I am omnipresent

American Football
Hal S. Stern
Department of Statistics, Iowa State University
December 24, 1997
1 Introduction
1.1 A brief description of American football
There are a number of sports played across the world under the name football, with most
of the world reserving that name for association football or soccer. Soccer is discussed in
Chapter 5 of this volume, this chapter considers American football, the basic structure of
which is described in the next paragraph. Most of the material in this chapter is discussed
in terms of the National Football League, the professional football league in the United
States. Other versions of the game include college football in the United States and profes-
sional football in Canada. There can be substantial differences between different versions
of American football, e.g., the Canadian and United States games differ with respect to the
length of the field and the number of players among other things. Despite these differences,
the methodology and ideas discussed in this chapter should apply equally well to all versions
of American football.
American football, which we shall call football from this point on, is played by two
teams on a field 100 yards long with each team defending one of the two ends of the field
(called goal lines). Games are 60 minutes long, and are broken into four 15-minute quarters.
The two teams alternate possession of the ball and score points by advancing the ball (by
running or throwing/catching) to the other team’s goal line (a touchdown worth 6 points
with the additional opportunity to attempt a one-point or two-point conversion play), or
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failing that by kicking the ball through goal posts situated at the opposing team’s goal (a
field goal worth 3 points). The team in possession of the ball (the offense) must gain 10 or
more yards in four plays (known as downs) or turn the ball over to their opponent. The ball
is advanced by running with it, or by throwing the ball to a teammate who may then run
with the ball. As soon as 10 or more yards are gained, the team starts again with first down
and a new opportunity to gain 10 or more yards. If a team has failed to gain the needed 10
yards in three plays then it has the option of trying to gain the remaining yards on the fourth
play or kicking (punting) the ball to its opponent to increase the distance that the opponent
must move to score points. This very fast description ignores some important aspects of
the game (the defense can score points via a safety by tackling the offensive team behind
its own goal line, teams turn the ball over to their opponents via dropped/fumbled balls or
interceptions of thrown balls) but should be sufficient for reading most of this chapter.
1.2 A brief history of statistics in football
As with the other sports in this volume, large amounts of quantitative information are
recorded for each football game. These are primarily summaries of team and individual
performance. For United States professional football these data can be found as early as
the 1930s (Carroll, Palmer, and Thorn, 1988) and in United States collegiate football they
date back even earlier. We focus on the use of probability and statistics for analyzing and
interpreting these data in order to better understand the game, and ultimately perhaps to
provide advice for teams about how to make better decisions.
The earliest significant contribution of statistical reasoning to football is the development
of computerized systems for studying opponents’ performances (e.g., Purdy (1971) and Ryan
et al. (1973)). Professional and college teams currently prepare reports detailing the types
of plays and formations favored by opponents in a variety of situations. The level of detail
in the reports can be quite remarkable, e.g., they might indicate that Team A runs to the
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left side of the field 70% of the time on second down with five or fewer yards required for a
new first down. These reports clearly influence team preparation and game-time decision-
making. These data could also be used to address strategy issues (e.g., should a team try to
maintain possession when facing fourth down or kick the ball over to its opponent) but that
would require more formal analysis than is currently done – we consider some approaches
later in this chapter. It is interesting that much of the early work apply statistical methods
to football involved people affiliated with professional or collegiate football (i.e., players
and coaches) rather than statisticians. The author of one early computerized play-tracking
system was 1960s professional quarterback Frank Ryan. Later in this chapter we will see
contributions from another former quarterback, Virgil Carter, and a college coach, Homer
Smith.
1.3 Why so little academic research?
Football has a large following in the United States and Canada, yet the amount of statistical
or scientific work by academic researchers lags far behind that done for other sports (most
notably, baseball). It is interesting to speculate on some possible causes for this lack of
results. We briefly describe three possible causes: data availability, the nature of the game
of football, and professional gambling.
First, despite enormous amounts of publicity related to professional football, it is rela-
tively difficult to obtain detailed (play-by-play) information in computer-usable form. This
is not to say that the data don’t exist – they clearly do exist and are used by teams dur-
ing the season to prepare their summaries of opponents’ tendencies. The data have not
been easily accessible to those outside the sport. The quality of available data is improv-
ing, however, as play-by-play listings can now be found on the World Wide Web through
the National Football League’s own site (http://www.nfl.com). These data are not yet in
convenient form for research use.
