
around obtaining and utilising resources
necessary for survival.
Secondary activities add value to natural
resources by transforming raw materials into
valuable products. Cotton in the boll has limited
use but after it is transformed into yarn,
becomes more valuable and can be used for
making clothes. Iron ore, cannot be used;
directly from the mines, but after being
converted into steel it gets its value and can be
used for making many valuable machines,
tools, etc. The same is true of most of the
materials from the farm, forest, mine and the
sea. Secondary activities, therefore, are
concerned with manufacturing, processing and
construction (infrastructure) industries.
MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing involves a full array of
production from handicrafts to moulding iron
and steel and stamping out plastic toys to
assembling delicate computer components or
space vehicles. In each of these processes, the
common characteristics are the application of
power, mass production of identical products
and specialised labour in factory settings for
the production of standardised commodities.
Manufacturing may be done with modern
power and machinery or it may still be very
primitive. Most of the Third World countries still
‘manufacture’ in the literal sense of the term. It
is difficult to present a full picture of all the
manufacturers in these countries. More
emphasis is given to the kind of ‘industrial’
activity which involves less complicated systems
of production.
Characteristics of Modern Large Scale
Manufacturing
Modern large scale manufacturing has the
following characteristics:
Specialisation of Skills/Methods of
Production
Under the ‘craft’ method factories produce only
a few pieces which are made-to-order. So the
costs are high. On the other hand, mass

production involves production of large
quantities of standardised parts by each worker
performing only one task repeatedly.
‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing’ Industry and
‘Manufacturing Industry’‘Manufacturing Industry’‘Manufacturing Industry’‘Manufacturing Industry’‘Manufacturing Industry’
Manufacturing literally means ‘to
make by hand’. However, now it
includes goods ‘made by machines’.
It is essentially a process which
involves transforming raw materials
into finished goods of higher value
for sale in local or distant markets.
Conceptually, an industry is a
geographically located manufacturing
unit maintaining books of accounts
and, records under a management
system. As the term industry is
comprehensive, it is also used as
synonymous with ‘manufacturing’
When one uses terms like ‘steel
industry’ and ‘chemical industry’ one
thinks of factories and processes.
But there are many secondary
activities which are not carried on in
factories such as what is now called
the ‘entertainment industry’ and
Tourism industry, etc. So for clarity
the longer expression ‘manufacturing
industry’ is used.
Mechanisation
Mechanisation refers to using gadgets which
accomplish tasks. Automation (without aid of
human thinking during the manufacturing
process) is the advanced stage of mechanisation.
Automatic factories with feedback and closed-
loop computer control systems where machines
are developed to ‘think’, have sprung up all over
the world.
Technological Innovation
Technological innovations through research
and development strategy are an important
aspect of modern manufacturing for quality
control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and
combating pollution.
Organisational Structure and Stratification
Modern manufacturing is characterised by:
(i) a complex machine technology
(ii) extreme specialisation and division of
labour for producing more goods with less
effort, and low costs
(iii) vast capital
(iv) large organisations
(v) executive bureaucracy.
Uneven Geographic Distribution
Major concentrations of modern manufacturing
have flourished in a few number of places. These
cover less than 10 per cent of the world’s land
area. These nations have become the centres of
economic and political power. However, in terms
of the total area covered, manufacturing sites
are much less conspicuous and concentrated
on much smaller areas than that of agriculture
due to greater intensity of processes. For
example, 2.5 sq km of the American corn belt
usually includes about four large farms
employing about 10-20 workers supporting
50-100 persons. But this same area could
contain several large integrated factories and
employ thousands of workers.
Why do Large-scale Industries choose
different locations?
Industries maximise profits by reducing
costs. Therefore, industries should be located
at points where the production costs are
minimum. Some of the factors influencing
industrial locations are as under:
Access to Market
The existence of a market for manufactured
goods is the most important factor in the location
of industries. ‘Market’ means people who have a
demand for these goods and also have the
purchasing power (ability to purchase) to be able
to purchase from the sellers at a place. Remote
areas inhabited by a few people offer small
markets. The developed regions of Europe, North
America, Japan and Australia provide large
global markets as the purchasing power of the
people is very high. The densely populated
regions of South and South-east Asia also

Secondary Activities 47
provide large markets. Some industries, such
as aircraft manufacturing, have a global market.
The arms industry also has global markets.
Access to Raw Material
Raw material used by industries should be
cheap and easy to transport. Industries based
on cheap, bulky and weight-losing material
(ores) are located close to the sources of raw
material such as steel, sugar, and cement
industries. Perishability is a vital factor for the
industry to be located closer to the source of
the raw material. Agro-processing and dairy
products are processed close to the sources of
farm produce or milk supply respectively.
Access to Labour Supply
Labour supply is an important factor in the
location of industries. Some types of
manufacturing still require skilled labour.
Increasing mechanisation, automation and
flexibility of industrial processes have reduced
the dependence of industry upon the labours.
Access to Sources of Energy
Industries which use more power are located
close to the source of the energy supply such
as the aluminium industry.
Earlier coal was the main source of energy,
today hydroelectricity and petroleum are also
important sources of energy for many
industries.
Access to Transportation and
Communication Facilities
Speedy and efficient transport facilities to carry
raw materials to the factory and to move finished
goods to the market are essential for the
development of industries. The cost of transport
plays an important role in the location of
industrial units. Western Europe and eastern
North America have a highly developed transport
system which has always induced the
concentrationofindustriesintheseareas.Modern
industry is inseparably tied to transportation
systems. Improvements in transportation led to
integrated economic development and regional
specialisation of manufacturing.
Communication is also an important need
for industries for the exchange and
management of information.
Government Policy
Governments adopt ‘regional policies’ to
promote ‘balanced’ economic development and
hence set up industries in particular areas.
Access to Agglomeration Economies/
Links between Industries
Many industries benefit from nearness to a
leader-industry and other industries. These
benefits are termed as agglomeration
economies. Savings are derived from the
linkages which exist between different
industries.
These factors operate together to determine
industrial location.
Foot Loose IndustriesFoot Loose IndustriesFoot Loose IndustriesFoot Loose IndustriesFoot Loose Industries
Foot loose industries can be located
in a wide variety of places. They are
not dependent on any specific raw
material, weight losing or otherwise.
They largely depend on component
parts which can be obtained
anywhere. They produce in small
quantity and also employ a small
labour force. These are generally not
polluting industries. The important
factor in their location is accessibility
by road network.
Classification of Manufacturing Industries
Manufacturing industries are classified on the
basis of their size, inputs/raw materials,
output/products and ownership (Fig. 6.1).
Industries based on Size
The amount of capital invested, number of
workers employed and volume of production
determine the size of industry. Accordingly,
industries may be classified into household or
cottage, small-scale and large-scale.

Size
Cottage
or
Household
Artifacts
Small
Scale
Large
Scale
ClassificationofIndustries
Basedon
Inputs/RawMaterialsOutput/ProductSize
Agro
based
Sugar,
edibleoil,
cottontextile,
coffee,
tea,rubber,
etc.
Mineral
based
Chemical
based
Petro-
chemical,
plastic,
synthetic,
fibre,
salts,
chemicals
fertilisers
Forest
based
Timber,
lac,
terpentine,
paper
Animal
based
Leather,
wool
MetallicNon-Metallic
Ferrous
Ironand
Steel
Cement,Pottery
Public
Sector
Private
Sector
Joint
Sector
Basic
Ironand
Steel
Consumer
goods
BiscuitsTextilesVehicles,
e.g.cars,
scooters,
cycles
Non-ferrous
Copper,
aluminium,
gemsand
jewellery
Fig.6.1:ClassificationofIndustries

HOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES OR
COTTAGE MANUFACTURING
It is the smallest manufacturing unit. The
craftsmen or artisans use local raw materials
and simple hand tools to produce everyday
goods in their homes with the help of their family
members or part-time labour. Finished
products may be for consumption in the same
household or, for sale in local (village) markets,
or, for barter. Capital and transportation do not
wield much influence as this type of
manufacturing has low commercial significance
and most of the tools are devised locally.
Some common everyday products
produced in this sector of manufacturing
include foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers,
tools, furniture, shoes, and figurines from wood
lotandforest,shoes,thongsandotherarticlesfrom
leather; pottery and bricks from clays and stones.
Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver and
bronze. Some artefacts and crafts are made out of
bamboo, wood obtained locally from the forests.
Small Scale Manufacturing
Small scale manufacturing is distinguished
from household industries by its production
techniques and place of manufacture (a
workshop outside the home/cottage of the
producer). This type of manufacturing uses
local raw material, simple power-driven
machines and semi-skilled labour. It provides
employment and raises local purchasing power.
Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia
and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive
small scale manufacturing in order to provide
employment to their population.
Fig. 6.2 (a) : A man making pots in his courtyard-
example of household industry in Nagaland
Fig. 6.2 (b) : A man weaving a bamboo basket by the
roadside in Arunachal Pradesh
Fig. 6.3: Products of Cottage Industry on Sale
in Assam
Large Scale Manufacturing
Large scale manufacturing involves a large
market, various raw materials, enormous
energy, specialised workers, advanced
technology, assembly-line mass production and
large capital. This kind of manufacturing
developed in the last 200 years, in the United
Kingdom, north-eastern U.S.A. and Europe. Now
it has diffused in almost all over the world.

On the basis of the system of large scale
manufacturing, the world’s major industrial
regions may be grouped under two broad types,
namely
(i) traditional large-scale industrial regions
which are thickly clustered in a few more
developed countries.
(ii) high-technology large scale industrial
regions which have diffused to less
Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials
On the basis of the raw materials used, the
industries are classified as: (a) agro-based; (b)
mineral based; (c) chemical based; (d) forest
based: and (e) animal based.
(a) Agro based Industries
Agro processing involves the processing of raw
materials from the field and the farm into finished
products for rural and urban markets. Major
agro-processing industries are food processing,
sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee
and cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles
(cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
Food Processing
Agro processing includes canning, producing
cream, fruit processing and confectionery. While
some preserving techniques, such as drying,
fermenting and pickling, have been known since
ancient times, these had limited applications to
cater to the pre-Industrial Revolution demands.
Fig. 6.4 : Passenger car assembly hires at a plant of
the Motor Company in Japan
Agri-business is commercial farming
on an industrial scale often financed
by business whose main interests lie
outside agriculture, for example, large
corporations in tea plantation
business. Agri-business farms are
mechanised, large in size, highly
structured, reliant on chemicals, and
may be described as ‘agro-factories’.
(b) Mineral based Industries
These industries use minerals as a raw material.
Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals
which contain ferrous (iron), such as iron and
steel industries but some use non-ferrous
metallic minerals, such as aluminium, copper
and jewellery industries. Many industries use
non-metallic minerals such as cement and
pottery industries.
(c) Chemical based Industries
Such industries use natural chemical minerals,
e.g. mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in petro-
chemical industry. Salts, sulphur and potash
industries also use natural minerals. Chemical
industries are also based on raw materials
obtained from wood and coal. Synthetic fibre,
plastic, etc. are other examples of chemical based
industries.
Fig. 6.5: Tea Garden and a Tea Factory in the Nilgiri
Hills of Tamil Nadu

(d) Forest based Raw Material using
Industries
The forests provide many major and minor
products which are used as raw material.
Timber for furniture industry, wood, bamboo
and grass for paper industry, lac for lac
industries come from forests.
INDUSTRIES BASED ON OWNERSHIP
(a) Public Sector Industries are owned and
managed by governments. In India, there
were a number of Public Sector
Undertakings (PSUs). Socialist countries
have many state owned industries. Mixed
economies have both Public and Private
sector enterprises.
(b) Private Sector Industries are owned by
individual investors. These are managed
by private organisations. In capitalist
countries, industries are generally owned
privately.
(c) Joint Sector Industries are managed by
joint stock companies or sometimes the
private and public sectors together
establish and manage the industries. Can
you make a list of such industries?
Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions
These are based on heavy industry, often
located near coal-fields and engaged in metal
smelting, heavy engineering, chemical
manufacture or textile production. These
industries are now known as smokestack
industries. Traditional industrial regions can
be recognised by:
• High proportion of employment in
manufacturing industry.
High-density housing, often of inferior
type, and poor services.
Unattractive environment, for example,
pollution, waste heaps, and so on.
• Problems of unemployment, emigration
and derelict land areas caused by closure
of factories because of a worldwide fall in
demand.
The Ruhr Coal-field, Germany
This has been one of the major industrial
regions of Europe for a long time. Coal and iron
and steel formed the basis of the economy, but
as the demand for coal declined, the industry
started shrinking. Even after the iron ore was
exhausted, the industry remained, using
imported ore brought by waterways to the Ruhr.
The Ruhr region is responsible for 80 per
cent of Germany’s total steel production.
(e) Animal based Industries
Leather for leather industry and wool for
woollen textiles are obtained from animals.
Besides, ivory is also obtained from
elephant’s tusks.
Industries Based On Output/Product
You have seen some machines and tools made
of iron or steel. The raw material for such
machines and tools is iron and steel. Which is
itself an industry. The industry whose products
are used to make other goods by using them
as raw materials are basic industries. Can you
identify the links? Iron/steel machines
for textile industry clothes for use by
consumers.
The consumer goods industries produced
goods which are consumed by consumers
directly. For example, industries producing
breads and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries,
paper for writing, televisions, etc. are consumer
goods or non-basic industries.
Fig. 6.6: A pulp mill in the heart of the Ketchikan’s
timber area of Alaska

Changes in the industrial structure have led to
the decay of some areas, and there are problems
of industrial waste and pollution. The future
prosperity of the Ruhr is based less on the
products of coal and steel, for which it was
initially famous, and more on the new
industries like the huge Opel car assembly
plant, new chemical plants, universities. Out-
of-town shopping centres have appeared
resulting in a ‘New Ruhr’ landscape.
Concept of High Technology Industry
High technology, or simply high-tech, is the
latest generation of manufacturing activities. It
is best understood as the application of
intensive research and development (R and D)
efforts leading to the manufacture of products
of an advanced scientific and engineering
character. Professional (white collar) workers
make up a large share of the total workforce.
These highly skilled specialists greatly
outnumber the actual production (blue collar)
workers. Robotics on the assembly line,
computer -aided design (CAD) and
manufacturing, electronic controls of smelting
and refining processes, and the constant
development of new chemical and
pharmaceutical products are notable examples
of a high-tech industry.
Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed,
office-plant-lab buildings rather than massive
assembly structures, factories and storage
areas mark the high-tech industrial landscape.
Planned business parks for high-tech start-ups
have become part of regional and local
development schemes.
High-tech industries which are regionally
concentrated, self-sustained and highly
specialised are called technopolies. The Silicon
Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest
near Seattle are examples of technopolies. Are
some technopolies developing in India?
Manufacturing contributes significantly to
the world economy. Iron and steel, textiles,
automobiles, petrochemicals and electronics
are some of the world’s most important
manufacturing industries.
Iron and Steel Industry
The iron and steel industry forms the base of
all other industries and, therefore, it is called a
basic industry. It is basic because it provides
raw material for other industries such as
machine tools used for further production. It
may also be called a heavy industry because it
uses large quantities of bulky raw materials and
its products are also heavy.
Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting
in a blast furnace with carbon (coke) and
limestone. The molten iron is cooled and
moulded to form pig iron which is used for
converting into steel by adding strengthening
materials like manganese.
The large integrated steel industry is
traditionally located close to the sources of raw
materials – iron ore, coal, manganese and
limestone – or at places where these could be
easily brought, e.g. near ports. But in mini steel
mills access to markets is more important than
inputs. These are less expensive to build and
operate and can be located near markets
because of the abundance of scrap metal, which
is the main input. Traditionally, most of the steel
was produced at large integrated plants, but
mini mills are limited to just one-step process –
steel making – and are gaining ground.
Distribution : The industry is one of the
most complex and capital-intensive industries
and is concentrated in the advanced countries
of North America, Europe and Asia. In U.S.A,
most of the production comes from the north
Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake
region (Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain,
Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast
(Sparrows Point and Morisville). The industry
has also moved towards the southern state of
Alabama. Pittsburg area is now losing ground.
It has now become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A. In
Europe, U.K., Germany, France, Belgium,
Luxembourgh, the Netherlands and Russia are
the leading producers. The important steel
centres are Birmingham and Sheffield in the
U.K.; Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and
Essen in Germany; Le Creusot and St. Ettienne
in France; and Moscow, St. Petersburgh,
Lipetsk, Tula, in Russia and Krivoi Rog, and

Donetsk in Ukraine. In Asia, the important
centres include Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama
in Japan; Shanghai, Tienstin and Wuhan in
China; and Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur,
Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem,
Visakhapatnam and Bhadravati in India.
Consult your atlas to locate these places/
centres.
Cotton Textile Industry
Cotton textile industry has three sub-sectors
i.e. handloom, powerloom and mill sectors.
Handloom sector is labour-intensive and
provides employment to semi-skilled workers.
It requires small capital investment. Why did
Mahatma Gandhi propagate Khadi as part of
the independence movement? This sector
involves spinning, weaving and finishing of the
fabrics. The powerloom sector introduces
machines and becomes less labour intensive
and the volume of production increases. Cotton
textile mill sector is highly capital intensive and
produces fine clothes in bulk.
Cotton textile manufacturing requires good
quality cotton as raw material. India, China,
U.S.A, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt produce
more than half of the world’s raw cotton. The
U.K, NW European countries and Japan also
produce cotton textile made from imported
yarn. Europe alone accounts for nearly half of
the world’s cotton imports. The industry has to
face very stiff competition with synthetic fibres
hence it has now shown a declining trend in
many countries. With the scientific advancement
and technological improvements the structure
of industries changes. For example, Germany
recorded constant growth in cotton textile
industry since Second World War till the
seventies but now it has declined. It has shifted
to less developed countries where labour costs
are low.
(i) Which one of the following statements is wrong?
(a) Cheap water transport has facilitated the jute mill industry along
the Hugli.
(b) Sugar, cotton textiles and vegetable oils are footloose industries.
(c) The development of hydro-electricity and petroleum reduced, to a great
extent, the importance of coal energy as a locational factor for
industry.
(d) Port towns in India have attracted industries.
(ii) In which one of the following types of economy are the factors of production
owned individually ?
(a) Capitalist (c) Socialist
(b) Mixed (d) None
(iii) Which one of the following types of industries produces raw materials
for other industries?
(a) Cottage Industries (c) Basic Industries
(b) Small-scale Industries (d) Footloose Industries

(iv) Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched ?
(a) Automobile industry … Los Angeles
(b) Shipbuilding industry … Lusaka
(c) Aircraft industry … Florence
(d) Iron and Steel industry … Pittsburgh
2. Write a short note on the following in about 30 words.
(i) High-Tech industry
(ii) Manufacturing
(iii) Footloose industries
3. Answer the following in not more than 150 words.
(i) Differentiate between primary and secondary activities.
(ii) Discuss the major trends of modern industrial activities especially in
the developed countries of the world.
(iii) Explain why high-tech industries in many countries are being attracted
to the peripheral areas of major metropolitan centres.
(iv) Africa has immense natural resources and yet it is industrially the most
backward continent. Comment.
(i) Carry out a survey in your school premises of the factory-made goods
used by students and the staff.
(ii) Find out the meaning of the terms bio-degradable and non-
biodegradable. Which kind of material is better to use? Why?
(iii) Look around and make a list of the global brands, their logos and
products.

