How the European Union Works

How the
European
Union works
T he E u r o p e a n
U n i o n
e x p l a i n e d
Your guide
to the
EU institutions

The European Union explained —
How the European Union works
European Commission
Directorate-General for Communication
Publications
1049 Brussels
BELGIUM
Manuscript completed in June 2013
Cover: © Luis Pedrosa
40 pp. — 21 × 29.7 cm
ISBN 978-92-79-29988-9
doi:10.2775/20055
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union,
2013
© European Union, 2013
Reproduction is authorised. For any use or reproduction
of individual photos, permission must be sought directly
from the copyright holders.
Printed in Italy
Printed on white chlorine-free paper
This publication is a part of a series that explains
what the EU does in different policy areas,
why the EU is involved and what the results are.
You can see online which ones are available
and download them:
europa.eu/pol/index_en.htm
bookshop.europa.eu
How the European Union works
Europe 2020: Europe’s growth strategy
The Founding Fathers of the European Union
Agriculture
Borders and security
Budget
Climate action
Competition
Consumers
Culture and audiovisual
Customs
Development and cooperation
Digital agenda
Economic and monetary union and the euro
Education, training, youth and sport
Employment and social affairs
Energy
Enlargement
Enterprise
Environment
Fight against fraud
Fisheries and maritime affairs
Food safety
Foreign affairs and security policy
Humanitarian aid and civil protection
Internal market
Justice, citizenship, fundamental rights
Migration and asylum
Public health
Regional policy
Research and innovation
Taxation
Trade
Transport
The European Union
explained

T he E u r o p e a n
U n i o n e x p l a i n e d
How the
European
Union works
Your guide
to the
EU institutions

2 H o w the E uropean U nion w or k s
Contents
Introducing the European Union: how it works, who does what 3
The European Parliament: the voice of the people 9
The European Council: setting the strategy 12
The Council: the voice of the Member States 14
The European Commission: promoting the common interest 19
The national parliaments: enforcing subsidiarity 23
The Court of Justice: upholding EU law 24
The European Central Bank: ensuring price stability 26
The European Court of Auditors: helping to improve EU financial management 29
The European Economic and Social Committee: the voice of civil society 31
The Committee of the Regions: the voice of local government 33
The European Ombudsman: investigating your complaints 34
The European Data Protection Supervisor: protecting your privacy 35
The European Investment Bank: investing in the future 36
The EU agencies 38

3 Y our guide to the E U institutions
Introducing the European Union
How it works, who does what
What this publication is about
This publication is a guide on how the European Union
(EU) works. ‘How the EU works’ means: how decisions
are taken at EU level and who takes those decisions.
At the heart of this decision-making process are the EU
institutions — such as the Parliament, the Council and
the European Commission — which you may have
heard of, and there are others. To show how the EU
works, this publication first explains how EU legislation
is made. It then gives further insight into each of the
EU institutions, as well as the agencies and bodies
supporting them.
The European Union in brief
At the core of the EU are the Member States —
the 28 countries that belong to the Union — and their
citizens. The unique feature of the EU is that, although
these are all sovereign, independent countries, they
have pooled some of their ‘sovereignty’ in order to gain
strength and the benefits of size. Pooling sovereignty
means, in practice, that the Member States delegate
some of their decision-making powers to the shared
institutions they have created, so that decisions on
specific matters of joint interest can be made
democratically at European level. The EU thus sits
between the fully federal system found in the United
States and the loose, intergovernmental cooperation
system seen in the United Nations.
The EU has achieved much since it was created in 1950.
It has built a single market for goods and services that
spans 28 countries with over 500 million citizens free to
move and settle where they wish. It created the single
currency — the euro — now a major world currency, and
which makes the single market more efficient. It is also
the largest supplier of development and humanitarian
aid programmes in the world. These are just a few of the
achievements so far. Looking ahead, the EU is working
to get Europe out of the current economic crisis. It is at
the forefront of the fight against climate change and its
consequences; as it plans to keep growing, it helps
neighbouring countries prepare themselves for EU
membership; and it is building a common foreign policy
which will do much to extend European values around
the world. The success of these ambitions depends on
the ability to take effective and timely decisions and to
implement them well.
The EU treaties
The European Union is based on the rule of law.
This means that every action taken by the EU is
founded on treaties that have been approved voluntarily
and democratically by all EU countries. The treaties are
negotiated and agreed by all the EU Member States and
then ratified by their parliaments or by referendum.
The treaties lay down the objectives of the European
Union, the rules for EU institutions, how decisions are
made and the relationship between the EU and its
Member States. They have been amended each time
new Member States have joined. From time to time,
they have also been amended to reform the European
Union’s institutions and to give it new areas of
responsibility.
On 9 May 1950, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman first
publicly proposed the ideas that led to the European Union.
So 9 May is celebrated as the EU’s birthday.
© ImageGlobe

The last amending treaty — the Lisbon Treaty — was
signed in Lisbon on 13 December 2007, and came into
force on 1 December 2009. Earlier treaties are now
incorporated into the current consolidated version,
which comprises the Treaty on European Union and the
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.
The Treaty on Stability, Coordination and Governance
in the Economic and Monetary Union is an
intergovernmental treaty which was signed by all EU
Member States except the Czech Republic and the
United Kingdom in March 2012 and entered into force
on 1 January 2013 in all Member States which
completed the ratification process. It is not an EU treaty,
but an intergovernmental treaty and the intention is to
bring it into EU law eventually. It is designed to foster
budgetary discipline, strengthen the coordination of
economic policies and to improve the governance of the
euro area. At present 17 EU countries use the euro as
their currency.
The work of the EU is based on the treaties agreed by all the
member countries — the latest main update was signed in
Lisbon in 2007.
A history of the EU treaties
When French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposed integrating western Europe’s coal and steel
industries in 1950, his ideas were set out in the Treaty of Paris the following year, and the precursor
to the EU — the European Coal and Steel Community — was born. Since then, the EU has regularly
updated and added to the treaties to ensure effective policy and decision-making.
XX The Treaty of Paris, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community, was signed in Paris on
18 April 1951 and entered into force in 1952. It expired in 2002.
XX The Treaties of Rome, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European
Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), were signed in Rome on 25 March 1957 and came into force
in 1958.
XX The Single European Act (SEA) was signed in February 1986 and came into force in 1987.
It amended the EEC Treaty and paved the way for completing the single market.
XX The Treaty on European Union — the Maastricht Treaty — was signed in Maastricht on 7 February
1992 and came into force in 1993. It established the European Union, gave the Parliament more
say in decision-making and added new policy areas of cooperation.
XX The Treaty of Amsterdam was signed on 2 October 1997 and came into force in 1999.
It amended previous treaties.
XX The Treaty of Nice was signed on 26 February 2001 and entered into force in 2003. It streamlined
the EU institutional system so that it could continue to work effectively after the new wave of
Member States joined in 2004.
XX The Treaty of Lisbon was signed on 13 December 2007 and came into force in 2009. It simplified
working methods and voting rules, created a President of the European Council and introduced
new structures with a view to making the EU a stronger actor on the global stage.
© ImageGlobe

Who takes the decisions?
Decision-making at EU level involves various European
institutions, in particular:
XXthe European Parliament, which represents the
EU’s citizens and is directly elected by them;
XXthe European Council, which consists of the Heads
of State or Government of the EU Member States;
XXthe Council, which represents the governments of
the EU Member States;
XXthe European Commission, which represents the
interests of the EU as a whole.
The European Council defines the general political
direction and priorities of the EU but it does not exercise
legislative functions. Generally, it is the European
Commission that proposes new laws and it is the
European Parliament and Council that adopt them.
The Member States and the Commission then
implement them.
What types of legislation are there?
There are several types of legal acts which are applied
in different ways.
XXA regulation is a law that is applicable and binding
in all Member States directly. It does not need to be
passed into national law by the Member States
although national laws may need to be changed to
avoid conflicting with the regulation.
XX A directive is a law that binds the Member States,
or a group of Member States, to achieve a particular
objective. Usually, directives must be transposed into
national law to become effective. Significantly,
a directive specifies the result to be achieved:
it is up to the Member States individually to decide
how this is done.
XXA decision can be addressed to Member States,
groups of people, or even individuals. It is binding in
its entirety. Decisions are used, for example, to rule
on proposed mergers between companies.
XXRecommendations and opinions have no
binding force.
How is legislation passed?
Every European law is based on a specific treaty article,
referred to as the ‘legal basis’ of the legislation.
This determines which legislative procedure must be
followed. The treaty sets out the decision-making
process, including Commission proposals, successive
readings by the Council and Parliament, and the
opinions of the advisory bodies. It also lays down when
unanimity is required, and when a qualified majority is
sufficient for the Council to adopt legislation.
The great majority of EU legislation is adopted using
the Ordinary Legislative Procedure. In this
procedure, the Parliament and the Council share
legislative power.
The freedom for all citizens to
travel, live and work in all the
28 EU countries is one of the
main achievements of the
European Union.
© Heide Benser/Corbis

1. Proposal from the Commission
2. Opinions from national parliaments
3. Opinions from the European Economic and Social Committee and/or the Committee of the Regions
4. First reading by the European Parliament: Parliament adopts a position (amendments)
5. Commission can amend its proposal
6. First reading by the Council (*)
7. Council approves Parliament’s position.
The act is adopted
9. Second reading by the Parliament: Parliament approves the Council’s position at first
reading — the act is adopted in ‘early second reading’ — or proposes amendments
10. Commission opinion on Parliament’s amendments
11. Second reading by the Council (*)
12. Council approves all Parliament’s amendments to
the Council’s position at first reading.
14. Conciliation Committee is convened
The act is adopted
15. Conciliation Committee agrees on a joint text
16. Parliament and Council agree with the proposal
from the Conciliation Committee, and
the act is adopted
8. Council and Parliament disagree on amendments.
Council adopts position at first reading
13. Council and Parliament disagree on amendments
to the Council’s position at first reading
17. Parliament and/or Council disagree with the
proposal from the Conciliation Committee, and
the act is not adopted
(when this is required)
Ordinary Legislative Procedure
FIRST READING
SECOND READING
CONCILIATION
(*) Council adopts its position by a qualified majority (the treaties provide for unanimity in a few exceptional areas). However, if the Council intends to deviate from the
Commission’s proposal/opinion it adopts its position by unanimity.