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A second contributing factor to the shortage of research results concerns the nature of
the game. Examples of the kinds of things that can complicate statistical analyses: scores
occur in steps of size 2,3,6,7,8 rather than just a single scoring increment, the game is time-
limited with time management an important part of strategy, actions (plays) move the ball
over a continuous surface with an emphasis on 10-yard pieces. All of these conspire to make
the number of possible situations that can occur on the football field extremely large which
considerably complicates analysis.
One final factor that appears to have worked against academic research about the game
itself is the existence of a large betting market on professional football games. A great deal
of research has been carried out on the football betting market including methods for rating
teams (described later in the chapter) and methods for making successful bets (described
elsewhere in the book). Unfortunately, because of its applicability to gambling, a large
portion of this research is proprietary and unavailable for review by other researchers.
The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. The next three sections describe
research results and open problems in three major areas: player evaluation, models for
assessing football strategy, and rating teams. Following that is a section that touches on
other possible areas of research. The chapter concludes with a brief summary and a list
of references. One reference merits a special mention at this point; The Hidden Game of
Football, a 1988 book by Bob Carroll, Pete Palmer, and John Thorn, is a sophisticated
analysis of the game by three serious researchers with access to play-by-play data. Written
for a popular audience, the book does not provide some of the details that readers of this
book (and the author of this chapter) would find interesting. We refer to this book quite
often and use CPT (the initials of the three authors) to refer to it.
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2 Player evaluation
Evaluation of football players has always been important for selecting teams and rewarding
players. Formally evaluating players, however, is a difficult task because several players
contribute to each play. A quarterback may throw the ball five yards down the field and the
receiver, after catching the ball, may elude several defensive players and run 90 additional
yards for a touchdown. Should the quarterback get credit for the 95-yard touchdown pass
or just the 5-yards the ball traveled in the air? What credit should the receiver get? We
first review the current situation and then discuss the potential for evaluating players at
several specific positions.
2.1 The current situation
Evaluation of players in football tends to be done using fairly naive methods. Football re-
ceivers are ranked according to the number of balls they catch. Running backs are generally
ranked by the number of yards they gain. Punters are ranked according to the average dis-
tance they kick the ball without regard to whether they are effective in making the opponent
start from poor field position. Kickers are often ranked by the number of points scored.
The most complex system, the system for ranking quarterbacks, is quite controversial –
we review it shortly. Defensive players receive little evaluation in game summaries beyond
simple tallys of passes intercepted, fumbles recovered, or quarterbacks tackled for a loss of
yardage. Offensive linemen, whose main job is to block defensive players, receive essentially
no formal statistical evaluation. Several problems are evident with the current situation:
the best players may be misevaluated (or not evaluated at all) by existing measures, and it
can be very difficult to compare players of different eras (because there are different num-
bers of games per season, different football philosophies, and continual changes in the rules
of the game).
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2.2 Evaluating kickers
The difficulty in apportioning credit to the several players that contribute to each play has
meant that a large amount of research has focused on aspects of the game that are easiest
to isolate, such as kicking. Kickers contribute to their team’s scoring by kicking field goals
(worth three points) and points-after-touchdowns (worth one point). On fourth down a
coach often has the choice of: (1) attempting an offensive play to gain the yards needed
for a new first down; (2) punting the ball to the opposition, or (3) attempting a field goal.
Evaluation of the kicker’s ability will have a great deal of influence on such decisions. Berry
and Berry (1985) use a data-analytic approach to estimate the probability that a field goal
attempted from a given distance will be successful for a given kicker. They then propose a
number of measures for comparing two kickers, e.g., the estimated probability of converting
a 40-yard field goal. Interestingly, Morrison and Kalwani (1993) examine all professional
kickers and conclude that binomial variability is sufficiently large that a null model that
says all kickers are equally good (or bad) would be accepted. This suggests that rating
kickers may not be a good idea at all. Of course, as they point out it is also possible that
some kickers are indeed better than others but that the 30 or so field goal attempts per
season are not enough to detect the difference. In addition to comparing kickers, it can be
valuable to explore the factors affecting the probability of success of a field goal. Bilder
and Loughin (1997) pool information across kickers to determine the key factors affecting
the success of a field goal. They find that yardage is most important, but that the score
at the time of the kick matters, with field goals causing a change in lead more likely to be
missed than others. This effect is akin to the clutch (or choke) factor so heavily researched
in baseball (see Chapter 2).