Chapter-7
Tertiary and
Quaternary Activities
When you fall ill you go to your family doctor
or you call a doctor. Sometimes your parents
take you to a hospital for treatment. While in
school, you are taught by your teachers. In the
event of any dispute, legal opinion is obtained
from a lawyer. Likewise, there are many
professionals who provide their services against
payment of their fee. Thus, all types of services
are special skills provided in exchange of
payments. Health, education, law, governance
and recreation etc. require professional skills.
These services require other theoretical
knowledge and practical training. Tertiary
activities are related to the service sector.
Manpower is an important component of the
service sector as most of the tertiary activities
are performed by skilled labour, professionally
trained experts and consultants.
In the initial stages of economic
development, larger proportion of people
worked in the primary sector. In a developed
economy, the majority of workers get
employment in tertiary activity and a moderate
proportion is employed in the secondary sector.
Tertiary activities include both production
and exchange. The production involves the
‘provision’ of services that are ‘consumed’. The
output is indirectly measured in terms of wages
and salaries. Exchange, involves trade,
transport and communication facilities that are
used to overcome distance. Tertiary activities,
therefore, involve the commercial output of
services rather than the production of tangible
goods. They are not directly involved in the
processing of physical raw materials. Common
examples are the work of a plumber, electrician,
technician, launderer, barber, shopkeeper,
driver, cashier, teacher, doctor, lawyer and
publisher etc. The main difference between
secondary activities and tertiary activities is that
the expertise provided by services relies more
heavily on specialised skills, experience and
knowledge of the workers rather than on the
production techniques, machinery and factory
processes.
TYPES OF TERTYPES OF TERTYPES OF TERTYPES OF TERTYPES OF TERTIARTIARTIARTIARTIARY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIES
By now you know that you purchase your
books, stationery from traders shop, travel by

Fig.7.1:ServiceSector

Tertiary and Quaternary Activities 57
bus or rail, send letters, talk on telephone and
obtain services of teachers for studies and
doctors at the time of illness.
Thus, trade, transport, communication
and services are some of the tertiary activities
discussed in this section. The chart provides
the basis for classifying the tertiary activities.
TRADE AND COMMERCETRADE AND COMMERCETRADE AND COMMERCETRADE AND COMMERCETRADE AND COMMERCE
Trade is essentially buying and selling of items
produced elsewhere. All the services in retail
and wholesale trading or commerce are
specifically intended for profit. All this work
takes place in towns and cities also known as
trading centres.
The rise of trading from barter at the local
level to money-exchange of international scale
has produced many centres and institutions
such as trading centres or collection and
distribution points.
Trading centres may be divided into rural
and urban marketing centres.
Rural marketing centres cater to nearby
settlements. These are quasi-urban centres.
They serve as trading centres of the most
rudimentary type. Here personal and
professional services are not well-developed.
These form local collecting and distributing
centres. Most of these have mandis (wholesale
markets) and also retailing areas. They are not
urban centres per se but are significant centres
for making available goods and services which
are most frequently demanded by rural folk.
Fig. 7.2: A Wholesale Vegetable Market
Periodic markets in rural areas are found
where there are no regular markets and local
periodic markets are organised at different
temporal intervals. These may be weekly, bi-
weekly markets from where people from the
surrounding areas meet their temporally
accumulated demand. These markets are
held on specified dates and move from one
place to another. The shopkeepers thus,
remain busy on all the days while a large area
is served by them.
Urban marketing centres have more widely
specialised urban services. They provide
ordinary goods and services as well as many of
the specialised goods and services required by
people. Urban centres, therefore, offer
manufactured goods as well as many
specialised markets develop, e.g. markets for
labour, housing, semi or finished products.
Services of educational institutions and
professionals such as teachers, lawyers,
consultants, physicians, dentists and veterinary
doctors are available.
Fig. 7.3: Packed Food Market in U.S.A.
RETRETRETRETRETAIL TRADING SERAIL TRADING SERAIL TRADING SERAIL TRADING SERAIL TRADING SERVICESVICESVICESVICESVICES
This is the business activity concerned with the
sale of goods directly to the consumers. Most
of the retail trading take place in fixed
establishments or stores solely devoted to
selling. Street peddling, handcarts, trucks,
door-to-door, mail-order, telephone, automatic
vending machines and internet are examples
of non-store retail selling.

MMMMMore on Storesore on Storesore on Storesore on Storesore on Stores
Consumer cooperativesConsumer cooperativesConsumer cooperativesConsumer cooperativesConsumer cooperativeswere the first of
thelarge-scaleinnovationsinretailing.
Departmental storesDepartmental storesDepartmental storesDepartmental storesDepartmental stores delegate the
responsibilityandauthoritytodepartmental
headsforpurchasingofcommoditiesand
foroverseeingthesaleindifferentsections
ofthestores.
Chain storesChain storesChain storesChain storesChain stores are able to purchase
merchandise most economically, often
going so far as to direct the goods to be
manufacturedtotheirspecification. They
employ highly skilled specialists in many
executive tasks. They have the ability to
experiment in one store and apply the
resultstomany.
WHOLESALE TRADING SERVICEWHOLESALE TRADING SERVICEWHOLESALE TRADING SERVICEWHOLESALE TRADING SERVICEWHOLESALE TRADING SERVICE
Wholesale trading constitutes bulk business
through numerous intermediary merchants
and supply houses and not through retail
stores. Some large stores including chain stores
are able to buy directly from the manufacturers.
However, most retail stores procure supplies
from an intermediary source. Wholesalers often
extend credit to retail stores to such an extent
that the retailer operates very largely on the
wholesaler’s capital.
TRANSPORTRANSPORTRANSPORTRANSPORTRANSPORT AND COMMUNICAT AND COMMUNICAT AND COMMUNICAT AND COMMUNICAT AND COMMUNICATIONTIONTIONTIONTION
SERVICESSERVICESSERVICESSERVICESSERVICES
Transport is a service or facility by which
persons, manufactured goods, and property are
physically carried from one location to another.
It is an organised industry created to satisfy
man’s basic need of mobility. Modern society
requires speedy and efficient transport systems
to assist in the production, distribution and
consumption of goods. At every stage in this
complex system, the value of the material is
significantly enhanced by transportation.
Transport distance can be measured as:
km distance or actual distance of route length;
time distance or the time taken to travel on a
particular route; and cost distance or the
expense of travelling on a route. In selecting the
mode of transport, distance, in terms of time or
cost, is the determining factor. Isochrone lines
are drawn on a map to joins places equal in
terms of the time taken to reach them.
Network and AccessibilityNetwork and AccessibilityNetwork and AccessibilityNetwork and AccessibilityNetwork and Accessibility
As transport systems develop, different
places are linked together to form a
network.network.network.network.network.Networksaremadeupofnodes
andlinks.Anodenodenodenodenodeor vertex,vertex,vertex,vertex,vertex,isthemeeting
pointoftwoormoreroutes,apointoforigin,
apointofdestinationoranysizeabletown
along a route, Every road that joins two
nodesiscalleda linklinklinklinklinkoredge.edge.edge.edge.edge. Adeveloped
networkhasmanylinks,whichmeansthat
placesarewell-connected.
Factors Affecting Transport Services
Demand for transport is influenced by the size
of population. The larger the population size,
the greater is the demand for transport.
Routes depend on: location of cities,
towns, villages, industrial centres and raw
materials, pattern of trade between them, nature
of the landscape between them, type of climate,
and funds available for overcoming obstacles
along the length of the route.
COMMUNICATION SERVICES
Communication services involve the
transmission of words and messages, facts
and ideas. The invention of writing preserved
messages and helped to make communication
dependent on means of transport. These were
actually carried by hand, animals, boat, road,
rail and air. That is why all forms of transport
are also referred to as lines of communication.
Where the transport network is efficient,
communications are easily disseminated.
Certain developments, such as mobile
telephony and satellites, have made
communications independent of transport. All
forms are not fully disassociated because of the
cheapness of the older systems. Thus, very

large volumes of mail continue to be handled
by post offices all over the world.
Some of the communication services are
discussed below.
Telecommunications
The use of telecommunications is linked to the
development of electrical technology. It has
revolutionised communications because of the
speed with which messages are sent. The time
reduced is from weeks to minutes and recent
advancements like mobile telephony have made
communications direct and instantaneous at
any time and from anywhere. The telegraph,
morse code and telex have almost become
things of the past.
Radio and television also help to relay
news, pictures, and telephone calls to vast
audiences around the world and hence they are
termed as mass media. They are vital for
advertising and entertainment. Newspapers are
able to cover events in all corners of the world.
Satellite communication relays information of
the earth and from space. The internet has truly
revolutionised the global communication
system .
SERVICESSERVICESSERVICESSERVICESSERVICES
Services occur at many different levels. Some
are geared to industry, some to people; and some
to both industry and people, e.g. the transport
systems. Low-order services, such as grocery
shops and laundries, are more common and
widespread than high-order services or more
specialised ones like those of accountants,
consultants and physicians. Services are
provided to individual consumers who can
afford to pay for them. For example the
gardener, the launderers and the barber do
primarily physical labour. Teacher, lawyers,
physicians, musicians and others perform
mental labour.
Many services have now been regulated.
Making and maintaining highways and
bridges, maintaining fire fighting departments
and supplying or supervising education and
customer-care are among the important
services most often supervised or performed by
governments or companies. State and union
legislation have established corporations to
supervise and control the marketing of such
services as transport, telecommunication,
energy and water supply. Professional services
are primarily health care, engineering, law and
management. The location of recreational and
entertainment services depends on the market.
Multiplexes and restaurants might find location
within or near the Central Business District
(CBD), whereas a golf course would choose a
site where land costs are lower than in the CBD.
Informal/Non-Formal Sector
Personal services are made available to the
people to facilitate their work in daily life. The
workers migrate from rural areas in search of
employment and are unskilled. They are
employed in domestic services as
housekeepers, cooks, and gardeners. This
segment of workers is unorganised. One such
example in India is Mumbai’s dabbawala
(Tiffin) service provided to about 1,75,000
customers all over the city.
Fig. 7.4: Dabbawala Service in Mumbai
PEOPLE ENGPEOPLE ENGPEOPLE ENGPEOPLE ENGPEOPLE ENGAAAAAGED INGED INGED INGED INGED IN
TERTERTERTERTERTIARTIARTIARTIARTIARY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIES
Today most people are service workers. Services
are provided in all societies. But in more
developed countries a higher percentage of
workers is employed in provision of services in
contrast to less than 10 per cent in the less
developed countries. In U.S.A. over 75 per cent
of workers are engaged in services. The trend

in employment in this sector has been
increasing while it has remained unchanged or
decreasing in the primary and secondary
activities.
Some Selected Examples
Tourism
Tourism is travel undertaken for purposes of
recreation rather than business. It has become
the world’s single largest tertiary activity in total
registered jobs (250 million) and total revenue
(40 per cent of the total GDP). Besides, many
local persons, are employed to provide services
like accommodation, meals, transport,
entertainment and special shops serving the
tourists. Tourism fosters the growth of
infrastructure industries, retail trading, and craft
industries (souvenirs). In some regions, tourism
is seasonal because the vacation period is
dependent on favourable weather conditions,
but many regions attract visitors all the year
round.
Fig. 7.5: Tourists skiing in the snow capped
mountain slopes of Switzerland
Tourist Regions
The warmer places around the Mediterranean
Coast and the West Coast of India are some of
the popular tourist destinations in the world.
Others include winter sports regions, found
mainly in mountainous areas, and various
scenic landscapes and national parks, which
are scattered. Historic towns also attract
tourists, because of the monument, heritage
sites and cultural activities.
Factors Affecting Tourism
Demand : Since the last century, the demand
for holidays has increased rapidly.
Improvements in the standard of living and
increased leisure time, permit many more
people to go on holidays for leisure.
Transport : The opening-up of tourist
areas has been aided by improvement in
transport facilities. Travel is easier by car, with
better road systems. More significant in recent
years has been the expansion in air transport.
For example, air travel allows one to travel
anywhere in the world in a few hours of flying-
time from their homes. The advent of package
holidays has reduced the costs.
Tourist Attractions
Climate: Most people from colder regions expect
to have warm, sunny weather for beach
holidays. This is one of the main reasons for
the importance of tourism in Southern Europe
and the Mediterranean lands. The
Mediterranean climate offers almost consistently
higher temperatures, than in other parts of
Europe, long hours of sunshine and low rainfall
throughout the peak holiday season. People
taking winter holidays have specific climatic
requirements, either higher temperatures than
their own homelands, or snow cover suitable
for skiing.
Landscape: Many people like to spend
their holidays in an attractive environment,
which often means mountains, lakes,
spectacular sea coasts and landscapes not
completely altered by man.
History and Art: The history and art of an
area have potential attractiveness. People visit
ancient or picturesque towns and
archaeological sites, and enjoy exploring
castles, palaces and churches.
Culture and Economy: These attract
tourists with a penchant for experiencing ethnic
and local customs. Besides, if a region provides
for the needs of tourists at a cheap cost, it is
likely to become very popular. Home-stay has
emerged as a profitable business such as

heritage homes in Goa, Madikere and Coorg
in Karnataka.
Empowered Workers
Entrepreneurs are the empowered workers of
the quarternary sector and the slowly emerging
quinrary sector. They represent an important
stage of development in the hierarchy of
economic activity where the need for self-
actualisation is not motivated by wealth and
security alone but by other factors. They have
predominantly a value system which
emphasises quality of life and believe in
creativity and individual values.
Theilliterateofthetwentyfirstcenturywill
notbethosewhodonotreadorwritebut
thosewhodonotlearn,re-learnandun-learn.
–AlvinToffler
Where Will it All Lead to?Where Will it All Lead to?Where Will it All Lead to?Where Will it All Lead to?Where Will it All Lead to?
No one can be sure where all this change
will lead to but some patterns do point strongly
to the future. As ideas and freedom of
information and communication grow, people
will expect their applications at the workplace.
More employees will receive training and
become highly skilled. They will work more and
more on their own initiative. Many will have
flexible working arrangements. Some will
choose work – paid and unpaid – that is
personally fulfilling and accords with their
concern for natural environment and social
issues.
These are just predictions. But part ofThese are just predictions. But part ofThese are just predictions. But part ofThese are just predictions. But part ofThese are just predictions. But part of
the future belongs to you. By thethe future belongs to you. By thethe future belongs to you. By thethe future belongs to you. By thethe future belongs to you. By the
choices made, you, too, can affect thechoices made, you, too, can affect thechoices made, you, too, can affect thechoices made, you, too, can affect thechoices made, you, too, can affect the
changing patterns and work withoutchanging patterns and work withoutchanging patterns and work withoutchanging patterns and work withoutchanging patterns and work without
increasing the strain upon naturalincreasing the strain upon naturalincreasing the strain upon naturalincreasing the strain upon naturalincreasing the strain upon natural
resources and help save the planet.resources and help save the planet.resources and help save the planet.resources and help save the planet.resources and help save the planet.
QUQUQUQUQUAAAAATERNTERNTERNTERNTERNARARARARARY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIES
What do a CEO of an MNC in Copenhagen, at
New York and a medical transcriptionist at
Bangalore have in common? All these people
work in a segment of the service sector that is
knowledge oriented. This sector can be divided
into quaternary and quinary activities.
Quaternary activities involve some of the
following: the collection, production and
dissemination of information or even the
production of information. Quaternary activities
centre around research, development and may
be seen as an advanced form of services
involving specialised knowledge, technical
skills, and administrative competence.
The Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary Sector
The Quaternary Sector along with the
TertiarySectorhasreplacedallprimaryand
secondary employment as the basis for
economicgrowth.Overhalfofallworkers
In developed economies are in the
‘Knowledge Sector’ and there has been a
very high growth in demand for and
consumptionofinformation-basedservices

