how to write a paper - using structure as a guide

Prepared by Jacob Nunnally, MA, MLS

By the end of this session, you will learn:
(1) a systematic approach to writing papers
(2) how to use structure to improve the quality and
clarity of your writing
(4) how to create main points (the “central ideas” of your
paper)
OBJECTIVES
(5) how to structure paragraphs (particularly the
introduction and conclusion)
(3) why creating an outline is crucial

“Prose is architecture, not interior design.”
Ernest Hemingway
Nobel Prize Winner for Literature, 1954

What if your professor walked into
class one day and said:
“I want you to write a 5-page paper that discusses the
government’s D.A.R.E. anti-drug program. You must
research the program and argue that:
(a) it is effective and should continue to be funded, or
(b) it is not effective and funding should be
discontinued.”
“ASSIGNMENT”

STEP 1: GET BACKGROUND
INFORMATION
• The first thing you’ll want to do is get an overview of the
topic. Consult an online (Wikipedia) or print encyclopedia (World
Book).
• However, never ever cite Wikipedia in a paper!

STEP 2: FIND BOOKS AND
ARTICLES ON YOUR TOPIC
• Search PubMed, Google Scholar, and library databases
to find information about your topic. Ask a librarian to
help you find the best possible sources.
• Underline important passages and write notes in the
margins. Read actively.
• Re-read the underlined passages and notes you’ve
written. This will strengthen your knowledge of the
subject and, as you do this, the main points of your
paper will become apparent to you.

STEP 3: CREATE AN
OUTLINE
•Would a construction company start building a
skyscraper without detailed architectural plans?
•Of course not! In the same way, a writer must prepare a
plan – an outline – before you begin writing your paper.
Let the outline be your guide.

I. Introduction
a. First sentence:
b. Thesis statement (an argument; the last sentence of the introduction):
II. Main point #1:
III. Main point #2:
IV. Conclusion
a. First sentence (restatement of thesis):
b. Call to action/suggestions for further research:
Basic Outline Template
The main points
support/reinforce the
claim made in the
thesis statement.
The paragraphs
in-between the
introduction and
conclusion are
called “the body”
of the paper.

WHAT IS A THESIS STATEMENT?
• A thesis statement is an argument, a claim. It is a one-sentence
statement in which you assert that your position on a certain issue
is correct.
• Usually the last sentence of the introductory paragraph.
• The main points of the paper support/reinforce the claim made
in the thesis statement.
• Example thesis statement: “Since sugar can cause cancer,
obesity, and diabetes, it should be regulated by the government
like alcohol and tobacco."
• The paper that follows this example thesis statement
will: supply published evidence that sugar causes the
mentioned pathologies and persuade the reader that the
governmental regulation of sugar will improve public
health.

I. Introduction
a. First sentence: The Drug Abuse Resistance Program (D.A.R.E.) began in
Los Angeles in 1983 to encourage young people to avoid drug use.
II. Main point #1: Numerous longitudinal, peer-reviewed
studies have shown that this program has little, if any, effect
on behavior.
III. Main point #2: With an annual budget of nearly $1
billion, the program is a waste of taxpayer money.
IV. Conclusion
a. First sentence (restatement of thesis): This paper has shown that
although the D.A.R.E. anti-drug program has admirable goals, it has been
proven to be ineffective.
Outline for a Paper on the D.A.R.E. Anti-Drug Program
b. Thesis statement: This paper will show that the D.A.R.E. program is a
waste of time and money and therefore it should be discontinued.
b. Call to action/suggestion for further research: A legitimate anti-drug
program should be able to show outcome data that justifies the time and
money spent on it. Public health officials should implore our government for
a new alternative to D.A.R.E. to curtail drug use in young people.

STEP 4: USE YOUR OUTLINE TO
BEGIN WRITING YOUR PAPER
•By this point in our “assignment,” you have:
• found articles/books on your topic (hopefully you’ve asked a
librarian for one-on-one help!)
•read the sources you’ve found and reflected critically on
them
•created an outline that will guide you as you prepare to write the
paper
• consulted an encyclopedia to get an overview of your topic

TIPS ON WRITING THE INTRODUCTION:
THE FIRST SENTENCE
•Experiment using one of the following strategies for your first
sentence (these are suggestions only, you don’t have to do this):
Tip #1 - State a fact:
“Energy drinks have created a 3.5-billion-dollar annual
industry, specifically targeting adolescents and young
adults with aggressive marketing campaigns.”
From the article “First-Onset Seizure After Use of 5-Hour
Energy”

Tip #2 –Historical overview:
“In 1832, Thomas Hodgkin described the first hematologic malignancy.”
From the book chapter “Overview of Hematologic Malignancies”
Tip #3 – “Direct” statement of purpose:
“This essay examines the basic issues confronting information science
education, issues that must be resolved if information science itself is to
evolve in an orderly fashion.”
From the article “An Essay on the Past and Future (?) of
Information Science Education”
TIPS ON WRITING THE INTRODUCTION:
THE FIRST SENTENCE

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE AND
TOPIC SENTENCES
• A basic rule of thumb for paragraphs is: “One idea per
paragraph.” The topic sentence establishes each
paragraph’s main idea.
• “[Y]ou should state the main point of a paragraph in a
topic sentence – a one-sentence summary that tells readers
what to expect as they read on. Usually the topic
sentence…comes first in the paragraph.” (Hacker, p. 32)
• This is accomplished by paying close attention to how
you construct each paragraph’s topic sentence.
• A topic sentence is the first sentence of a paragraph. It
indicates the topic/purpose of the paragraph.