For a single team, an interesting set of questions concerns the effective use of that team’s
kicker. Irving and Smith (1976) build a detailed model of the probability of a successful
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field goal for a single kicker. The result of their analysis, a plot showing the probability of a
successful kick from any point on the field was used by the coaching staff at the University
of California, Los Angeles during the 1972-1973 season to assist in decision-making.
2.3 Evaluating quarterbacks
The quarterback is the player in charge of the offense, the part of the team responsible for
trying to score points. He is certainly the most visible player and many argue he is the
most critical player on the team. The main skill on which quarterbacks are evaluated is
their ability to throw the ball to a receiver for a completed pass. A ball that is thrown and
not caught is an incomplete pass and gains no yards. Even worse, a ball that is thrown and
caught by an opponent is an interception and results in the opponent taking possession of the
ball. The official National Football League system for rating quarterbacks awards points for
each completed pass, intercepted pass (negative value), touchdown pass, and yard earned.
Essentially the system credits quarterbacks for their passing yardage and includes a 20-
yard bonus for each completed pass, an 80-yard bonus per touchdown pass, and a 100-yard
penalty per interception. The system has been heavily criticized for favoring conservative
short-passing quarterbacks – after all, two 5-yard completions are better rewarded than one
10-yard completion and one incomplete pass. CPT (recall that’s Carroll, Palmer and Thorn
(1988)) describe the existing system and propose a modest revision of similar form. CPT
suggest that there should be no reward for completing a pass and that the touchdown and
interception bonuses are too large. Their system appears to be a bit of an improvement,
but still does not tie quarterback performance ratings to the success of the offense in scoring
points or the success of the team in winning games.
2.4 Summary
Here we have briefly reviewed some of the difficulties with evaluating players, with a focus
on kickers and quarterbacks. In this era of greater freedom in player movement from
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team to team, research regarding the value of a player or the relative value of two players
will become even more crucial. Some of the problems associated with existing methods
could be improved by careful application of fairly basic statistical ideas, e.g., examining the
proportion of successful kicks rather than the total, examining the yardage contribution
of receivers rather than just the number of catches, or considering the yards gained per
attempt by running backs.
Two problems associated with evaluating players are more substantial and will be dif-
ficult to overcome. These are candidates for future research work. First is the problem of
partitioning credit for a play among the various players contributing, e.g., the quarterback
and receiver on a pass play. This might be resolved by more detailed record keeping, per-
haps an assessment of how much yardage would have been obtained with an “ordinary”
receiver. Even then it is difficult to imagine how the contribution of the linemen might be
incorporated. One possibility is a plus/minus system like that used in hockey (see Chapter
7) that rewards players on the field when positive events occur (points are scored) and
penalizes players on the field when negative events occur (the ball is turned over to the
opponent). The second problem with player evaluation is that the focus on yardage gained,
although natural, means that more important concerns such as points scored and games
won are not used explicitly in player evaluation. For example, all interceptions are treated
the same, even those that occur on last-second desperation throws. As part of our discus-
sion of football strategy in the next section, we build up some tools that might be used to
improve player evaluation.
3 Football strategy
3.1 Different types of strategy questions
As described in the introduction, professional and college football teams use data on oppos-
ing teams’ tendencies to prepare for upcoming games. The data have generally not been
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used to address a number of other strategy questions that require more statistical thinking.
Here we provide examples of some of these types of questions. The first issue concerns
point-after-touchdown strategy, football teams have the option of attempting a near certain
one-point conversion after each touchdown (probability of success is approximately 0.96)
or attempting a riskier two-point conversion (probability of success appears to be roughly
0.40−0.50). The choice will clearly depend on the score, especially late in the game. Porter
(1967) constructs decision rules for end-of-game extra-point strategy, but his method does
not make any suggestions for decisions earlier in the game. Another example of a strategy
question concerns fourth-down decision-making. Teams have four downs to gain ten yards
or must give the football over to their opponents. On fourth down, a team must choose
whether to try for a first down with the risk of giving the ball to its opponent in good
scoring position, attempt a field goal (worth three points) or punt the ball to its opponent
so that the opponent’s position on the field is not quite so good. Choosing between the two
options clearly depends on the current game situation and also requires reasonably accurate
information about the value of having the ball at various points on the field. A key feature
of both the point-after-touchdown and fourth-down strategy questions is that the optimal
strategy will almost certainly depend on the game situation as measured by the current
score and time remaining.