The procedure begins with the Commission.
When considering launching a proposal for action,
the Commission often invites views on the topic from
governments, business, civil society organisations and
individuals. The opinions collected feed into a
Commission proposal that is presented to the Council
and Parliament. The proposal may have been made at
the invitation of the Council, the European Council, the
Parliament or European citizens, or it may have been
made on the Commission’s own initiative.
The Council and the Parliament each read and discuss
the proposal. If no agreement is reached at the second
reading, the proposal is put before a ‘conciliation
committee’ comprising equal numbers of Council and
Parliament representatives. Commission representatives
also attend the committee meetings and contribute to
the discussions. Once the committee has reached an
agreement, the agreed text is then sent to Parliament
and the Council for a third reading, so that it can finally
be adopted as law. In most cases, the Parliament votes
on proposals by simple majority and the Council by
qualified majority voting, whereby each Member State
has a certain number of votes in line with its size and
population. In some cases, unanimous voting is required
in the Council.
Special procedures
Special legislative procedures are available depending
on the subject of the proposal. In the Consultation
Procedure, the Council is required to consult
Parliament on a proposal from the Commission,
but is not required to accept Parliament’s advice.
This procedure is only applicable in a few areas,
such as internal market exemptions and competition
law. In the Consent Procedure, Parliament may accept
or reject a proposal, but may not propose amendments.
This procedure can be used when the proposal concerns
the approval of an international treaty that has been
negotiated. In addition, there are limited cases where
the Council and the Commission, or the Commission
alone, can pass legislation.
Who is consulted, who can object?
In addition to the Commission–Council–Parliament
triangle, there are a number of advisory bodies that
must be consulted when proposed legislation involves
their area of interest. Even if their advice is not taken,
this contributes to the democratic oversight of EU
legislation by ensuring that it is subject to the
widest scrutiny.
These bodies are:
XXthe European Economic and Social Committee,
which represents civil society groups such as
employers, trades unions and social interest groups;
XXthe Committee of the Regions, which ensures that
the voice of local and regional government is heard.
In addition, other institutions and bodies may be
consulted when a proposal falls within their area of
interest or expertise. For example, the European Central
Bank would expect to be consulted on proposals
concerning economic or financial matters.
Citizens’ participation
By means of a ‘European Citizens’ Initiative’,
1 million EU citizens from at least one quarter of
the EU Member States may invite the Commission
to bring forward a legislative proposal on a
particular issue. The Commission will carefully
examine all initiatives that fall within the
framework of its powers and that have been
supported by 1 million citizens. An audition of the
initiatives is done in the Parliament.
Such initiatives may therefore influence the work
of the EU institutions, as well as the
public debate.
Citizens can now propose new laws, by means of the European
Citizens' Initiative.
© Bernd Vogel/Corbis

National oversight
National parliaments receive draft legislative acts at
the same time as the European Parliament and the
Council. They can give their opinion to ensure that
decisions are taken at the most appropriate level. EU
actions are subject to the principle of subsidiarity
— which means that, except in the areas where it has
exclusive powers, the Union only acts where action will
be more effective at EU level than at national level.
National parliaments therefore monitor the correct
application of this principle in EU decision-making.
What decisions are taken
The treaties list the policy areas in which the EU can
take decisions. In some policy areas, the EU has
exclusive competence, which means that decisions are
taken at EU level by the Member States meeting in the
Council and the European Parliament. These policy areas
cover customs, competition rules, monetary policy for
the euro area and the conservation of fish and trade.
In other policy areas, there is shared competence
between the Union and the Member States. This means
that if legislation is passed at EU level, then these laws
have priority. However, if no legislation is adopted at EU
level, then the individual Member States may legislate at
national level. Shared competence applies in many policy
areas, such as the internal market, agriculture, the
environment, consumer protection and transport.
In all other policy areas the decisions remain with the
Member States. Thus, if a policy area is not cited in a
treaty, the Commission cannot propose a law in that
area. However, in some fields, such as the space sector,
education, culture and tourism, the Union can support
Member States’ efforts. And in others, such as overseas
aid and scientific research, the EU can carry out parallel
activities, such as humanitarian aid programmes.
Economic coordination
All EU countries are part of the Economic and Monetary
Union (EMU), meaning that they coordinate their
economic policymaking and treat economic decisions as
a matter of common concern. Within the EMU, no
institution alone is responsible for overall economic
policy. These responsibilities are divided between the
Member States and the EU institutions.
Monetary policy — which deals with price stability and
interest rates — is managed independently by the
European Central Bank (ECB) in the euro area, i.e. in
those 17 countries which use the euro as their currency.
Fiscal policy — which concerns decisions about
taxation, spending and borrowing — is the responsibility
of the 28 Member State governments. So are the
policies about labour and welfare. However, as fiscal
decisions taken by one euro area Member State can
have an impact throughout the euro area, these
decisions must conform to rules set at EU level.
Therefore, the coordination of sound public finances
and structural policies is necessary for the EMU to
function effectively and to ensure stability and growth.
In particular, the economic crisis that began in 2008
highlighted the need to strengthen economic
governance in the EU and in the euro area, by means of
inter alia closer policy coordination, monitoring
and supervision.
The Council monitors Member States’ public finances
and economic policies and can make recommendations
to individual EU countries based on proposals from the
Commission. It may recommend adjustment measures
and sanction euro area countries that do not take
corrective measures to reduce excessive deficit and
debt levels.
The governance of the euro area and major economic
policy reforms are also discussed in the Euro Summits,
where Heads of State or Government of euro area
members meet.
The EU and foreign relations
Relations with countries outside of the EU are under the
responsibility of the High Representative of the Union
for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is appointed
by the European Council, but also holds the post of
European Commission Vice-President. At the level of
Heads of State or Government, the Union is represented
by the President of the European Council.
The European External Action Service (EEAS) serves as a
foreign ministry and diplomatic service for the Union
under the authority of the High Representative. It is
composed of expert staff transferred from the Council,
the Member States and the European Commission.
The Council develops and takes decisions in the field of
the EU’s foreign and security policy on the basis of
guidelines set by the European Council. The
Commission, on the other hand, is responsible for trade
and funding for non-EU countries, such as humanitarian
or development aid. The Commission also represents
the Union in all areas of EU competence outside foreign
and security policy.

The European Parliament
The voice of the people
Role: Directly elected legislative arm of the EU
Members: 766 Members of the European Parliament
Location: Strasbourg, Brussels and Luxembourg
XX www.europarl.eu
Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are
directly elected by EU citizens to represent their
interests. Elections are held every five years and all EU
citizens over 18 years old (16 in Austria) — some 380
million — are entitled to vote. The Parliament has 766
MEPs from all 28 Member States.
The official seat of the European Parliament is in
Strasbourg (France), although the institution has three
places of work: Strasbourg, Brussels (Belgium) and
Luxembourg. The main meetings of the whole
Parliament, known as ‘plenary sessions’, take place in
Strasbourg 12 times per year. Additional plenary
sessions are held in Brussels. Committee meetings are
also held in Brussels.
Composition of the European Parliament
The seats in the European Parliament are allocated
among the Member States on the basis of their share
of the EU population.
On 1 July 2013 Croatia became the 28th Member State
of the European Union and 12 Croatian Members joined
the European Parliament for the rest of this
parliamentary term. For the elections to the Parliament
in 2014, the total number of MEPs will be adjusted to
751.
Most MEPs are associated with a national political party
in their home country. In the European Parliament the
national parties group into EU-wide political groupings
and most MEPs belong to one of these.
Number of MEPs per Member State in 2013
Member State Number of MEPs
Austria 19
Belgium 22
Bulgaria 18
Croatia 12
Cyprus 6
Czech Republic 22
Denmark 13
Estonia 6
Finland 13
France 74
Germany 99
Greece 22
Hungary 22
Ireland 12
Member State Number of MEPs
Italy 73
Latvia 9
Lithuania 12
Luxembourg 6
Malta 6
Netherlands 26
Poland 51
Portugal 22
Romania 33
Slovakia 13
Slovenia 8
Spain 54
Sweden 20
United Kingdom 73
TOTAL 766

Greens/European Free
Alliance — Greens/EFA
58
Progressive Alliance of Socialists
and Democrats — S & D
196
What the European Parliament does
The Parliament has three main roles.
1. It shares with the Council the power to legislate — to
pass laws. The fact that it is a directly elected body
helps guarantee the democratic legitimacy of
European law.
2. It exercises democratic supervision over all EU
institutions, and in particular the Commission. It has
the power to approve or reject the nomination of the
President of the Commission and Commissioners,
and the right to censure the Commission as a whole.
3. It shares authority with the Council over the EU
budget and can therefore influence EU spending. At
the end of the budget procedure, it adopts or rejects
the budget in its entirety.
These three roles are described in greater detail below.
1. The power to legislate
The most common procedure for adopting EU legislation
is called the ‘ordinary legislative procedure’ — also
known as the ‘co-decision procedure’. This places the
European Parliament and the Council on an equal
footing, and the laws passed using this procedure are
joint acts of the Council and Parliament. It applies to the
majority of EU legislation, covering a wide range of
fields such as consumer rights, environmental
protection and transport. Under the ordinary legislative
procedure the Commission makes a proposal which
must be adopted both by the Parliament and the
Council. Parliament’s assent is required for all
European People’s Party
(Christian Democrats) — EPP
275
international agreements in fields covered by the
ordinary legislative procedure.
Parliament must be consulted on a range of other
proposals, and its approval is required for important
political or institutional decisions, such as social security
and protection acts, tax-related provisions in the area of
energy, and harmonisation of turnover taxes and
indirect taxation. Parliament also provides the impetus
for new legislation by examining the Commission’s
annual work programme, considering what new laws
would be appropriate, and asking the Commission to
put forward proposals.
2. The power of supervision
Parliament exercises democratic supervision over the
other European institutions. It does so in several ways.
Firstly, when a new Commission is to be appointed,
Parliament holds auditions of all the prospective new
members and President of the Commission (nominated
by the Member States). They cannot be appointed
without Parliament’s approval.
Furthermore, the Commission is politically answerable
to Parliament, which can pass a ‘motion of censure’
calling for its mass resignation. More generally,
Parliament exercises control by regularly examining
reports sent to it by the Commission and asking written
and oral questions.
The Commissioners attend plenary sessions of
Parliament and meetings of the parliamentary
committees. Similarly, the Parliament holds a regular
dialogue with the President of the European Central
Bank on monetary policy.
Number of MEPs in each political group as of july 2013
European United Left/Nordic
Green Left — EUL/NGL
34
European Conservatives
and Reformists — ECR
55
Europe of Freedom
and Democracy — EFD
35
Alliance of Liberals and
Democrats for Europe — ALDE
85
Non-attached members — NI
28
TOTAL
766

