Hyper text markup language

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RAI SAHEB BHANWAR SINGH COLLEGE
RALA, NASRULLAGANJ
Project Report
Submitted for the degree of
Bachelor in Computer Science
To
Department of Computer Science
R.S.B. College , Nasrullaganj in District-Sehore , M.P. , India
(2016-17)
Under the supervision of
Mr. C.L. Malviya
Department of Computer Science of
R.S.B. College, Nasrullaganj , District-Sehore , M.P. , India
Submitted By
Namita Yadav
Department of Computer Science of
R.S.B. College , Nasrullaganj , District-Sehore , M.P. , India

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TOPIC
“Hyper Text Markup Language”
Project Report
Submitted for the
Bachelor in Computer Science
Department of Computer science
Rai Saheb Bhanwar Singh College
Nasrullaganj
Under the Supervision
Mr. C.L. Malviya Submitted by
Mr.Sourabh Sir

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the accomplishment of this Internship project successfully,
many people have best owned upon me their blessings and the heart
pledged support, this time I am utilizing to thank all the people who
have been concerned with Internship project.
Primarily I would thank god for being able to complete this
Internship project with success. Then I would like to thank my
Director Sir Mr. Surendra Singh Bhati And vice principal Mr.Y.S
Chandel sir Internship project guide Mr sourbh,& Mr C.L Malviya sir
and my all Department of Computer Science all teachers ,Mr.devendra
Kushwah , Mr.Mahendra, Miss. sonal, Mr.sanjay,whose valuable
guidance has been the ones that helped me patch this and make it full
proof success his suggestion and his instruction has served as the
major contributor towards the completion of the project.
I thanks to all my project group member Archana Panwar,Pooja
Vishwakarma,Archana Sharma,Bhagyashree Jat,Poorva Tiwari,Diksha
Uikey,Radhika Sharma and all my classmate Then, I would like to thank
my parents and friends who helped me with their valuable blessings,
suggestion and guidance has been helpful in various phases of the
completion of the Internship project.
Last but not the least I would like to thank all my classmates who
helped me a lot in this Internship project.
Name –

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Class – B.Sc. VIth Sem (C.S)
Declaration
I hereby that this is entitled ““Career Counselling
Websites “embodies my own work , which has been submitted
for partial fulfillment of B Sc of computer science . This work is
corned not under the supervision and guidance’s of Mr C.L.
Malviya Assistance professor of computer science R. S. B.
college. I further state that I have put more than 45 days of
attendance with . The supervision in the Department of
computer science R. S. B. college.
I further declare that to best of my knowledge the
project doesn’t contends my duplication of work
Date :……………………… Signature of the Student
Place :…………………….. Name
Class: B.Sc. VI Sem
Roll Number:
Address: NASRULLAGANJ

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INTRODUCTIONTO HTML
HTML Basics Welcome to HTML Basics. This workshop leads
you through the basics of Hyper Text Markup Language
(HTML). HTML is the building block for web pages. You will
learn to use HTML to author an HTML page to display in a web
browser. Objectives: By the end of this workshop, you will be
able to: ƒ Use a text editor to author an HTML document. ƒ Be
able to use basic tags to denote paragraphs, emphasis or special
type. ƒ Create hyperlinks to other documents. ƒ Create an email
link. ƒ Add images to your document. Q: What is Notepad and
where do I get it? A: Notepad is the default Windows text editor.
On most Windows systems, click your Start button and choose
Programs then Accessories. It should be a little blue notebook.
Mac Users: SimpleText is the default text editor on the Mac. In
OSX use Text Edit and change the following preferences: Select
(in the preferences window) Plain text instead of Rich text and
then select Ignore rich text commands in HTML files. This is
very important because if you don't do this HTML codes
probably won't work. One thing you should avoid using is a
word processor (like Microsoft Word) for authoring your HTML
documents. What is an html File? HTML is a format that tells a
computer how to display a web page.

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HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE
(HTML) is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and JavaScript, it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the
World Wide Web. Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local
storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web
page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document.
HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and
other objects, such as interactive forms, may be embedded into the rendered page. It provides a
means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings,
paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written
using angle brackets. Tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page
directly. Others such as <p>...</p> surround and provide information about document text and
may include other tags as sub-elements. Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to
interpret the content of the page.
HTML can embed programs written in a scripting language such as JavaScript which affect the
behavior and content of web pages. Inclusion of CSS defines the look and layout of content. The
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), maintainer of both the HTML and the CSS standards, has
encouraged the use of CSS over explicit presentational HTML since 1997.
Development
Tim Berners-Lee
In 1980, physicist Tim Berners-Lee, a contractor at CERN, proposed and prototyped ENQUIRE,
a system for CERN researchers to use and share documents. In 1989, Berners-Lee wrote a memo
proposing an Internet-based hypertext system. Berners-Lee specified HTML and wrote the
browser and server software in late 1990. That year, Berners-Lee and CERN data systems
engineer Robert Cailliau collaborated on a joint request for funding, but the project was not
formally adopted by CERN. In his personal notes from 1990 he listed some of the many areas in
which hypertext is users and put an encyclopedia first.
The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called "HTML Tags", first
mentioned on the Internet by Tim Berners-Lee in late 1991. It describes 18 elements comprising
the initial, relatively simple design of HTML. Except for the hyperlink tag, these were strongly
influenced by SGMLguid, an in-house Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)-based
documentation format at CERN. Eleven of these elements still exist in HTML 4.