Other strategy questions can be isolated from the game context in the sense that the
optimal strategy does not depend on the game situation. For example, Brimberg, Hurley
and Johnson (1998) have analyzed the placement of punt-returners in Canadian football
(the wider and longer field and more frequent punts make this a more important issue in
Canada than it is in the U.S.). They find that a single returner can perform nearly as well
as two returners, and that if two returners are used they should be configured vertically,
rather than the more traditional horizontal placement (i.e., at the same yard line).
In the remainder of this section we focus on strategy questions that need to be addressed
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in the context of the game situation (score, time remaining, etc.). We consider two ways of
assessing the current game situation and use them to develop appropriate strategies. First,
we measure the value of having the ball at a particular point on the field by estimating the
expected number of points that a team will earn for a possession starting from the given
point. Decisions can then be made to maximize the expected number of points obtained by
the team. Following that, we consider a more ambitious proposal, measuring the probability
of winning the game from any situation. Strategies may then be developed that directly
maximize the probability of winning (the global objective) rather than maximizing the
number of points scored in the short-term (a local objective). Making decisions to maximize
the team’s probability of winning the game would seem to be a superior approach, but we
will see that it turns out to be quite difficult to put this idea into practice.
3.2 Expected points
3.2.1 Estimating the expected number of points for a given field position
Carter and Machol (1971) use a data-based approach to estimate the expected number of
points earned for a team gaining possession of the ball at a given point. Let E(pts|Y )
denote the expected number of points for a team beginning a series (first down) with the
ball Y yards from the opposing team’s goal. The natural statistical approach for evaluating
the expected number of points is to examine all possible outcomes of a possession starting
from the given point, recording the value (in points) of each outcome to the team with the
ball and the probability that each outcome will occur. In football there are 103 possible
outcomes, four of which involve points being scored: touchdown (7 points ignoring for the
moment questions about point-after-touchdown strategy), field goal (3 points), safety (−2
points, i.e., 2 points for the opponent), and opponent’s touchdown (−7 points, i.e., 7 points
for the opponent). The remaining 99 outcomes cover the cases when the ball is turned
over to the opposing team with the opponent needing Z yards for a touchdown, with Z
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ranging from 1 to 99. The opponent can expect to score E(pts|Z) points after receiving the
ball Z yards from its target and hence the value of this outcome for the team currently in
possession of the ball is −E(pts|Z).
There are two complications that must be addressed before the expected point values
can be determined. First, the probability of each of the outcomes is unknown and must be
estimated. Carter and Machol find the probability of each outcome based on data from 2852
series (2852 sequences of plays that began with 1st down and 10 yards to go). The second
complication is that, as derived above, the expected number of points for a team Y yards
from the goal depends on the expected number of points if its opponent takes possession Z
yards from the goal. In total, it turns out that there are 99 unknown values, E(pts|Y ), and
these can be found using the 99 equations that define the expected values.
In fact, Carter and Machol chose not to solve this large system of equations with their
limited data. Instead, they combined all of the series that began in the same 10-yard
section of the the field (e.g., 31-40 yards to go for a touchdown). Their results are provided
in Figure 1. The results can be summarized by noting that it is worth about 2 points on
average to start a series at midfield (50 yards from the goal line), and every 14 yards gained
(lost) corresponds roughly to a 1 point gain (loss) in expected value. Following this rule
of thumb, we find that having the ball near the opposing team’s goal is worth a bit less
than 7 points since the touchdown is not guaranteed, and having the ball near one’s own
goal is worth a bit more than −2 points (the value of being tackled behind one’s own goal).
Interestingly, it appears that starting with the ball just beyond one’s own 20-yard-line (80
yards from the goal) is a neutral position (with zero expected points) and that is fairly close
to the typical starting point of each game. The Carter and Machol analysis was carried
out using data from the 1969 season. Football rules have been modified over time and it is
natural to wonder about the effect of such rule changes. CPT redid the Carter and Machol
analysis using 1986 data and obtained similar results.