from mutual fund managers to tax
consultants, software developers and
statisticians. Personnel working in office
buildings, elementary schools and
university classrooms, hospitals and
doctors’offices,theatres,accountingand
brokeragefirmsallbelongtothiscategory
ofservices.
Like some of the tertiary functions,
quaternaryactivitiescanalsobeoutsourced.
Theyarenottiedtoresources,affectedby
theenvironment,ornecessarilylocalisedby
market.
QUINQUINQUINQUINQUINARARARARARY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIESY ACTIVITIES
The highest level of decision makers or policy
makers perform quinary activities. These are
subtly different from the knowledge based
industries that the quinary sector in general
deals with.
Quinaryactivitiesareservicesthatfocuson
the creation, re-arrangement and
interpretationofnewandexistingideas;data
interpretationandtheuseandevaluationof
newtechnologies.Oftenreferredtoas‘gold
collar’professions,theyrepresentanother
subdivisionofthetertiarysectorrepresenting
special and highly paid skills of senior
businessexecutives,governmentofficials,
research scientists, financial and legal
consultants, etc. Their importance in the
structure of advanced economies far
outweighstheirnumbers.
Outsourcing has resulted in the opening
up of a large number of call centres in India,
China, Eastern Europe, Israel, Philippines and
Costa Rica. It has created new jobs in these
countries. Outsourcing is coming to those
countries where cheap and skilled workers are
available. These are also out-migrating
countries. With the work available though
outsourcing, the migration in these countries
may come down. Outsourcing countries are
facing resistance from job-seeking youths in
their respective countries. The comparative
advantage is the main reason for continuing
outsourcing. New trends in quarternary services
include knowledge processing outsourcing
(KPO) and ‘home shoring’, the latter as an
alternative to outsourcing. The KPO industry
is distinct from Business Process Outsourcing
(BPO) as it involves more high skilled workers.
It is information driven knowledge outsourcing.
KPO enables companies to create additional
business opportunities. Examples of KPOs
include research and development (R and D)
activities, e-learning, business research,
intellectual property (IP) research, legal
profession and the banking sector.
OutsourcingOutsourcingOutsourcingOutsourcingOutsourcing
Outsourcingorcontractingoutisgivingwork
toanoutsideagencytoimproveefficiency
and reduce costs. When outsourcing
involves transferring work to overseas
locations, it is described by the term off -
shoring, although both off - shoring and
outsourcing are used together. Business
activities that are outsourced include
information technology (IT), human
resources,customersupportandcallcentre
servicesandattimesalsomanufacturing
andengineering.
DataprocessingisanITrelatedservice
easily be carried out in Asian, East
European and African countries, In these
countriesITskilledstaffwithgoodEnglish
languageskillsareavailableatlowerwages
thanthoseinthedevelopedcountries.Thus,
a company in Hyderabad or Manila does
workonaprojectbasedonGIStechniques
foracountrylikeU.S.AorJapan.Overhead
costs are also much lower making it
profitable to get job-work carried out
overseas, whether it is in India, China or
evenalesspopulouscountrylikeBotswana
inAfrica.

Describethenatureofworkagainsteachcolour-name
Colour of the collarColour of the collarColour of the collarColour of the collarColour of the collar Nature of workNature of workNature of workNature of workNature of work
Red ?
Gold ?
White ?
Grey ?
Blue ?
Pink ?
Medical Services for Overseas Patients in India
About 55,000 patients from U.S.A. visited India
in 2005 for treatment. This is still a small
number compared with the millions of surgeries
performed each year in the U.S. healthcare
system. India has emerged as the leading
country of medical tourism in the world. World
class hospitals located in metropolitan cities
cater to patients all over the world. Medical
tourism brings abundant benefits to developing
countries like India, Thailand, Singapore and
Malaysia. Beyond medical tourism, is the trend
of outsourcing of medical tests and data
interpretation. Hospitals in India, Switzerland
and Australia have been performing certain
medical services – ranging from reading
radiology images, to interpreting Magnetic
Resonance Images (MRIs) and ultrasound tests.
Outsourcing holds tremendous advantages for
patients, if it is focused on improving quality or
providing specialised care.
Medical TourismMedical TourismMedical TourismMedical TourismMedical Tourism
Whenmedicaltreatmentiscombinedwith
internationaltourismactivity,itlendsitself
to what is commonly known as medical
tourism.
TTTTTHE DIGITHE DIGITHE DIGITHE DIGITHE DIGITAL DIVIDEAL DIVIDEAL DIVIDEAL DIVIDEAL DIVIDE
Opportunities emerging from the Information
and Communication Technology based
development is unevenly distributed across the
globe. There are wide ranging economic,
political and social differences among countries.
How quickly countries can provide ICT access
and benefits to its citizens is the deciding factor.
While developed countries in general have
surged forward, the developing countries have
lagged behind and this is known as the digital
divide. Similarly digital divides exist within
countries. For example, in a large country like
India or Russia, it is inevitable that certain areas
like metropolitan centres possess better
connectivity and access to the digital world
versus peripheral rural areas.
Organiseaninformaldebatesessioninyourclassabouthowcouldtheemergingmedical
industryofourcountrybecomeaboomaswellasdoom?

(i) Which one of the following is a tertiary activity?
(a) Farming (c) Weaving
(b) Trading (d) Hunting
(ii) Which one of the following activities is NOT a secondary sector activity?
(a) Iron Smelting (c) Making garments
(b) Catching fish (d) Basket Weaving
(iii) Which one of the following sectors provides most of the employment in Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
(a) Primary (c) Secondary
(b) Quaternary (d) Service
(iv) Jobs that involve high degrees and level of innovations are known as:
(a) Secondary activities (c) Quinary activities
(b) Quaternary activities (d) Primary activities
(v) Which one of the following activities is related to quaternary sector?
(a) Manufacturing computers (c) University teaching
(b) Paper and Raw pulp production (d) Printing books
(vi) Which one out of the following statements is not true?
(a) Outsourcing reduces costs and increases efficiency.
(b) At times engineering and manufacturing jobs can also be outsourced.
(c) BPOs have better business opportunities as compared to KPOs.
(d) There may be dissatisfaction among job seekers in the countries that
outsource the job.
(i) Explain retail trading service.
(ii) Describe quaternary services.
(iii) Name the fast emerging countries of medical tourism in the world.
(iv) What is digital divide?
(i) Discuss the significance and growth of the service sector in modern
economic development.
(ii) Explain in detail the significance of transport and communication services.
(i) Find out the activities of BPO.
(ii) Find out from a travel agent the documents you need to travel abroad.

Chapter-8
Transport and
Communication
Natural resources, economic activities and
markets are rarely found in one place.
Transport, communication and trade establish
links between producing centres and
consuming centres. The system of mass
production and exchange is complex. Each
region produces the items for which it is best
suited. Trade or the exchange of such
commodities relies on transportation and
communication. Likewise, the high living
standards and quality of life depend on efficient
transportation, communications and trade. In
earlier days, the means of transport and
communication were the same. But today both
have acquired distinct and specialised forms.
Transport provides the network of links and
carriers through which trade takes place.
TRANSPORTRANSPORTRANSPORTRANSPORTRANSPORTTTTT
Transport is a service or facility for the carriage
of persons and goods from one place to the other
using humans, animals and different kinds of
vehicles. Such movements take place over land,
water and air. Roads and railways form part of
land transport; while shipping and waterways
and airways are the other two modes. Pipelines
carry materials like petroleum, natural gas, and
ores in liquidified form.
Moreover, transportation is an organised
service industry created to satisfy the basic
needs of society. It includes transport arteries,
vehicles to carry people and goods, and the
organisation to maintain arteries, and to handle
loading, unloading and delivery. Every nation
has developed various kinds of transportation
for defence purposes. Assured and speedy
transportation, along with efficient
communication, promote cooperation and
unity among scattered peoples.
What is a Transport NetworkWhat is a Transport NetworkWhat is a Transport NetworkWhat is a Transport NetworkWhat is a Transport Network ?????
Severalplaces(nodes)joinedtogetherbya
seriesofroutes(links)toformapattern.
MODES OF TRANSPORMODES OF TRANSPORMODES OF TRANSPORMODES OF TRANSPORMODES OF TRANSPORTTTTTAAAAATIONTIONTIONTIONTION
The principal modes of world transportation,
as already mentioned are land, water, air and

pipelines. These are used for inter-regional and
intra-regional transport, and each one (except
pipelines) carries both passengers and freight.
The significance of a mode depends on the type
of goods and services to be transported, costs
of transport and the mode available.
International movement of goods is handled by
ocean freighters. Road transport is cheaper and
faster over short distances and for door-to-
door services. Railways are most suited for large
volumes of bulky materials over long distances
within a country. High-value, light and
perishable goods are best moved by airways.
In a well-managed transport system, these
various modes complement each other.
Land Transport
Most of the movement of goods and services
takes place over land. In early days, humans
themselves were carriers. Have you ever seen a
bride being carried on a palanquin (palki/doli)
by four persons (Kahars in north India). Later
animals were used as beasts of burden. Have
you seen mules, horses and camels, carrying
loads of cargo in rural areas? With the invention
of the wheel, the use of carts and wagons
became important. The revolution in transport
came about only after the invention of the steam
engine in the eighteenth century. Perhaps the
first public railway line was opened in 1825
between Stockton and Darlington in northern
England and then onwards, railways became
the most popular and fastest form of transport
in the nineteenth century. It opened up
continental interiors for commercial grain
farming, mining and manufacturing in U.S.A.
The invention of the internal combustion engine
revolutionised road transport in terms of road
quality and vehicles (motor cars and trucks)
plying over them. Among the newer
developments in land transportation are
pipelines, ropeways and cableways. Liquids like
mineral oil, water, sludge and sewers are
transported by pipelines. The great freight
carriers are the railways, ocean vessels, barges,
boats and motor trucks and pipelines.
In general, the old and elementary forms
like the human porter, pack animal, cart or
wagon are the most expensive means of
transportation and large freighters are the
cheapest. They are important in supplementing
modern channels and carriers which penetrate
the interiors in large countries. In the densely
populated districts of India and China, overland
transport still takes place by human porters or
carts drawn or pushed by humans.
Pack AnimalsPack AnimalsPack AnimalsPack AnimalsPack Animals
HorsesHorsesHorsesHorsesHorsesareusedasadraughtanimaleven
in the Western countries. DogsDogsDogsDogsDogs and
reindeerreindeerreindeerreindeerreindeerareusedinNorthAmerica,North
Europe and Siberia to draw sledges over
snow-coveredground.MulesMulesMulesMulesMulesarepreferred
in the mountainous regions; while camelscamelscamelscamelscamels
areusedforcaravanmovementindeserts.
InIndia,bullocksbullocksbullocksbullocksbullocksareusedforpullingcarts.
Fig. 8.2: A horse cart in a village Tefki,
in Ethiopia
Fig. 8.1: Ropeway and Cable cars in Austria
This means of transport is usually found on steep
mountainslopesandmineswhicharenotsuitablefor
buildingroads.

Transport and Communication 67
Roads
Road transport is the most economical for short
distances compared to railways. Freight
transport by road is gaining importance
because it offers door-to-door service. But
unmetalled roads, though simple in
construction, are not effective and serviceable
for all seasons. During the rainy season these
become unmotorable and even the metalled
ones are seriously handicapped during heavy
rains and floods. In such conditions, the high
embankment of rail-tracks and the efficient
maintenance of railway transport service, is an
effective solution. But the rail kilometrage being
small cannot serve the needs of vast and
developing countries at a low cost. Roads,
therefore, play a vital role in a nation’s trade
and commerce and for promoting tourism.
The quality of the roads varies greatly
between developed and developing countries
because road construction and maintenance
require heavy expenditure. In developed
countries good quality roads are universal and
provide long-distance links in the form of
motorways, autobahns (Germany), and inter–
state highways for speedy movement. Lorries,
of increasing size and power to carry heavy
loads, are common. But unfortunately, the
world’s road system is not well developed.
The world’s total motorable road length
is only about 15 million km, of which North
America accounts for 33 per cent. The highest
road density and the highest number of
vehicles are registered in this continent
compared to Western Europe.
Table 8.1: Length of the Roads
Sl. Countries For every
No. 100 km2
area
1. India 105
2. Japan 327
3. France 164
4. U.K. 162
5. U.S.A. 67
6. Spain 68
7. Sri Lanka 151
Source : Encyclopedia Britannica – Year Book, 2005.
Traffic Flows: Traffic on roads has
increased dramatically in recent years. When
the road network cannot cope with the demands
of traffic, congestion occurs. City roads suffer
from chronic traffic congestion. Peaks (high
points) and troughs (low points) of traffic flow
can be seen on roads at particular times of the
day, for example, peaks occurring during the
rush hour before and after work. Most of the
cities in the world have been facing the problem
of congestion.
Think on these lines for aThink on these lines for aThink on these lines for aThink on these lines for aThink on these lines for a
better tomorrow . . .better tomorrow . . .better tomorrow . . .better tomorrow . . .better tomorrow . . .
URBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONSURBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONSURBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONSURBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONSURBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONS
HigherParkingFee
MassRapidTransit(MRT)
ImprovedPublicBusService
Expressways
Highways
Highways are metalled roads connecting distant
places. They are constructed in a manner for
unobstructed vehicular movement. As such
these are 80 m wide, with separate traffic lanes,
bridges, flyovers and dual carriageways to
facilitate uninterrupted traffic flow. In developed
countries, every city and port town is linked
through highways.
Fig. 8.3 : Dharmavaram Tuni National Highway,
India

In North America, highway density is high,
about 0.65 km per sq km. Every place is within
20 km distance from a highway. Cities located
on the Pacific coast (west) are well-connected
with those of the Atlantic Coast (east). Likewise,
the cities of Canada in the north are linked with
those of Mexico in the south. The Trans-
Canadian Highway links Vancouver in British
Columbia(west coast) to St. John’s City in
Newfoundland (east coast) and the Alaskan
Highway links Edmonton (Canada) to
Anchorage (Alaska).
The Pan-American Highway, a large
portion of which has been constructed, will
connect the countries of South America, Central
America and U.S.A.-Canada. The Trans-
Continental Stuart Highway connects Darwin
(north coast) and Melbourne via Tennant Creek
and Alice Springs in Australia.
Europe has a large number of vehicles and
a well-developed highway network. But
highways face a lot of competition from railways
and waterways.
In Russia, a dense highway network is
developed in the industrialised region west of
the Urals with Moscow as the hub. The
important Moscow-Vladivostok Highway serves
the region to the east. Due to the vast
geographical area, highways in Russia are not
as important as railways.
In China, highways criss-cross the country
connecting all major cities such as Tsungtso
(near Vietnam boundary), Shanghai (central
China), Guangzhou (south) and Beijing (north).
A new highway links Chengdu with Lhasa in
Tibet.
In India, there are many highways
linking the major towns and cities. For
example, National Highway No. 7 (NH 7),
connecting Varanasi with Kanya Kumari, is
the longest in the country. The Golden
Quadrilateral (GQ) or Super Expressway is
underway to connect the four metropolitan
cities — New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore,
Chennai, Kolkata and Hyderabad.
In Africa, a highway joins Algiers in the
north to Conakry in Guinea. Similarly, Cairo
is also connected to Cape Town.
Border Roads
Roads laid along international boundaries are
called border roads. They play an important
role in integrating people in remote areas with
major cities and providing defence. Almost all
countries have such roads to transport goods
to border villages and military camps.
Railways
Railways are a mode of land transport for
bulky goods and passengers over long
distances. The railway gauges vary in different
countries and are roughly classified as broad
(more than 1.5 m), standard (1.44 m), metre
gauge (1 m) and smaller gauges. The standard
gauge is used in the U.K.
Commuter trains are very popular in U.K.,
U.S.A, Japan and India. These carry millions
of passengers daily to and fro in the city. There
are about 13 lakh km of railways open for traffic
in the world.
Fig. 8.4: Tube Train in Vienna
Table 8.2: Total Length of Railways in Selected
Countries (in 100 sq km)
Sl. Countries For every
No. 100/km2
area
1. U.S.A. 278.3
2. Russia 160.8
3. India 144.7
4. Canada 93.5
5. Germany 90.8
6. China 70.1
7. Australia 40.0
8. U.K. 37.9
9. France 34.5
10. Brazil 30.1
Source : Encyclopaedia Britanica – Year Book, 2005.