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HTML is a markup language that web browsers use to interpret and compose text, images, and
other material into visual or audible web pages. Default characteristics for every item of HTML
markup are defined in the browser, and these characteristics can be altered or enhanced by the
web page designer's additional use of CSS. Many of the text elements are found in the 1988 ISO
technical report TR 9537 Techniques for using SGML, which in turn covers the features of early
text formatting languages such as that used by the RUNOFF command developed in the early
1960s for the CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System) operating system: these formatting
commands were derived from the commands used by typesetters to manually format documents.
However, the SGML concept of generalized markup is based on elements (nested annotated
ranges with attributes) rather than merely print effects, with also the separation of structure and
markup; HTML has been progressively moved in this direction with CSS.
After the HTML and HTML+ drafts expired in early 1994, the IETF created an HTML Working
Group, which in 1995 completed "HTML 2.0", the first HTML specification intended to be
treated as a standard against which future implementations should be based.
Further development under the auspices of the IETF was stalled by competing interests. Since
1996, the HTML specifications have been maintained, with input from commercial software
vendors, by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). However, in 2000, HTML also became an
international standard (ISO/IEC 15445:2000). HTML 4.01 was published in late 1999, with
further errata published through 2001. In 2004, development began on HTML5 in the Web
Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG), which became a joint
deliverable with the W3C in 2008, and completed and standardized on 28 October 2014.
TAGS
HTML uses special bits of programming language called "tags" to let the browser know how a
webpage should look. The tags usually come in pairs: an opening tag to tell the browser when to
start doing something, and an ending tag to tell the browser when to stop doing something. There
are many different kinds of tags, and each one has a different purpose.
Some tags only work in certain browsers. For example, the <marquee> tag, which is used to
make a bit of writing slide across the page, only works in the Internet Explorer and Mozilla
Firefox browsers. Other browsers simply ignore this tag and display the writing normally. Many
web page creators avoid using these "non-standard" tags because they want their pages to look
the same with all browsers.

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EXAMPLE
Here is an example page in HTML:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>This is the title of the page.</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
<a href="www.domain.com">This is a link.</a>
<img url="image.jpg" alt="Image">
</body>
</html>
HTML5
The W3C is making a new version of HTML, called HTML5, with more features and better
support for things like online video. HTML5 is expected to become the standard version of
HTML within the next few years.
Some of the new features in HTML5 are:
• The <canvas> tag which can be used with JavaScript to draw 2D pictures and animations.
• A <video> tag for adding videos to a webpage.
• A <audio> tag for adding audio, like music or sound effects, to a webpage.
• Tags for marking common kinds of content, including: <article>, <footer>, <header>,
<nav>, <progress>, <section>, <summary>, <time>

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In addition, some features of HTML4 have been left out of HTML5. For example, the <font>
tag, which is used to change how text looks on a page, is not available in HTML5. The W3C
recommends doing this with CSS instead.
One of the aims of HTML5 is to remove the need to use third-party software like Adobe Flash,
because it is often slow on mobile devices like phones and can be used to infect your computer
with viruses. Another aim is to reduce the amount of program code (JavaScript) running in each
webpage, thus making the web faster.
Currently, no browsers completely support all of HTML5's new features. However, some of the
features are supported by Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome and Apple Safari.
There are several types of markup elements used in HTML:
Structural markup indicates the purpose of text
For example, <h2>Golf</h2> establishes "Golf" as a second-level heading. Structural markup
does not denote any specific rendering, but most web browsers have default styles for element
formatting. Content may be further styled using Cascading Style Sheets (CSS).
Presentational markup indicates the appearance of the text, regardless of its purpose
For example, <b>boldface</b> indicates that visual output devices should render "boldface" in
bold text, but gives little indication what devices that are unable to do this (such as aural devices
that read the text aloud) should do. In the case of both <b>bold</b> and <i>italic</i>, there are
other elements that may have equivalent visual renderings but that are more semantic in nature,
such as <strong>strong text</strong> and <em>emphasised text</em> respectively. It is easier
to see how an aural user agent should interpret the latter two elements. However, they are not
equivalent to their presentational counterparts: it would be undesirable for a screen-reader to
emphasize the name of a book, for instance, but on a screen such a name would be italicized.
Most presentational markup elements have become deprecated under the HTML 4.0
specification in favor of using CSS for styling.
Hypertext markup makes parts of a document into links to other documents
An anchor element creates a hyperlink in the document and its href attribute sets the link's target
URL. For example, the HTML markup, <a href="http://www.google.com/">Wikipedia</a>, will
render the word "Wikipedia" as a hyperlink. To render an image as a hyperlink, an "img"
element is inserted as content into the "a" element. Like "br", "img" is an empty element with
attributes but no content or closing tag. <a href="http://example.org"><img src="image.gif"
alt="descriptive text" width="50" height="50" border="0"></a>.

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MAIN ARTICLE: HTML ATTRIBUTE
Most of the attributes of an element are name-value pairs, separated by "=" and written within
the start tag of an element after the element's name. The value may be enclosed in single or
double quotes, although values consisting of certain characters can be left unquoted in HTML
(but not XHTML) . Leaving attribute values unquoted is considered unsafe. In contrast with
name-value pair attributes, there are some attributes that affect the element simply by their
presence in the start tag of the element,[6] like the ismapattribute for the img element.
There are several common attributes that may appear in many elements :
• The id attribute provides a document-wide unique identifier for an element. This is used
to identify the element so that stylesheets can alter its presentational properties, and scripts may
alter, animate or delete its contents or presentation. Appended to the URL of the page, it provides
a globally unique identifier for the element, typically a sub-section of the page. For example, the
ID "Attributes" in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML#Attributes
• The class attribute provides a way of classifying similar elements. This can be used for
semantic or presentation purposes. For example, an HTML document might semantically use the
designation class="notation" to indicate that all elements with this class value are subordinate to
the main text of the document. In presentation, such elements might be gathered together and
presented as footnotes on a page instead of appearing in the place where they occur in the HTML
source. Class attributes are used semantically in microformats. Multiple class values may be
specified; for example class="notation important" puts the element into both the "notation" and
the "important" classes.
• An author may use the style attribute to assign presentational properties to a particular
element. It is considered better practice to use an element's id or classattributes to select the
element from within a stylesheet, though sometimes this can be too cumbersome for a simple,
specific, or ad hoc styling.
• The title attribute is used to attach subtextual explanation to an element. In most browsers
this attribute is displayed as a tooltip.
• The lang attribute identifies the natural language of the element's contents, which may be
different from that of the rest of the document. For example, in an English-language document:
• <p>Oh well, <span lang="fr">c'est la vie</span>, as they say in France.</p>
The abbreviation element, abbr, can be used to demonstrate some of these attributes :
<abbr id="anId" class="jargon" style="color:purple;" title="Hypertext Markup
Language">HTML</abbr>