Parliament also monitors the work of the Council: MEPs
regularly ask the Council written and oral questions, and
the Council Presidency attends the plenary sessions and
takes part in important debates. For some policy areas,
which include common foreign and security policy, the
Council alone is responsible for decision-making. But
the Parliament nonetheless works closely with the
Council in these areas.
Parliament can also exercise democratic control by
examining petitions from citizens and setting up special
committees of inquiry.
Finally, Parliament provides input to every EU summit
(the European Council meetings). At the opening of each
summit, the President of Parliament is invited to
express Parliament’s views and concerns about topical
issues and the items on the European Council’s agenda.
3. The power of the purse
The EU’s annual budget is decided jointly by Parliament
and the Council of the European Union. Parliament
debates it in two successive readings, and it does not
come into force until it has been signed by the President
of Parliament.
Its Committee on Budgetary Control monitors how the
budget is spent, and each year Parliament decides
whether to approve the Commission’s handling of the
budget for the previous financial year. This approval
process is technically known as ‘granting a discharge’.
Martin Schulz was elected President of
the European Parliament in 2012.
How the Parliament works
Parliament elects its own President for a two-and-a-half-
year term. The President represents the Parliament
to the other EU institutions as well as to the outside
world, and is assisted by 14 Vice-Presidents. The
President of the European Parliament, together with the
President of the Council, signs all legislative acts once
they are adopted.
Parliament’s work is divided into two main stages.
XXPreparing for the plenary session: this is done by the
MEPs in the 20 parliamentary committees that
specialise in particular areas of EU activity, for
example the ECON Committee for Economic and
Monetary Affairs or the INTA Committee for
International Trade. The issues for debate are also
discussed by the political groups.
XXThe plenary session itself: plenary sessions, attended
by all MEPs, are normally held in Strasbourg (one
week per month) and sometimes additional sessions
are held in Brussels. At plenary sessions, Parliament
examines proposed legislation and votes on
amendments before coming to a decision on the text
as a whole. Other items on the agenda may include
Council or Commission ‘communications’ or questions
about what is going on in the EU or in the wider
world.
© EU

The European Council
Setting the strategy
Role: Defines political direction and priorities
Members: Heads of State or Government from each Member State, the President of the European
Council and the President of the European Commission
Location: Brussels
XX european-council.europa.eu
The European Council brings together the EU’s top
political leaders, i.e. Prime Ministers and Presidents
along with its President and the President of the
Commission. They meet at least four times a year to
give the EU as a whole general political direction and
priorities. The High Representative of the Union for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy also takes part in
the meetings.
What the European Council does
As a summit meeting of the Heads of State or
Government of all the EU countries, the European
Council represents the highest level of political
cooperation between the Member States. At their
meetings, the leaders decide by consensus on the
overall direction and priorities of the Union, and provide
the necessary impetus for its development.
The European Council does not adopt legislation.
At the end of each meeting it issues ‘conclusions’,
which reflect the main messages resulting from the
discussions and take stock of the decisions taken, also
as regards their follow-up. The conclusions identify
major issues to be dealt with by the Council, i.e. the
meetings of ministers. They may also invite the
European Commission to come forward with proposals
addressing a particular challenge or opportunity
facing the Union.
European Council meetings as a rule take place at least
twice every six months. Additional (extraordinary or
informal) meetings may be called to address urgent
issues in need of decisions at the highest level,
for example in economic affairs or foreign policy.
President of the European Council
The work of the European Council is coordinated by its
President, who is responsible for convening and chairing
European Council meetings and driving forward its work.
The European Council President also represents the
Union to the outside world. Together with the High
Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy, he or she represents Union interests in
foreign affairs and security matters.
The President is elected by the European Council for
a once-renewable term of two and a half years.
The Presidency of the European Council is a full-time
job; the President may not simultaneously hold a
national office.
How the European Council takes
its decisions
The European Council takes most of its decisions by
consensus. In a number of cases, however, qualified
majority applies, such as the election of its President,
and the appointment of the Commission and of the High
Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.
When the European Council decides by vote, only the
Heads of State or Government may cast a vote.
Secretariat
The European Council is assisted by the General
Secretariat of the Council.

Euro summit
Outside of the European Council, the Heads of State or
Government of those countries whose currency is the
euro also meet at least twice a year, together with the
President of the European Commission. The President of
the European Central Bank is also invited to these euro
summit meetings. The President of the European
Parliament may also be invited.
The meetings are an opportunity to discuss the
governance of the euro area, as well as major economic
policy reforms. The euro summit is formally established
by the Treaty on Stability, Coordination and Governance
in the Economic and Monetary Union (TSCG) that was
signed by 25 Member States in 2012 and entered into
force on 1 January 2013. The President of the euro
summit is appointed by the Heads of State or
Government of euro area members. The appointment
takes place at the same time as that of the President
of the European Council, and has the same duration.
The two positions can be held by the same person.
In some cases, the leaders of the countries which have
ratified the TSCG but do not use the euro as their
Herman Van Rompuy chairs the EU summits as President of
the European Council.
currency also take part in euro summit discussions.
When these countries are not eligible to participate,
the President of the euro summit keeps them and the
other EU Member States closely informed of the
preparation and outcome of the summits.
A confusion of Councils: which is which?
It is easy to become confused about which European body is which — especially when very different
bodies have very similar names, such as the following three ‘Councils’.
XXThe European Council
This means the Heads of State or Government (i.e. Presidents and/or Prime Ministers) of all the EU
countries, together with its President and the President of the European Commission. It is the highest-level
policymaking body in the European Union, which is why its meetings are often called ‘summits’.
XXThe Council
Also known as the Council of Ministers, this institution consists of government ministers from all the
EU countries. The Council meets regularly to take detailed decisions and to pass European laws.
XXThe Council of Europe
This is not an EU institution at all. It is an intergovernmental organisation which aims to protect
human rights, democracy and the rule of law. It was set up in 1949 and one of its early achievements
was to draw up the European Convention on Human Rights. To enable citizens to exercise their rights
under that Convention it set up the European Court of Human Rights. The Council of Europe now has
47 Member States, including all EU countries, and its headquarters are in Strasbourg, France.
© EU

The Council
The voice of the Member States
Role: Deciding on policies and adopting legislation
Members: One minister from each Member State
Location: Brussels and Luxembourg
XX consilium.europa.eu
In the Council, ministers of EU Member States meet to
discuss EU matters, take decisions and pass laws. The
ministers who attend these meetings have the authority
to commit their government to the actions agreed in the
Council meetings.
What the Council does
The Council is an essential EU decision-maker. Its work
is carried out in Council meetings that are attended by
one minister from each of the EU’s national
governments. The purpose of these gatherings is to:
discuss, agree, amend and, finally, adopt legislation;
coordinate the Member States’ policies; or define the
EU’s foreign policy.
Which ministers attend which Council meeting depends
on the subjects on the agenda — this is known as the
‘configuration’ of the Council. If, for example, the Council
is to discuss environmental issues, the meeting will be
attended by the environment minister from each EU
Member State and is known as the ‘Environment
Council’; likewise, for the ‘Economic and Financial Affairs
Council’ or the ‘Competitiveness Council’, and so on.
The Presidency of the Council rotates between the
Member States every six months. It is not the same as the
President of the European Council. The responsibility of
the government holding the Presidency is to organise and
chair the different Council meetings. By way of exception,
the Foreign Affairs Council is chaired by the High
Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who
carries out foreign policy on behalf of the Council.
In the interest of continuity of Council business, the
six-monthly Presidencies work together closely in
groups of three. These three-Presidency teams (‘trios’)
draw up a joint programme of Council work over an
18-month period.
The EU countries have agreed
on a 'Europe 2020' strategy on
how to get out of the economic
crisis with smart, sustainable
and inclusive growth. Council
ministers take many decisions in
order to implement this strategy.
© imago/Xinhua/Reporters

Council Presidencies
Year January–June July–December
2013 Ireland Lithuania
2014 Greece Italy
2015 Latvia Luxembourg
2016 Netherlands Slovakia
2017 Malta United Kingdom
2018 Estonia Bulgaria
2019 Austria Romania
2020 Finland
Each minister in the Council is empowered to commit
his or her government. Moreover, each minister in the
Council is answerable to the elected national
authorities. This ensures the democratic legitimacy of
the Council’s decisions.
The Council has five key responsibilities.
1. To pass European laws. In most fields, it legislates
jointly with the European Parliament.
2. To coordinate the Member States’ policies,
for example, in the economic field.
3. To develop the EU’s common foreign and security
policy, based on guidelines set by the
European Council.
4. To conclude international agreements between
the EU and one or more states or international
organisations.
5. To adopt the EU’s budget, jointly with the
European Parliament.
The Council’s work is described in greater detail below.
1. Legislation
Much EU legislation is adopted jointly by the Council
and Parliament. As a general rule, the Council only acts
on a proposal from the Commission, and the
Commission normally has responsibility for ensuring
that EU legislation, once adopted, is correctly applied.
2. Coordinating the policies of Member States
(an example: economic policy)
All EU Member States are part of Economic and
Monetary Union (EMU) even though not all belong to the
euro area. Under EMU, EU economic policy is based on
close coordination of national economic policies.
This coordination is carried out by the economics and
finance ministers who collectively form the Economic
and Financial Affairs (Ecofin) Council.
3. Common foreign and security policy (CFSP)
The definition and implementation of the EU’s foreign
and security policy is the exclusive competence of the
European Council and the Council acting unanimously.
It is put into effect by the High Representative for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy together with the
Member States, meeting in the Foreign Affairs Council.
4. Concluding international agreements
Each year, the Council concludes (i.e. officially signs)
a number of agreements between the European Union
and non-EU countries, as well as with international
organisations. These agreements may cover broad
areas such as trade, cooperation and development,
or they may deal with specific subjects such as textiles,
fisheries, science and technology, transport, etc.
Such agreements are subject to the assent of
the European Parliament in areas where it has
co-decision powers.
5. Approving the EU budget
The EU’s annual budget is decided jointly by the Council
and the European Parliament. If the two institutions do
not agree, then conciliation procedures are followed
until a budget is approved.
There are 10 different Council
configurations:
Chaired by the High Representative for Foreign
Affairs and Security Policy:
XX Foreign Affairs
Chaired by the Member State holding the
Presidency of the Council:
XX General Affairs
XX Economic and Financial Affairs
XX Justice and Home Affairs
XX Employment, Social Policy, Health and
Consumer Affairs
XX Competitiveness (Internal Market, Industry,
Research and Space)
XX Transport, Telecommunications and Energy
XX Agriculture and Fisheries
XX Environment
XX Education, Youth, Culture and Sport

