Glossary by chapters 1 6
- 1. – Chapter 1 What is Social Psychology? behavioral A subfield of psychology that examines the role of genetic factors in behavior. genetics cross-cultural Research designed to compare and contrast people of different cultures. research A system of enduring meanings, beliefs, values, assumptions, institutions, and practices culture shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. evolutionary A subfield of psychology that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social psychology behavior. interactionist An emphasis on how both an individual’s personality and environmental characteristics perspective influence behavior. multicultural Research designed to examine racial and ethnic groups within cultures. research social The study of how people perceive, remember, and interpret information about themselves cognition and others. social The study of the relationship between neural and social processes. neuroscience social The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context. psychology
- 2. – Chapter 2 Doing Social Psychology Research applied Research whose goals are to enlarge the understanding of naturally occurring events and to research find solutions to practical problems. basic Research whose goal is to increase the understanding of human behavior, often by testing research hypotheses based on a theory. bogus A procedure in which research participants are (falsely) led to believe that their responses pipeline will be verified by an infallible lie-detector. technique Accomplice of an experimenter who, in dealing with the real participants in an experiment, confederate acts as if he or she is also a participant. The extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed construct to measure and the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the variables they were validity designed to manipulate. correlation A statistical measure of the strength and direction of the association between two variables. coefficient correlational Research designed to measure the association between variables that are not manipulated by research the researcher. debriefing A disclosure, made to participants after research procedures are completed, in which the researcher explains the purpose of the research, attempts to resolve any negative feelings, and emphasizes the scientific contribution made by the participants’ involvement. deception In the context of research, a method that provides false information to participants. dependent In an experiment, a factor that experimenters measure to see if it is affected by the variable independent variable. A form of research that can demonstrate causal relationships because (1) the experimenter Experiment has control over the events that occur and (2) participants are randomly assigned to conditions. The degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to experimental behave naturally and spontaneously. realism
- 3. – experimenter The effects produced when an experimenter’s expectations about the results of an expectancy experiment affect his or her behavior toward a participant and thereby influence the effects participant’s responses. external The degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be validity obtained for other people and in other situations. hypothesis A testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur. independent In an experiment, a factor that experimenters manipulate to see if it affects the dependent variable variable. informed An individual’s deliberate, voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the consent researcher’s description of what will be required during such participation. internal The degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an validity experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables. interrater The degree to which different observers agree on their observations. reliability meta-analysis A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects. mundane The degree to which the experimental situation resembles places and events in the real realism world. operational The specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable. definition random A method of assigning participants to the various conditions of an experiment so that each assignment participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions. random A method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a population has an equal sampling chance of being in the study. subject A variable that characterizes pre-existing differences among the participants in a study. variable theory An organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena.
- 4. – Chapter 3 The Social Self affective The process of predicting how one would feel in response to future. forecasting bask in reflected glory To increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful. (BIRG) An Eastern system of thought that accepts the coexistence of contradictory characteristics dialecticism within a single person. downward social The defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are. comparison facial feedback The hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in hypothesis emotion. implicit egotism A nonconscious form of self-enhancement. overjustification The tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become effect associated with reward or other extrinsic factors. private self- A personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their consciousness own inner states. public self- A personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as consciousness seen by others. self-awareness The theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby theory motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behavior. self-concept The sum total of an individual’s beliefs about his or her own personal attributes. An affective component of the self, consisting of a person’s positive and negative self-
- 5. – self-esteem evaluations. self- Behaviors designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent handicapping excuse for failure. The tendency to change behavior in response to the self-presentation concerns of the self-monitoring situation. self-perception The theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by theory observing their own behavior. self- Strategies people use to shape what others think of them. presentation A belief people hold about themselves that guides the processing of self-relevant self-schema information. social The theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves comparison to others. theory Terror The theory that humans cope with the fear of their own death by constructing worldviews Management that help to preserve their self-esteem. Theory two-factor The theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal theory of and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal. emotion
- 6. – Chapter 4 Perceiving Persons attribution A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior. theory availability The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of heuristic it come to mind. base-rate The finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the fallacy form of numerical base rates. belief in a just The belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to world disparage victims. belief The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited. perseverance central traits Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions. confirmation The tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs. bias counterfactual The tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did thinking not. covariation A principle of attribution theory that holds that people attribute behavior to factors that are principle present when a behavior occurs and are absent when it does not. false- The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, consensus attributes, and behaviors. effect fundamental The tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of attribution situations on other people’s behavior. error implicit A network of assumptions people make about the relationships among traits and behaviors. personality
- 7. – theory impression The process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression. formation information The theory that impressions are based on (1) perceiver dispositions; and (2) a weighted integration average of a target person’s traits. theory mind The process by which people attribute humanlike mental states to various animate and perception inanimate objects, including other people. need for The desire to reduce cognitive uncertainty, which heightens the importance of first closure impressions. nonverbal Behavior that reveals a person’s feelings without words, through facial expressions, body behavior language, and vocal cues. personal Attribution to internal characteristics of an actor, such as ability, personality, mood, or attribution effort. The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on primacy effect impressions than information presented later. The tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily and priming influence the interpretation of new information. self-fulfilling The process by which one’s expectations about a person eventually lead that person to prophecy behave in ways that confirm those expectations. situational Attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck. attribution social A general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another. perception
- 8. – Chapter 5 Stereotypes, Prejudice & Discrimination A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, ambivalent resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate and chivalrous but potentially patronizing sexism beliefs and feelings. contact The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain hypothesis conditions. Discrimination Behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group. Two or more persons perceived as related because of their interactions, membership in the group same social category, or common fate. illusory An overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlation correlated. implicit Racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally. racism ingroup The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups. favoritism ingroups Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity. jigsaw A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group classroom efforts. modern A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and racism easy to rationalize. outgroup The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than homogeneity among members of ingroups. effect Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or Outgroups identity.
- 9. – prejudice Negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups. Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s racial background, or institutional and racism cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group over another. realistic The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited conflict theory resources. relative Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared with others. deprivation Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender, or institutional and cultural sexism practices that promote the domination of one one gender over another. social The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes. categorization social A desire to see one’s ingroup as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt dominance cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups. orientation social identity The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem. theory social role The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting theory social roles occupied by men and women. stereotype A belief or association that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics. stereotype A model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group content model stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth. stereotype The experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about threat one’s group. subliminal A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious presentation awareness of having been exposed to them.
- 10. – superordinate A shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups. goal Chapter 6 Attitudes attitude A positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea. A multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person’s attitude toward some attitude scale object. A phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful bogus pipeline answers to sensitive questions. central route to The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced persuasion by the strength of its arguments. cognitive The theory that holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people dissonance become motivated to reduce. theory The process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive elaboration communication. facial An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and electromyograph attitudes. (EMG) Implicit A covert measure of unconscious attitudes derived from the speed at which people Association Test respond to pairings of concepts—such as black or white with good or bad. (IAT) implicit attitude An attitude, such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having. inoculation The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later hypothesis resistance to that argument. insufficient A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when deterrence only mild punishment is threatened.
- 11. – insufficient A condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without justification receiving a large reward. need for A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy cognition (NC) effortful cognitive activities. peripheral route The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is to persuasion influenced instead by superficial cues. persuasion The process by which attitudes are changed. psychological The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and reactance perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive. sleeper effect A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source. theory of The theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and planned perceived control to influence a person’s actions. behavior