Europe has one of the most dense rail
networks in the world. There are about
4,40,000 km of railways, most of which is
double or multiple-tracked. Belgium has the
highest density of 1 km of railway for every 6.5
sq kms area. The industrial regions exhibit
some of the highest densities in the world. The
important rail heads are London, Paris,
Brussels, Milan, Berlin and Warsaw. Passenger
transport is more important than freight in
many of these countries. Underground railways
are important in London and Paris. Channel
Tunnel, operated by Euro Tunnel Group
through England, connects London with Paris.
Trans-continental railway lines have now lost
their importance to quicker and more flexible
transport systems of airways and roadways.
In Russia, railways account for about 90
per cent of the country’s total transport with a
very dense network west of the Urals. Moscow
is the most important rail head with major lines
radiating to different parts of the country’s vast
geographical area. Underground railways and
commuter trains are also important in Moscow.
North America has one of the most
extensive rail networks accounting for nearly
40 per cent of the world’s total? In contrast to
many European countries, the railways are
used more for long-distance bulky freight like
ores, grains, timber and machinery than for
passengers. The most dense rail network is
found in the highly industrialised and
urbanised region of East Central U.S.A. and
adjoining Canada.
In Canada, railways are in the public
sector and distributed all over the sparsely
populated areas. The transcontinental railways
carry the bulk of wheat and coal tonnage.
Australia has about 40,000 km of
railways, of which 25 per cent are found in New
South Wales alone. The west-east Australian
National Railway line runs across the country
from Perth to Sydney. New Zealand’s railways
are mainly in the North Island to serve the
farming areas.
In South America, the rail network is the
most dense in two regions, namely, the Pampas
of Argentina and the coffee growing region of
Brazil which together account for 40 per cent
of South America’s total route length. Only Chile,
among the remaining countries has a
considerable route length linking coastal centres
with the mining sites in the interior. Peru, Bolivia,
Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela have short
single-track rail-lines from ports to the interior
with no inter-connecting links.
There is only one trans-continental rail
route linking Buenos Aires (Argentina) with
Valparaiso (Chile) across the Andes Mountains
through the Uspallatta Pass located at a height
of 3,900 m.
In Asia, rail network is the most dense in
the thickly populated areas of Japan, China and
India. Other countries have relatively few rail
routes. West Asia is the least developed in rail
facilities because of vast deserts and sparsely
populated regions.
Africa continent, despite being the
second largest, has only 40,000 km of
railways with South Africa alone accounting
for 18,000 km due to the concentration of
gold, diamond and copper mining activities.
The important routes of the continent are: (i)
the Benguela Railway through Angola to
Katanga-Zambia Copper Belt; (ii) the Tanzania
Railway from the Zambian Copper Belt to
Dar-es-Salaam on the coast; (iii) the Railway
through Botswana and Zimbabwe linking the
landlocked states to the South African
network; and (iv) the Blue Train from Cape
Town to Pretoria in the Republic of South
Africa. Elsewhere, as in Algeria, Senegal,
Nigeria, Kenya and Ethiopia, railway lines
connect port cities to interior centres but do
not form a good network with other countries.

Trans–Continental Railways
Trans–continental railways run across the
continent and link its two ends. They were
constructed for economic and political reasons
to facilitate long runs in different directions.
The following are the most important of these:
Trans–Siberian Railway
This is a trans–siberian Railways major rail
route of Russia runs from St. Petersburg in the
west to Vladivostok on the Pacific Coast in the
east passing through Moscow, Ufa, Novosibirsk,
Irkutsk, Chita and Khabarovsk. It is the most
important route in Asia and the longest (9,332
km) double-tracked and electrified trans–
continental railway in the world. It has helped
in opening up its Asian region to West European
markets. It runs across the Ural Mountains Ob
and Yenisei rivers Chita is an important agro-
Fig. 8.5: Trans–Siberian Railway
centre and Irkutsk, a fur centre. There are
connecting links to the south, namely, to Odessa
(Ukraine), Baku on the Caspian Coast,
Tashkent (Uzbekistan), Ulan Bator (Mongolia),
and Shenyang (Mukden) and Beijing in China.
Trans–Canadian Railways
This 7,050 km long rail-line in Canada runs from
Halifax in the east to Vancouver on the Pacific
Coast passing through Montreal, Ottawa,
Winnipeg and Calgary (Fig. 8.6). It was
constructed in 1886, initially as part of an
agreement to make British Columbia on the west
coast join the Federation of States. Later on, it
gained economic significance because it
connected the Quebec-Montreal Industrial
Region with the wheat belt of the Prairie Region
and the Coniferous Forest region in the north.
Thus each of these regions became
complementary to the other. A loop line from

Winnipeg to Thunder Bay (Lake Superior)
connects this rail-line with one of the important
waterways of the world. This line is the economic
artery of Canada. Wheat and meat are the
important exports on this route.
The Union and Pacific Railway
This rail-line connects New York on the Atlantic
Coast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coast
passing through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha,
Evans, Ogden and Sacramento. The most
valuable exports on this route are ores, grain,
paper, chemicals and machinery.
The Australian Trans–Continental
Railway
This rail-line runs west-east across the southern
part of the continent from Perth on the west
coast, to Sydney on the east coast. passing
through Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill and Port
Augusta (Fig. 8.7).
Another major north-south line connects
Adelaide and Alice Spring and to be joined
further to the Darwin–Birdum line.
The Orient Express
This line runs from Paris to Istanbul passing
through Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna,
Budapest and Belgrade. The journey time from
London to Istanbul by this Express is now
reduced to 96 hours as against 10 days by the
sea-route. The chief exports on this rail-route
are cheese, bacon, oats, wine, fruits, and
machinery.
There is a proposal to build a Trans–Asiatic
Railway linking Istanbul with Bangkok via
Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and
Myanmar.
WAWAWAWAWATER TRANSPORTER TRANSPORTER TRANSPORTER TRANSPORTER TRANSPORTTTTT
One of the great advantages of water
transportation is that it does not require route
construction. The oceans are linked with each
Fig. 8.6: Trans–Canadian Railway

other and are negotiable with ships of various
sizes. All that is needed is to provide port
facilities at the two ends. It is much cheaper
because the friction of water is far less than that
of land. The energy cost of water transportation
is lower. Water transport is divided into ocean
routes and inland waterways.
Fig. 8.8: The view of Seine River from the Eiffel
Tower (One can see how the river has become an
important Inland waterway)
Ocean Routes
The oceans offer a smooth highway traversable
in all directions with no maintenance costs. Its
transformation into a routeway by sea-going
vessels is an important development in human
adaptation to the physical environment.
Compared to land and air, ocean transport is a
cheaper means of haulage (carrying of load) of
bulky material over long distances from one
continent to another.
Modern passenger liners (ships) and cargo
ships are equipped with radar, wireless and other
navigation aids. The development of refrigerated
chambers for perishable goods, tankers and
specialised ships has also improved cargo
transport. The use of containers has made cargo
handling at the world’s major ports easier.
Important Ocean Routes
Major ocean trade routes are shown in the Fig.
8.9. Some important ocean routes have been
discussed in the following pages.
Fig. 8.7: Australian Trans–Continental Railway

The Northern Atlantic Sea Route
This links North-eastern U.S.A. and North-
western Europe, the two industrially developed
regions of the world. The foreign trade over this
route is greater than that of the rest of the world
combined. One fourth of the world’s foreign
trade moves on this route. It is, therefore, the
busiest in the world and otherwise, called the
Big Trunk Route. Both the coasts have highly
advanced ports and harbour facilities.
Findoutsomeoftheimportantportsonthecoastof
U.S.A.andWesternEuropeinyouratlas.
This sea route passes through the heart
of the Old World and serves more countries and
people than any other route. Port Said, Aden,
Mumbai, Colombo and Singapore are some of
the important ports on this route. The
construction of Suez canal has greatly reduced
the distance and time as compared to the earlier
route through the Cape of Good Hope.
The Mediterranean–Indian Ocean Route
The trade route connects the highly
industrialised Western European region with
West Africa, South Africa, South-east Asia and
the commercial agriculture and livestock
economies of Australia and New Zealand.
Before the construction of the Suez Canal this
was the route connecting Liverpool and
Colombo which was 6,400 km longer than the
Suez Canal route. The volume of trade and
traffic between both East and West Africa is on
the increase due to the development of the rich
natural resources such as gold, diamond,
copper, tin, groundnut, oil palm, coffee and
fruits.
The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route
This sea route is another important one across
the Atlantic Ocean which connects West
European and West African countries with
Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay in South
America. The traffic is far less on this route
compared to that of the North Atlantic Route
Fig. 8.9: Major Ocean Trade Routes and Sea Ports

because of the limited development and
population in South America and Africa. Only
southeastern Brazil and Plata estuary and
parts of South Africa have large-scale industries.
There is also little traffic on the route between
Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town because both
South America and Africa have similar
products and resources.
Trade across the vast North Pacific Ocean
moves by several routes which converge at
Honolulu. The direct route on the Great Circle
links Vancouver and Yokohama and reduces
the travelling distance (2,480 km) by half.
The North Atlantic Sea Route
This sea route links the ports on the west-coast
of North America with those of Asia. These are
Vancouver, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco and
Los Angeles on the American side and
Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila
and Singapore on the Asian side.
The South Pacific Sea Route
This sea route connects Western Europe and
North America with Australia, New Zealand and
the scattered Pacific islands via the Panama
Canal. This route is also used for reaching Hong
Kong, Philippines and Indonesia. The distance
covered between Panama and Sydney is
12,000 km. Honolulu is an important port on
this route.
Coastal Shipping
It is obvious that water transport is a cheaper
mode. While oceanic routes connect different
countries, coastal shipping is a convenient
mode of transportation with long coastlines,
e.g. U.S.A, China and India. Shenzhen States
in Europe are most suitably placed for coastal
shipping connecting one member’s coast with
the other. If properly developed, coastal shipping
can reduce the congestion on the land routes.
Shipping Canals
The Suez and the Panama Canals are two vital
man-made navigation canals or waterways
which serve as gateways of commerce for both
the eastern and western worlds.
The Suez Canal
This canal had been constructed in 1869 in
Egypt between Port Said in the north and Port
Suez in the south linking the Mediterranean
Sea and the Red Sea. It gives Europe a new
gateway to the Indian Ocean and reduces direct
sea-route distance between Liverpool and
Colombo compared to the Cape of Good Hope
route. It is a sea-level canal without locks
which is about 160 km and 11 to 15 m deep.
About 100 ships travel daily and each ship
takes 10-12 hours to cross this canal. The tolls
are so heavy that some find it cheaper to go by
the longer Cape Route whenever the
consequent delay is not important. A railway
follows the canal to Suez, and from Ismailia
there is a branch line to Cairo. A navigable
fresh-water canal from the Nile also joins the
Suez Canal in Ismailia to supply fresh-water to
Port Said and Suez.
The Panama Canal
This canal connects the Atlantic Ocean in the
east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. It has been
Fig. 8.10 : Suez Canal

constructed across the Panama Isthmus
between Panama City and Colon by the U.S.
government which purchased 8 km of area on
either side and named it the Canal Zone. The
Canal is about 72 km. long and involves a very
deep cutting for a length of 12 km. It has a six-
lock system and ships cross the different levels
(26 m up and down) through these locks before
entering the Gulf of Panama.
It shortens the distance between New York
and San Francisco by 13,000 km by sea.
Likewise the distance between Western Europe
and the West-coast of U.S.A.; and North-eastern
and Central U.S.A. and East and South-east
Asia is shortened. The economic significance of
this Canal is relatively less than that of the
Suez. However, it is vital to the economies of
Latin America.
Inland Waterways
Rivers, canals, lakes and coastal areas have
been important waterways since time
immemorial. Boats and steamers are used as
means of transport for cargo and passengers.
The development of inland waterways is
dependent on the navigability width and depth
of the channel, continuity in the water flow,
and transport technology in use. Rivers are
the only means of transport in dense forests.
Very heavy cargo like coal, cement, timber and
metallic ores can be transported through inland
waterways. In ancient times, riverways were the
main highways of transportation as in the case
of India. But they lost importance because of
competition from railways, lack of water due to
diversion for irrigation, and their poor
maintenance.
Fig. 8.12: Inland waterways are a major source
of transport wherever the river is wide, deep
and free of silt
Fig. 8.11 : The Panama Canal
CanyouthinkoftheimpactontrafficinPanama
canalaftertheNicaraguancanalopensup?

The significance of rivers as inland
waterways for domestic and international
transport and trade has been recognised
throughout the developed world. Despite
inherent limitations, many rivers have been
modified to enhance their navigability by
dredging, stabilising river banks, and building
dams and barrages for regulating the flow of
water. The following river waterways are some
of the world’s important highways of commerce.
The Rhine Waterways
The Rhine flows through Germany and the
Netherlands. It is navigable for 700 km from
Rotterdam, at its mouth in the Netherlands to
Basel in Switzerland. Ocean-going vessels can
reach up to Cologne. The Ruhr river joins the
Rhine from the east. It flows through a rich
coalfield and the whole basin has become a
prosperous manufacturing area. Dusseldorf is
the Rhine port for this region. Huge tonnage
moves along the stretch south of the Ruhr. This
waterway is the world’s most heavily used. Each
year more than 20,000 ocean-going ships and
2,00,000 inland vessels exchange their cargoes.
It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland,
Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands
with the North Atlantic Sea Route.
The Danube Waterway
This important inland waterway serves Eastern
Europe. The Danube river rises in the Black
Forest and flows eastwards through many
countries. It is navigable up to Taurna Severin.
The chief export items are wheat, maize, timber,
and machinery.
The Volga Waterway
Russia has a large number of developed
waterways, of which the Volga is one of the most
important. It provides a navigable waterway of
11,200 km and drains into the Caspian Sea.
The Volga-Moscow Canal connects it with the
Moscow region and the Volga-Don Canal with
the Black Sea.
The Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Seaway
The Great Lakes of North America Superior,
Huron Erie and Ontario are connected by Soo
Canal and Welland Canal to form an inland
waterway. The estuary of St. Lawrence River,
along with the Great Lakes, forms a unique
commercial waterway in the northern part of
North America. The ports on this route like
Duluth and Buffalo are equipped with all
facilities of ocean ports. As such large ocean-
going vessels are able to navigate up the river
deep inside the continent to Montreal. But here
goods have to be trans-shipped to smaller
vessels due to the presence of rapids. Canals
have been constructed up to 3.5 m deep to
avoid these.
Fig. 8.13: The Rhine Watereay
Fig. 8.14 : Rhine Waterway

At present no place in the world is more
than 35 hours away. This startling fact has been
made possible due to people who build and fly
airplanes. Travel by air can now be measured
by hours and minutes instead of years and
months. Frequent air services are available to
many parts of the world. Although, U.K.
pioneered the use of commercial jet transport,
U.S.A. developed largely post-War international
civil aviation. Today, more than 250
commercial airlines offer regular services to
different parts of the world. Recent
developments can change the future course of
air transport. Supersonic aircraft, cover the
distance between London and New York within
three and a half hours.
Inter-Continental Air Routes
In the Northern Hemisphere, there is a distinct
east-west belt of inter-continental air routes.
Dense network exists in Eastern U.S.A., Western
Europe and Southeast Asia. U.S.A. alone
accounts for 60 per cent of the airways of the
world. New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam,
Frankfurt Rome, Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi,
Mumbai, Bangkok, Singapore, Tokyo, San
Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago are the
nodal points where air routes converge or
radiate to all continents.
Africa, Asiatic part of Russia and South
America lack air services. There are limited air
services between 10-35 latitudes in the
Southern hemisphere due to sparser
population, limited landmass and economic
development.
PIPELINESPIPELINESPIPELINESPIPELINESPIPELINES
Pipelines are used extensively to transport
liquids and gases such as water, petroleum
and natural gas for an uninterrupted flow.
Water supplied through pipelines is familiar
to all. Cooking gas or LPG is supplied through
pipelines in many parts of the world. Pipelines
can also be used to transport liquidified coal.
In New Zealand, milk is being supplied through
pipelines from farms to factories.
In U.S.A. there is a dense network of oil
pipelines from the producing areas to the
The Mississippi Waterways
The Mississippi-Ohio waterway connects the
interior part of U.S.A. with the Gulf of Mexico
in the south. Large steamers can go through
this route up to Minneapolis.
AIR TRANSPORAIR TRANSPORAIR TRANSPORAIR TRANSPORAIR TRANSPORTTTTT
Air transport is the fastest means of
transportation, but it is very costly. Being fast,
it is preferred by passengers for long-distance
travel. Valuable cargo can be moved rapidly on
a world-wide scale. It is often the only means
to reach inaccessible areas. Air transport has
brought about a connectivity revolution in the
world. The frictions created by mountainous
snow fields or inhospitable desert terrains have
been overcome. The accessibility has increased.
The airplane brings varied articles to the
Eskimos in Northern Canada unhindered by
the frozen ground. In the Himalayan region, the
routes are often obstructed due to landslides,
avalanches or heavy snow fall. At such times,
air travel is the only alternative to reach a place.
Airways also have great strategic importance.
The air strikes by U.S. and British forces in Iraq
bears testimony to this fact. The airways
network is expanding very fast.
Fig. 8.15: An Aeroplane at Salsburg Airport
The manufacturing of aircrafts and their
operations require elaborate infrastructure like
hangars, landing, fuelling, and maintenance
facilities for the aircrafts. The construction of
airports is also very expensive and has developed
more in highly industrialised countries where
there is a large volume of traffic.