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FIGURE 1 about here
3.2.2 Applying the table of expected point values
It is possible to use the expected point values of Figure 1 to address some of the football
strategy issues raised earlier. First, we describe Carter and Machol’s use of their results
to evaluate the football wisdom that says turnovers (losing the ball to your opponent by
making a gross error) near one’s own goal are more costly than turnovers elsewhere on the
field. From the data in Figure 1 one can see that a turnover at one’s own 15-yard-line (85
yards from the target goal) changes a team from having expected value −0.64 to −4.57 (the
opponent’s value after taking possession is 4.57), a drop of 3.93 expected points. The same
turnover at the opponent’s 45-yard-line changes the expected points from 2.39 to −1.54, a
drop of 3.93 expected points! Turnovers are worth about 4 points and this value doesn’t
seem to depend on the location at which the turnover occurs.
Next we consider the question of appropriate fourth down strategy. Here is a specific
example, consider a team at its opponent’s 25-yard-line (25 yards from the goal) with fourth
down and one yard required for a first down that will allow the team to maintain possession
of the ball. Suppose the offensive team tries to gain the short distance required, then they
will either have a first down still in the neighborhood of the 25-yard-line (expected value
3.68 points from Figure 1) or the other team will have the ball 75 yards from their target
goal (expected value to the team currently in possession is −0.24 points). Professional
teams are successful on fourth-down plays requiring one yard about 70 percent of the time
which means that they can expect (0.7)(3.68) + (0.3)(−.24) ≈ 2.5 points on average if
they try for the first down. The result is recorded as an approximation – it ignores the
possibility that the offensive team will gain more than a single yard but it also ignores
the possibility that the team will lose ground if it turns the ball over. Field goals (kicks
worth 3 points if successful) from this point on the field are successful about 65% of the
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time. Should the field goal miss the other team would take over with 68 yards-to-go under
current rules (expected value to the offensive team of approximately -0.65 points). Trying
a field goal yields (0.65)(3)+(0.35)(−.65) = 1.7 points on average. Clearly teams should go
for the first down rather than try a field goal as long as these probabilities are reasonably
accurate. In fact, for the specified field goal success rate, we find the the probability of
success required to make the fourth-down play the preferred option is about 0.50. CPT
investigate a number of such scenarios and find that field goals are rarely the correct choice
for fourth-down situations with six or fewer yards required for a first down (at least when
evaluated in terms of expected points).
Expected points might also be used to evaluate teams’ performances. Teams could, for
example, be judged by how they perform relative to expectation by recording the expected
number of points and the actual points earned for each possession. If the offensive team be-
gins at their 25-yard-line (75 yards from from the goal) and scores a field goal then they have
earned 3 points, 2.76 more than might have been expected at the start of the possession.
The contributions of the offense, defense, and special teams (punting and kicking) could
be measured separately. It is more difficult to see how this can be applied to evaluating
individual players since expected point values are only determined for the start of a pos-
session. Our fourth-down example above indicates how we can assign values to plays other
than at the start of a possession, but it becomes quite complicated when we try to assign
point values to second- or third-down situations. If expected point values were available for
every game situation, then it might be possible to give a player credit for the changes in
the team’s expected points that result from his contributions. Of course, partitioning credit
among the several players involved in each play remains a problem.
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3.2.3 Limitations of this approach
There are limitations associated with using expected point values to make strategy decisions.
The first limitation is that the Carter and Machol (and CPT) expect point values are based
on aggregate data from the entire league. Individual teams might have difference expected
values. For example, a team that prefers to advance the ball by running might have lower
expected values from a given point on the field than a team that prefers to advance the
ball by throwing. A second limitation is that, even if we accept a common set of expected
point values, applying the expected point values to determine appropriate strategies requires
assessing the probabilities of many different events. For example, if a team’s kicker has an
extremely high probability of success, or a team has an ineffective offense that is not likely
to succeed on fourth down, then the fourth-down strategy evaluation we considered earlier
might turn out differently. It is probably not appropriate to think of this as a problem, it
merely points out that proper use of Figure 1 requires the user to make determinations of the
relevant probabilities. A final limitation is that the expected points approach completely
ignores two key elements of the game situation, the score and the time remaining. The
correct strategy in a given situation should surely be allowed to depend on these important
factors. As an extreme example, consider a team that trails by 2 points with 1 minute
remaining in the game and faces fourth down on the opponent’s 25-yard-line with one yard
needed for a first down. An analysis based on expected points that suggests a team should
try for the first down is clearly invalid because at that late point in the game, it is more
important to maximize the probability of winning (achieved by trying to kick the field goal)
than to maximize the expected number of points. We next consider an approach that treats
maximizing the probability of winning as the objective and tries to take into account all of
the important elements of the game situation.