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This example displays as HTML; in most browsers, pointing the cursor at the abbreviation
should display the title text "Hypertext Markup Language."
Most elements take the language-related attribute dir to specify text direction, such as with "rtl"
for right-to-left text in, for example, Arabic, Persian or Hebrew.
Character and entity references
See also: List of XML and HTML character entity references and Unicode and HTML
As of version 4.0, HTML defines a set of 252 character entity references and a set of 1,114,050
numeric character references, both of which allow individual characters to be written via simple
markup, rather than literally. A literal character and its markup counterpart are considered
equivalent and are rendered identically.
DATA TYPES
HTML defines several data types for element content, such as script data and stylesheet data, and
a plethora of types for attribute values, including IDs, names, URIs, numbers, units of length,
languages, media descriptors, colors, character encodings, dates and times, and so on. All of
these data types are specializations of character data.
Document type declaration
HTML documents are required to start with a Document Type Declaration (informally, a
"doctype"). In browsers, the doctype helps to define the rendering mode—particularly whether to
use quirks mode.
The original purpose of the doctype was to enable parsing and validation of HTML documents
by SGML tools based on the Document Type Definition (DTD). The DTD to which the
DOCTYPE refers contains a machine-readable grammar specifying the permitted and prohibited
content for a document conforming to such a DTD. Browsers, on the other hand, do not
implement HTML as an application of SGML and by consequence do not read the DTD.
HTML5 does not define a DTD; therefore, in HTML5 the doctype declaration is simpler and
shorter:
<!DOCTYPE html>
An example of an HTML 4 doctype
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">

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This declaration references the DTD for the "strict" version of HTML 4.01. SGML-based
validators read the DTD in order to properly parse the document and to perform validation. In
modern browsers, a valid doctype activates standards mode as opposed to quirks mode.
In addition, HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs, as explained below.
Transitional type is the most inclusive, incorporating current tags as well as older or "deprecated"
tags, with the Strict DTD excluding deprecated tags. Frameset has all tags necessary to make
frames on a page along with the tags included in transitional type.
Semantic HTML
Semantic HTML is a way of writing HTML that emphasizes the meaning of the encoded
information over its presentation (look). HTML has included semantic markup from its
inception, but has also included presentational markup, such as <font>, <i> and <center> tags.
There are also the semantically neutral span and div tags. Since the late 1990s when Cascading
Style Sheets were beginning to work in most browsers, web authors have been encouraged to
avoid the use of presentational HTML markup with a view to the separation of presentation and
content.
In a 2001 discussion of the Semantic Web, Tim Berners-Lee and others gave examples of ways
in which intelligent software "agents" may one day automatically crawl the web and find, filter
and correlate previously unrelated, published facts for the benefit of human users.[74] Such
agents are not commonplace even now, but some of the ideas of Web 2.0, mashups and price
comparison websites may be coming close. The main difference between these web application
hybrids and Berners-Lee's semantic agents lies in the fact that the current aggregation and
hybridization of information is usually designed in by web developers, who already know the
web locations and the API semantics of the specific data they wish to mash, compare and
combine.
An important type of web agent that does crawl and read web pages automatically, without prior
knowledge of what it might find, is the web crawler or search-engine spider. These software
agents are dependent on the semantic clarity of web pages they find as they use various
techniques and algorithms to read and index millions of web pages a day and provide web users
with search facilities without which the World Wide Web's usefulness would be greatly reduced.
In order for search-engine spiders to be able to rate the significance of pieces of text they find in
HTML documents, and also for those creating mashups and other hybrids as well as for more
automated agents as they are developed, the semantic structures that exist in HTML need to be
widely and uniformly applied to bring out the meaning of published text.[75]
Presentational markup tags are deprecated in current HTML and XHTML recommendations and
are illegal in HTML5.

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Good semantic HTML also improves the accessibility of web documents (see also Web Content
Accessibility Guidelines). For example, when a screen reader or audio browser can correctly
ascertain the structure of a document, it will not waste the visually impaired user's time by
reading out repeated or irrelevant information when it has been marked up correctly.
DELIVERY
HTML documents can be delivered by the same means as any other computer file. However,
they are most often delivered either by HTTP from a web server or by email.
HTTP
The World Wide Web is composed primarily of HTML documents transmitted from web servers
to web browsers using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). However, HTTP is used to serve
images, sound, and other content, in addition to HTML. To allow the web browser to know how
to handle each document it receives, other information is transmitted along with the document.
This meta data usually includes the MIME type (e.g. text/html or application/xhtml+xml) and the
character encoding (see Character encoding in HTML).
In modern browsers, the MIME type that is sent with the HTML document may affect how the
document is initially interpreted. A document sent with the XHTML MIME type is expected to
be well-formed XML; syntax errors may cause the browser to fail to render it. The same
document sent with the HTML MIME type might be displayed successfully, since some
browsers are more lenient with HTML.
The W3C recommendations state that XHTML 1.0 documents that follow guidelines set forth in
the recommendation's Appendix C may be labeled with either MIME Type. XHTML 1.1 also
states that XHTML 1.1 documents should be labeled with either MIME type.
HTML E-MAIL
Main article: HTML email
Most graphical email clients allow the use of a subset of HTML (often ill-defined) to provide
formatting and semantic markup not available with plain text. This may include typographic
information like coloured headings, emphasized and quoted text, inline images and diagrams.
Many such clients include both a GUI editor for composing HTML e-mail messages and a
rendering engine for displaying them. Use of HTML in e-mail is criticized by some because of
compatibility issues, because it can help disguise phishing attacks, because of accessibility issues
for blind or visually impaired people, because it can confuse spam filters and because the
message size is larger than plain text.

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HTML APPLICATION
An HTML Application (HTA; file extension ".hta") is a Microsoft Windows application that
uses HTML and Dynamic HTML in a browser to provide the application's graphical interface. A
regular HTML file is confined to the security model of the web browser's security,
communicating only to web servers and manipulating only webpage objects and site cookies. An
HTA runs as a fully trusted application and therefore has more privileges, like
creation/editing/removal of files and Windows Registry entries. Because they operate outside the
browser's security model, HTAs cannot be executed via HTTP, but must be downloaded (just
like an EXE file) and executed from local file system.
HTML4 variations
Since its inception, HTML and its associated protocols gained acceptance relatively quickly.
However, no clear standards existed in the early years of the language. Though its creators
originally conceived of HTML as a semantic language devoid of presentation details, practical
uses pushed many presentational elements and attributes into the language, driven largely by the
various browser vendors. The latest standards surrounding HTML reflect efforts to overcome the
sometimes chaotic development of the language and to create a rational foundation for building
both meaningful and well-presented documents. To return HTML to its role as a semantic
language, the W3C has developed style languages such as CSS and XSL to shoulder the burden
of presentation. In conjunction, the HTML specification has slowly reined in the presentational
elements.
There are two axes differentiating various variations of HTML as currently specified: SGML-
based HTML versus XML-based HTML (referred to as XHTML) on one axis, and strict versus
transitional (loose) versus frameset on the other axis.
SGML-based versus XML-based HTML
One difference in the latest HTML specifications lies in the distinction between the SGML-based
specification and the XML-based specification. The XML-based specification is usually called
XHTML to distinguish it clearly from the more traditional definition. However, the root element
name continues to be "html" even in the XHTML-specified HTML. The W3C intended XHTML
1.0 to be identical to HTML 4.01 except where limitations of XML over the more complex
SGML require workarounds. Because XHTML and HTML are closely related, they are
sometimes documented in parallel. In such circumstances, some authors conflate the two names
as (X)HTML or X(HTML).
Like HTML 4.01, XHTML 1.0 has three sub-specifications: strict, transitional and frameset.
Aside from the different opening declarations for a document, the differences between an HTML
4.01 and XHTML 1.0 document—in each of the corresponding DTDs—are largely syntactic.