consuming areas. Big Inch is one such famous
pipeline, which carries petroleum from the oil
wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the North-eastern
States. About 17 per cent of all freight per
tonne-km. is carried through pipelines in U.S.A.
Fig. 8.17: Pipelines transporting natural gas
in Ukraine
In Europe, Russia, West Asia and India
pipelines are used to connect oil wells to
refineries, and to ports or domestic markets.
Turkmenistan is central Asia has extended
pipelines to Iran and also to parts of China.
The proposed Iran-India via Pakistan
international oil and natural gas pipeline will
be the longest in the world.
COMMUNICACOMMUNICACOMMUNICACOMMUNICACOMMUNICATIONSTIONSTIONSTIONSTIONS
Human beings have used different methods
long-distance communications of which the
telegraph and the telephone were important.
The telegraph was instrumental in the
colonisation of the American West. During the
early and mid-twentieth century, the American
Telegraph and Telephone Company (AT&T)
enjoyed a monopoly over U.S.A.’s telephone
industry. In fact, the telephone became a critical
factor in the urbanisation of America. Firms
centralised their functioning at city-
headquarters and located their branch offices
in smaller towns. Even today, the telephone is
the most commonly used mode. In developing
countries, the use of cell phones, made possible
by satellites, is important for rural connectivity.
Today there is a phenomenal pace of
development. The first major breakthrough is
the use of optic fiber cables (OFC). Faced with
mounting competition, telephone companies all
Fig. 8.16: Major Airports

over the world soon upgraded their copper cable
systems to include optic fiber cables. These
allow large quantities of data to be transmitted
rapidly, securely, and are virtually error-free.
With the digitisation of information in the 1990s,
telecommunication slowly merged with
computers to form integrated networks termed
as Internet.
Satellite Communication
Today Internet is the largest electronic network
on the planet connecting about 1,000 million
people in more than 100 countries.
Satellites touch human lives in manySatellites touch human lives in manySatellites touch human lives in manySatellites touch human lives in manySatellites touch human lives in many
wayswayswayswaysways. Every time you use a cell phone to
call a friend, send an SMS or watch a
popularprogrammeoncabletelevision.You
are using satellite communication.satellite communication.satellite communication.satellite communication.satellite communication.
Communication through satellites
emerged as a new area in communication
technology since the 1970s after U.S.A. and
former U.S.S.R. pioneered space research.
Artificial satellites, now, are successfully
deployed in the earth’s orbit to connect even
the remote corners of the globe with limited on-
site verification. These have rendered the unit
cost and time of communication invariant in
terms of distance. This means it costs the same
to communicate over 500 km as it does over
5,000 km via satellite
India has also made great strides in
satellite development. Aryabhatt was launched
on 19 April 1979, Bhaskar-I in 1979 and
Rohini in 1980. On 18 June 1981, APPLE
(Arian Passenger Payload Experiment) was
launched through Arian rocket. Bhaskar,
Challenger and INSAT I-B have made long-
distance communication, television and radio
very effective. Today weather forecasting
through television is a boon.
Cyber Space – Internet
Cyberspace is the world of electronic
computerised space. It is encompassed by the
Internet such as the World Wide Web (www).
In simple words, it is the electronic digital
world for communicating or accessing
information over computer networks without
physical movement of the sender and the
receiver... It is also referred to as the Internet.
Cyberspace exists everywhere. It may be in
an office, sailing boat, flying plane and virtually
anywhere.
The speed at which this electronic network
has spread is unprecedented in human history.
There were less than 50 million Internet users
in 1995, about 400 million in 2000 A.D. and
over one billion in 2005. The next billion users
are to be added by 2010. In the last five years
there has been a shift among global users from
U.S.A. to the developing countries. The
percentage share of U.S.A. has dropped from
66 in 1995 to only 25 in 2005. Now the majority
of the world’s users are in U.S.A., U.K.,
Germany, Japan, China and India.
As billions use the Internet each year,
cyberspace will expand the contemporary
economic and social space of humans through
e-mail, e-commerce, e-learning and
e-governance. Internet together with fax,
television and radio will be accessible to more
and more people cutting across place and time.
It is these modern communication systems,
more than transportation, that has made the
concept of global village a reality.

(i) The Trans–Continental Stuart Highway runs between
(a) Darwin and Melbourne
(b) Edmonton and Anchorage
(c) Vancouver and St. John’s City
(d) Chengdu and Lhasa
(ii) Which country has the highest density of railway network?
(a) Brazil (c) Canada
(b) U.S.A (d) Russia
(iii) The Big Trunk Route runs through
(a) The Mediterranean – Indian ocean
(b) The North Atlantic Ocean
(c) The South Atlantic Ocean
(d) The North Pacific Ocean
(iv) The Big Inch pipeline transports
(a) Milk (c) Water
(b) Liquid petroleum gas (LGP) (d) Petroleum
(v) Which one pair of the following places is linked by Channel Tunnel?
(a) London – Berlin (c) Berlin – Paris
(b) Paris – London (d) Barcelona – Berlin
(i) What are the problems of road transport in mountainous, desert and
flood prone regions?
(ii) What is a trans–continental railway?
(iii) What are the advantages of water transport?
(i) Elucidate the statement– “In a well managed transport system, various
modes complement each other”.
(ii) Which are the major regions of the world having a dense network of
airways.
(iii) What are the modes by which cyber space will expand the contemporary
economic and social space of humans.

Chapter-9
International Trade
You are already familiar with the term “trade”
as a tertiary activity which you have studied in
Chapter 7 of this book. You know that trade
means the voluntary exchange of goods and
services. Two parties are required to trade. One
person sells and the other purchases. In certain
places, people barter their goods. For both the
parties trade is mutually beneficial.
Trade may be conducted at two levels:
international and national. International trade
is the exchange of goods and services among
countries across national boundaries.
Countries need to trade to obtain commodities,
they cannot produce themselves or they can
purchase elsewhere at a lower price.
The initial form of trade in primitive
societies was the barter system, where direct
exchange of goods took place. In this system if
you were a potter and were in need of a plumber,
you would have to look for a plumber who
would be in need of pots and you could
exchange your pots for his plumbing service.
Fig. 9.1: Two women practising barter system in
Jon Beel Mela
Every January after the harvest season Jon Beel Mela
takes place in Jagirod, 35 km away from Guwahati and
it is possibly the only fair In India, where barter system
is still alive. A big market is organised during this fair
and people from various tribes and communities ex-
change their products.
The difficulties of barter system were
overcome by the introduction of money. In the
olden times, before paper and coin currency

came into being, rare objects with very high
intrinsic value served as money, like,
flintstones, obsidian, cowrie shells, tiger’s
paws, whale’s teeth, dogs teeth, skins, furs,
cattle, rice, peppercorns, salt, small tools,
copper, silver and gold.
The word salary comes from the Latin word Salarium
which means payment by salt. As in those times
producing salt from sea water was unknown and could
only be made from rock salt which was rare and
expensive. That is why it became a mode of payment.
HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE
In ancient times, transporting goods over long
distances was risky, hence trade was restricted
to local markets. People then spent most of their
resources on basic necessities – food and
clothes. Only the rich people bought jewellery,
costly dresses and this resulted in trade of
luxury items.
The Silk Route is an early example of long
distance trade connecting Rome to China –
along the 6,000 km route. The traders
transported Chinese silk, Roman wool and
precious metals and many other high value
commodities from intermediate points in India,
Persia and Central Asia.
After the disintegration of the Roman
Empire, European commerce grew during
twelfth and thirteenth century with the
development of ocean going warships trade
between Europe and Asia grew and the
Americas were discovered.
Fifteenth century onwards, the European
colonialism began and along with trade of exotic
commodities, a new form of trade emerged
which was called slave trade. The Portuguese,
Dutch, Spaniards, and British captured African
natives and forcefully transported them to the
newly discovered Americas for their labour in
the plantations. Slave trade was a lucrative
business for more than two hundred years till
it was abolished in Denmark in 1792, Great
Britain in 1807 and United States in 1808.
Figure 9.2 : Advertisement for Slave Auction, 1829
ThisAmerican slave auction advertised slaves for sale
or temporary hire by their owners. Buyers often paid as
much as $2,000 for a skilled, healthy slave. Such auc-
tions often separated family members from one another,
many of whom never saw their loved ones again.
After the Industrial Revolution the demand
for raw materials like grains, meat, wool also
expanded, but their monetary value declined
in relation to the manufactured goods.
The industrialised nations imported
primary products as raw materials and
exported the value added finished products
back to the non-industrialised nations.
In the later half of the nineteenth century,
regions producing primary goods were no more
important, and industrial nations became each
other’s principle customers.
During the World Wars I and II, countries
imposed trade taxes and quantitative
restrictions for the first time. During the post-
war period, organisations like General
Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (which later
became the World Trade Organisation), helped
in reducing tariff.
Why Does International Trade Exist?
International trade is the result of specialisation
in production. It benefits the world economy if

International Trade 83
different countries practise specialisation and
division of labour in the production of
commodities or provision of services. Each kind
of specialisation can give rise to trade. Thus,
international trade is based on the principle of
comparative advantage, complimentarity and
transferability of goods and services and in
principle, should be mutually beneficial to the
trading partners.
In modern times, trade is the basis of the
world’s economic organisation and is related
to the foreign policy of nations. With well-
developed transportation and communication
systems, no country is willing to forego the
benefits derived from participation in
international trade.
Basis of International Trade
(i) Difference in national resources: The
world’s national resources are unevenly
distributed because of differences in their
physical make up i.e. geology, relief soil
and climate.
(a) Geological structure: It determines
the mineral resource base and
topographical differences ensure
diversity of crops and animals
raised. Lowlands have greater
agricultural potential. Mountains
attract tourists and promote
tourism.
(b) Mineral resources: They are
unevenly distributed the world over.
The availability of mineral resources
provides the basis for industrial
development.
(c) Climate: It influences the type of flora
and fauna that can survive in a given
region. It also ensures diversity in
the range of various products, e.g.
wool production can take place in
cold regions, bananas, rubber and
cocoa can grow in tropical regions.
(ii) Population factors: The size, distribution
and diversity of people between countries
affect the type and volume of goods
traded.
(a) Cultural factors: Distinctive forms of
art and craft develop in certain
cultures which are valued the world
over, e.g. China produces the finest
porcelains and brocades. Carpets of
Iran are famous while North African
leather work and Indonesian batik
cloth are prized handicrafts.
(b) Size of population: Densely
populated countries have large
volume of internal trade but little
external trade because most of the
agricultural and industrial
production is consumed in the local
markets. Standard of living of the
population determines the demand
for better quality imported products
because with low standard of living
only a few people can afford to buy
costly imported goods.
(iii) Stage of economic development: At
different stages of economic development
of countries, the nature of items traded
undergo changes. In agriculturally
important countries, agro products are
exchanged for manufactured goods
whereas industrialised nations export
machinery and finished products and
import food grains and other raw
materials.
(iv) Extent of foreign investment: Foreign
investment can boost trade in developing
countries which lack in capital required
for the development of mining, oil drilling,
heavy engineering, lumbering and
plantation agriculture. By developing
such capital intensive industries in
developing countries, the industrial
nations ensure import of food stuffs,
minerals and create markets for their
finished products. This entire cycle steps
up the volume of trade between nations.
(v) Transport: In olden times, lack of
adequate and efficient means of transport
restricted trade to local areas. Only high
value items, e.g. gems, silk and spices
were traded over long distances. With
expansions of rail, ocean and air
transport, better means of refrigeration
and preservation, trade has experienced
spatial expansion.

Important Aspects of International
Trade
International trade has three very important
aspects. These are volume, sectoral composition
and direction of trade.
Volume of Trade
The actual tonnage of goods traded makes up
the volume. However, services traded cannot be
measured in tonnage. Therefore, the total value
of goods and services traded is considered to
be the volume of trade. Table 9.1 shows that
the total volume of world trade has been steadily
rising over the past decades.
Why do you think that the volume of trade has increased
over the decades? Can these figures be compared?
What has been the growth in the year 2005 over the
year 1955?
Composition of Trade
The nature of goods and services imported and
exported by countries have undergone changes
during the last century.
Trade of primary products was dominant
in the beginning of the last century. Later
manufactured goods gained prominence and
currently, though the manufacturing sector
commands the bulk of the global trade, service
sector which includes travel, transportation and
other commercial services have been showing
an upward trend.
Table 9.1: World Imports and Exports (in millions of U.S. $)
1980
0
1500
12000
10500
9000
7500
6000
4500
3000
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
2000
0
1500
12000
10500
9000
7500
6000
4500
3000
Billion $Billion $ Goods
Services
Source: WTO, Trade Statistics, 2002.
Fig. 9.3: Exports of Goods and Services, 1980-2000
The share of different commodities in total
global trade can be seen in the graph below.
0 5 10 15 20
Machinery and
Transport Equipment
Fuels & Mining Road
Office/Telecome Equipment
Chemicals
Automotive Products
Agriculture Products
Other Manufactures
Other Semi–manufactures
Iron & Steel
Clothing
Textiles
Percentage to total value
Source: WTO, Trade Statistics, 2005
Fig. 9.4: World Merchandise Exports By
Products, 2004
Looking at the graph above, we find that
machinery and transport equipment, fuel and
mining products, office and telecom equipment,
chemicals, automobile parts, agricultural
1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005
Exports 95000 190000 877000 1954000 5162000 10393000
Total Merchandise
Imports 99000 199000 912000 2015000 5292000 10753000
Total Merchandise
Source: WTO, International Trade Statistics, 2005

products, iron and steel, clothing and textiles
make up the major items of merchandise which
are traded over the world. Trade in the service
sector is quite different from trade in the
products of primary and manufacturing sectors
as the services can be expanded infinitely,
consumed by many, are weightless and once
produced, can be easily replicated and thus,
are capable of generating more profit than
producing goods. There are four different ways
through which services can be supplied. Table
9.2 shows different types of services and the
share of those services supplied to the
international market.
Table 9.2 : Services and their Share to the
International Market
Relevant Services Share in %
Commercial services excluding
travel and construction services. 35
Travel 10 to 15
Construction services 50
Labour flow 1 to 2
Direction of Trade
Historically, the developing countries of the
present used to export valuable goods and
artefacts, etc. which were exported to European
countries. During the nineteenth century there
was a reversal in the direction of trade.
European countries started exporting
manufactured goods for exchange of foodstuffs
and raw materials from their colonies. Europe
and U.S.A. emerged as major trade partners in
the world and were leaders in the trade of
manufactured goods. Japan at that time was
also the third important trading country. The
world trade pattern underwent a drastic change
during the second half of the twentieth century.
Europe lost its colonies while India, China and
other developing countries started competing
with developed countries. The nature of the
goods traded has also changed.
Balance of Trade
Balance of trade records the volume of goods
and services imported as well as exported by a
country to other countries. If the value of
imports is more than the value of a country’s
exports, the country has negative or
unfavourable balance of trade. If the value of
exports is more than the value of imports, then
the country has a positive or favourable balance
of trade.
Balance of trade and balance of payments
have serious implications for a country’s
economy. A negative balance would mean that
the country spends more on buying goods than
it can earn by selling its goods. This would
ultimately lead to exhaustion of its financial
reserves.
Types of International Trade
International trade may be categorised into two
types:
(a) Bilateral trade: Bilateral trade is done
by two countries with each other. They
enter into agreement to trade specified
commodities amongst them. For
example, country A may agree to trade
some raw material with agreement to
purchase some other specified item to
country B or vice versa.
(b) Multi-lateral trade: As the term suggests
multi-lateral trade is conducted with
many trading countries. The same
country can trade with a number of
other countries. The country may also
grant the status of the “Most Favoured
Nation” (MFN) on some of the trading
partners.
Case for Free Trade
The act of opening up economies for trading is
known as free trade or trade liberalisation. This
is done by bringing down trade barriers like
tariffs. Trade liberalisation allows goods and
services from everywhere to compete with
domestic products and services.
Globalisation along with free trade can
adversely affect the economies of developing
countries by not giving equal playing field by
imposing conditions which are unfavourable.
With the development of transport and
communication systems goods and services can
travel faster and farther than ever before. But
free trade should not only let rich countries
enter the markets, but allow the developed

countries to keep their own markets protected
from foreign products.
Countries also need to be cautious about
dumped goods; as along with free trade
dumped goods of cheaper prices can harm the
domestic producers.
DumpingDumpingDumpingDumpingDumping
The practice of selling a commodity in two
countries at a price that differs for reasons
not related to costs is called dumping.
World Trade Organisation
In1948, to liberalise the world from high
customs tariffs and various other types of
restrictions, General Agreement for Tariffs and
Trade (GATT) was formed by some countries.
In 1994, it was decided by the member
countries to set up a permanent institution for
looking after the promotion of free and fair trade
amongst nation and the GATT was transformed
into the World Trade Organisation from 1st
January 1995.
WTO is the only international organisation
dealing with the global rules of trade between
nations. It sets the rules for the global trading
system and resolves disputes between its
member nations. WTO also covers trade in
services, such as telecommunication and
banking, and others issues such as intellectual
rights.
The WTO has however been criticised and
opposed by those who are worried about the
effects of free trade and economic globalisation.
It is argued that free trade does not make
ordinary people’s lives more prosperous. It is
actually widening the gulf between rich and
poor by making rich countries more rich. This
is because the influential nations in the WTO
focus on their own commercial interests.
Moreover, many developed countries have not
fully opened their markets to products from
developing countries. It is also argued that
issues of health, worker’s rights, child labour
and environment are ignored.
WTO Headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland.
149 countries were members of WTO as on December
2005.
India has been one of the founder member of WTO.
Regional Trade Blocs
Regional Trade Blocs have come up in order to
encourage trade between countries with
geographical proximity, similarity and
complementarities in trading items and to curb
restrictions on trade of the developing world.
Today, 120 regional trade blocs generate 52 per
cent of the world trade. These trading blocs
developed as a response to the failure of the global
organisations to speed up intra-regional trade.
Though, these regional blocs remove trade
tariffs within the member nations and
Think of some reasons why dumping is becoming a
serious concern among trading nations?

