Grammar function -for - 2nd- back students-06-06-2014
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This document provides a summary of lessons for 2nd year Baccalaureate students. It covers 7 units: Gifts of Youth, Humour, Education, Sustainable Development, Women and Power, Cultural Values, and Citizenship. Each unit covers grammar concepts, functions, and vocabulary related to the topic. For example, Unit 1 discusses expressions followed by infinitives, opinions, and modals. Unit 2 covers making and responding to requests and modals. This document serves as a comprehensive review of various English language concepts for BAC students.
Grammar function -for - 2nd- back students-06-06-2014
- 1. 1 In the name of God. A summary of lessons for 2 Bac students. BQS2014. Unit one: Gifts of Youth. Grammar 1. I will swim. 2. I want to swim. 3. I enjoy swimming. Some expressions are followed by bare infinitive ( without “to”), full infinitives ( to+inf) or gerunds ( V+ing) Expressions followed by infinitive without to. Expressions followed by infinitive with to. Expressions followed by gerund Will-would-can-could-may-might- let-would rather – had better- help – make – shall – should - Afford-agree-appear-choose-dare- decide-demand-deserve- encourage-expect-fail-happen- hesitate-hope-intend-learn- manage-need-offer-plan-promise- refuse-seem-urge-want. admit, appreciate, avoid, can’t help, carry on, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, excuse, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, hate, imagine, involve, love, mind, miss, postpone, practise, recommend, report, risk, can’t stand, suggest, understand, Function: Opinion, agreeing and disagreeing. Asking for opinion Giving opinion Agreeing Disagreeing What do you think of ...? How do you feel about..? What’s your opinion ? How do you see ..? I think/ guess / believe To my mind For me As far as I’m concerned From my point of view As I see it In my opinion I agree with you You are right I think so Definitely/ Absolutely I share your idea/view I can’t agree more I don’t agree I disagree I don’t share your view I don’t have the same opinion/idea You’re wrong You’re not right. Unit two. Humour. Function: making and responding to requests. Making a request Accepting Declining/refusing Can you ............................. ? Could you ............................. ? Will you ............................. .? Would you .............................? Imperative Sure/ Of course Definitely/ Absolutely With pleasure I’d be pleased to. I’d be happy to . + action Of course not. I’m sorry. I can’t. I’d like to but ...... I’d be pleased to, but I’d be happy to, but + reason Grammar modals: Function Modals Example Request Can / could / will / would Will open the door, please ? Permission Can/could/may/might May I open the door ? Prohibition Mustn’t/cannot/may not You mustn’t cheat in exams. Obligation Must/ have to / had to I must respect my parents. No obligation Needn’t/don’t have to/ doesn’t have to Aicha doesn’t have to take her umbrella. It is not raining. Advice Should/had better / ought to You should see a doctor. Certainty Positive certainty: must Negative certainty: needn’t Ahmed must be tired. Ali cannot be at home. Ability Can / could / be able to I can swim. I could ride a tricycle when I was a kid. Inability Cannot/couldn’t/be unable to I cannot play the guitar. I couldn’t meet you.