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3.3 The probability of winning the game
3.3.1 Estimating the probability of winning for a given situation
Carter and Machol’s expected number of points for different field positions can be used to
make optimal short-term decisions when the time remaining is not a critical element (time
remaining is important near the end of the first half and the end of the game). Decisions
late in the game need to be motivated more by concerns about winning the game than
about maximizing the expected number of points. This motivates an alternative approach
to football strategy that requires estimating the probability of winning the game from any
current situation. For purposes of this chapter, we define the current game situation in terms
of: the current difference in scores (ranging perhaps from −30 to 30), the time remaining
(perhaps taking the 60-minute game to consist of 240 15-second intervals), position on the
field (1 to 99 yards from the goal), down (1 to 4), and yards needed for a first down that will
allow the team to maintain possession (ranging perhaps from 1 to 20). The win probabilities
can be estimated for each game situation in a number of different ways. We describe two
basic approaches: an empirical approach similar to that used by Carter and Machol, and
an approach based on constructing a probability model for football games. Either approach
must deal with the enormous number of possible situations. Using the values given above,
there are more than 100 million possible situations.
3.3.1.1 An empirical approach
Conceptually at least, we can proceed exactly as Carter and Machol did and obtain prob-
ability estimates directly from play-by-play data. For any game situation, we need only
record the frequency with which it occurs and the ultimate outcome (win/loss) in each
games where the situation occurred. The number of possible situations is far too large for
this approach to be feasible. After all, there are more than 100 million situations and only
240 National Football League games per season with 130 plays per game. CPT perform
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an analysis of this type by restricting attention to the beginning of a team’s possession
(situations with first down and 10 yards to go), taking the current difference in scores to
be between −14 and 14, and taking the time remaining to consist of 20 three-minute inter-
vals. These modifications reduce the number of situations to a more manageable number,
29 × 20 × 99 = 57420. They use two seasons’ data to obtain estimates of the probability
of winning the game for each of the 57420 situations. For example, the probability that a
team beginning the game with first down at its own 20-yard-line ultimately wins the game
is .493 according to CPT. By way of comparison, a team starting with first down at its own
20-yard-line but trailing by 7 points with 51 minutes remaining in the game has probability
of winning equal to .281. Unfortunately, there is no description of how the win probabilities
were actually estimated from the data so it is difficult to endorse them completely. More
important, it is not possible to obtain win probabilities for situations that are not explicitly
mentioned in the book.
In order to pursue this approach further, we approximate the win probability function
derived by CPT using some simple statistical modeling. Using 76 win probability values
provided in the book, we derive the following fairly simple logistic approximation that gives
the probability of winning, p, in terms of the current score difference, s, the time remaining
(in minutes), t, and the yardage to the opposing team’s goal, y, at the beginning of a team’s
possession:
ln
p
1 − p
= .060s + .084
s
t/60
− .0073(y − 74),
where ln is the natural logarithm. This approximation is motivated by the Stern (1994)
model that relates the current score and time remaining to the probability of winning a
basketball or baseball game. Note that the logistic equation empirically establishes a team’s
own 26-yard-line (y = 74 yards from the goal) as neutral field position at the start of a
possession. For the two situations described in the preceding paragraph this approximation
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Score Yards Time Estimated win probability
difference from goal remaining CPT Logistic Dynamic programming
0 80 60.0 .493 .489 —
0 80 23.6 .490 .489 —
−7 80 47.4 .274 .246 —
−7 67 21.0 .218 .205 —
−7 74 13.5 .153 .161 —
−8 94 10.5 .025 .097 .097
5 67 7.7 .842 .820 (.811,.816)
−5 74 6.6 .178 .174 (.267,.270)
5 78 2.4 .945 .915 (.981,.989)
−5 58 1.8 .069 .071 (.037,.152)
5 50 1.3 .990 .964 (.998,1.00)
Table 1: Win probabilities from Carroll, Palmer and Thorn (1988), along with two alterna-
tives described in the text.
gives .489 and .249 (compared to the CPT values, .493 and .281). Table 1 compares the
values obtained by CPT and those obtained by the logistic approximation for a number of
situations. (The final column of Table 1 will be discussed later.)