encourage free trade, in the future it could get
increasingly difficult for free trade to take place
between different trading blocs. Some major
regional trade blocs have been listed in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3: Major Regional Trade
Regional
Blocs
ASEAN
(Association of
South East Asian
Nations)
CIS
(Commonwealth
of Independent
States)
EU
(European Union)
LAIA
(Latin American
Integration
Association)
NAFTA
(North American
Free Trade
Association)
OPEC
(Organisation of
Petroleum
Exporting
Countries)
SAFTA
(South Asian
Free Trade
Agreement)
Head
Quarter
Jakarta,
Indonesia
Minsk,
Belarus
Brussels,
Belgium
Montevideo,
Uruguay
Vienna,
Austria
Member
nations
Brunei,
Indonesia,
Malaysia,
Singapore,
Thailand,
Vietnam
Armenia,
Azerbaijan,
Belarus, Georgia,
Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Moldova, Russia,
Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan,
Ukraine and
Uzbekistan.
Austria, Belgium,
Denmark,
France, Finland,
Ireland, Italy, the
Netherlands,
Luxemburg,
Portugal, Spain,
Sweden and U.K.
Argentina, Bolivia,
Brazil, Columbia,
Ecuador, Mexico,
Paraguay, Peru,
Uruguay and
Venezuela
U.S.A., Canada
and Mexico
Algeria,
Indonesia, Iran,
Iraq, Kuwait,
Libya, Nigeria,
Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, U.A.E.
and Venezuela
Bangladesh,
Maldives, Bhutan,
Nepal, India,
Pakistan and Sri
Lanka
Origin
Aug, 1967
—
EEC-
March 1957
EU - Feb. 1992
1960
1994
1949
Jan-2006
Commodities
Agro products,
rubber, palm oil,
rice, copra,
coffee, minerals –
copper, coal,
nickel and
tungsten. Energy
– petroleum and
natural gas and
Software
products
Crude oil, natural
gas, gold, cotton,
fibre, aluminium
Agro products,
minerals,
chemicals, wood,
paper, transport
vehicles, optical
instruments,
clocks - works of
art, antiques
—
Agro products,
motor vehicles,
automotive parts,
computers,
textiles
Crude petroleum
—
Other Areas
of
Cooperation
Accelerate
economic
growth,
cultural
development,
peace and
regional
stability
Integration
and
cooperation on
matters of
economics,
defence and
foreign policy
Single market
with single
currency
—
—
Coordinate
and unify
petroleum
policies.
Reduce tariffs
on inter-
regional trade

Concerns Related to International Trade
Undertaking international trade is mutually
beneficial to nations if it leads to regional
specialisation, higher level of production, better
standard of living, worldwide availability of
goods and services, equalisation of prices and
wages and diffusion of knowledge and culture.
International trade can prove to be
detrimental to nations of it leads to dependence
on other countries, uneven levels of
development, exploitation, and commercial
rivalry leading to wars. Global trade affects
many aspects of life; it can impact everything
from the environment to health and well-being
of the people around the world. As countries
compete to trade more, production and the use
of natural resources spiral up, resources get
used up faster than they can be replenished.
As a result, marine life is also depleting fast,
forests are being cut down and river basins sold
off to private drinking water companies. Multi-
national corporations trading in oil, gas mining,
pharmaceuticals and agri-business keep
expanding their operations at all costs creating
more pollution – their mode of work does not
follow the norms of sustainable development.
If organisations are geared only towards profit
making, and environmental and health
concerns are not addressed, then it could lead
to serious implications in the future.
GATEWAYS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Ports
The chief gateways of the world of international
trade are the harbours and ports. Cargoes and
travellers pass from one part of the world to
another through these ports.
The ports provide facilities of docking,
loading, unloading and the storage facilities for
cargo. In order to provide these facilities, the
port authorities make arrangements for
maintaining navigable channels, arranging tugs
and barges, and providing labour and
managerial services. The importance of a port
is judged by the size of cargo and the number
of ships handled. The quantity of cargo handled
by a port is an indicator of the level of
development of its hinterland.
Fig. 9.5: San Francisco, the largest land-locked
harbour in the world
Types of Port
Generally, ports are classified according to the
types of traffic which they handle.
Types of port according to cargo handled:
(i) Industrial Ports: These ports specialise in
bulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil,
chemicals and similar materials.
(ii) Commercial Ports: These ports handle
general cargo-packaged products and
manufactured good. These ports also
handle passenger traffic.
Fig. 9.6: Leningrad Commercial Port
(iii) Comprehensive Ports: Such ports handle
bulk and general cargo in large volumes.

Most of the world’s great ports are
classified as comprehensive ports.
Types of port on the basis of location:
(i) Inland Ports: These ports are located away
from the sea coast. They are linked to the
sea through a river or a canal. Such ports
are accessible to flat bottom ships or
barges. For example, Manchester is linked
with a canal; Memphis is located on the
river Mississippi; Rhine has several ports
like Mannheim and Duisburg; and
Kolkata is located on the river Hoogli, a
branch of the river Ganga.
(ii) Out Ports: These are deep water ports built
away from the actual ports. These serve
the parent ports by receiving those ships
which are unable to approach them due
to their large size. Classic combination,
for example, is Athens and its out port
Piraeus in Greece.
Types of port on the basis of specialised
functions:
(i) Oil Ports: These ports deal in the
processing and shipping of oil. Some of
these are tanker ports and some are
refinery ports. Maracaibo in Venezuela,
Esskhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon are
tanker ports. Abadan on the Gulf of Persia
is a refinery port.
(ii) Ports of Call: These are the ports which
originally developed as calling points on
main sea routes where ships used to
anchor for refuelling, watering and taking
food items. Later on, they developed into
commercial ports. Aden, Honolulu and
Singapore are good examples.
(iii) Packet Station: These are also known as
ferry ports. These packet stations are
exclusively concerned with the
transportation of passengers and mail
across water bodies covering short
distances. These stations occur in pairs
located in such a way that they face each
other across the water body, e.g. Dover in
England and Calais in France across the
English Channel.
(iv) Entrepot Ports: These are collection centres
where the goods are brought from different
countries for export. Singapore is an
entrepot for Asia. Rotterdam for Europe,
and Copenhagen for the Baltic region.
(v) Naval Ports: These are ports which have
only strategic importance. These ports
serve warships and have repair workshops
for them. Kochi and Karwar are examples
of such ports in India.
(i) Most of the world’s great ports are classified as:
(a) Naval Ports (c) Comprehensive Ports
(b) Oil Ports (d) Industrial Ports
(ii) Which one of the following continents has the maximum flow of global
trade?
(a) Asia (c) Europe
(b) North America (d) Africa

(iii) Which one of the following South American nation, is a part of OPEC?
(a) Brazil (c) Venezuela
(b) Chile (d) Peru
(iv) In which of the following trade blocs, is India an associate member?
(a) SAFTA (c) ASEAN
(b) OECD (d) OPEC
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words:
(i) What is the basic function of the World Trade Organisation?
(ii) Why is it detrimental for a nation to have negative balance of payments?
(iii) What benefits do nations get by forming trading blocs?
3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words:
(i) How are ports helpful for trade? Give a classification of ports on the basis
of their location.
(ii) How do nations gain from International Trade?

Unit-IVUnit-IVUnit-IVUnit-IVUnit-IV
Chapter-10
Human Settlements
We all live in clusters of houses. You may call it
a village, a town or a city, all are examples of
human settlements. The study of human
settlements is basic to human geography
because the form of settlement in any particular
region reflects human relationship with the
environment. A human settlement is defined as
a place inhabited more or less permanently. The
houses may be designed or redesigned,
buildings may be altered, functions may change
but settlement continues in time and space.
There may be some settlements which are
temporary and are occupied for short periods,
may be a season.
CLASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTS
RURAL URBAN DICHOTOMY
It is widely accepted that settlements can be
differentiated in terms of rural and urban, but
there is no consensus on what exactly defines
a village or a town. Although population size is
an important criterion, it is not a universal
criterion since many villages in densely
populated countries of India and China have
population exceeding that of some towns of
Western Europe and United States.
At one time, people living in villages
pursued agriculture or other primary activities,
but presently in developed countries, large
sections of urban populations prefer to live in
villages even though they work in the city. The
basic difference between towns and villages is
that in towns the main occupation of the people
is related to secondary and tertiary sectors,
while in the villages most of the people are
engaged in primary occupations such as
agriculture, fishing, lumbering, mining, animal
husbandry, etc.
Sub UrbanisationSub UrbanisationSub UrbanisationSub UrbanisationSub Urbanisation
It is a new trend of people moving away from
congested urban areas to cleaner areas
outside the city in search of a better quality
of living. Important suburbs develop around
major cities and everyday thousands of
people commute from their homes in the
sub urbs to their work places in the city.

Differentiations between rural and urban
on the basis of functions are more meaningful
even though there is no uniformity in the
hierarchy of the functions provided by rural and
urban settlements. Petrol pumps are considered
as a lower order function in the United States
while it is an urban function in India. Even
within a country, rating of functions may vary
according to the regional economy. Facilities
available in the villages of developed countries
may be considered rare in villages of developing
and less developed countries.
The census of India, 1991 defines urban
settlements as “All places which have
municipality, corporation, cantonment board
or notified town area committee and have a
minimum population of 5000 persons, at
least 75 per cent of male workers are
engaged in non-agricultural pursuits and a
density of population of at least 400 persons
per square kilometers are urban.
TYPESANDPATTERNSOFSETTLEMENTS
Settlements may also be classified by their
shape, patterns types. The major types
classified by shape are:
(i) Compact or Nucleated settlements:
These settlements are those in which
large number of houses are built very
close to each other. Such settlements
develop along river valleys and in fertile
plains. Communities are closely knit
and share common occupations.
(ii) Dispersed Settlements: In these
settlements, houses are spaced far
apart and often interspersed with fields.
A cultural feature such as a place of
worship or a market, binds the
settlement together.
Fig. 10.2: Dispersed Settlements
Rural Settlements
Rural settlements are most closely and directly
related to land. They are dominated by primary
activities such as agriculture, animal
husbandary, fishing etc. The settlements size
is relatively small.
Fig.10.1 : Compact Settlements
Fig. 10.3 : Siting near water
Water Supply
Usually rural settlements are located near water
bodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs where
water can be easily obtained. Sometimes the
need for water drives people to settle in otherwise
disadvantaged sites such as islands
surrounded by swamps or low lying river
banks. Most water based ‘wet point’ settlements
have many advantages such as water for

Human Settlements 93
drinking, cooking and washing. Rivers and
lakes can be used to irrigate farm land. Water
bodies also have fish which can be caught for
diet and navigable rivers and lakes can be used
for transportation.
Land
People choose to settle near fertile lands suitable
for agriculture. In Europe villages grew up near
rolling country avoiding swampy, low lying
land while people in south east Asia chose to
live near low lying river valleys and coastal
plains suited for wet rice cultivation. Early
settlers chose plain areas with fertile soils.
Upland
Upland which is not prone to flooding was
chosen to prevent damage to houses and loss
of life. Thus, in low lying river basins people
chose to settle on terraces and levees which are
“dry points”. In tropical countries people build
their houses on stilts near marshy lands to
protect themselves from flood, insects and
animal pests.
Building Material
The availability of building materials- wood,
stone near settlements is another advantage.
Early villages were built in forest clearings where
wood was plentiful.
Defence
During the times of political instability, war,
hostility of neighbouring groups villages were
built on defensive hills and islands. In Nigeria,
upstanding inselbergs formed good defensive
sites. In India most of the forts are located on
higher grounds or hills.
Planned Settlements
Sites that are not spontaneously chosen by
villagers themselves, planned settlements are
constructed by governments by providing
shelter, water and other infrastructures on
acquired lands. The scheme of villagisation in
Ethiopia and the canal colonies in Indira
Gandhi canal command area in India are some
good examples.
Rural Settlement Patterns
Patterns of rural settlements reflect the way the
houses are sited in relation to each other. The
site of the village, the surrounding topography
and terrain influence the shape and size of a
village.
Rural settlements may be classified on the
basis of a number of criteria:
(i) On the basis of setting: The main types
are plain villages, plateau villages,
coastal villages, forest villages and
desert villages.
(ii) On the basis of functions: There may
be farming villages, fishermen’s villages,
lumberjack villages, pastoral villages etc.
(iii) On the basis of forms or shapes of the
settlements: These may be a number
of geometrical forms and shapes such
as Linear, rectangular, circular star
like, T-shaped village, double village,
cross-shaped village etc.
(a) Linear pattern: In such settlements
houses are located along a road,
railway line, river, canal edge of a valley
or along a levee.
(b) Rectangular pattern: Such patterns of
rural settlements are found in plain
areas or wide inter montane valleys.
The roads are rectangular and cut each
other at right angles.
In loess areas of China, cave dwellings were
important and African Savanna’s building
materials were mud bricks and the Eskimos, in
polar regions, use ice blocks to construct igloos.
Fig. 10.4 : House on stilts

(c) Circular pattern: Circular villages
develop around lakes, tanks and
sometimes the village is planned in such
a way that the central part remains open
and is used for keeping the animals to
protect them from wild animals.
(d) Star like pattern: Where several roads
converge,starshapedsettlementsdevelop
by the houses built along the roads.
(e) T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or
cruciform settlements: T -shaped
settlements develop at tri-junctions of
the roads ( ) while -shaped
settlements emerge as the places where
two roads converge on the third one
and houses are built along these roads.
Cruciform settlements develop on the
cross-roads and houses extend in all
the four direction.
Fig.10.6 : Linear pattern settlement Fig.10.7 : Y shape settlement
Linear Pattern Cross-shape Pattern Star-like Pattern
T-Shape Pattern Circular Pattern Double Pattern
Railway
Bridge
Road
Temple
River
Village
Canal
Pond
Well
Tree
Fig. 10.5: Rural Settlement Patterns

(f) Double village: These settlements
extend on both sides of a river where
there is a bridge or a ferry.
Identify these patterns on any topographical sheet which
you have studied in Practical Work in Geography, Part
I (NCERT, 2006) in Class XI
Problems of Rural Settlements
Rural settlements in the developing countries
are large in number and poorly equipped with
infrastructure. They represent a great challenge
and opportunity for planners.
Supply of water to rural settlements in
developing countries is not adequate. People
in villages, particularly in mountainous and
arid areas have to walk long distances to fetch
drinking water. Water borne diseases such as
cholera and jaundice tend to be a common
problem. The countries of South Asia face
conditions of drought and flood very often. Crop
cultivation sequences, in the absence of
irrigation, also suffer.
The general absence of toilet and garbage
disposal facilities cause health related problems.
The design and use of building materials
of houses vary from one ecological region to
another. The houses made up of mud, wood
and thatch, remain susceptible to damage
during heavy rains and floods, and require
proper maintenance every year. Most house
designs are typically deficient in proper
ventilation. Besides, the design of a house
includes the animal shed along with its fodder-
store within it. This is purposely done to keep
the domestic animals and their food properly
protected from wild animals.
Unmetalled roads and lack of modern
communication network creates a unique
problem. During rainy season, the settlements
remain cut off and pose serious difficulties in
providing emergency services. It is also difficult
to provide adequate health and educational
infrastructure for their large rural population.
The problem is particularly serious where
proper villagisation has not taken place and
houses are scattered over a large area.
Urban Settlements
Rapid urban growth is a recent phenomenon.
Until recent times, few settlements reached the
population size of more than a few thousand
inhabitants. The first urban settlement to reach
a population of one million was the city of
London by around. A.D. 1810 By 1982
approximately 175 cities in the world had
crossed the one million population mark.
Presently 48 per cent of the world’s population
lives in urban settlements compared to only 3
per cent in the year 1800 (Table 10.1).
Classification of Urban Settlements
The definition of urban areas varies from one
country to another. Some of the common basis
of classification are size of population,
occupational structure and administrative
setup.
Population Size
It is an important criteria used by most countries
to define urban areas. The lower limit of the
population size for a settlement to be designated
as urban is 1,500 in Colombia, 2,000 in
Argentina and Portugal, 2,500 in U.S.A. and
Thailand, 5,000 in India and 30,000 in Japan.
Besides the size of population, density of 400
persons per sq km and share of non-agricultural
workers are taken into consideration in India.
Countries with low density of population may
choose a lower number as the cut-off figure
compared to densely populated countries. In
Denmark, Sweden and Finland, all places with
a population size of 250 persons are called
urban. The minimum population for a city is
Year Percentage
1800 3
1850 6
1900 14
1950 30
1982 37
2001 48
Table 10.1: Percentage of World’s Population Living
in Urban Areas