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The underlying syntax of HTML allows many shortcuts that XHTML does not, such as elements
with optional opening or closing tags, and even empty elements which must not have an end tag.
By contrast, XHTML requires all elements to have an opening tag and a closing tag. XHTML,
however, also introduces a new shortcut: an XHTML tag may be opened and closed within the
same tag, by including a slash before the end of the tag like this: <br/>. The introduction of this
shorthand, which is not used in the SGML declaration for HTML 4.01, may confuse earlier
software unfamiliar with this new convention. A fix for this is to include a space before closing
the tag, as such: <br />.
To understand the subtle differences between HTML and XHTML, consider the transformation
of a valid and well-formed XHTML 1.0 document that adheres to Appendix C (see below) into a
valid HTML 4.01 document. To make this translation requires the following steps:
1. The language for an element should be specified with a lang attribute rather than the
XHTML xml:lang attribute. XHTML uses XML's built in language-defining functionality
attribute.
2. Remove the XML namespace (xmlns=URI). HTML has no facilities for namespaces.
3. Change the document type declaration from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01. (see DTD
section for further explanation).
4. If present, remove the XML declaration. (Typically this is: <?xml version="1.0"
encoding="utf-8"?>).
5. Ensure that the document's MIME type is set to text/html. For both HTML and XHTML,
this comes from the HTTP Content-Type header sent by the server.
6. Change the XML empty-element syntax to an HTML style empty element (<br /> to
<br>).
Those are the main changes necessary to translate a document from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01.
To translate from HTML to XHTML would also require the addition of any omitted opening or
closing tags. Whether coding in HTML or XHTML it may just be best to always include the
optional tags within an HTML document rather than remembering which tags can be omitted.
A well-formed XHTML document adheres to all the syntax requirements of XML. A valid
document adheres to the content specification for XHTML, which describes the document
structure.
The W3C recommends several conventions to ensure an easy migration between HTML and
XHTML (see HTML Compatibility Guidelines). The following steps can be applied to XHTML
1.0 documents only:
• Include both xml:lang and lang attributes on any elements assigning language.

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• Use the empty-element syntax only for elements specified as empty in HTML.
• Include an extra space in empty-element tags: for example <br /> instead of <br>.
• Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty (for
example, <div></div>, not <div />).
• Omit the XML declaration.
By carefully following the W3C's compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to
interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML 1.0 and
have been made compatible in this way, the W3C permits them to be served either as HTML
(with a text/html MIME type), or as XHTML (with an application/xhtml+xml or application/xml
MIME type). When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, which adheres
strictly to the XML specifications for parsing the document's contents.
Transitional versus strict
HTML 4 defined three different versions of the language: Strict, Transitional (once called Loose)
and Frameset. The Strict version is intended for new documents and is considered best practice,
while the Transitional and Frameset versions were developed to make it easier to transition
documents that conformed to older HTML specification or didn't conform to any specification to
a version of HTML 4. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup,
which is omitted in the Strict version. Instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve
the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML 1 only defines an XML syntax for the
language defined by HTML 4, the same differences apply to XHTML 1 as well.
The Transitional version allows the following parts of the vocabulary, which are not included in
the Strict version:
• A looser content model
• Inline elements and plain text are allowed directly in: body, blockquote, form, noscript
and noframes
• Presentation related elements
• underline (u)(Deprecated. can confuse a visitor with a hyperlink.)
• strike-through (s)
• center (Deprecated. use CSS instead.)
• font (Deprecated. use CSS instead.)
• basefont (Deprecated. use CSS instead.)

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• Presentation related attributes
• background (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) and bgcolor (Deprecated. use CSS instead.)
attributes for body (required element according to the W3C.) element.
• align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attribute on div, form, paragraph (p) and heading
(h1...h6) elements
• align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), noshade (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), size
(Deprecated. use CSS instead.) and width (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attributes on hr
element
• align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), border, vspace and hspace attributes on img and
object (caution: the object element is only supported in Internet Explorer (from the major
browsers)) elements
• align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attribute on legend and caption elements
• align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) and bgcolor (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) on table
element
• nowrap (Obsolete), bgcolor (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), width, height on td and th
elements
• bgcolor (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attribute on tr element
• clear (Obsolete) attribute on br element
• compact attribute on dl, dir and menu elements
• type (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), compact (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) and start
(Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attributes on ol and ul elements
• type and value attributes on li element
• width attribute on pre element
• Additional elements in Transitional specification
• menu (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) list (no substitute, though unordered list is
recommended)
• dir (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) list (no substitute, though unordered list is
recommended)
• isindex (Deprecated.) (element requires server-side support and is typically added to
documents server-side, form and input elements can be used as a substitute)

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• applet (Deprecated. use the object element instead.)
• The language (Obsolete) attribute on script element (redundant with the type attribute).
• Frame related entities
• iframe
• noframes
• target (Deprecated in the map, link and form elements.) attribute on a, client-side image-
map (map), link, form and base elements
The Frameset version includes everything in the Transitional version, as well as the frameset
element (used instead of body) and the frame element.
Frameset versus transitional
In addition to the above transitional differences, the frameset specifications (whether XHTML
1.0 or HTML 4.01) specify a different content model, with frameset replacing body, that contains
either frame elements, or optionally noframes with a body.
Summary of specification versions
As this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy
support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a
removal of this legacy support. Rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is
modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary
achievement in the move from XHTML 1.0 to XHTML 1.1 is the modularization of the entire
specification. The strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML 1.1 through a set of modular
extensions to the base XHTML 1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose
(transitional) or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML 1.1 support (much of
it is contained in the legacy or frame modules). The modularization also allows for separate
features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML 1.1 will allow quicker
migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML (a presentational and semantic math
language based on XML) and XForms—a new highly advanced web-form technology to replace
the existing HTML forms.
In summary, the HTML 4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML
implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML 1.0, ported
this specification, as is, to the new XML defined specification. Next, XHTML 1.1 takes
advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML
2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-
body-based approach.