- 2. 2 Probability May/might Amal might come. Noura may help you. Suggestion Let/shall Let’s go to the beach. Shall we go to the beach? Possibility Can/ could Ahmed could do the shopping. Unit three : Education: formal, informal and non-formal. Grammar: Past perfect: when two actions finished in the past and one finished before the other. Affirmative Negative Interrogative Had + past participle Had+ not+ past participle Had +S+ past participle Ahmed had done the shopping before he went to play tennis. Noura saw a film after she had washed the dishes. Had you revised before you took the quiz? Function: Purpose. Expression + infinitive Expressions+ subject + modal Expressions + noun/ v+ing So as (not) to In order (not) (not) to So that + subject + modal For + noun / v +ing. I took a taxi so as to / in order to / to arrive early. I took a taxi so as not to / in order not to / not to arrive late. I took a taxi so that I wouldn’t be late. I took a taxi for not being late. Unit four: Sustainable development: Grammar: Future perfect: Affirmative Negative Interrogative Will+ have+ past participle Will+ not + have +past participle Will +S+ have + past participle By the end of the month, I will have visited Ifrane. In two months’ time, we will have fasted Ramadan. By 2020, they will have developed their country. Ali is 17. When he is 22, he will have got a job. Time-expressions: * By the end of .......... * At the age of ........ * In x’s time, ........ * By + a future date. * this time next .... *In + a future date ......... + for + a period of tme. Function: cause and effect: Cause Effect Because / since / as + Subject + verb Because of / due to / thanks to + noun or V+ing X is the cause of Y. Y is caused by X So / as a result / thus / consequently / accordingly / therefore / hence / that’s why / as a consequence. X is the result of effect of .................. Ali was absent because/ since / as he was ill. Ali was absent because of / due to being ill or his illness. Al’s illness is the cause of his absence. Ali’s absence is caused by his illness. Ali was ill, so he was absent. Ali was ill. Hence, / Thus, /Consequently ,/ Therefore, / As a consequence ,/ Accordingly, he was absent. Ali’s absence is the result of his illness. Unit five: Women and power. Grammar: Passive voice. Passive voice transformation includes three main steps. 1.The active subject becomes the passive subject. 2. We introduce “to be” in the tense of the active verb + the past participle of the active verb. 3. The active subject is put at the end after “by”. 1. Present simple. Is/are + past participle. Ali writes an email. An email is written by Ali. 2. Present continuous. Is/are +being+ past participle. Ali is writing an email. An email is being written by Ali. 3. Past simple. was/were + past participle. Ali wrote an email. Ali was written by Ali. 4. Past continuous. was/were + being +past participle.
- 3. 3 Ali was writing an email. An email was being written by Ali. 5. Present perfect. Has/have +been+ past participle. Ali has written an email. An email has been written by Ali. 5. Past perfect. had +been+ past participle. Ali had written an email. An email had been written by Ali. Modals + infinitive Modals+ be + past participle Ali will write an email. An email will be written by Ali. Ali should write an email. An email should be written by Ali. Modals + have + past participle Modals+ have +been + past participle Ali will have written an email. An email will have been written by Ali. Ali should have written an email. An email should have been written by Ali. Function : Addition and concession. Addition Concession And; too; as well as ; moreover; furthermore; in addition; besides ; not only ... but .... as well. also But; however; nevertheless; although; in spite of; despite Ahmed is intelligent. Ahmed is hardworking. Ahmed is intelligent and hardworking. Ahmed is intelligent as well as hardworking. Ahmed is intelligent. He is hardworking, as well/too. Ahmed is intelligent. He is also hardworking. Ahmed is intelligent. Moreover,/ Furthermore,/In addition,/ Besides,/What’s more,/ Also, he is hardworking. Ahmed is not only intelligent, but he is also hardworking. Unit six: Cultural values. Function: 1. Defining: *.X is / are ............................ *. X mean(s) .............................. *.X refer(s) to ............................ *. X designate(s) ................... *. X can be described as ........... * X can be defined as ........ * We can define X as ........... 2. complaining and apologizing Complaining Apologising Accepting apology I have been patient long enough , but ..... I want to complain about ......... I have a complaint about .......... I am so sorry to say this, but ........ So sorry to bother you, but ...... Enough is enough. Excuse me. Forgive me. It was my fault. I’m so sorry. I do apologise. It was my mistake. That’s Ok. No problem. Never mind. Forget about it. Don’t bother yourself. It could happen to anyone. Phrasal verbs: Call off Give off Go off Get off Keep off Put off Take off Tell off Turn off Set off Show off cancel emit explode dismount avoid/not touch postpone leave/remove rebuke switch off begin boast Break down Cut down(on) Let down Jot down Pull down Turn down Settle down Slow down crash/collapse reduce disappoint make a note of demolish refuse/lower calm down reduce speed