300 in Iceland, whereas in Canada and
Venezuela, it is 1,000 persons.
Occupational Structure
In some countries, such as India, the major
economic activities in addition to the size of the
population in designating a settlement as urban
are also taken as a criterion. Similarly, in Italy, a
settlement is called urban, if more than 50 per
cent of its economically productive population
is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. India
has set this criterion at 75 per cent.
Administration
The administrative setup is a criterion for
classifying a settlement as urban in some
countries. For example, in India, a settlement
of any size is classified as urban, if it has a
municipality, Cantonment Board or Notified
Area Council. Similarly, in Latin American
countries, such as Brazil and Bolivia, any
administrative centre is considered urban
irrespective of its population size.
Location
Location of urban centres is examined with
reference to their function. For example, the
sitting requirements of a holiday resort are quite
different from that of an industrial town, a
military centre or a seaport. Strategic towns
require sites offering natural defence; mining
towns require the presence of economically
valuable minerals; industrial towns generally
need local energy supplies or raw materials;
tourist centres require attractive scenery, or a
marine beach, a spring with medicinal water
or historical relics, ports require a harbour etc.
Locations of the earliest urban settlements
were based on the availability of water, building
materials and fertile land. Today, while these
considerations still remain valid, modern
technology plays a significant role in locating
urban settlements far away from the source of
these materials. Piped water can be supplied
to a distant settlement, building material can
be transported from long distances.
Apart from site, the situation plays an
important role in the expansion of towns. The
urban centres which are located close to an
important trade route have experienced rapid
development.
Functions of Urban Centres
The earliest towns were centres of
administration, trade, industry, defence and
religious importance. The significance of defence
and religion as differentiating functions has
declined in general, but other functions have
entered the list. Today, several new functions,
such as, recreational, residential, transport,
mining, manufacturing and most recently
activities related to information technology are
carried on in specialised towns. Some of these
functions do not necessarily require the urban
centre to have any fundamental relationship
with their neighbouring rural areas.
What would be the effects of Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) as
a function on the development of existing
and new settlements?
Prepare a list of cities where earlier functions have been
replaced by newer ones.
In spite of towns performing multiple
functions we refer to their dominant function.
For example, we think of Sheffield as an
industrial city, London as a port city,
Chandigarh as an administrative city and so
on. Large cities have a rather greater diversity
of functions. Besides, all cities are dynamic and
over a period of time may develop new functions.
Most of the early nineteenth-century fishing
ports in England have now developed tourism.
Many of the old market towns are now known
for manufacturing activities. Towns and cities
are classified into the following categories.
Administrative Towns
National capitals, which house the administrative
offices of central governments, such as New Delhi,
Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, Washington
D.C., and London etc. are called administrative

towns. Provincial (sub-national) towns can also
have administrative functions, for example,
Victoria (British Columbia), Albany (New York),
Chennai (Tamil Nadu).
Trading and Commercial Towns
Agricultural market towns, such as, Winnipeg
and Kansas city; banking and financial centres
like Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inland
centres like Manchester and St Louis; and
transport nodes such as, Lahore, Baghdad and
Agra have been important trading centres.
Cultural Towns
Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca,
Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc. are
considered cultural towns. These urban
centres are of great religious importance.
Additional functions which the cities
perform are health and recreation (Miami and
Panaji), industrial (Pittsburgh and
Jamshedpur), mining and quarrying (Broken
Hill and Dhanbad) and transport (Singapore
and Mughal Sarai).
Urbanisation means the increase in the proportion
population of a country who live in urban areas.
The most important cause of urbanisation is rural-urban
migration. During the late 1990s some 20 to 30 million
people were leaving the countryside every year and
moving into towns and cities.
Developed countries experienced rapid urbanisation
during the nineteenth century.
Developing counties experienced rapid urbanisation
during the second half of the twentieth century.
CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THE
BASIS OF FORMS
An urban settlement may be linear, square, star
or crescent shaped. In fact, the form of the
settlement, architecture and style of buildings
and other structures are an outcome of its
historical and cultural traditions.
Towns and cities of developed and
developing countries reflect marked differences
in planning and development. While most cities
in developed countries are planned, most
urban settlements of developing countries have
evolved historically with irregular shapes. For
example, Chandigarh and Canberra are
planned cities, while smaller town in India have
evolved historically from walled cities to large
urban sprawls.
Addis Ababa (The New Flower)
The name of Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, as
the name indicates (Addis-New, Ababa-Flower)
is a ‘new’ city which was established in 1878.
The whole city is located on a hill-valley
topography. The road pattern bears the influence
Fig. 10.8: Morphology of Addis Ababa
Fig. 10.9: Skyline of Addis Ababa

of the local topography. The roads radiate from
the govt headquarters Piazza, Arat and Amist
Kilo roundabouts. Mercato has markets which
grew with time and is supposed to be the largest
market between Cairo and Johannesburg. A
multi-faculty university, a medical college, a
number of good schools make Addis Ababa an
educational centre. It is also the terminal station
for the Djibouti-Addis Ababa rail route. Bole
airport is a relatively new airport. The city has
witnessed rapid growth because of its multi-
functional nature and being a large nodal centre
located in the centre of Ethiopia.
Canberra
Canberra was planned as the capital of
Australia in 1912 by American landscape
architect, Walter Burley Griffin. He had
envisaged a garden city for about 25,000 people
taking into account the natural features of the
landscape. There were to be five main centres,
each with separate city functions. During the
last few decades, the city has expanded to
accommodate several satellite towns, which
have their own centres. The city has wide-open
spaces and many parks and gardens.
Types of Urban Settlements
Depending on the size and the services available
and functions rendered, urban centres are
designated as town, city, million city,
conurbation, megalopolis.
Town
The concept of ‘town’ can best be understood
with reference to ‘village’. Population size is not
the only criterion. Functional contrasts between
towns and villages may not always be clear-
cut, but specific functions such as,
manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and
professional services exist in towns.
City
A city may be regarded as a leading town, which
has outstripped its local or regional rivals. In
the words of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in fact
the physical form of the highest and most
complex type of associative life”. Cities are
much larger than towns and have a greater
number of economic functions. They tend to
have transport terminals, major financial
institutions and regional administrative offices.
When the population crosses the one million
mark it is designated as a million city.
Conurbation
The term conurbation was coined by Patrick
Geddes in 1915 and applied to a large area of
urban development that resulted from the
merging of originally separate towns or cities.
Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and
Tokyo are examples. Can you find out an
example from India?
Megalopolis
This Greek word meaning “great city”, was
popularised by Jean Gottman (1957) and
signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending,Fig. 10.10 : Morphology of a planned city – Canberra

as union of conurbations. The urban
landscape stretching from Boston in the north
to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the best
known example of a megalopolis.
Million City
The number of million cities in the world has
been increasing as never before. London
reached the million mark in 1800, followed by
Paris in 1850, New York in 1860, and by 1950
there were around 80 such cities. The rate of
increase in the number of million cities has been
three-fold in every three decades – around 160
in 1975 to around 438 in 2005.
Table 10.2: Continent–wise Distribution
of Million Cities
Continent Early Mid Mid
1950 1970s 2000
Europe 23 30 58
Asia 32 69 206
North and Central America 16 36 79
South America 8 17 43
Africa 3 8 46
Australia 2 2 6
World Total 84 162 438
Source: www.citypopulation.de/World.html
Distribution of Mega Cities
A mega city or megalopolis is a general term
for cities together with their suburbs with a
population of more than 10 million people.
New York was the first to attain the status of
a mega city by 1950 with a total population
of about 12.5 million. The number of mega
cities is now 25. The number of mega cities
has increased in the developing countries
during the last 50 years vis-à-vis the
Problems of Human Settlements
in Developing Countries
The settlements in developing countries, suffer
from various problems, such as unsustainable
concentration of population, congested housing
and streets, lack of drinking water facilities.
They also lack infrastructure such as,
electricity, sewage disposal, health and
education facilities.
Rural/Urban Problems
Can you identify the problems faced by your city/town/
village in terms of any one of the following?
Availability of potable water.
Electricity supply.
Sewerage system.
Transportation and communication facilities.
Health and educational infrastructure.
Water and air pollution.
Can you think of solutions to these problems?
Source: www.citypopulation.de/World.html
Table 10.3: Mega Cities of the World
(as on 28. 01. 2006)
Sl. Name of Country Population
No. the City (in millions)
1. Tokyo Japan 34.2
2. Mexico city Mexico 22.8
3. Seoul South Korea 22.3
4. New York U.S.A. 21.9
5. Sao Paulo Brazil 20.2
6. Mumbai India 19.9
7. Delhi India 19.7
8. Shanghai China 18.2
9. Los Angeles U.S.A. 18.0
10. Osaka Japan 16.8
11. Jakarta Indonesia 16.6
12. Kolkata India 15.7
13. Cairo Egypt 15.6
14. Manila Philippines 15.0
15. Karachi Pakistan 14.3
16. Moscow Russia 13.8
17. Buenos Aires Argentina 13.5
18. Dhaka Bangladesh 13.3
19. Rio de Janeiro Brazil 12.2
20. Beijing China 12.1
21. London G. Britain 12.0
22. Tehran Iran 11.9
23. Istanbul Turkey 11.5
24. Lagos Nigeria 11.1
25. Shenzhen China 10.7

Problems of Urban Settlements
People flock to cities to avail of employment
opportunities and civic amenities. Since most
cities in developing countries are unplanned,
it creates severe congestion. Shortage of
housing, vertical expansion and growth of
slums are characteristic features of modern
cities of developing countries. In many cities
an increasing proportion of the population
lives in substandard housing, e.g. slums and
squatter settlements. In most million plus
cities in India, one in four inhabitants lives in
illegal settlements, which are growing twice as
fast as the rest of the cities. Even in the Asia
Pacific countries, around 60 per cent of the
urban population lives in squatter settlements.
Fig. 10.11: Slums
Economic Problems
The decreasing employment opportunities in
the rural as well as smaller urban areas of the
developing countries consistently push the
population to the urban areas. The enormous
migrant population generates a pool of un-
skilled and semi-skilled labour force, which is
already saturated in urban areas.
Socio-cultural Problems
Cities in the developing countries suffer from
several social ills. Insufficient financial resources
fail to create adequate social infrastructure
catering to the basic needs of the huge
population. The available educational and
health facilities remain beyond the reach of the
urban poor. Health indices also, present a
gloomy picture in cities of developing countries.
Lack of employment and education tends to
aggravate the crime rates. Male selective
migration to the urban areas distorts the sex
ratio in these cities.
Environmental Problems
The large urban population in developing
countries not only uses but also disposes off a
huge quantity of water and all types of waste
materials. Many cities of the developing
countries even find it extremely difficult to
provide the minimum required quantity of
potable water and water for domestic and
industrial uses. An improper sewerage system
creates unhealthy conditions. Massive use of
traditional fuel in the domestic as well as the
industrial sector severely pollutes the air. The
domestic and industrial wastes are either let
into the general sewerages or dumped without
treatment at unspecified locations. Huge
concrete structures erected to accommodate
the population and economic play a very
conducive role to create heat islands.
Urban Strategyyyyy
The United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) has outlined these
priorities as part of its ‘Urban Strategy’.
What is a Healthy City?What is a Healthy City?What is a Healthy City?What is a Healthy City?What is a Healthy City?
World Health Organisation (WHO) suggests
that, among other things, a ‘healthy city’
must have:
A ’Clean’ and ‘Safe’ environment.
Meets the ‘Basic Needs’ of ‘All’ its
inhabitants.
Involves the ‘Community’ in local
government.
Provides easily accessible ‘Health’ service.

Increasing ‘Shelter’ for the urban poor.
Provision of basic urban services such as
‘Education’, ‘Primary Health care’, ‘Clean
Water and Sanitation’.
Improving women’s access to ‘Basic
Services’ and government facilities.
Upgrading ‘Energy’ use and alternative
‘Transport’systems.
Reducing ‘Air Pollution’.
Cities,townsandruralsettlementsarelinked
through the movements of goods, resources and
people. Urban-rural linkages are of crucial
importance for the sustainability of human
(i) Which one of the following forms of settlement develops along either side of
roads, rivers or canals?
(a) circular (c) cross-shaped
(b) linear (d) square
(ii) Which one of the following types of economic activities dominates in all rural
settlement?
(a) primary (c) secondary
(b) tertiary (d) quaternary
(iii) In which of the following regions has the oldest well-documented urban
settlement found?
(a) Huang He Valley (c) Nile Valley
(b) Indus Valley (d) Mesopotamia
(iv) How many of the following cities in India have attained the million status at the
beginning of 2006?
(a) 40 (c) 41
(b) 42 (d) 43
(v) Sufficiency of which type of resources can help to create adequate social
infrastructure catering to the needs of the large population in the developing
countries?
(a) financial (c) natural
(b) human (d) social
settlements. As the growth of rural population
has outpaced the generation of employment and
economic opportunities, rural-to-urban migration
has steadily increased, particularly in the
developing countries, which has put an enormous
pressure on urban infrastructure and services
that are already under serious stress. It is urgent
to eradicate rural poverty and to improve the
quality of living conditions, as well as to create
employment and educational opportunities in
rural settlements. Full advantage must be taken
of the complementary contributions and linkages
of rural and urban areas by balancing their
different economic, social and environmental
requirements.

(i) How would you define a settlement?
(ii) Distinguish between site and situation.
(iii) What are the bases of classifying settlements?
(iv) How would you justify the study of human settlements in human
geography?
(v) Identify the types of settlement shown in the photograph and write
a brief note on it.
(i) What are rural and urban settlements? Mention their
characteristics.
(ii) Discuss the problems associated with urban settlements in
developing countries.
(i) Do you live in a city? If not, do you live nearby? Is your life
somehow linked to a city?
(a) What is its name?
(b) When was it first settled?
(c) Why was the site chosen?
(d) What is its population?
(e) What are the functions it performs?
(f) On a sketch of the city, try to identify the areas where
these functions are performed.
Each student should make a list of five things associated with the selected city;
things that cannot be found elsewhere. This is a mini definition of the city as each
student sees it. The lists should be shared with the class. How much agreement is
there between the lists?
(ii) Can you think of some ways by which you can single
handedly help reduce pollution levels of your settlement
Hints :
(a) Proper garbage disposal
(b) Using public transport
(c) Better management of domestic water consumption
(d) Planting trees in the neighbourhood

Appendix I
World Population : Selected Data, 2000
Region/Country Surface Area Population by Density of Growth Rate
(thousand the year 2000 Population 1990–95 1995–2000
sq km) (million) (per sq km)
World – 6,005 – 1.7 1.3
Africa – 784.4 – 2.9 2.4
Algeria 2,382 31.5 13 2.7 2.3
Angola 1,247 12.9 11 3.7 3.2
Benin 113 6.1 57 3.1 2.7
Botswana 582 1.6 3 2.9 1.9
Burkina Faso 274 11.9 41 2.8 2.7
Burundi 28 6.7 265 2.9 1.7
Cameroon 475 15.1 32 2.8 2.7
Central African Republic 623 3.6 6 2.6 1.9
Chad 1,284 7.7 6 2.7 2.6
Democratic Republic of Congo 2,345 51.7 22 3 2.6
Republic of Congo 342 2.9 9 – 2.8
Cote d’Ivoire 322 14.8 50 3.7 1.8
Egypt 1,001 68.5 64 2.2 1.9
Eritrea 118 3.9 41 – 3.8
Ethiopia 1,104 62.6 64 3.1 2.5
Gabon 268 1.2 5 3.3 2.6
Chana 239 20.2 85 3 2.7
Guinea 246 7.4 30 3 0.8
Guinea-Bissau 36 1.2 43 2.1 2.2
Kenya 580 30.1 53 3.4 2
Lesotho 30 2.2 67 2.5 2.2
Liberia 111 3.2 32 3.3 8.2
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya – 5.6 – 3.5 2.4
Madagascar 587 15.9 27 3.3 3
Malawi 118 10.9 110 3.3 2.4
Mali 1,240 11.2 9 3.2 2.4
Mauritania 1,026 2.7 3 2.9 2.7
Mauritius 2 1.2 584 1 0.8
Morocco 447 28.4 64 2.4 1.8
Mozambique 802 19.7 23 2.8 2.5
Namibia 824 1.7 2 3.2 2.2
Niger 1,267 10.7 9 3.3 3.2
Nigeria 924 111.5 32.7 3.1 2.4

Rwanda 26 7.7 345 3.4 7.7
Senegal 197 9.5 49 2.7 2.6
Sierra Leone 72 4.9 70 2.7 3
Somalia 638 10.1 14 3.2 4.2
South Africa 1,221 40.4 35 2.4 1.5
Sudan 2,506 29.5 13 2.8 2.1
Togo 57 4.6 83 3.2 2.6
Tunisia 164 9.6 62 2.1 1.4
Uganda 241 21.8 113 3 2.8
United Republic of Tanzania – 33.5 – 3.4 2.3
Asia – 3,682.60 – 1.8 1.4
Afghanistan 652 22.7 41 6.7 2.9
Bangladesh 144 129.2 1,007 2.4 1.7
Bhutan – 2.1 – 2.3 2.8
Cambodia 181 11.2 68 2.5 2.3
China 9,598 1,277.60 135 1.4 0.9
Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea – 24 – 1.9 1.6
Hongkong, China – 6.9 – 0.8 2.1
India 3,287 1,013.70 342 1.9 1.6
Indonesia 1,905 212.1 116 1.8 1.4
Islamic Republic of Iran 1,633 67.7 39 2.7 1.7
Iraq 438 23.1 53 3.2 2.8
Israel 21 6.2 302 4.7 2.2
Japan 378 126.7 348 0.4 0.2
Jordan 89 6.7 55 3.4 3
Kuwait 18 2 111 –5.8 3.1
Democratic Republic of Laos – 5.4 – 3 2.6
Lebanon 10 3.3 423 2 1.7
Malaysia 330 22.2 71 2.4 2
Mongolia 1,567 2.7 2 2.6 1.7
Myanmar 802 45.6 23 2.1 1.2
Nepal 147 23.9 161 2.5 2.4
Oman 212 2.5 11 3.6 3.3
Pakistan 796 156.5 179 2.7 2.8
Philippines 300 76 253 2.1 2.1
Republic of Korea – 46.8 – 0.8 0.8
Saudi Arabia 2,150 21.6 10 3.4 3.4