19
HTML5 VARIATIONS
WHATWG HTML versus HTML5
The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of
the art in major browser implementations by Apple (Safari), Google (Chrome), Mozilla
(Firefox), Opera (Opera), and others. HTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the
W3C following the W3C process. As of 2013 both specifications are similar and mostly derived
from each other, i.e., the work on HTML5 started with an older WHATWG draft, and later the
WHATWG living standard was based on HTML5 drafts in 2011.
HYPERTEXT FEATURES NOT IN HTML
HTML lacks some of the features found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat
links and others. Even some hypertext features that were in early versions of HTML have been
ignored by most popular web browsers until recently such as the link element and in-browser
Web page editing.
Sometimes Web services or browser manufacturers remedy these shortcomings. For instance,
wikis and content management systems allow surfers to edit the Web pages they visit.
WYSIWYG EDITORS
There are some WYSIWYG editors (What You See Is What You Get), in which the user lays out
everything as it is to appear in the HTML document using a graphical user interface (GUI), often
similar to word processors. The editor renders the document rather than show the code, so
authors do not require extensive knowledge of HTML.
The WYSIWYG editing model has been criticized, primarily because of the low quality of the
generated code; there are voices advocating a change to the WYSIWYM model (What You See
Is What You Mean).
WYSIWYG editors remain a controversial topic because of their perceived flaws such as:
• Relying mainly on layout as opposed to meaning, often using markup that does not
convey the intended meaning but simply copies the layout.
• Often producing extremely verbose and redundant code that fails to make use of the
cascading nature of HTML and CSS.

20
• Often producing ungrammatical markup, called tag soup or semantically incorrect
markup (such as <em> for italics).
• As a great deal of the information in HTML documents is not in the layout, the model has
been criticized for its "what you see is all you get"-nature.
HTML VERSIONS TIMELINE
November 24, 1995
HTML 2.0 was published as IETF RFC 1866. Supplemental RFCs added capabilities
January 14, 1997
HTML 3.2 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It was the first version developed and
standardized exclusively by the W3C, as the IETF had closed its HTML Working Group on
September 12, 1996.
December 18, 1997
HTML 4.0 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers three variations:
• Strict, in which deprecated elements are forbidden
• Transitional, in which deprecated elements are allowed
• Frameset, in which mostly only frame related elements are allowed.
Initially code-named "Cougar", HTML 4.0 adopted many browser-specific element types and
attributes, but at the same time sought to phase out Netscape's visual markup features by marking
them as deprecated in favor of style sheets. HTML 4 is an SGML application conforming to ISO
8879 – SGML.
April 24, 1998
HTML 4.0 was reissued with minor edits without incrementing the version number.
December 24, 1999
HTML 4.01 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers the same three variations as
HTML 4.0 and its last errata were published on May 12, 2001.
May 2000
ISO/IEC 15445:2000("ISO HTML", based on HTML 4.01 Strict) was published as an ISO/IEC
international standard. In the ISO this standard falls in the domain of the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC34

21
(ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 34 – Document description and
processing languages).
After HTML 4.01, there was no new version of HTML for many years as development of the
parallel, XML-based language XHTML occupied the W3C's HTML Working Group through the
early and mid-2000s.
October 28, 2014
HTML5 was published as a W3C Recommendation.
November 1, 2016
HTML 5.1 was published as a W3C Recommendation.
MARKUP
HTML markup consists of several key components, including those called tags (and their
attributes), character-based data types, character references and entity references. HTML tags
most commonly come in pairs like <h1> and </h1>, although some represent empty elements
and so are unpaired, for example <img>. The first tag in such a pair is the start tag, and the
second is the end tag (they are also called opening tags and closing tags).
Another important component is the HTML document type declaration, which triggers standards
mode rendering.
The following is an example of the classic Hello world program, a common test employed for
comparing programming languages, scripting languages and markup languages. This example is
made using 9 lines of code:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>This is a title</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>Hello world!</p>

22
</body>
</html>
(The text between <html> and </html> describes the web page, and the text between <body> and
</body> is the visible page content. The markup text "<title>This is a title</title>" defines the
browser page title.)
The Document Type Declaration <!DOCTYPE html> is for HTML5. If a declaration is not
included, various browsers will revert to "quirks mode" for rendering.
ELEMENTS
HTML documents imply a structure of nested HTML elements. These are indicated in the
document by HTML tags, enclosed in angle brackets thus: <p>
In the simple, general case, the extent of an element is indicated by a pair of tags: a "start tag"
<p> and "end tag" </p>. The text content of the element, if any, is placed between these tags.
Tags may also enclose further tag markup between the start and end, including a mixture of tags
and text. This indicates further (nested) elements, as children of the parent element.
The start tag may also include attributes within the tag. These indicate other information, such as
identifiers for sections within the document, identifiers used to bind style information to the
presentation of the document, and for some tags such as the <img> used to embed images, the
reference to the image resource.
Some elements, such as the line break <br>, do not permit any embedded content, either text or
further tags. These require only a single empty tag (akin to a start tag) and do not use an end tag.
Many tags, particularly the closing end tag for the very commonly used paragraph element <p>,
are optional. An HTML browser or other agent can infer the closure for the end of an element
from the context and the structural rules defined by the HTML standard. These rules are complex
and not widely understood by most HTML coders.
The general form of an HTML element is therefore: <tag attribute1="value1"
attribute2="value2">''content''</tag>. Some HTML elements are defined as empty elements and
take the form <tag attribute1="value1" attribute2="value2">. Empty elements may enclose no
content, for instance, the <br> tag or the inline <img>tag. The name of an HTML element is the
name used in the tags. Note that the end tag's name is preceded by a slash character, "/", and that
in empty elements the end tag is neither required nor allowed. If attributes are not mentioned,
default values are used in each case.
Element examples