The probability of winning is shown graphically in Figures 2a-c for selected values of
the score difference, s, time remaining, t, and yards from the goal, y. Figure 2a shows
the importance of the time remaining. Even relatively modest score differences become
significant as the time remaining decreases towards zero. Figure 2b indicates that for the
logistic approximation the effect of field position is (for the most part) independent of
the score difference and time remaining. Figure 2c shows once again the effect of time
remaining with the curve corresponding to less time remaining steeper near zero score
difference. Figure 2c also illustrates a weakness of the logistic approximation. Because it
is not derived expressly for football, the logistic approximation does not account for the 3-
and 7-point scoring increments, i.e., the curves in Figure 2c are continuous. The logistic
approximation treats the difference between a 4-point deficit and a 6-point deficit as being
no different than the difference between a 7-point deficit and a 9-point deficit. Clearly the
latter difference is much more significant, since the 9-point deficit will require the team that
17

is behind to get at least two scores to tie or win whereas the 7-point deficit can be made
up with a single score. By contrast, both a 4-point and a 6-point deficit can be overcome
by a single score. A second weakness of the logistic approximation is that when the score
difference is equal to zero the probability of winning does not depend on the time remaining
(this is also visible in Figure 2c as curves with different amounts of time remaining intersect
when the score difference is zero). It seems likely that the probability of winning would be
higher for a team with s = 0, y = 1, t = 1 (excellent field position near the end of a tie
game) than for a team with s = 0, y = 1, t = 59 (excellent field position very early in a
tie game). Before using the win probabilities to find answers to our strategy questions, we
consider another approach to estimating the win probabilities.
FIGURE 2 about here
3.3.1.2 Dynamic programming
Dynamic programming is a technique that can be used to find optimal strategies and simul-
taneously derive the probability of winning from a given situation under optimal play. We
first describe a decision-theoretic formulation of football that allows us to apply dynamic
programming. Let’s take the two teams in the game to be Team A and Team B. As before,
we consider the current situation or state (as it is generally called in dynamic programming)
of the football game as being given by: the difference in scores, the time remaining, the
position on the field, the down and the yards needed for a first down. In addition we will
need to keep track of which of the two teams has possession of the ball so that we add this
to the definition of the state. Each state is associated with a value that can be thought
of as defining the objective of the game, e.g., we might take the value of a state to be the
probability that Team A wins starting in the given state. From any state, the two teams
have a limited number of actions from which they must choose. Although there is consid-
erable flexibility in defining this set of actions, for now we restrict attention to the choices
18

available to the team in possession of the ball. Their possible actions include run, short
pass, long pass, punt, and field goal. Not every action is reasonable from every state (e.g.,
we would not try a field goal on first down from our own 5-yard-line), but any reasonable
model will avoid choosing these suboptimal actions. Team A should choose the action at
each point in the game that will give it the highest probability of winning (i.e., they try to
maximize the expected value of the next state) and Team B should choose the action that
will give Team A the lowest probability of winning (i.e., they try to minimize the expected
value of the next state). We require the distribution of possible outcomes for each of the
possible actions (a difficult task that we return to shortly) to solve for the optimal action
in a given state. Dynamic programming is an algorithm for finding the optimal action for
every state and determining the value of being in that state (this is the probability that
Team A wins from that state).
Dynamic programming starts at the end of the game (no time remaining) by defining any
state in which Team A is ahead of its opponent as having value one, and any state in which
Team A is behind as having value zero. Ties can be given the value one-half. These values,
corresponding to the probabilities of Team A’s winning the game, are obvious because there
is no time remaining in the game. Now, given that we know the value of every state at
the end of the game, we can back up one-time unit (15-seconds in the specification used
here) and determine optimal strategy for any state with one-time unit remaining. First,
we evaluate the expected probability of winning under each action by averaging over the
distribution of possible outcomes. Team A should choose the action that gives it the highest
expected probability of winning the game. Team B, when it is in possession of the ball,
should choose the action that gives Team A the lowest expected probability of winning the
game. After determining the optimal strategy and value for every state with one time-unit
remaining, we can continue to move backwards from the end of the game. We find the
optimal strategies for the states at time t by averaging over the results that we have already
19

found for future states. Dynamic programming is a powerful computational algorithm for
solving complex decision problems like this one.