Appendix I 105
Singapore 1 3.6 6,587 1 1.4
Sri Lanka 66 18.8 300 1.3 1
Syrian Arab Republic 185 16.1 88 3.6 2.5
Thailand 513 61.4 119 1.3 0.9
Turkey 775 66.6 85 2 1.7
United Arab Emirates 84 2.4 35 2.3 2
Vietnam 332 79.8 241 2 1.6
Yemen 528 18.1 33 3.5 3.7
Europe – 728.9 – 0.3 0
Albania 29 3.1 124 0.8 –0.4
Austria 84 8.2 98 0.4 0.5
Belgium 30 10.2 331 0.1 0.1
Bosnia & Herzegovina 51 4 78 – 3
Bulgaria 111 8.2 74 –0.2 –0.7
Croatia – 4.5 – – –0.1
Czech Republic 79 10.2 133 – –0.2
Denmark 43 5.3 126 0.2 0.3
Estonia 45 1.4 32 –0.2 –1.2
Finland 338 5.2 17 0.3 0.3
France 552 59.1 107 0.4 0.4
Germany 357 82.2 230 0.4 0.1
Greece 132 10.6 82 0.3 0.3
Hungary 93 10 109 –0.2 –0.4
Ireland 70 3.7 55 –0.2 0.7
Italy 301 57.3 196 0.1 0
Latvia 65 2.4 38 –0.3 –1.5
Lithuania 65 3.7 57 0.2 –0.3
Macedonia (Former
Republic of Yugoslavia) 26 2 80 – 0.6
Netherlands 42 15.8 470 0.7 0.4
Norway 324 4.5 15 0.5 0.5
Poland 323 38.8 127 0.3 0.1
Portugal 92 9.9 109 0 0
Romania 238 22.3 97 0.3 –0.4
Slovakia – 5.4 – – 0.1
Slovenia 20 2 99 – –0.1
Spain 506 39.6 79 0.2 0
Sweden 450 8.9 22 0.5 0.3

Switzerland 41 7.4 182 0.7 0.7
United Kingdom 243 58.8 248 0.2 0.2
Yugoslavia 102 10.6 108 0.3 0.1
North America – 309.6 – 1.1 0.9
Canada 9,971 31.1 3 1.4 1
United States of America 9,629 278.4 31 1 0.8
Oceania – 30.4 – 1.5 1.3
Australia 7,741 18.9 2 1.4 1
New Caledonia – 0.2 – – 2.1
New Zealand 271 3.9 14 0.9 1
Papua New Guinea 463 4.8 11 2.3 2.2
Vanuatu – 0.2 – – 2.4
Latin America – 519.1 – 1.8 1.6
Argentina 2,780 37 14 1.2 1.3
Belize – 0.2 – – 2.4
Bolivia 1,099 8.3 8 2.4 2.3
Brazil 8,547 170.1 20 1.6 1.3
Chile 757 15.2 20 1.6 1.4
Colombia 1,139 42.3 41 1.7 1.9
Costa Rica 51 4 75 2.4 2.5
Cuba 111 11.2 102 0.9 0.4
Dominican Republic 49 8.5 173 2 1.7
Ecuador 284 12.6 46 2.3 2
EI Salvador 21 6.3 303 2.2 2
Guatemala 109 11.4 105 2.9 2.6
Haiti 28 8.2 289 2 1.7
Honduras 112 6.5 57 3 2.8
Jamaica 11 2.6 243 1 0.9
Mexico 1,958 08.9 51 2.1 1.6
Nicaragua 130 5.1 42 3.7 2.7
Panama 76 2.1 38 1.9 1.6
Paraguay 407 5.5 14 2.7 2.6
Peru 1,285 25.7 20 2 1.7
Puerto Rico 9 3.9 442 0.9 0.8
Trinidad and Tobago 5 1.3 254 1.1 0.5
Uruguay 176 3.3 19 0.6 0.7
Venezuela 912 24.2 27 2.1 2

1.000 Norway 0.963
2.000 Iceland 0.956
3.000 Australia 0.955
4.000 Luxembourg 0.949
5.000 Canada 0.949
6.000 Sweden 0.949
7.000 Switzerland 0.947
8.000 Ireland 0.946
9.000 Belgium 0.945
10.000 United States 0.944
11.000 Japan 0.943
12.000 Netherlands 0.943
13.000 Finland 0.941
14.000 Denmark 0.941
15.000 United Kingdom 0.939
16.000 France 0.938
17.000 Austria 0.936
18.000 Italy 0.934
19.000 New Zealand 0.933
20.000 Germany 0.930
21.000 Spain 0.928
22.000 Hong Kong, China (SAR) 0.916
23.000 Israel 0.915
24.000 Greece 0.912
25.000 Singapore 0.907
26.000 Slovenia 0.904
27.000 Portugal 0.904
28.000 Republic of Korea 0.901
29.000 Cyprus 0.891
30.000 Barbados 0.878
31.000 Czech Republic 0.874
32.000 Malta 0.867
33.000 Brunei Darussalam 0.866
34.000 Argentina 0.863
35.000 Hungary 0.862
36.000 Poland 0.858
37.000 Chile 0.854
38.000 Estonia 0.853
39.000 Lithuania 0.852
40.000 Qatar 0.849
41.000 United Arab Emirates 0.849
42.000 Slovakia 0.849
43.000 Bahrain 0.846
44.000 Kuwait 0.844
45.000 Croatia 0.841
46.000 Uruguay 0.840
47.000 Costa Rica 0.838
48.000 Latvia 0.836
49.000 Saint Kitts and Nevis 0.834
50.000 Bahamas 0.832
51.000 Seychelles 0.821
52.000 Cuba 0.817
53.000 Mexico 0.814
54.000 Tonga 0.810
55.000 Bulgaria 0.808
56.000 Panama 0.804
57.000 Trinidad and Tobago 0.801
58.000 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 0.799
59.000 Macedonia, TFYR 0.797
60.000 Antigua and Barbuda 0.797
61.000 Malaysia 0.796
62.000 Russian Federation 0.795
63.000 Brazil 0.792
64.000 Romania 0.792
65.000 Mauritius 0.791
66.000 Grenada 0.787
67.000 Belarus 0.786
68.000 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.786
69.000 Colombia 0.785
70.000 Dominica 0.783
71.000 Oman 0.781
72.000 Albania 0.780
73.000 Thailand 0.778
74.000 Samoa (Western) 0.776
75.000 Venezuela 0.772
76.000 Saint Lucia 0.772
77.000 Saudi Arabia 0.772
78.000 Ukraine 0.766
79.000 Peru 0.762
80.000 Kazakhstan 0.761
81.000 Lebanon 0.759
82.000 Ecuador 0.759
83.000 Armenia 0.759
84.000 Philippines 0.758
85.000 China 0.755
86.000 Suriname 0.755
87.000 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 0.755
88.000 Paraguay 0.755
89.000 Tunisia 0.753
90.000 Jordan 0.753
Appendix II
Human Development Index, 2003
HDI Country (HDI) Value
Rank
Rank

91.000 Belize 0.753
92.000 Fiji 0.752
93.000 Sri Lanka 0.751
94.000 Turkey 0.750
95.000 Dominican Republic 0.749
96.000 Maldives 0.745
97.000 Turkmenistan 0.738
98.000 Jamaica 0.738
99.000 Islamic Republic of Iran 0.736
100.000 Georgia 0.732
101.000 Azerbaijan 0.729
102.000 Occupied Palestinian Territories 0.729
103.000 Algeria 0.722
104.000 El Salvador 0.722
105.000 Cape Verde 0.721
106.000 Syrian Arab Republic 0.721
107.000 Guyana 0.720
108.000 Viet Nam 0.704
109.000 Kyrgyzstan 0.702
110.000 Indonesia 0.697
111.000 Uzbekistan 0.694
112.000 Nicaragua 0.690
113.000 Bolivia 0.687
114.000 Mongolia 0.679
115.000 Republic of Moldova 0.671
116.000 Honduras 0.667
117.000 Guatemala 0.663
118.000 Vanuatu 0.659
119.000 Egypt 0.659
120.000 South Africa 0.658
121.000 Equatorial Guinea 0.655
122.000 Tajikistan 0.652
123.000 Gabon 0.635
124.000 Morocco 0.631
125.000 Namibia 0.627
126.000 São Tomé and Principe 0.604
127.000 India 0.602
128.000 Solomon Islands 0.594
129.000 Myanmar 0.578
130.000 Cambodia 0.571
131.000 Botswana 0.565
132.000 Comoros 0.547
133.000 Democratic Republic of Laos 0.545
134.000 Bhutan 0.536
135.000 Pakistan 0.527
136.000 Nepal 0.526
137.000 Papua New Guinea 0.523
138.000 Ghana 0.520
139.000 Bangladesh 0.520
140.000 Timor-Leste 0.513
141.000 Sudan 0.512
142.000 Congo 0.512
143.000 Togo 0.512
144.000 Uganda 0.508
145.000 Zimbabwe 0.505
146.000 Madagascar 0.499
147.000 Swaziland 0.498
148.000 Cameroon 0.497
149.000 Lesotho 0.497
150.000 Djibouti 0.495
151.000 Yemen 0.489
152.000 Mauritania 0.477
153.000 Haiti 0.475
154.000 Kenya 0.474
155.000 Zambia 0.470
156.000 Guinea 0.466
157.000 Senegal 0.458
158.000 Nigeria 0.453
159.000 Rwanda 0.450
160.000 Angola 0.445
161.000 Eritrea 0.444
162.000 Benin 0.431
163.000 Côte d’Ivoire 0.420
164.000 United Republic of Tanzania 0.418
165.000 Malawi 0.404
166.000 Zambia 0.394
167.000 Democratic Republic of Congo 0.385
168.000 Mozambique 0.379
169.000 Burundi 0.378
170.000 Ethiopia 0.367
171.000 Central African Republic 0.355
172.000 Guinea-Bissau 0.348
173.000 Chad 0.341
174.000 Mali 0.333
175.000 Burkina Faso 0.317
176.000 Sierra Leone 0.298
177.000 Nigeria 0.281
Rank
Rank

All developing countries 0.694
Least developed countries 0.518
Arab States 0.679
East Asia and the Pacific 0.768
Latin America and the Caribbean 0.797
South Asia 0.628
Sub-Saharan Africa 0.515
Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS 0.802
OECD 0.892
High-income OECD 0.911
High human development 0.895
Medium human development 0.718
Low human development 0.486
High income 0.910
Middle income 0.774
Low income 0.593
World 0.741
Notes :
Aggregates of Education Indices are based on the aggregates of gross enrolment data calculated by the UNESCO
Institute for Statistics and literacy data as used to calculate the HDI.
Source :
Calculated on the basis of data in columns 6-8 of Table 1 (HDR 2005); see technical note 1 for the details.
Appendix II 109

Agriculture
The science and art of cultivating the soil,
raising crops and rearing livestock. It is
alsocalledfarming.
Balance of Trade
Thedifferencebetweenthetotalvalueofa
country’s exports and imports.An excess
of export over import makes a favourable
balance of trade, and the converse an un-
favourable balance.
Barter
A direct exchange of excess produce
between two parties to the mutual
advantages of both, without the use of
tokens,creditormoneyinthetransaction.
Census
Officialenumerationofpopulationalongwith
certain economic and social statistics in a
given territory at some time interval.
Chemical Fertilisers
Substance of natural or artificial origin
containing chemical elements such as
phosphorus,potassiumandnitrogemthat
arenecessarytoplanlife.Theyareadded
tothesoilforincreasingitsproductivity.
Contour Ploughing
Tillingorploughinghillsidesorslopinglands
along the contour lines, that is, around
rather than up and down a slope mainly
with a view to conserving soil and water.
Crop Rotation
Growing of different crops in succession
onthesamefieldfromseasontoseasonto
maintainsoilfertility
Dairy Farming
A kind of agriculture in which major
emphasisisonbreedingandrearingmilch
cattle.Agriculture crops are raised mainly
tofeedthesecattle.
Density of Population
The average number of inhabitants living
within a specified unit of area, such as a
sq km.
Dry Farming
Amethodoffarmingadoptedincertainregions
ofinadequaterainfallanddevoidofirrigation
facilities by conserving moisture in the soil
andbyraisingdrought-enduringcrops.
Economic Geography
The aspect or branch of geography which
dealswiththeinfluencesoftheenvironment,
bothphysicalandcultural,ontheeconomic
activityofman,bringingoutsimilaritiesand
differencesfromplacetoplaceintheways
people make a living.
Environment
Surroundings or the conditions under
whichapersonorthingsexistanddevelop
his or its character. It covers both physical
andculturalelements.
Exports
Goods despatched from one country to
another.
Extensive Agriculture
Farminginwhichtheamountofcapitaland
labour applied to a given area is relatively
small.
Fazenda
AcoffeeplantationinBrazil.
Foreign Exchange
The mechanism or process by which
payments between any two places
operatingunderdifferentnationalcurrency
systems are effected without passing of
actual money or gold, etc.
Freeways
The wide highways on which cross-roads
are avoided by providing overhead links
where one turns in only one direction to
ensuresmoothandspeedytraffic.
Harbour
An extensive stretch of deep water where
vessels can anchor securely to obtain
protectionfromseaandswelleitherthrough
naturalfeaturesorartificialworks.
GLOSSARY
Highway
Publicroadconnectingdistantplaces.Such
a road of national importance is called the
national highway.
Horticulture
Cultivationofvegetablesandfruits;oftenon
smallplots,involvinghigherintensiveness
thaninfieldcultivation.
Imports
Goodsbroughtintoacountryfromanother
country.
Industrial Revolution
The change in manufacturing from hand-
operatedtoolstopower-drivenmachinery
began in England during the middle of the
eighteenthcentury.
Industry
Systematic production characterised by
division of labour and extensive use of
machinery.
Intensive Agriculture
Farming in which large amounts of capital
and labour are applied per unit area of
land, in order to obtain high yield.
Inter Cropping
Itisapracticeofgrowingtwoormorecrops
together on the same field in the same
season
International Trade
Tradecarriedonbetweennationsprimarily
to exchange their surpluses and make up
theirdeficits.
Metropolis
A very large city or agglomeration of
population in a district or a country, and is
oftenthechiefcentreorseatofsomeform
ofactivity—administrative,commercialor
industrial. It generally serves a large
hinterland.
Mine
An excavation made in the earth for
diggingoutmineralssuchascoal,iron-ore

and precious stones. A mine usually
denotes underground working except in
open-pitmines.
Mineral
Asubstancethatisfoundintheearth’scrust,
and which generally has a definite
chemicalcompositionunlikemostrocks.
Mineral Fuel
Non-metallic minerals such as coal and
petroleum which are used as fuel.
Mineral Oil
A mixture of hydrocarbons in solid,
gaseousorliquidformfoundintheearth.It
iscommonlyknownaspetroleum.Itbecame
a commercial product only in 1859.
Mineral Ore
Metals in their raw state as extracted from
theearth.
Mining
An economic activity concerned with the
extractionofcommerciallyvaluableminerals
from the bowels of the earth.
Mixed Farming
Atypeoffarminginwhichcultivationofcrops
and raising of livestock go hand in hand.
Boththeseactivitiesplayanimportantpart
in the economy.
Natural Resources
Wealth supplied by nature-mineral
deposits, soil fertility, timber, fuel, water,
potentialwater-power,fishandwildlife,etc.
Nomadism
Awayoflifeofthepeoplewhoarerequired
toshifttheirdwellingsfrequentlyfromplace
to place in search of pastures for their
animals—themainstayoftheireconomy.
Open-cast Mine
A place where soil and its outward cover
are first removed and a mineral or ore is
extracted by quarrying. In a way, it is a
quarry on a large scale. This method of
miningisknownasopen-castmining.
Pastoralism
An economy that solely depends upon
animals.Whereasnomadicpastoralismis
practised mainly for subsistence, the
modern ranches present an example of
commercialpastoralism.
Plantation Agriculture
Alarge-scaleone-cropfarmingresembling
factory production. It is usually
characterisedbylargeestate,hugecapital
investment, and modern and scientific
techniquesofcultivationandtrade.
Port
The commercial part of a harbour
containing facilities for embarking and
disembarking passengers, loading and
unloading,andsomefacilitiesforthestorage
of cargo.
Primary Activity
Activities concerned with collecting or
making available materials, provided by
nature, for example, agriculture, fishing,
forestry, hunting or mining.
Quarry
An open-air excavation from which stone
isobtainedbycutting,blasting,etc.
Ranches
Largestockfarms,usuallyfencedin,where
animals are bred and reared on a
commercial scale. They are found
especiallyintheUnitedStates.
Rotation of Crops
Asystematicsuccessionofdifferentcrops
on a given piece of land carried out in
order to avoid exhaustion of the soil.
Secondary Activity
Activities which transform the material
provided by primary activities into
commoditiesmoredirectlyusefultoman.
Sedentary Agriculture
Farming practised more or less
permanently on the same piece of land,
thesameassettledagriculture.
Shaft Mine
An underground excavation made deep
intotheearthfordiggingminerals likecoal,
precious stones and iron. Such mines
contain vertical and inclined shafts and
horizontal tunnels at various levels.
Shifting Agriculture
A method of farming in which a patch of
ground is cultivated for a period of few
years until the soil is partly exhausted or
overrun by weeds, and after which the
land is left to natural vegetation while
cultivation is carried on elsewhere. In due
course, the original patch of land is
cultivated again when the natural growth
hasrestoredfertility.
Subsistence Agriculture
Farming in which its produce is mainly
consumedinthefarmer’shouseholdunlike
commercial agriculture whose products
enter into trade on a very large scale.
Transhumance
Aseasonal movement of herdsmen with
their livestock and from and to the
mountains or between the regions of
differingclimates.
Transport
The action of carrying persons and goods
from one place to another.
Truck Farming
Growing of vegetables around the urban
centres to meet the daily demand of the
people is known as truck farming. It is
governedbythedistanceatruckcancover
overnightbetweenthefarmandthemarket.
Urbanisation
Ageneralmovementofpeoplefromsmall
ruraloragriculturalcommunitiesorvillages
tolargertownsengagedinvariedactivities
such as government, trade, transport and
manufacture. It also indicates the
concentration of an increasing proportion
oftotalpopulationintownsandcities.
Glossary 111

Geography Fundamentals" Class - 12" NCERT

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Geography Fundamentals" Class - 12" NCERT