- 4. 4 Unit seven: Citizenship. Advice: Asking for advice Giving advice What should I do ? How can you advise me ? What’s your advice? Where should I go? Who should I see or visit ? If you were me, what would you do? Can you advise me? You should …………… You ought to …………… You had better …………… I advise you to …………… If I were you, I’d …………… If you were in my shoes, I’d …………… My advice to you is …………… REPORTED SPEECH: When we report somebody’s speech, we must pay attention to the introducing verb. If it is in the present simple or continuous or present perfect or future, NO TENSE CHANGES ARE MADE. However, if the introducing verb is in the past simple or continuous or past perfect, TENSE CHANGES ARE OBLIGATORY. REPORTED STATEMENTS: We use Reported speech when we report the meaning of what somebody said, but not the exact words. We use a reporting verb ( usually say or tell ) and then “that” before the reported statement. When we change a sentence from Direct Speech, pronouns and possessive adjectives change according to the meaning of the sentence. Break up Bring up Check up Catch up (with) Give up Hurry up Look ST up Make up Pick up Put up Put SO up Put up (with) Speed up Sum up Show up Take up disintegrate raise/educate examine get closer to stop/surrender quicken search invent lift/learn/give a ride erect / raise give SO a bed tolerate/bear accelerate summarize/recap turn up/arrive/come start a sport Carry out Check out Break out Find out Eat out Figure out Hand out Put out Run out (of) Pick out Make out Set out Watch out do/perform inspect/examine start suddenly discover eat in a restaurant understand distribute extinguish expire/finish choose/select distinguish depart/embark be careful Bump into Come into Look into Run into meet by chance inherit investigate collide with/meet Apply for Care for Look for Stand for demand/request take care of search for mean/represent Check in Fill in Hand in Give in register complete submit surrender/resign Get on Go on Get on well(with) Hang on Put on Rely on Set on Turn on Try on mount continue be well-suited clutch/wait dress in depend on attack/assault start/activate test Look after Take after take care of resemble Get over Take over recover from to get control of
- 5. 5 Examples: Dorris says, “I want to fly.” Dorris says that he wants to fly. Dorris said, “I want to fly.” Dorris said that he wanted to fly. When the reporting verb ( say or tell ) is in the Past Tense, we usually make the following changes. Direct Speech Reported Speech Present Simple Past Simple Present Continuous Past Continuous Past Simple Past Perfect Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Present Perfect Past Perfect Past Perfect Past Perfect Will Would Can Could May Might must Had to. Would/could/should/might Would/could/should/might OTHER CHANGES. Direct Speech Reported Speech Here There Now Then This/These That/Those Today That day Yesterday The previous day or the day before. Tomorrow The next/following/coming day Last X The previous X Next X The following X X ago X before REPORTED QUESTIONS: @We usually introduce Reported Questions with the reporting verbs ask, wonder and want to know. @Reported questions follow the word order of affirmative sentences. “What’s your name?” she asked. She wanted to know what my name was. @If a direct question begins with a question word, the reported question also starts with the same question word. He asked me , “Where do you live?” He asked me where I lived. @If the direct question doesn’t begin with a question word, the reported question starts with “if” or “whether”. “Do you live far?” he asked me. He wanted to know if I lived far. @When we change questions from Direct to Reported Speech, pronouns, tenses, adverbs etc change in the same way as when we report statements. REPORTED COMMANDS – REQUESTS. @We usually use “tell” when we report commands and “ask” when we report requests. @The Imperative changes to full infinitive ( with to ). “Go out, “ said Joe. Joe told me to go out. “Don’t close the door, please,” he said. He asked me not to close the door. OTHER INTRODUCING VERBS. Other introducing verb may be used to report statements and questions taking into account the relationship between the speaker/hearer and what is said. These introducing verbs include: /reminded /advised/ warned /offered/refused/begged/suggested/invited 1.”Don’t forget to do your homework,” Teacher/students. Teacher reminded his students to do their homework.