How the Council works
All Council discussions and votes on legislative acts
take place in public. Such meetings can be watched live
via the Council’s website.
Overall consistency in the work of the different Council
configurations is ensured by the General Affairs Council,
which monitors the effective follow-up of European
Council meetings. It is supported by the Permanent
Representatives Committee (‘Coreper’ — from the
French: ‘Comité des Représentants Permanents’).
Coreper is composed of the Member States
governments’ Permanent Representatives to the
European Union. In Brussels, each EU Member State has
a team (‘Permanent Representation’) that represents it
and defends its national interests at EU level. The Head
of each Representation is, in effect, his or her country’s
ambassador to the EU. These ambassadors meet
weekly within the Coreper.
The role of Coreper is to prepare the work of the
Council, with the exception of agricultural issues which
are handled by the Special Committee on Agriculture.
Coreper is assisted by a number of working groups
made up of officials from the national administrations.
How many votes per country?
Decisions in the Council are taken by vote. At present,
the Council decides by qualified-majority voting, except
where the treaties require a different procedure, e.g. a
unanimous vote in the fields of taxation and foreign
policy. Under qualified-majority voting, the larger the
population the more votes a Member State has,
although this system is adjusted to give proportionally
more weight to less-populous countries.
In 2014, the current qualified-majority voting method
will be replaced by a new one — double majority voting.
To be passed by the Council, proposed EU laws will then
require a majority not only of the EU’s member
countries (55 %) but also of the EU population (65 %).
This will reflect the legitimacy of the EU as a union of
both peoples and nations. It will make EU lawmaking
both more transparent and more effective. And it will be
accompanied by a new mechanism whereby at least
four Member States representing at least 35 % of the
EU population can block a decision. Where this
mechanism is used, the Council is required to do
everything in its power to reach a satisfactory solution
within a reasonable time period.
Votes per country in the Council
Germany, France, Italy, United Kingdom 29
Spain, Poland 27
Romania 14
Netherlands 13
Belgium, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary,
Portugal
12
Bulgaria, Austria, Sweden 10
Denmark, Ireland, Croatia, Lithuania, Slovakia,
7
Finland
Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovenia 4
Malta 3
Total 352
Number of votes required for qualified majority 260
General Secretariat of the Council
The General Secretariat of the Council assists both the
European Council and its President, and the Council and
its rotating Presidencies. It is headed by a Secretary-
General appointed by the Council.
What is ‘enhanced cooperation’?
If some Member States want to cooperate
more closely in policy areas that are not the
exclusive competence of the EU but they are
unable to get the agreement of all the other
Member States, then the ‘enhanced
cooperation’ mechanism allows them to work
together. It permits at least nine Member
States to use the EU institutions to achieve
closer cooperation. However, there are
conditions: this cooperation must further the
objectives of the Union and it must be open to
all other Member States if they wish to join.
The procedure is being used by a number of
countries for divorce law, enabling them to find
a common solution for couples from different
EU countries wishing to divorce within the EU.
It is also in place for a unitary patenting
system that involves most — but not all —
EU Member States.

The Eurogroup
All Member States participate in Economic and
Monetary Union (EMU), meaning they coordinate their
economic policymaking and treat economic decisions as
a matter of common concern to all. However, not all
Member States have joined the euro area and adopted
the single currency — the euro. Some have chosen not
to join at present, while others are still preparing their
economies to meet the criteria for euro area
membership. Euro area Member States need to
cooperate closely, and are also subject to the single
monetary policy run by the European Central Bank.
Therefore, the euro area Member States require a forum
to discuss and decide on policies for the euro area.
This cannot be the Economic and Financial Affairs
Council (Ecofin) as this comprises all Member States.
The solution is the Eurogroup, which consists of the
ministers of economy and finance of the euro
area members.
The Eurogroup acts to promote economic growth and
financial stability in the euro area by coordinating
economic policies. As only Ecofin can formally take
decisions on economic matters, the Eurogroup meets
informally on the day before Ecofin meetings, roughly
once a month. The next day, the agreements reached in
the informal Eurogroup gathering are formally decided
upon in the Ecofin meeting by the Eurogroup members.
Only Ecofin ministers representing euro area members
vote on Eurogroup matters. The Commissioner for
Economic and Monetary Affairs and the President of the
European Central Bank also attend Eurogroup meetings.
The members of the Eurogroup elect a President for a
term of two and a half years. The General Secretariat of
the Council provides administrative support for
Eurogroup meetings.
The common foreign and security policy
The European Union is progressively developing a
common foreign and security policy (CFSP) which is
subject to different procedures when compared to other
policy areas. The CFSP is defined and implemented by
the European Council and the Council working together.
The Union’s wider international objectives are to
advance democracy, the rule of law, human rights and
freedom, and respect for human dignity and the
principles of equality and solidarity. To achieve these
objectives, the EU develops relations and partnerships
with other countries and organisations around
the world.
Responsibilities for the CFSP are as follows.
XXThe European Council, chaired by the President,
defines the common foreign and security policy
taking into account the strategic interests of the
Union, including matters with defence implications.
XXThe Council, in particular the Foreign Affairs Council,
then takes the decisions needed to define and
implement the CFSP following the European Council
guidelines. The High Representative for Foreign
Affairs and Security Policy chairs the meeting of the
Foreign Affairs Council.
XXThe High Representative, together with the Member
States, then puts the CFSP into effect, ensuring its
implementation is consistent and effective.
To do this, he or she can call on national and
New EU rules on economic and financial governance help to Union resources.
clean up and strengthen the banking sector.
© Associated Press / Reporters

The European External Action Service (EEAS) serves as a
foreign ministry and diplomatic service for the Union.
The High Representative is head of the service, which is
composed of expert staff transferred from the Council,
the Member States and the European Commission.
The EU has delegations in the majority of countries
around the world and they are part of the EEAS.
They work closely on CFSP matters alongside national
embassies of EU Member States.
Matters of importance to the CFSP can be raised with
the Council by any Member State or the High
Representative acting alone or with the Commission.
Given the often urgent nature of some CFSP issues,
there are mechanisms in place to ensure decisions can
be taken quickly. Generally speaking, decisions in this
area are taken unanimously.
As well as driving forward the CFSP, the High
Representative also represents the Union’s foreign and
security policy worldwide, conducting political dialogue
with non-EU countries and partners and expressing the
EU’s position in international organisations and
meetings. At the level of Heads of State or Government,
the Union is represented by the President of the
European Council.
The EU countries’ law enforcers must
work together to fight international
crime.
One aspect of the CFSP is security and defence
questions, where the EU is developing a common
security and defence policy (CSDP). This policy is
designed to enable EU Member States to undertake
crisis management operations. These are humanitarian
and peacemaking or peacekeeping missions, which can
either be of a military or civilian nature. The Member
States voluntarily make some of their forces available
to the EU for such operations. This is always
coordinated with NATO, whose command structures are
sometimes used for practical tasks in EU missions.
A number of permanent EU bodies coordinate this work.
XXThe Political and Security Committee (PSC)
monitors the international situation and examines
the EU’s options for response during a crisis situation
abroad.
XXThe European Union Military Committee (EUMC)
consists of the chiefs of defence from all EU
countries and directs EU military activities and
provides advice on military matters.
XXThe European Union Military Staff (EUMS)
is composed of military experts who work at a
permanent military headquarters in Brussels and
assist the EUMC.
© Matteis/ LookatSciences/Reporters

The European Commission
Promoting the common interest
Role: Executive arm of the EU that proposes laws, polices agreements and promotes
the Union
Members: A college of Commissioners, one from each Member State
Location: Brussels
XX ec.europa.eu
The Commission is the politically independent
institution that represents and upholds the interests of
the EU as a whole. In many areas it is the driving force
within the EU’s institutional system: it proposes
legislation, policies and programmes of action and is
responsible for implementing the decisions of the
European Parliament and the Council. It also represents
the Union to the outside world with the exception of the
common foreign and security policy.
What is the Commission?
The term ‘Commission’ is used in two senses. Firstly,
it refers to the ‘Members of the Commission’ — i.e.
the team of men and women appointed by the Member
States and Parliament to run the institution and take its
decisions. Secondly, the term ‘Commission’ refers to the
institution itself and to its staff.
Informally, the Members of the Commission are known
as ‘Commissioners’. They have all held political
positions and many have been government ministers,
but as members of the Commission they are committed
to acting in the interests of the Union as a whole and
not taking instructions from national governments.
The Commission has several Vice-Presidents, one of
whom is also the High Representative for Foreign
Affairs and Security Policy and thus has a foot in both
the Council and the Commission camps.
The Commission remains politically answerable to
Parliament, which has the power to dismiss it by
adopting a motion of censure. The Commission attends
all the sessions of Parliament, where it must clarify and
justify its policies. It also replies regularly to written and
oral questions posed by Members of Parliament.
José Manuel Barroso heads the EU executive body as
President of the European Commission.
Appointing the Commission
A new Commission is appointed every five
years, within six months of the elections to the
European Parliament. The procedure is as
follows.
XX The Member State governments propose a
new Commission President, who must be
elected by the European Parliament.
XX The proposed Commission President,
in discussion with the Member State
governments, chooses the other members
of the Commission.
XX The new Parliament then interviews all
proposed members and gives its opinion on
the entire ‘College’. If approved, the new
Commission can officially start work the
following January.
© EU