TOPIC SENTENCES
• The next two slides will illustrate this point:
• Topic sentence: general statement/purpose of
paragraph.
• Supporting sentences: the specifics, the details; this
is where you can cite the evidence/quote published
sources

TOPIC SENTENCES
“All living creatures manage some form of communication.
The dance patterns of bees in their hive help to point the way
to distant flower fields or announce successful foraging. Male
stickleback fish regularly swim upside-down to indicate
outrage in a courtship contest. Male deer and lemurs mark
territorial ownership by rubbing their own body secretions on
boundary stones or trees. Everyone has seen a frightened dog
put his tail between his legs and run in panic. We, too, use
gestures, expressions, postures, and movement to give our
words point.”
From Olivia Vlahos, Human Beginnings (quoted in Hacker,
p. 32)

TOPIC SENTENCES
“Scientists sort electric fishes into three categories. The first
comprises the strongly electric species like the marine electric
rays or the freshwater African electric catfish and South American
electric eel. Known since the dawn of history, these deliver a
punch strong enough to stun a human. In recent years, biologists
have focused on a second category: weakly electric fish in the
South American and African rivers that use tiny voltages for
communication and navigation. The third group contains sharks,
nonelectric rays, and catfish, which do not emit a field but
possess sensors that enable them to detect the minute amounts
of electricity that leak out of other organisms.”
From Anne and Jack Rudloe, “Electric Warfare: The Fish That Kill
with Thunderbolts” (quoted in Hacker, p. 38)

INTEGRATING PUBLISHED IDEAS INTO YOUR
PAPER IN APA STYLE
•When you quote a published source in APA style, there are always 3
elements that must be included:
•signal phrase (author + verb + year)
•the quoted words in quotation marks
•the page number from the quoted work
Obesity was once considered in a very different light. As
researchers Yanovski and Smith (2002) have explained, obesity was
widely thought of as “either a moral failing or evidence of
underlying psychopathology” (p. 592).
(From Hacker, p. 455.)
the signal phrase provides context for, and “sets
up”, the quoted words that follow
Example:

PAPER IN APA STYLE
Obesity was once considered in a very different light. As
researchers Yanovski and Smith (2002) have explained, obesity was
widely thought of as “either a moral failing or evidence of
underlying psychopathology” (p. 592).
great topic sentence to begin a new paragraph
signal
phrase
Quote in
quotation marks
page number with “p.” in parentheses
– then the period to end the sentence

PAPER IN APA STYLE
•Understanding how to use signal phrases is crucial. They can be placed
before, in the middle of, and after a quote:
• Before: Smith et al. (2014) observed that “the quoted words
appear here” (p. 42).
• Middle: “The quoted words,” Smith and Matthews (2007) argued,
“appear here” (p. 3).
• After: “The quoted words appear here,” Smith (2013) claimed (p.
268).
•In APA style, signal phrase verbs are past tense. Here are some other
strong signal phrase verbs you can use:
•contended, declared, noted, pointed out, reported, wrote

TIPS ON WRITING THE
CONCLUSION
• The conclusion provides an opportunity to wrap up your paper and
summarize what you’ve written. Avoid bringing up new ideas.
• In the first sentence of your conclusion, it is often useful to restate
your thesis statement.
• In the last sentence of your conclusion, it is often useful to
assert a “call to action” and/or give suggestions for further
research.

IMPORTANT TOPICS NOT
COVERED IN THIS PRESENTATION
•Plagiarism:
Another full presentation in itself. If you use words or ideas you found in
published work, you must cite that source in the text of your paper and
provide complete bibliographic information for the source in your list of
references. If you do not give credit in the text or include it in the reference
list, you have committed plagiarism. Plagiarism can occur intentionally or
unintentionally. Either way, it’s still plagiarism.
•How to find books/articles on the library website:
This is an entire presentation in itself. Again, I encourage you to meet
one-on-one with a librarian. You will be amazed how much you will learn
and how much easier research will be for you.
•Reference management systems:
How to use RefWorks or EndNote to manage your citations (APA style,
AMA style, etc.).
•Cover page and reference list:
These are always the first and last pages of your APA-style papers

HOW TO SCHEDULE A WRITING
CENTER CONSULTATION
• You can quickly and easily schedule a writing center consultation
by visiting http://guides.library.nymc.edu/writing_center and then
clicking “Book an Appointment” in the middle of the screen.
• A consultation entails a one-on-one meeting with a librarian who
will review your paper with you and give you suggestions for
improvement. You must email the paper you’re working on to the
librarian before the consultation so that the librarian can have time
to read it beforehand.

REFERENCES
Olsen, M. (2013). Overview of hematologic malignancies. In M. Olsen &
L. Zitella (Eds.), Hematologic malignancies in adults (pp. 1 –
17). Pittsburgh: Oncology Nursing Society.
West, S.L., & O’Neal, K. K. (2004). Project D.A.R.E. outcome
effectiveness revisited. American Journal of Public Health,
94(6), 1027-1029.
Babu, K. M., Zuckerman, M. D., Cherkes, J. K., & Hack, J. B. (2011). First-
onset seizure after use of 5-Hour Energy. Pediatric Emergency
Care, 27(6), 539-540.
Hacker, D., & Sommers, N. (2010). A writer’s reference. Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Saracevic, T. (1979). An essay on the past and future (?) of information
science education—II: Unresolved problems of “externalities” of
education. Information Processing and Management, 15(6),
291-301.

CONTACT INFORMATION
Jacob Nunnally
Content Management Librarian
(Office located on lower level of HSL)
jacob_nunnally@nymc.edu
914-594-3172

how to write a paper - using structure as a guide

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