- 6. 6 2.”You had better listen to some English songs,” Ali/Hind Ali advised Hind to listen to some English songs. 3.”Stop smoking or you’ll get lung cancer”, doctor/Simou Doctor warned Simo to stop smoking or he would get lung cancer. 4.”I will make tea and Beghrir ,”Siham / Mum. Siham offered to make some tea and Beghrir to her mum. 5.”I don’t want to wash my hands,” Brahim said. Brahim refused to wash his hands. 6.”Please, let me go to the zoo with my friends, pleaaase.” James begged his mum to let him go to the zoo with his friends. 7.”Shall we play football next Saturday afternoon,” Paul. Paul suggested we play football the coming Saturday afternoon. 8.”Would you like to have couscous with me?” Assia/Joe Assia invited Joe to have couscous with her. Direct speech Reported Direct speech Reported speech Direct speech Reported speech am, is are take(s) took have, has, had was were don’t, doesn’t didn’t will, shall, would can, could may must, have to was were took had taken had had been didn’t hadn’t (3/ed) would could might had to this, that these, those here, there now, then today yesterday ago last tomorrow next now that that those there then that day, the same day the day before before the .......... before the following day the following since Present Simple Present Contnuous Past Simple Past Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfrect Cont. Past Perfect Past Perfect Cont. Future Simple Past Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continu Past Perfect Past Perfect Continu Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuou 2nd conditional Unit eight: International organizations: Grammar: Linking words. Function Linking words Cause Because; since; as; because of; due to; thanks to Effect So; as a result; thus; consequently; accordingly ; therefore ; hence; that’s why Addition In addition ; too; also ; as well (as) ; besides ; moreover; furthermore; not only .... but, as well. Concession But; although ; however ; in spite of ; despite ; yet; nevertheless; though Contrast By contrast; unlike; whereas; Examples For example ; for instance; like; such as Sequencing First; second ; third ; next ; next; later; afterwards; after; finally Concluding In brief; in sum; in a nutshell; to sum up; to conclude ; all in all; Function: Reacting to good and bad news. Reacting to good news Reacting to bad news Awesome! Amazing! How exciting! Great news! Good news! Marvelous! Congratulations! So pleased and glad to hear that! Bad news! How sad! So sad to hear that. My heart is saddened. My deepest sympathy. I do sympathize with you. Unit Nine: Science and Technology. Definition: "Science can be defined as a system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method, as well as to the organized body of knowledge gained through such research." "It's a way of solving problems and finding answers through observation, study , and responsibility."
- 7. 7 "Technology is the relationship that society has with its tools and crafts, and to what extent society can control its environment." It's the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area " a capability given by the practical application of knowledge." "Science focuses on general knowledge by investigating natural phenomenon." "Technology focuses on designing tools and systems for practical purposes". "Technology draws on science and contributes to its progress." "Technology is applied science." Branches of science and technology: Branches of science Branches of technology Physics ---- chemistry ---- mathematics ---- biology - ---- astronomy. Robotics ---- biotechnology ---- communication--- engineering. Collocations: Natural phenomena ---- producing knowledge ------ human means ---- natural laws ----- societal needs Careful observation ----designing tools ----- building tools. Function: Certainty/ Uncertainty. Certainty Uncertainty Undoubtedly ----- sure ---- certainly----- definitely There is no doubt ----------- It's crystal clear No one can deny ------ I am certain/ sure I am deadly sure ---- It must be I doubt ---- unlikely --- maybe ---- may --- can Could ----- might-------- probably ------ likely I think / I suppose. Perhaps ----- It's probable EXAMPLES: DVD companies will SURELY end DVD piracy. DVD piracy MAY reduce DVD sales. DVD companies will CERTAINLY sue DVD companies. File-sharing piracy will likely die. GRAMMAR: CONDITIONALS AND WISHES. CONDITIONALS: Did our grandparents use the mobile phone in the 1960s? SS: No. T: Why ? SS: They did not have it. IF THEY HAD HAD MOBILE PHONES, THEY WOULD HAVE COMMUNICATED USING THEM. LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, WELCOME TO CONDITIONALS. When we talk about conditionals, we certainly talk about the situation. We know the situation by looking at the tense of the sentence. Have a look at these three sentences. 1.I will be free tomorrow. I will visit you. The verbs here are in the future, so this is conditional type one. IF I AM FREE TOMORROW, I WILL VISIT YOU. 2.I am very busy. I don't visit you. Here the verbs are in the present, so this is conditional type two. IF I WERE NOT BUSY, I WOULD VISIT YOU. 3.I didn't visit you yesterday. I was busy. Here the verbs are in the past, so this is conditional type three. IF I HAD NOT BEEN BUSY, I WOULD HAVE VISITED YOU. HAVE A LOOK A THIS CHART. Situation Type Function Form Future Conditional I Probability If + simple present + simple future Present Conditional II Impossibility Contrary to known facts If + simple past + would + infinitive Past Conditional III Regret about the past If + past perfect + would +have + past participle Conditional: IF + CAUSE/ CONDITION + RESULT. EXAMPLES: 1.I do not practice sports. I am fat. IF I PRACTISED SPORT, I WOULD NOT BE FAT. 2.I don't speak Italian. I don't understand RAI UNO. If i spoke italian, i would understand rai uno. 3.You didn't invite Aicha. She didn't come. If you had invited aicha, she would have come. 4.Aiz drove carelessly. He had a serious accident. If aziz had not driven carelessly, he would not have had an accident. 5.I didn't wear a raincoat. I got wet. I had worn a raincoat, i would not have got wet.