The day-to-day work of the Commission is done by its
administrative officials, experts, translators, interpreters
and secretarial staff. Commission officials — like the
staff of other EU bodies — are recruited via the
European Personnel Selection Office (EPSO): europa.eu/
epso. They are citizens from every EU country, selected
by means of open competitive examinations. There are
approximately 33 000 people working for the
Commission. That may sound a lot, but in fact it is
fewer than the number of staff employed by most
medium-sized city councils in Europe.
What the Commission does
The European Commission has four main roles:
1. to propose legislation to Parliament and the Council;
2. to manage and implement EU policies and the budget;
3. to enforce European law (jointly with the Court
of Justice);
4. to represent the Union around the world.
1. Proposing new legislation
Under the EU Treaty, the Commission has the ‘right
of initiative’. In other words, the Commission alone
is responsible for drawing up proposals for new
European legislation, which it presents to Parliament
and the Council. These proposals must aim to defend
the interests of the Union and its citizens, not those of
specific countries or industries.
Before making any proposals, the Commission must be
aware of new situations and problems developing in
Europe and must consider whether EU legislation is the
best way to deal with them. That is why the Commission
is in constant touch with a wide range of interest groups
and with two advisory bodies — the Economic and Social
Committee (made up of employers’ and trade union
representatives) and the Committee of the Regions
(made up of representatives of local and regional
authorities). It also seeks the opinions of national
parliaments, governments and the public at large.
The Commission will propose action at EU level only if
it considers that a problem cannot be solved more
efficiently by national, regional or local action.
This principle of dealing with things at the lowest
possible level is called the ‘subsidiarity principle’.
If, however, the Commission concludes that EU
legislation is needed, then it drafts a proposal that it
believes will deal with the problem effectively and
satisfy the widest possible range of interests. In order
to get the technical details correct, the Commission
consults the experts who make up its various
committees and expert groups.
2. Implementing EU policies and the budget
As the European Union’s executive body, the
Commission is responsible for managing and
implementing the EU budget and the policies and
programmes adopted by Parliament and the Council.
Most of the actual work and spending is done by
national and local authorities but the Commission
is responsible for supervising it.
The Commission handles the budget under the watchful
eye of the Court of Auditors. Both institutions aim to
ensure good financial management. Only if it is
satisfied with the Court of Auditors’ annual report does
the European Parliament grant the Commission
discharge for implementing the budget.
Innovation and research is one of the ways to achieve new
jobs and growth in Europe.
Building the European Research Area
Through the Directorate-General for Research,
the Commission develops EU policies in the field
of research and technological development and
contributes to the international competitiveness
of European industry. The Commission’s
Research and Technological Development
Framework Programme injects tens of billions of
euro into multidisciplinary cooperative scientific
research across the EU and is a key contributor
to creating a borderless research area
throughout Europe.
© Langrock/Zenit/Laif/Reporters

3. Enforcing European law
The Commission acts as ‘guardian of the treaties’.
This means that, together with the Court of Justice,
it is responsible for making sure EU law is properly
applied in all the Member States. If it finds that any EU
country is not applying a Union law, and therefore not
meeting its legal obligations, the Commission takes
steps to put the situation right.
First, it launches a legal process called the ‘infringement
procedure’. This involves sending the government an
official letter explaining why the Commission considers
this country is infringing EU law, and setting it a
deadline for sending the Commission a detailed reply.
If this procedure fails to correct matters, the
Commission then refers the issue to the Court of
Justice, which has the power to impose penalties. The
Court’s judgments are binding on the Member States
and the EU institutions.
4. Representing the EU on the international
stage
The High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security
Policy is a Vice-President of the Commission and has
responsibility for external affairs. In matters concerning
foreign affairs and security, the High Representative
works with the Council. However, in other areas of
external action the Commission plays the leading role
— in particular in the areas of trade policy and
humanitarian aid. In these areas, the European
Commission acts as an important spokesperson for the
European Union on the international stage. It enables
the 28 Member States to speak with one voice in
international forums such as the World Trade
Organisation.
Reaching out to those in need
The Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection
department of the European Commission
(ECHO) was established in 1992. Humanitarian
action now occupies a key position in the
European Union’s external activities — indeed,
the EU is the world’s main player in this field.
Some 150 million people are helped each year
through EU humanitarian aid funding. This aid
is delivered via 200 partners such as aid
charities and UN agencies. Assistance is based
on the humanitarian principles of non-discrimination
and impartiality.
Catherine Ashton is the EU's foreign
policy chief and coordinates the EU's
actions towards the rest of the world.
© EU

How the Commission works
It is up to the Commission President to decide which
Commissioner will be responsible for which policy area,
and to reshuffle these responsibilities (if necessary)
during the Commission’s term of office. The President is
also entitled to demand a Commissioner’s resignation.
The team of 28 Commissioners (also known as ‘the
College’) meets once a week, usually on Wednesdays in
Brussels. Each item on the agenda is presented by the
Commissioner responsible for that policy area, and the
College takes a collective decision on it.
The Commission’s staff is organised into departments,
known as directorates-general (DGs) and services
(such as the Legal Service). Each DG is responsible for
a particular policy area — for example, the Trade
DG and the Competition DG — and is headed by
a Director-General who is answerable to one of
the Commissioners.
Eurostat: collecting Europe’s data
Eurostat is the Statistical Office of the
European Union and part of the Commission.
Its task is to provide the EU with statistics at
European level that enable comparisons to be
made between countries and regions. This is a
key task. Democratic societies do not function
properly without a solid basis of reliable and
objective statistics.
Eurostat statistics can answer many questions:
is unemployment up or down? Are there more
CO2 emissions compared to 10 years ago? How
many women go out to work? How is your
country’s economy performing compared to
that of other EU Member States?
XX epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
It is the DGs that actually devise and draft the
Commission’s legislative proposals, but these proposals
only become official when ‘adopted’ by the College at
its weekly meeting. The procedure is roughly as follows.
Suppose, for example, that the Commission sees a need
for EU legislation to prevent pollution of Europe’s rivers.
The Directorate-General for the Environment will draw
up a proposal, based on extensive consultations with
European industry and farmers, with environment
ministries in the Member States and with environmental
organisations. Many proposals are also open to public
consultation, enabling individuals to provide views in a
personal capacity, or on behalf of an organisation.
The proposed legislation will then be discussed with all
relevant Commission departments and amended if
necessary. It will then be checked by the Legal Service.
Once the proposal is complete, the Secretary-General
will put it on the agenda for a forthcoming Commission
meeting. At this meeting, the Environment
Commissioner will explain to his or her colleagues why
this legislation is being proposed, and they will then
discuss it. If there is agreement, the College will adopt
the proposal and the document will be sent to the
Council and the European Parliament for their
consideration.
However, if there is disagreement among the
Commissioners, the President may ask them to vote on
it. If the majority is in favour, the proposal will be
adopted. Thereafter it will have the support of all the
Commission members.

The national parliaments
Enforcing subsidiarity
Role: To participate alongside the European institutions in the work of the Union
Members: Members of national parliaments
Location: All EU Member States
The EU institutions are encouraging the national
parliaments to become more involved in the activities
of the European Union. Since 2006, the Commission has
been transmitting to national parliaments all new
legislative proposals, and has replied to their opinions.
With the Lisbon Treaty from 2009, the rights and duties
of national parliaments within the EU are clearly set.
National parliaments are now more able to express
their views on draft legislative acts as well as on other
matters which may be of particular interest to them.
The greatest innovation is the new power to enforce
subsidiarity. EU actions are subject to the principle of
subsidiarity. This means that the Union only acts where
action will be more effective at EU level than at
national level. Where the treaties have given exclusive
powers to the EU, this is considered to be the case, but
otherwise it is a judgment that is made for each new
law. Correct application of this principle in EU decision-making
is monitored by national parliaments.
To enable parliaments to carry out subsidiarity checks,
the Commission sends draft legislation to national
parliaments at the same time as it forwards it to the
Union legislator (i.e. the European Parliament and
the Council).
Any national parliament may then give a reasoned
opinion if it considers that the proposal in question
does not comply with the principle of subsidiarity.
Depending on the number of reasoned opinions issued
by national parliaments, the Commission may have to
re-examine its proposal and decide whether to
maintain, adjust or withdraw it. This is referred to as the
yellow and orange card procedure. In the case of the
ordinary legislative procedure, if a majority of national
parliaments give a reasoned opinion, and provided that
the Commission decides to maintain its proposal, it will
have to explain its reasons, and it will be for the
European Parliament and the Council to decide whether
or not to continue the legislative procedure.
National parliaments are also directly involved with the
implementation of EU legislation. EU directives are
addressed to national authorities, who must take action
to make them part of national law. The directives lay
down certain end results that must be achieved in every
Member State by a specified date. National authorities
have to adapt their laws to meet these goals, but are
free to decide how to do so. Directives are used to bring
different national laws into line with each other, and are
particularly common in matters affecting the operation
of the single market (e.g. product safety standards).

The Court of Justice
Upholding EU law
Role: To give legal judgments on cases brought before it
Court of Justice: One Judge from each EU Member State; eight Advocates General
General Court: One Judge from each EU Member State
Civil Service Tribunal: Seven Judges
Location: Luxembourg
XX curia.europa.eu
The Court of Justice of the European Union (the Court)
ensures that EU legislation is interpreted and applied in
the same way in each Member State. In other words,
that it is always identical for all parties and in all
circumstances. To this end, the Court checks the legality
of the actions of the EU institutions, ensures the
Member States comply with their obligations, and
interprets EU law at the request of national courts.
The Court has the power to settle legal disputes
between Member States, EU institutions, businesses and
individuals. To cope with the many thousands of cases
it receives, it is divided into two main bodies: the Court
of Justice, which deals with requests for preliminary
rulings from national courts, certain actions for
annulment and appeals, and the General Court, which
rules on all actions for annulment brought by private
individuals and companies and some such actions
brought by Member States.
A specialised tribunal, the Civil Service Tribunal, also
adjudicates in disputes between the EU and its civil
servants.
What the Court does
The Court gives rulings on cases brought before it.
The four most common types of case are listed below.
1. The preliminary ruling
The courts in each EU Member State are responsible for
ensuring that EU law is properly applied in that country.
If a national court is in any doubt about the
interpretation or validity of an EU law it may, and
sometimes must, ask the Court of Justice for advice.
This advice is given in the form of a binding ‘preliminary
ruling’. This ruling is an important channel for citizens,
through their national courts, to establish how far EU
laws affect them.
Air hostesses have benefited several
times from rulings on equal pay and equal
rights from the Court of Justice of the EU.
© ImageGlobe