23
Header of the HTML document: <head>...</head>. The title is included in the head, for example:
<head>
<title>The Title</title>
</head>
Headings: HTML headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags:
<h1>Heading level 1</h1>
Paragraphs:
<p>Paragraph 1</p> <p>Paragraph 2</p>
Line breaks:<br>. The difference between <br> and <p> is that "br" breaks a line without
altering the semantic structure of the page, whereas "p" sections the page into paragraphs. Note
also that "br" is an empty element in that, although it may have attributes, it can take no content
and it may not have an end tag.
<p>This <br> is a paragraph <br> with <br> line breaks</p>
This is a link in HTML. To create a link the <a> tag is used. The href= attribute holds the URL
address of the link.
<a href="https://www.wikipedia.org/">A link to Wikipedia!</a>
Comments:

Comments can help in the understanding of the markup and do not display in the webpage.
There are several types of markup elements used in HTML:

24
STRUCTURAL MARKUP INDICATES THE
PURPOSE OF TEXT
For example, <h2>Golf</h2> establishes "Golf" as a second-level heading. Structural markup
does not denote any specific rendering, but most web browsers have default styles for element
formatting. Content may be further styled using Cascading Style Sheets (CSS).
Presentational markup indicates the appearance of the text, regardless of its purpose
For example, <b>boldface</b> indicates that visual output devices should render "boldface" in
bold text, but gives little indication what devices that are unable to do this (such as aural devices
that read the text aloud) should do. In the case of both <b>bold</b> and <i>italic</i>, there are
other elements that may have equivalent visual renderings but that are more semantic in nature,
such as <strong>strong text</strong> and <em>emphasised text</em> respectively. It is easier
to see how an aural user agent should interpret the latter two elements. However, they are not
equivalent to their presentational counterparts: it would be undesirable for a screen-reader to
emphasize the name of a book, for instance, but on a screen such a name would be italicized.
Most presentational markup elements have become deprecated under the HTML 4.0
specification in favor of using CSS for styling.
Hypertext markup makes parts of a document into links to other documents
An anchor element creates a hyperlink in the document and its href attribute sets the link's target
URL. For example, the HTML markup, <a href="http://www.google.com/">Wikipedia</a>, will
render the word "Wikipedia" as a hyperlink. To render an image as a hyperlink, an "img"
element is inserted as content into the "a" element. Like "br", "img" is an empty element with
attributes but no content or closing tag. <a href="http://example.org"><img src="image.gif"
alt="descriptive text" width="50" height="50" border="0"></a>.
Attributes
Most of the attributes of an element are name-value pairs, separated by "=" and written within
the start tag of an element after the element's name. The value may be enclosed in single or
double quotes, although values consisting of certain characters can be left unquoted in HTML
(but not XHTML) . Leaving attribute values unquoted is considered unsafe. In contrast with
name-value pair attributes, there are some attributes that affect the element simply by their
presence in the start tag of the element, like the ismapattribute for the img element.
There are several common attributes that may appear in many elements :
• The id attribute provides a document-wide unique identifier for an element. This is used
to identify the element so that stylesheets can alter its presentational properties, and scripts may

25
alter, animate or delete its contents or presentation. Appended to the URL of the page, it provides
a globally unique identifier for the element, typically a sub-section of the page. For example, the
ID "Attributes" in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML#Attributes
• The class attribute provides a way of classifying similar elements. This can be used for
semantic or presentation purposes. For example, an HTML document might semantically use the
designation class="notation" to indicate that all elements with this class value are subordinate to
the main text of the document. In presentation, such elements might be gathered together and
presented as footnotes on a page instead of appearing in the place where they occur in the HTML
source. Class attributes are used semantically in microformats. Multiple class values may be
specified; for example class="notation important" puts the element into both the "notation" and
the "important" classes.
• An author may use the style attribute to assign presentational properties to a particular
element. It is considered better practice to use an element's id or classattributes to select the
element from within a stylesheet, though sometimes this can be too cumbersome for a simple,
specific, or ad hoc styling.
• The title attribute is used to attach subtextual explanation to an element. In most browsers
this attribute is displayed as a tooltip.
• The lang attribute identifies the natural language of the element's contents, which may be
different from that of the rest of the document. For example, in an English-language document:
• <p>Oh well, <span lang="fr">c'est la vie</span>, as they say in France.</p>
The abbreviation element, abbr, can be used to demonstrate some of these attributes :
<abbr id="anId" class="jargon" style="color:purple;" title="Hypertext Markup
Language">HTML</abbr>
This example displays as HTML; in most browsers, pointing the cursor at the abbreviation
should display the title text "Hypertext Markup Language."
Most elements take the language-related attribute dir to specify text direction, such as with "rtl"
for right-to-left text in, for example, Arabic, Persian or Hebrew
Character and entity references
As of version 4.0, HTML defines a set of 252 character entity references and a set of 1,114,050
numeric character references, both of which allow individual characters to be written via simple
markup, rather than literally. A literal character and its markup counterpart are considered
equivalent and are rendered identically.

26
The ability to "escape" characters in this way allows for the characters < and & (when written as
< and &, respectively) to be interpreted as character data, rather than markup. For
example, a literal < normally indicates the start of a tag, and & normally indicates the start of a
character entity reference or numeric character reference; writing it as & or & or
& allows & to be included in the content of an element or in the value of an attribute. The
double-quote character ("), when not used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as
" or " or " when it appears within the attribute value itself. Equivalently, the
single-quote character ('), when not used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as
' or ' (or as ' in HTML5 or XHTML documents) when it appears within the
attribute value itself. If document authors overlook the need to escape such characters, some
browsers can be very forgiving and try to use context to guess their intent. The result is still
invalid markup, which makes the document less accessible to other browsers and to other user
agents that may try to parse the document for search and indexing purposes for example.
Escaping also allows for characters that are not easily typed, or that are not available in the
document's character encoding, to be represented within element and attribute content. For
example, the acute-accented e (é), a character typically found only on Western European and
South American keyboards, can be written in any HTML document as the entity reference
é or as the numeric references é or é, using characters that are available on
all keyboards and are supported in all character encodings. Unicode character encodings such as
UTF-8 are compatible with all modern browsers and allow direct access to almost all the
characters of the world's writing systems.
Data types
HTML defines several data types for element content, such as script data and stylesheet data, and
a plethora of types for attribute values, including IDs, names, URIs, numbers, units of length,
languages, media descriptors, colors, character encodings, dates and times, and so on. All of
these data types are specializations of character data.
Document type declaration
HTML documents are required to start with a Document Type Declaration (informally, a
"doctype"). In browsers, the doctype helps to define the rendering mode—particularly whether to
use quirks mode.
The original purpose of the doctype was to enable parsing and validation of HTML documents
by SGML tools based on the Document Type Definition (DTD). The DTD to which the
DOCTYPE refers contains a machine-readable grammar specifying the permitted and prohibited
content for a document conforming to such a DTD. Browsers, on the other hand, do not
implement HTML as an application of SGML and by consequence do not read the DTD.