- 8. 8 6.Chad lost his wallet. He did not buy anything. If chad had not lost his wallet, he would have bought something. For both conditional two and three: If the situation is affirmative, the conditional sentences are negative. If the situation is negative, the conditional sentences are affirmative. The English language has another way to express regret, it is called WISHES. LIKE CONDITIONALS, WISHES DEPEND ON THE SITUATION. DEFINITION: " Wish is used when the speaker wants realty to be different, to be exactly the opposite." 1. PRESENT – TIME WISHES: The verb is in the present. 1.I can't meet because I am busy. The situation here is in the present, so we have PRESENT-TIME WISH. I wish i were not busy. If only I were not busy. 2.I don't know how to dance. If only I knew how to dance. 3.I can't buy that book. It's so expensive. If only that book were not expensive. 4.I am hungry. I can't concentrate. If only i were not hungry. 5.It's hot. My students are sleepy. If only it were not hot. 6.I didn't come . I was busy. HERE THE SITUATION IS DIFFERENT. IT'S IN THE PAST, so we have PAST-TIME WISH: I wish I had not been busy. If only I had been free. 7.Samir wanted to type a letter, but his computer broke down. If only his PC had not broken down. Samir wishes his PC had not broken down. 8.I was hungry. I didn't have dinner. If only I had had dinner. 9.The exam was so difficult. If only it had been so easy. I wish the exam had not been difficult. 10.Jamila did not come to the party. If only Jamila had come to the party. Like conditionals, wishes also undergo these changes. If the situation is affirmative, the wish sentence is negative. If the situation is negative, the wish sentence is affirmative. Situation Type Function Form Present Present-time wish Regret about the present I wish + subject + the simple past of the verb. If only + subject + the simple past of the verb. Past Past-time wish Regret about the past I wish+ subject + the past perfect of the verb. If only+ subject + the past perfect of the verb. Unit ten: BRAIN DRAIN Definition: "A brain drain or human capital flight is an emigration of trained and talented individuals ("human capital") to other nations or jurisdictions, due to conflicts, lack of opportunity, health hazards where they are living or other reasons. It parallels the term "capital flight" which refers to financial capital that is no longer invested in the country where its owner lived and earned it. Investment in higher education is lost when a trained individual leaves and does not return. Also, whatever social capital the individual has been a part of is reduced by his or her departure. Spokesmen for the Royal Society of London coined the expression “brain drain” to describe the outflow of scientists and technologists to Canada and the United States in the early 1950s. Its counterpart is brain gain in the areas to which talent migrates. Brain drain can occur either when individuals who study abroad and complete their education do not return to their home country, or when individuals educated in their home country emigrate for higher wages or better opportunities. The second form is arguably worse, because it drains more resources from the home country." From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia REASONS OF THE BRAIN DRAIN: Talented professionals leave their countries for these reasons:
- 9. 9 For further study --- for employment ---- for professional development --- for a better working environment --- due to lack of research ---- low wages and salaries --- for financial reasons --- to improve their living or working conditions --- due to lack of satisfactory working conditions ---- due to social unrest, political conflicts, wars ---- no substantial funds for research --- no advanced technology or modern facilities. Tempting salaries, educational opportunities for children, the improvement of conditions of life and job security. SOLUTIONS TO BRAIN DRAIN: 1.Creating jobs. 2.Substantial funds for scientific research. 3.Better conditions of life. 4.Democracy. 5.Justice and equity. 6.Grants and scholarships for scientific research. 7.Too much investment in education: qualitative education. 8.Encouraging skilled people to stay at home by allowing them some privileges. 