2. Infringement Proceedings
The Commission, or (in some rare cases) a Member
State, can initiate these proceedings if it has reason to
believe that a certain Member State is failing to fulfil
its obligations under EU law. The Court investigates the
allegations and gives its judgment. If found to be at
fault, the accused Member State must set things right
without delay to avoid the fines the Court can apply.
3. Proceedings for annulment
If any of the Member States, the Council, the
Commission or (under certain conditions) Parliament
believes that a particular EU law is illegal, they may ask
the Court to annul it. These ‘proceedings for annulment’
can also be used by private individuals who want the
Court to annul a particular law because it directly and
adversely affects them as individuals.
4. Proceedings for failure to act
The treaty requires the European Parliament, the
Council and the Commission to make certain decisions
under certain circumstances. If they fail to do so, the
Member States, other EU institutions and (under certain
conditions) individuals or companies can lodge a
complaint with the Court so as to have this violation
officially recorded.
How the Court works
The Court of Justice is composed of 28 Judges, one
from each Member State, so that all the EU national
legal systems are represented. The Court is assisted by
eight ‘Advocates General’ who present reasoned
opinions on the cases brought before the Court.
They must do so publicly and impartially. The Judges
and Advocates General are either former members of
the highest national courts or highly competent lawyers
who can be relied on to show impartiality. They are
appointed by joint agreement of the Member State
governments. Each is appointed for a term of six years.
The Judges of the Court select a President who serves
for three years. The Court of Justice can sit as a full
Court, a Grand Chamber of 13 Judges or Chambers of
five or three Judges, depending on the complexity and
importance of the case. Nearly 60 % of cases are heard
by Chambers of five Judges and around 25 % by
Chambers of three Judges.
The General Court is also composed of 28 Judges,
appointed by the Member States for six-year terms.
The Judges of the General Court also elect a President
among themselves for a three-year term. This Court sits
in Chambers of three or five Judges (sometimes a
single Judge) to hold hearings. Around 80 % of General
Court cases are heard by three Judges. A Grand
Chamber of 13 Judges, or a full Chamber of 28,
may meet if the complexity or importance of the
case justifies this.
All cases are submitted to the Registry at the Court and
a specific Judge and Advocate General are assigned.
After submission, there are two steps: first, a written
stage and then an oral stage. In the first stage, all the
parties involved submit written statements and the
Judge assigned to the case draws up a report
summarising these statements and the legal
background to the case. This report is discussed at the
Court’s General Meeting which decides the judicial
formation that will hear the case and whether oral
arguments are necessary. Then comes the second stage
— the public hearing — where the lawyers put their
case before the Judges and the Advocate General, who
can question them. After the oral hearing, the Advocate
General assigned to the case draws up his or her
opinion. In the light of this opinion, the Judge draws up
a draft ruling which is submitted to the other Judges for
examination. The Judges then deliberate and deliver
their judgment. Judgments of the Court are decided by
a majority and pronounced at a public hearing. In most
instances the text is available in all official languages
of the EU on the same day. Dissenting opinions are
not expressed.
Not all cases follow this standard procedure. When the
urgency of a case so dictates, simplified and expedited
procedures exist which allow the Court to rule within
approximately three months.

The European Central Bank
Ensuring price stability
Role: To manage the euro and euro area monetary policy
Members: Euro area national central banks
Location: Frankfurt am Main, Germany
XX www.ecb.europa.eu
The purpose of the European Central Bank (ECB) is to
maintain monetary stability in the euro area by
ensuring low and stable consumer price inflation. Stable
prices and low price inflation are considered vital for
sustained economic growth as they encourage
enterprises to invest and create more jobs — thus
raising living standards for Europeans. The ECB is an
independent institution and takes its decisions without
seeking or taking instructions from governments or
other EU institutions.
What the ECB does
The ECB was set up in 1998, when the euro was
introduced, to manage monetary policy in the euro area.
The primary objective of the ECB is to maintain price
stability. This is defined as a consumer price inflation
rate of less than, but close to, 2 % per annum. The ECB
also acts to support employment and sustainable
economic growth in the Union.
How does the ECB manage price stability?
The ECB sets the interest rates for lending to
commercial banks, which influences the price and
the amount of money in the economy — and
thus the inflation rate. For example, when money
is in plentiful supply, the consumer price inflation
rate may rise, making goods and services more
expensive. In response, the ECB can raise the
cost of borrowing by increasing the interest rate
on its loans to commercial banks — which
reduces the supply of money and leads to
downward pressure on prices. Likewise, when
there is a need to stimulate economic activity,
the ECB can reduce the interest rate it charges,
to encourage borrowing and investment.
Mario Draghi has been
President of the European
Central Bank since 2011. © ImageGlobe

To carry out its lending operations, the ECB holds and
manages the official foreign reserves of the euro area
members. Other tasks include conducting foreign
exchange operations, promoting efficient payment
systems in support of the single market, approving the
production of euro banknotes by the euro area
members and collating relevant statistical data from
the national central banks. The President of the ECB
represents it at relevant high-level EU and
international meetings.
How the ECB works
The European Central Bank is an institution of Economic
and Monetary Union (EMU) to which all EU Member
States belong. Joining the euro area and adopting the
single currency — the euro — is the final phase of
EMU. Not all EU Member States belong to the euro area:
some are still preparing their economies to join, and
others have opt-outs. The ECB stands at the core of the
European System of Central Banks, which brings
together the ECB and the national central banks of all
EU Member States. The organisation of the ECB reflects
this situation in its three main groupings.
XXThe General Council of the European System of
Central Banks comprises the governors of the
28 national central banks, together with the
ECB President and Vice-President.
XXThe Executive Board of the ECB consists of the
President, the Vice-President and four other
members — all appointed by the European Council,
acting by a qualified majority, for eight-year terms of
office. The Executive Board is responsible for
implementing monetary policy, the bank’s day-to-day
operations and preparing Governing Council meetings
as well as exercising certain powers delegated to it
by the Governing Council.
XXThe Governing Council of the ECB comprises the six
members of the ECB Executive Board and the
Governors of the national central banks of the
17 euro area members: together they form the
Eurosystem. The Governing Council is the main
decision-taking body of the ECB and meets twice a
month. As a rule, at its first meeting each month,
the Governing Council assesses economic and
monetary developments and takes its monthly
monetary policy decisions. At its second meeting,
the Council mainly discusses issues related to other
tasks and responsibilities of the ECB.
IE
UK
FR
SE
FI
EE
LV
LT
PL
CZ
AT
SK
HU
RO
BG
EL
Açores (PT)
CY
MT
DE
IT
NL
LU
BE
EU Member States using the euro as of 2013
PT
ES
DK
SI HR
EU Member States not using the euro
BG: Bulgaria
CZ: Czech Republic
DK: Denmark
HR: Croatia
HU: Hungary
LT: Lithuania
LV: Latvia*
PL: Poland
RO: Romania
SE: Sweden
UK: United
Kingdom
AT: Austria
BE: Belgium
CY: Cyprus
DE: Germany
EE: Estonia
EL: Greece
ES: Spain
FI: Finland
FR: France
IE: Ireland
IT: Italy
LU: Luxembourg
MT: Malta
NL: Netherlands
PT: Portugal
SI: Slovenia
SK: Slovakia
Guyane
(FR)
Guadeloupe (FR)
Martinique (FR)
Réunion (FR)
Canarias (ES)
Madeira (PT)
* Latvia is expected to start using the euro on 1 January 2014

Economic governance: Who does what?
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) is a core element of European integration and all EU Member
States are part of it. Fiscal policy (tax and spending) remains in the hands of individual national
governments, as do policies about labour and welfare. However, the coordination of sound public
finances and structural policies is vital for EMU to function effectively. The responsibilities are shared
between the Member States and EU institutions as follows.
XX The European Council sets the main policy orientations.
XX The Council coordinates EU economic policymaking and takes decisions which can bind individual
EU Member States.
XX The EU Member States set their national budgets within agreed limits for deficit and debt, and
determine their own structural policies involving labour, pensions, welfare and markets.
XX The euro area countries coordinate policies of common interest for the euro area at the level of
heads of state or government in the ‘Euro summit’ and at the level of finance ministers in the
‘Eurogroup’.
XX The European Central Bank sets monetary policy for the euro area, with price stability as the
prime objective.
XX The European Commission monitors what the EU Member States are doing and issues policy
recommendations.
XX The European Parliament shares the job of formulating legislation with the Council and exercises
democratic oversight of the economic governance process.

The European Court of Auditors
Helping to improve EU financial management
Role: To check that EU funds are collected and used correctly, and help improve EU financial
management
Members: One from each EU Member State
Location: Luxembourg
XX eca.europa.eu
The European Court of Auditors (ECA) is the independent
external audit institution of the European Union.
It checks that the Union’s income has been received
correctly, that its expenditure has been incurred in a
legal and regular manner, and that financial
management has been sound. It performs its tasks
independently from the other EU institutions and
governments. In doing so, it contributes to improving
the management of European Union funds in the
interests of its citizens.
What the European Court
of Auditors does
The European Court of Auditors’ main role is to check
that the EU budget is correctly implemented — in other
words, that EU income and expenditure is legal and
regular, and financial management is sound. This work
helps to ensure that the EU is managed efficiently and
effectively. To carry out its tasks, the ECA undertakes
detailed audits of EU income or expenditure at all levels
of the administration of EU funds. It carries out on-the-spot
checks at the organisations managing the funds, or
the beneficiaries receiving them, both in the EU Member
States and in other countries. Its findings are published
in annual and specific reports, which draw the attention
of the Commission and the Member States to errors
and weaknesses found, and make recommendations for
improvement.
Another key function is for the European Court of
Auditors to help the budgetary authority (the European
Parliament and the Council) by providing them with an
annual report on the implementation of the EU budget
for the previous financial year. The ECA’s findings and
conclusions in this report play an important role in
Parliament’s discharge decision on the Commission’s
handling of the budget.
The European Court of Auditors also gives its opinion on
new or revised EU regulations with financial impact at
the request by the other EU institutions. The ECA can
also issue position papers on other issues on its
own initiative.
Ear tags on cows help EU auditors keep
track of where EU money has been spent.
© ImageGlobe

How the European Court
of Auditors works
The European Court of Auditors operates as a collegiate
body of 28 Members, one from each EU country.
The Members are appointed by the Council, after
consultation with the European Parliament, for a
renewable term of six years. They are chosen for their
competence and independence, and work full-time for
the ECA. They elect one of their number as President
for a term of three years.
To be effective, the Court of Auditors — like any other
supreme audit institution — must remain independent
of the institutions and bodies it audits. The ECA is free
to: select its audit topics, the specific scope and
approach to be followed; decide how and when to
present the results of its selected audits; and choose
the publicity to be given to its reports and opinions.
These are important elements of independence.
The European Court of Auditors is divided into
chambers, which prepare the reports and opinions for
adoption by the ECA. The chambers are supported by
highly qualified staff originating from all Member
States. The auditors frequently audit in the other
EU institutions, the Member States and other
beneficiary countries. The ECA also cooperates closely
with supreme audit institutions in the Member States.
Indeed, although the ECA’s work largely concerns the
EU budget — for which the Commission retains overall
responsibility — in practice, management of over
80 % of expenditure is shared with national authorities.
The European Court of Auditors has no judicial powers
but through its work brings irregularities, weaknesses
and cases of suspected fraud to the attention of the
EU bodies responsible for taking action, including the
European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF). Since its creation in
1977, the ECA has made a significant impact on the
financial management of the EU budget through its
objective reports and opinions. In doing so, it has
fulfilled its role of independent guardian of the
financial interests of the citizens of the Union.