27
HTML5 does not define a DTD; therefore, in HTML5 the doctype declaration is simpler and
shorter:<!DOCTYPE html>
An example of an HTML 4 doctype
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">
This declaration references the DTD for the "strict" version of HTML 4.01. SGML-based
validators read the DTD in order to properly parse the document and to perform validation. In
modern browsers, a valid doctype activates standards mode as opposed to quirks mode.
In addition, HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs, as explained below.
Transitional type is the most inclusive, incorporating current tags as well as older or "deprecated"
tags, with the Strict DTD excluding deprecated tags. Frameset has all tags necessary to make
frames on a page along with the tags included in transitional type.
PHP
PHP is a server-side scripting language designed primarily for web development but also used as
a general-purpose programming language. Originally created by Rasmus Lerdorf in 1994, the
PHP reference implementation is now produced by The PHP Development Team. PHP originally
stood for Personal Home Page, but it now stands for the recursive acronym PHP: Hypertext
Preprocessor.
PHP code may be embedded into HTML or HTML5 code, or it can be used in combination with
various web template systems, web content management systems and web frameworks. PHP
code is usually processed by a PHP interpreter implemented as a module in the web server or as
a Common Gateway Interface (CGI) executable. The web server combines the results of the
interpreted and executed PHP code, which may be any type of data, including images, with the
generated web page. PHP code may also be executed with a command-line interface (CLI) and
can be used to implement standalone graphical applications.
The standard PHP interpreter, powered by the Zend Engine, is free software released under the
PHP License. PHP has been widely ported and can be deployed on most web servers on almost
every operating system and platform, free of charge.
The PHP language evolved without a written formal specification or standard until 2014, leaving
the canonical PHP interpreter as a de facto standard. Since 2014 work has gone on to create a
formal PHP specification.

28
HISTORY
Rasmus Lerdorf (left), who wrote the original Common Gateway Interface (CGI) component,
together with Andi Gutmans (middle) and Zeev Suraski (right), who rewrote the parser that
formed PHP 3.
PHP development began in 1995 when Rasmus Lerdorf wrote several Common Gateway
Interface (CGI) programs in C which he used to maintain his personal homepage. He extended
them to work with web forms and to communicate with databases, and called this
implementation "Personal Home Page/Forms Interpreter" or PHP/FI.
PHP/FI could help to build simple, dynamic web applications. To accelerate bug reporting and to
improve the code, Lerdorf initially announced the release of PHP/FI as "Personal Home Page
Tools (PHP Tools) version 1.0" on the Usenet discussion group
comp.infosystems.www.authoring.cgi on June 8, 1995. This release already had the basic
functionality that PHP has as of 2013. This included Perl-like variables, form handling, and the
ability to embed HTML. The syntax resembled that of Perl but was simpler, more limited and
less consistent.
Lerdorf did not intend the early PHP to become a new programming language, but it grew
organically, with Lerdorf noting in retrospect: "I don’t know how to stop it, there was never any
intent to write a programming language […] I have absolutely no idea how to write a
programming language, I just kept adding the next logical step on the way.A development team
began to form and, after months of work and beta testing, officially released PHP/FI 2 in
November 1997.
The fact that PHP lacked an original overall design but instead developed organically has led to
inconsistent naming of functions and inconsistent ordering of their parameters. In some cases,
the function names were chosen to match the lower-level libraries which PHP was "wrapping",
while in some very early versions of PHP the length of the function names was used internally as
a hash function, so names were chosen to improve the distribution of hash values.
PHP 3 and 4
Zeev Suraski and Andi Gutmans rewrote the parser in 1997 and formed the base of PHP 3,
changing the language's name to the recursive acronym PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor.
Afterwards, public testing of PHP 3 began, and the official launch came in June 1998. Suraski
and Gutmans then started a new rewrite of PHP's core, producing the Zend Engine in 1999. They
also founded Zend Technologies in Ramat Gan, Israel.
On May 22, 2000, PHP 4, powered by the Zend Engine 1.0, was released.As of August 2008 this
branch reached version 4.4.9. PHP 4 is no longer under development nor will any security
updates be released.

29
PHP 5
On July 13, 2004, PHP 5 was released, powered by the new Zend Engine II. PHP 5 included new
features such as improved support for object-oriented programming, the PHP Data Objects
(PDO) extension (which defines a lightweight and consistent interface for accessing databases),
and numerous performance enhancements. In 2008 PHP 5 became the only stable version under
development. Late static binding had been missing from PHP and was added in version 5.3.
Many high-profile open-source projects ceased to support PHP 4 in new code as of February 5,
2008, because of the GoPHP5 initiative, provided by a consortium of PHP developers promoting
the transition from PHP 4 to PHP 5.
Over time, PHP interpreters became available on most existing 32-bit and 64-bit operating
systems, either by building them from the PHP source code, or by using pre-built binaries. For
the PHP versions 5.3 and 5.4, the only available Microsoft Windows binary distributions were
32-bit x86 builds, requiring Windows 32-bit compatibility mode while using Internet
Information Services (IIS) on a 64-bit Windows platform. PHP version 5.5 made the 64-bit x86-
64 builds available for Microsoft Windows.
PHP 6 and Unicode
PHP has received criticism due to lacking native Unicode support at the core language level,
instead only supporting byte strings. In 2005, a project headed by Andrei Zmievski was initiated
to bring native Unicode support throughout PHP, by embedding the International Components
for Unicode (ICU) library, and representing text strings as UTF-16 internally. Since this would
cause major changes both to the internals of the language and to user code, it was planned to
release this as version 6.0 of the language, along with other major features then in development.
However, a shortage of developers who understood the necessary changes, and performance
problems arising from conversion to and from UTF-16, which is rarely used in a web context, led
to delays in the project. As a result, a PHP 5.3 release was created in 2009, with many non-
Unicode features back-ported from PHP 6, notably namespaces. In March 2010, the project in its
current form was officially abandoned, and a PHP 5.4 release was prepared containing most
remaining non-Unicode features from PHP 6, such as traits and closure re-binding. Initial hopes
were that a new plan would be formed for Unicode integration, but as of 2014 none have been
adopted.
PHP 7
During 2014 and 2015, a new major PHP version was developed, which was numbered PHP 7.
The numbering of this version involved some debate. While the PHP 6 Unicode experiment had
never been released, several articles and book titles referenced the PHP 6 name, which might