9.Low interest credits to start their projects. PREFIXES: Prefix Meaning Examples Inter- Between -Among Interaction --- Inter-racial ---interdependent --interpersonal Extra- Outside -beyond Extraterrestrial--- extra-marital --- extra-time --- extra – judicial ----- extra-curricular Intra- Within -Inside Intra-mural ---- intravenous ---- intra departmental Under- Less than –Insufficient Underestimate --- underdeveloped --- undervalue --- underpriviledged --- understaffed --- underfed Over- Excessively -More than Overestimate --- overcharge --- overhear --- overeat – overfeed ---- overload ---- oversensitive Super- Above – over - beyond Supersonic --- supercomputer --- superego --- superstar Hyper- Above – over - excessive Hyperactive --- hypertension --- hyperbole FUNCTION: SHOULD+HAVE+PAST PARTICIPLE. As we saw before, regret can be expressed in different ways: conditionals and wishes. There is also a new form to express regret: it is called SHOULD+HAVE+PAST PARTICIPLE. EXAMPLES: 1.Ahmed drove carelessly. He had a serious accident. If Ahmed had not driven carelessly, he wouldn't have had a serious accident. If only he hadn't driven carelessly. He shouldn't have driven carelessly. 2.I got wet. I didn't take my umbrella. I should have taken my umbrella. 3.Assia didn't come. You didn't invite her. You should have invited her. 4.Samar can't concentrate. She didn't have breakfast. She should have had breakfast. 5.Siham got low grades as she didn't revise well. She should have revised well. 6.Arwa missed her plane. She arrived late to the airport. She shouldn't have arrived late. 7.Fatima was angry as you did not help her with her homework. You should have helped her with her homework. 8.I have a terrible stomachache as I ate too much yesterday. I SHOULDN'T HAVE EATEN TOO MUCH. 9.The police arrested him as he drove very fast. HE SHOULD HAVE DRIVEN SLOWLY. Unit ten: Relative clauses. Let us start by revising English pronouns: Subject I You He She It We You They Object Me You Him Her It Us You Them Possessive My x Your x His x Her x Its x Our x Your x Their x We use relative pronouns to combine/ relate two sentences and avoid repetition. The relative pronoun depends on the type of its antecedent and its grammatical category. 1. People: I met a boy. The boy knows. I met the boy who knows you. (Who is used to replace the boy as a subject.) I met a boy . You know the boy. I met the boy whom you know.
- 10. 10 (Whom is used to replace the boy as an object.) I met the boy. The boy’s mum is a dentist. I met the boy whose mum is a dentist. (Whose is used to replace the boy’s as a possessive.) 2. Things or objects: I bought a laptop. The laptop is very expensive. I bought the laptop which is very expensive. (Which is used to replace the laptop as a subject.) I bought a laptop. My father liked the laptop. I bought the laptop which my father liked. (Which is used to replace the boy as an object.) I bought the laptop. The laptop’s coulour is pink. I bought the laptop whose colour is pink. (Whose is used to replace the laptop as a possessive.) A summary: Subject Object Possessive People Who Whom Whose Things Which Which Whose Relative adverbs: 1. Place. That’s the hotel. I spend my holidays in that hotel. That’s the hotel where I spent my holidays. I visited the city. I was born in that city. I visited the city where I was born. 2. Time. I always remember the day. I first went to school on that day. I will always remember the day when I first went to school. Moroccan will never forget the year when King Hassan the second died. 3. Reason. I don’t know the reason why students are coming late. They cannot justify why they were so impolite. Place Where Time When Reason why Function :Showing lack of understanding and asking for understanding Showing lack of understanding Asking for clarification I don’t understand. It is not clear. It is unclear. Pardon. I beg your pardon. I am not sure I got your point/ idea. I am not sure I am following. I didn’t get your idea. Can you explain , please? Can you clarify, please? Could you be more explicit? Can you make your idea clearer ? What do you mean by …… ? Would you elaborate on that ? Could you give an example ?. Good luck. I wish you success and happiness.