The European Economic and
Social Committee
The voice of civil society
Role: To represent organised civil society
Members: 353 from all EU Member States
Location: Brussels
XX eesc.europa.eu
The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) is
an advisory body of the European Union. It is made up
of representatives of organisations of employers, of the
employed and of other civil society representatives,
notably in socioeconomic, civic, professional and cultural
areas. Representing the general interest, the Committee
delivers opinions to the Commission, the Council and the
European Parliament. The members of the EESC are not
bound by any mandatory instructions and work in the
Union’s general interest. The EESC thus acts as a bridge
between the aforementioned EU institutions and
EU citizens, promoting a more participatory,
more inclusive and therefore more democratic society
in the European Union.
What the EESC does
This Committee fulfils three key missions:
XXhelping to ensure that European policies and
legislation tie in better with economic, social and
civic circumstances on the ground, by assisting the
European Parliament, Council and European
Commission, making use of EESC members’
experience and representativeness, dialogue and
efforts to secure consensus serving the
general interest;
XXpromoting the development of a more participatory
European Union which is more in touch with popular
opinion, by acting as an institutional forum
representing, informing, expressing the views of and
securing dialogue with organised civil society;
XXpromoting the values on which European integration
is founded and advancing, in Europe and across the
world, the cause of democracy and participatory
democracy, as well as the role of civil society
organisations.
The Committee shall be consulted by the European
Parliament, by the Council or by the Commission in
many fields foreseen by the treaties. These domains
have been progressively extended, so that the scope of
the EESC’s action has been further widened. In addition
to the range of compulsory consultation, the Committee
may issue opinions on its own initiative in cases in
which it considers that such action is important to
defend the interests of civil society. The EESC delivers
around 170 opinions on a yearly basis, of which roughly
15 % are issued on its own initiative.
A key feature of the EESC’s work is the drive to build
consensus between its members who represent a wide
range of interest groups — for example, between
members of employers’ groups and those who
represent workers’ organisations. The Committee is well
positioned to advise on the impact of proposed new
laws on the ground — on people’s lives — and how
legislation can be adapted to gather wide public
support. Boosting transparency in EU decision-making
and building close links with national civil society
organisations are also important elements of the
Committee’s work.
How the EESC works
The 353 members of the EESC are nominated for a
five-year renewable term by their governments and
appointed by the Council of the European Union.
Members are drawn from Europe’s different economic
and social interest groups and, once appointed, they
work independently of their governments. The members
of the Committee are organised internally into three
groups: employers, employees and other interests.
The EESC elects its President and two Vice-Presidents
for a term of two and a half years. EESC members meet
nine times a year in plenary sessions in Brussels where
opinions are approved by simple majority voting.

Preparation for these plenary sessions is done by six
thematic sections headed by Committee members and
supported by the Committee’s Brussels-based
Secretariat-General. The thematic sections and
commissions are:
XXthe section for economic and monetary union and
economic and social cohesion (ECO);
XXthe section for the single market, production and
consumption (INT);
XXthe section for transport, energy, infrastructure and
the information society (TEN);
XXthe section for employment, social affairs and
citizenship (SOC);
XXthe section for agriculture, rural development and the
environment (NAT);
XXthe section for external relations (REX);
XXthe Consultative Committee on Industrial Change
(CCMI).
The planning of energy supplies
is of concern to all Europeans
—
as well as to the civil society
organisations in the Economic
and Social Committee.
The EESC tracks the progress of long-term EU
strategies through the so-called observatories and a
steering committee that monitor their implementation
and impact at grass-roots level. These entities are:
XXthe Sustainable Development Observatory;
XXthe Labour Market Observatory;
XXthe Single Market Observatory;
XXthe Europe 2020 Steering Committee.
Relations with economic and social
councils
The EESC maintains regular links with regional and
national economic and social councils throughout the
European Union. These links mainly involve exchanges
of information and joint discussions every year on
specific issues.
© Associated Press / Reporters

The Committee of the Regions
The voice of local government
Role: To represent Europe’s cities and regions
Members: 353 from all EU Member States
Location: Brussels
XX cor.europa.eu
The Committee of the Regions (CoR) is an advisory body
composed of representatives of Europe’s regional and
local authorities. It gives the regions of Europe a say in EU
policymaking and checks that regional and local identities,
competences and needs are respected. The Council and
the Commission must consult the CoR on matters that
concern local and regional government, such as regional
policy, the environment, education and transport.
What the Committee of the
Regions does
As around three quarters of EU legislation is
implemented at local or regional level, it makes sense
for local and regional representatives to have a say in
the development of new EU laws. By involving the
elected local representatives, who are perhaps closest
to Europe’s citizens and their concerns, the CoR is a
force for a more democratic and accountable EU.
The Commission and the European Parliament are
obliged to consult the CoR on legislative proposals in
policy areas that directly affect local and regional
authorities — for example, civil protection, climate
change and energy. Once the CoR receives a legislative
proposal, the members discuss it in plenary session,
adopt it by a majority vote and issue an opinion.
Importantly, the Commission and the Parliament are not
obliged to follow the advice of the CoR, but they are
obliged to consult it. If the appropriate mandatory
consultation in the legislative process has been ignored,
the CoR has the right to bring actions before the Court
of Justice. The CoR can also, on its own initiative, offer
opinions on topical issues.
How the CoR works
The Committee members are elected municipal or
regional politicians, representing the entire range of
local and regional government activities in the EU.
They may be regional presidents, regional
parliamentarians, town councillors or mayors of large
cities. They all have to hold a political office in their
home country. EU governments nominate them,
but they work with complete political independence.
The Council appoints them for five years, and they may
be reappointed. The CoR appoints a President from
among its members, for a term of two and a half years.
CoR members live and work in their home regions.
They meet in Brussels five times a year in plenary sessions,
during which policy is defined and opinions are adopted. Six
specialist commissions, made up of CoR members and
covering different policy areas, prepare the plenary sessions:
XXCommission for Territorial Cohesion Policy (COTER);
XXCommission for Economic and Social Policy (ECOS);
XXCommission for Education, Youth and Research
(EDUC);
XXCommission for Environment, Climate Change and
Energy (ENVE);
XXCommission for Citizenship, Governance, Institutional
and External Affairs (CIVEX);
XXCommission for Natural Resources (NAT).
CoR members are also grouped into national
delegations, one for each Member State. Interregional
groups also exist to promote cross-border cooperation.
In addition, there are four political groupings.

The European Ombudsman
Investigating your complaints
Role: To investigate maladministration
Location: Strasbourg
XX ombudsman.europa.eu
The European Ombudsman investigates complaints
about cases of poor or failed administration
(maladministration) by the EU institutions.
The Ombudsman receives and investigates complaints
from EU citizens, residents, businesses and institutions.
What the Ombudsman does
The Ombudsman is elected by the European Parliament
for a renewable term of five years. By receiving and
investigating complaints, the Ombudsman helps to
uncover maladministration in the European institutions
and other EU bodies — in other words, cases where an
EU institution fails to do something it should have done,
or does it in the wrong way, or does something that
ought not to be done. Examples of
maladministration include:
XXunfairness;
XXdiscrimination;
XXabuse of power;
XXlack or refusal of information;
XXunnecessary delay;
XXincorrect procedures.
Any citizen or resident of an EU Member State can
make a complaint to the Ombudsman, as can any
association or business. The Ombudsman only deals
with EU institutions and bodies, not with complaints
against national, regional or local government
authorities or institutions. The Ombudsman operates
completely independently and impartially and does not
request or accept instructions from any government
or organisation.
Often, the Ombudsman may simply need to inform the
institution concerned about a complaint in order for it
to resolve the problem. If the case is not resolved
satisfactorily during the course of the inquiries,
the Ombudsman will try, if possible, to find an
amicable solution which puts right the case of
maladministration and satisfies the complainant.
If this fails, the Ombudsman can make
recommendations to solve the case. If the institution
concerned does not accept the recommendations, the
Ombudsman can make a special report to the European
Parliament.
The Ombudsman’s website has a practical guide on how
to lodge a complaint.
© EU
In her role as Ombudsman, Emily O'Reilly examines
complaints of poor or failed administration in the EU system.

The European Data Protection Supervisor
Protecting your privacy
Role: To protect citizens’ personal data processed by the EU institutions and bodies
Location: Brussels
XX edps.europa.eu
In the course of their work, the European institutions
may store and process personal information on EU
citizens and residents in electronic, written or visual
format. The European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS)
is charged with protecting this personal data and
people’s privacy, and with promoting good practice in
this field among the EU institutions and bodies.
What the European Data Protection
Supervisor does
Strict European regulations govern EU institutions’ use
of citizens’ personal data — such as names, addresses,
health data or employment history — and protection of
this information is a fundamental right. Each EU
institution has a data protection officer who ensures
that certain obligations are respected — for example,
that data can only be processed for specific and
legitimate reasons. Furthermore, the person whose data
is being processed has certain enforceable rights, such
as the right to correct the data. The job of the EDPS is
to supervise the data protection activities and systems
of the EU institutions and to ensure they comply with
best practice. The EDPS also deals with complaints and
conducts inquiries. Other tasks include:
XXmonitoring the EU administration’s processing of
personal data;
XXadvising on policies and legislation that affect
privacy;
XXcooperating with similar authorities in the Member
States to ensure consistent data protection.
How the EDPS works
For everyday operations, the EDPS comprises two
entities: Supervision and Enforcement evaluates data
protection compliance by the EU institutions and bodies,
Policy and Consultation advises the EU legislator on
data protection issues in a range of policy areas and in
proposals for new legislation. The EDPS also monitors
new technologies that may have an impact on
data protection.
Anyone who considers that his or her rights have been
infringed when an EU institution or body has processed
data relating to him or her can complain to the
European Data Protection Supervisor. The complaint
must be lodged using a complaint submission form
available on the EDPS website.