30
Release history
8 June 1995
Officially called "Personal Home Page Tools (PHP Tools)". This is the first use of the name
"PHP"
1 November 1997
Officially called "PHP/FI 2.0". This is the first release that could actually be characterised as
PHP, being a standalone language with many features that have endured to the present day.
6 June 1998
THE ELEPHPANT, PHP MASCOT.
The mascot of the PHP project is the elePHPant, a blue elephant with the PHP logo on its side,
designed by Vincent Pontier in 1998.The elePHPant is sometimes differently colored when in
plush toy form.
Syntax[edit]
Main article: PHP syntax and semantics
The following "Hello, World!" program is written in PHP code embedded in an HTML
document:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>PHP Test</title>
</head>
<body>
<?php echo '<p>Hello World</p>'; ?>
</body>
</html>

31
However, as no requirement exists for PHP code to be embedded in HTML, the simplest version
of Hello, World! may be written like this, with the closing tag omitted as preferred in files
containing pure PHP code
<?="Hello, world";
The PHP interpreter only executes PHP code within its delimiters. Anything outside its
delimiters is not processed by PHP, although non-PHP text is still subject to control structures
described in PHP code. The most common delimiters are <?php to open and ?> to close PHP
sections. The shortened form <? also exists. This short delimiter makes script files less portable,
since support for them can be disabled in the local PHP configuration and it is therefore
discouraged. However, there is no recommendation against the use of the echo short tag <?=.
Prior to PHP 5.4.0, this short syntax for echo() only works with the short_open_tag configuration
setting enabled, while for PHP 5.4.0 and later it is always available. The purpose of all these
delimiters is to separate PHP code from non-PHP content, such as JavaScript code or HTML
markup.
The first form of delimiters, <?php and ?>, in XHTML and other XML documents, creates
correctly formed XML processing instructions. This means that the resulting mixture of PHP
code and other markup in the server-side file is itself well-formed XML.
Variables are prefixed with a dollar symbol, and a type does not need to be specified in advance.
PHP 5 introduced type hinting that allows functions to force their parameters to be objects of a
specific class, arrays, interfaces or callback functions. However, before PHP 7.0, type hints could
not be used with scalar types such as integer or string.
Unlike function and class names, variable names are case sensitive. Both double-quoted ("") and
heredoc strings provide the ability to interpolate a variable's value into the string. PHP treats
newlines as whitespace in the manner of a free-form language, and statements are terminated by
a semicolon. PHP has three types of comment syntax: /* */ marks block and inline comments; //
as well as # are used for one-line comments. The echo statement is one of several facilities PHP
provides to output text, e.g., to a web browser.
In terms of keywords and language syntax, PHP is similar to the C style syntax. if conditions, for
and while loops, and function returns are similar in syntax to languages such as C, C++, C#, Java
and Perl.
The following is an example of PHP for loop:
<?php
for ($x = 0; $x <= 100; $x++) {
echo "The number is: $x <br>";

32
Object-oriented programming[edit]
Basic object-oriented programming functionality was added in PHP 3 and improved in PHP 4.
This allowed for PHP to gain further abstraction, making creative tasks easier for programmers
using the language. Object handling was completely rewritten for PHP 5, expanding the feature
set and enhancing performance. In previous versions of PHP, objects were handled like value
types. The drawback of this method was that code had to make heavy use of PHP's "reference"
variables if it wanted to modify an object it was passed rather than creating a copy of it. In the
new approach, objects are referenced by handle, and not by value.
PHP 5 introduced private and protected member variables and methods, along with abstract
classes, final classes, abstract methods, and final methods. It also introduced a standard way of
declaring constructors and destructors, similar to that of other object-oriented languages such as
C++, and a standard exception handling model. Furthermore, PHP 5 added interfaces and
allowed for multiple interfaces to be implemented. There are special interfaces that allow objects
to interact with the runtime system. Objects implementing ArrayAccess can be used with array
syntax and objects implementing Iterator or IteratorAggregate can be used with the foreach
language construct. There is no virtual table feature in the engine, so static variables are bound
with a name instead of a reference at compile time.
The following is a basic example of object-oriented programming in PHP:
class Person
{
public $firstName;
public $lastName;
public function __construct($firstName, $lastName = '') { // optional second argument
$this->firstName = $firstName;
$this->lastName = $lastName;
}
public function greet() {
return 'Hello, my name is ' . $this->firstName .

33
(($this->lastName != '') ? (' ' . $this->lastName) : '') . '.';
}
public static function staticGreet($firstName, $lastName) {
return 'Hello, my name is ' . $firstName . ' ' . $lastName . '.';
}
}
$he = new Person('John', 'Smith');
$she = new Person('Sally', 'Davis');
$other = new Person('iAmine');
echo $he->greet(); // prints "Hello, my name is John Smith."
echo '<br />';
echo $she->greet(); // prints "Hello, my name is Sally Davis."
echo '<br />';
echo $other->greet(); // prints "Hello, my name is iAmine."
echo '<br />';
echo Person::staticGreet('Jane', 'Doe'); // prints "Hello, my name is Jane Doe."

34
CONCLUSION
With the help of this website students can choose the career after
completed 12th and graduation . The main purpose behind this website to
solve the problem of student for confused their career

35
REFERENCES
www.careerfutura.com/
www.justclial.com>Indore>
Consekkors> Counselling Service

36
Serial No Class Name Total Result
1 Bsc 1 Sem 425/600 Pass
2 Bsc II SEM 431/600 Pass
3 BSC IIISEM 458/600 Pass
4 BSC IV SEM 471/600 Pass
5 BSC V SEM 478/600 Pass
6

37
ATTENDANCE SHEET
DATE Sign of Student Operator institution Signature

38
Student’s Sign Director’s Sign

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