The European Investment Bank
Investing in the future
Role: To make long-term finance available for investments in EU-related projects
Shareholders: The EU Member States
Board of Directors: One from each Member State plus the European Commission
Location: L uxembourg
XX www.eib.org
The European Investment Bank (EIB) is the Bank of the
European Union. It is owned by the Member States and
its mission is to lend money for investments that
support the Union’s objectives — for example, in the
fields of energy and transport networks, environmental
sustainability and innovation. The EIB’s focus is on
increasing Europe’s jobs and growth potential,
supporting climate action, and supporting the EU’s
policies beyond its borders.
What the EIB does
The EIB is the largest multilateral borrower and lender,
providing finance and expertise for sound and
sustainable investment projects, mostly in the EU.
France’s Viaduc de Millau and TGV lines, flood protection
in Venice, wind farms in the United Kingdom,
Scandinavia’s Oresund bridge, the Athens metro and
the clean-up of the Baltic Sea are but a few of the
thousands of projects financed by the EIB over the years.
The EIB does not use money from the EU budget.
Instead, it finances itself by issuing bonds on world
financial markets. In 2012, the EIB lent € 52 billion for
400 large projects in over 60 countries — € 45 billion in
the EU Member States and € 7 billion outside the EU
with a focus on the pre-accession countries, Europe’s
southern and eastern neighbours, Africa, the Caribbean
and the Pacific, as well as Latin America and Asia.
The EIB is AAA rated. The EIB usually lends up to
50 % of the project costs. Acting as a catalyst,
it leverages co-funding from other sources. For loans
above € 25 million, the EIB lends directly to public and
private sector bodies, such as governments and
enterprises. For smaller loans, the EIB makes credit
lines available to commercial banks and other financial
institutions that on-lend the EIB funds to small and
medium-sized enterprises or smaller projects
undertaken by public sector borrowers.
Within the EU, the EIB has six priorities for its lending
activities:
XXimproving cohesion and convergence between
EU countries and regions;
XXsupporting small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs);
XXprotecting and improving the environment and
sustainable communities;
XXimplementing the knowledge economy;
XXhelping the development of Trans-European
Networks for transport and energy (TENs);
XXbuilding sustainable, competitive and secure
energy supplies.
How the EIB works
The EIB is an autonomous institution that makes its
own borrowing and lending decisions on the merits of
each project and the opportunities offered by the
financial markets. The Bank cooperates with the other
EU institutions, especially the European Commission,
the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers.
The EIB’s decisions are taken by the following bodies.
XXThe Board of Governors consists of ministers
(normally the finance ministers) from all the Member
States. It defines the Bank’s general lending policy.

The construction of new railway lines is among the type of projects that may benefit from loans from the
European Investment Bank.
XXThe Board of Directors, chaired by the President of
the Bank, comprises 29 members — 28 appointed by
the Member States and one by the European
Commission. It approves lending and borrowing
operations.
XXThe Management Committee is the Bank’s full-time
executive body. It handles the EIB’s day-to-day
business.
The European Investment Fund
The EIB is the majority shareholder in the European Investment Fund (EIF), which finances investment in
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which comprise 99 % of EU companies and employ over
100 million Europeans. SMEs often find it difficult to get the funding they need to invest and grow. This is
especially true for start-ups and small companies with innovative products or services — exactly those
entrepreneurial SMEs that the EU wants to encourage. The EIF meets these needs through venture
capital and risk finance instruments — amounting to several billion euro annually — partly offered in
partnership with the European Commission, commercial banks and other lenders.
XX www.eif.org
© ImageGlobe

The EU agencies
There are a number of specialised European Union
agencies which offer information or advice to the EU
institutions, the Member States and citizens. Each of
these agencies has a specific technical, scientific or
managerial task. EU agencies can be grouped into
several categories.
XXDecentralised agencies
Agencies are bodies governed by European public
law, but they are distinct from the EU institutions
(Council, Parliament, Commission, etc.) and have their
own legal personality. They have offices in different
cities all over Europe, which is why they are often
referred to as ‘decentralised’. They may deal with
tasks of a legal and scientific nature. Examples are
the Plant Variety Office, in Angers in France, which
establishes rights to new plant varieties, or the
Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, in
Lisbon in Portugal, which analyses and disseminates
information on drugs and drug addiction.
Three supervisory bodies help to enforce rules for
financial institutions and thereby preserve the
stability of Europe’s financial system. They are the
European Banking Authority, the European Insurance
and Occupational Pensions Authority and the
European Securities and Markets Regulator.
Other agencies help the EU Member States to
cooperate in the fight against organised international
crime. An example is Europol, based in The Hague in
the Netherlands, which provides a platform for law
enforcement officers from the EU countries to work
together. They help each other to identify and track
the most dangerous criminal and terrorist networks
in Europe.
Three agencies carry out very specific tasks within
the framework of the European Union’s common
foreign and security policy. The European Union
Satellite Centre, in Torrejón de Ardoz in Spain, is
such an agency; it uses information from earth-observation
satellites in support of EU decision-making
in foreign and security matters.
XXEuratom agencies and bodies
These bodies works within the framework of the
European Atomic Energy Community Treaty
(Euratom) to coordinate research in the EU countries
on the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to ensure
that the supply of atomic energy is both sufficient
and secure.
XXExecutive agencies
Executive agencies ensure practical management of
EU programmes, for example treatment of
applications for grants from the EU budget. They are
set up for a fixed period of time and they have to be
located in the same place as the European
Commission: Brussels or Luxembourg. One example
is the European Research Council, which funds basic
research by groups of EU scientists.
The safety of our food needs
to be controlled all over Europe
— coordinating this work is a
typical task for an EU agency.
© ImageGlobe

Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators
(ACER)
Body of European Regulators for Electronic
Communications (BEREC)
Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO)
Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency
(EACEA)
Euratom Supply Agency (ESA)
European Agency for the Management of Operational
Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member
States of the European Union (Frontex)
European Agency for the Operational Management of
Large-Scale IT Systems in the Area of Freedom,
Security and Justice (IT Agency)
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
(EU-OSHA)
European Asylum Support Office (EASO)
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
European Banking Authority (EBA)
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
(ECDC)
European Centre for the Development of Vocational
Training (Cedefop)
European Chemicals Agency (ECHA)
European Defence Agency (EDA)
European Environment Agency (EEA)
European Fisheries Control Agency (EFCA)
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
European Foundation for the Improvement of Living
and Working Conditions (Eurofound)
European GNSS Agency (GSA)
European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE)
European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT)
European Insurance and Occupational Pensions
Authority (EIOPA)
European Joint Undertaking for ITER and the
Development of Fusion Energy (Fusion for Energy)
European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA)
European Medicines Agency (EMA)
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction (EMCDDA)
European Network and Information Security Agency
(ENISA)
European Police College (CEPOL)
European Police Office (Europol)
European Railway Agency (ERA)
European Research Council Executive Agency (ERCEA)
European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA)
European Training Foundation (ETF)
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA)
European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS)
European Union Satellite Centre (EUSC)
The European Union’s Judicial Cooperation Unit
(Eurojust)
Executive Agency for Competitiveness and Innovation
(EACI)
Executive Agency for Health and Consumers (EAHC)
Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market
(Trade Marks and Designs) (OHIM)
Research Executive Agency (REA)
Trans-European Transport Network Executive Agency
(TEN-T EA)
Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European
Union (CdT)
All EU agencies can be found via
XX europa.eu/agencies/index_en.htm

Getting in touch with the EU
ONLINE
Information in all the official languages of the European Union is available on the Europa
website: europa.eu
IN PERSON
All over Europe there are hundreds of local EU information centres.
You can find the address of the centre nearest you at: europedirect.europa.eu
ON THE PHONE OR BY MAIL
Europe Direct is a service which answers your questions about the European Union. You
can contact this service by freephone: 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (certain mobile telephone
operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers or may charge for these calls), by
payphone from outside the EU: +32 22999696, or by e-mail via europedirect.europa.eu
READ ABOUT EUROPE
Publications about the EU are only a click away on the EU Bookshop website:
bookshop.europa.eu

You can also obtain information and booklets in English about the European Union from:
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
REPRESENTATIONS
Representation in Ireland
European Union House
18 Dawson Street
Dublin 2
IRELAND
Tel. +353 16341111
Internet: ec.europa.eu/ireland
E-mail: eu-ie-info-request@ec.europa.eu
Representation in the United Kingdom
Europe House
32 Smith Square
London SW1P 3EU
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 2079731992
Internet: ec.europa.eu/uk
Representation in Wales
2 Caspian Point, Caspian Way
Cardiff CF10 4QQ
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 2920895020
Representation in Scotland
9 Alva Street
Edinburgh EH2 4PH
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 1312252058
Representation in Northern Ireland
74–76 Dublin Road
Belfast BT2 7HP
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 2890240708
Delegations in the United States
2175 K Street, NW
ashington DC 20037
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Tel. +1 2123713804
Internet: eurunion.org
222 East 41st Street, 20th floor
New York, NY 10017
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Tel. +1 2123713804
Internet: eurunion.org
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
OFFICES
Office in Ireland
43 Molesworth Street
Dublin 2
IRELAND
Tel. +353 16057900
Internet: www.europarl.ie
E-mail: epdublin@europarl.europa.eu
United Kingdom Office
Europe House
32 Smith Square
London SW1P 3EU
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 2072274300
Internet: europarl.org.uk
E-mail: eplondon@europarl.europa.eu
Office in Scotland
The Tun, 4 Jackson’s Entry
Holyrood Road
Edinburgh EH8 8PJ
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44 1315577866
Internet: europarl.org.uk
E-mail: epedinburgh@europarl.europa.eu
There are European Commission and Parliament
representations and offices in all the countries of
the European Union. The European Union also has
delegations in other parts of the world.

The European Union
Member States of the European Union (2013)
Candidate and potential candidate countries

NA-01-13-090-EN-C
doi:10.2775/20055
The European Union (EU) is unique. It is not a federal state like the United States
of America because its member countries remain independent sovereign nations.
Nor is it a purely intergovernmental organisation like the United Nations because
the member countries do pool some of their sovereignty — and thus gain much
greater collective strength and influence than they could have acting individually.
They pool their sovereignty by taking joint decisions through shared institutions
such as the European Parliament, which is elected by the EU citizens, and the
European Council and the Council, which both represent national governments.
They decide on the basis of proposals from the European Commission, which
represents the interests of the EU as a whole. But what does each of these
institutions do? How do they work together? who is responsible for what?
This booklet sets out the answers. It also gives a brief overview of the agencies
and other bodies that are involved in the European Union’s work. The aim is to
provide you with a helpful guide to EU decision-making.

How the European Union Works

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