It remains only to describe how we determine the distribution of outcomes under any
action. In theory, it could be obtained by a careful analysis of detailed play-by-play data.
Here, a small sample of play-by-play data was used to suggest an approximate distribution.
To illustrate, Table 2 gives the distribution for a run play, a short pass play, and a long pass
play. Each row of the table gives one possible outcome (yardage gained and an indication
of whether the ball has been turned over to the opponent) and the probability that it
occurs. These probability distributions were constructed to match known features of the
true distributions, e.g., the probability of a lost fumble is .015 and the probability of an
intercepted pass is .04 (results cited in CPT and, more recently, in Brimberg and Hurley
(1997)). Note that passes may result in an interception or fumble so the probability of a
turnover is .055 when averaged over all pass plays. Similarly, the mean gain on a run is
just under four yards. The remaining details of the distribution represent a crude estimate
based on limited data. The distribution of possible outcomes for punts and field goals were
created using a similar procedure. The details of the distributions for these two actions are
not provided here.
There is plenty to criticize here, e.g., the use of only a single distribution for all run
plays, the use of only two passing distributions (short and long), the discrete approximations
to phenomenon that are nearly continuous in nature, the complete exclusion of defensive
actions. However, the biggest difficulty with this approach to determining optimal strategy
is computational. The state space is enormous and to this point it has only been possible to
solve for optimal strategy during the last 10 minutes of the football game. In addition, the
strategy findings appear to be quite sensitive to the specified distributions which (in theory)
reflect the relative abilities of the two teams. Distributions that are inaccurate may lead
to unintended consequences. For example, an earlier version of the distributions in Table 2
20

Distribution of outcomes for various actions
Run play Short pass play Long pass play
Yards Turnover Probability Yards Turnover Probability Yards Turnover Probability
−4 0 0.020 −5 0 0.030 −10 0 0.045
−2 0 0.060 −5 1 0.010 −10 1 0.005
−1 0 0.065 0 0 0.400 0 0 0.595
−1 1 0.005 3 0 0.065 0 1 0.055
0 0 0.145 5 1 0.025 18 0 0.195
0 1 0.005 6 0 0.140 27 0 0.080
1 0 0.125 8 0 0.130 50 0 0.020
1 1 0.005 8 1 0.010 99 0 0.005
2 0 0.110 12 0 0.075
3 0 0.090 16 0 0.055
4 0 0.070 20 0 0.040
6 0 0.090 35 0 0.017
8 0 0.060 99 0 0.003
10 0 0.050
15 0 0.085
30 0 0.010
50 0 0.004
99 0 0.001
Table 2: Assumed distribution of outcomes for run plays, short pass plays, and long pass
plays. Each play is assumed to consume one 15-second time unit.
21

led to the conclusion that all teams should always choose to throw long passes (unless
ahead and trying to run out the clock). Even with these limitations, the optimal strategies
obtained from this model are useful. For one thing they suggest that 2-point conversions
after touchdown should be attempted more often than they are in practice. This is based
on the current rate of success in United States professional football (approximately 0.50 for
the 2-point conversion and 0.96 for the 1-point conversion).
The expected win probabilities produced by the dynamic programming approach are
included in Table 1 for comparison with the other methods. Intervals are given when the
time remaining is in between two time-units. The dynamic programming results are similar
to those obtained by CPT, however, some substantial differences do occur. It appears that
the dynamic programming approach allows for a greater probability of come-from-behind
wins (likely due to some favorable features of the distribution of outcomes assumed for long
passes).
The potential of dynamic programming was realized long ago. The annotated bibli-
ography of the book on sports statistics edited by Ladany and Machol (1977) includes a
reference to Casti’s (1971) technical report which apparently outlines a similar approach.
More recently, Sackrowitz and Sackrowitz (1996) develop a dynamic programming approach
to evaluating ball control strategies in football. Their work is similar to that described here
except that team possessions are analyzed rather than individual plays. They define a lim-
ited set of offensive strategies for a team (ball control, regular play, hurry-up) and assign a
distribution for time used by each strategy and a probability of scoring a touchdown for each
strategy. Their finding is that a team should not change its style of play for a particular
opponent.
22

Score Yards Time Win probability
difference from goal remaining Before turnover After turnover Decrease
0 25 45 .589 .502 .087
0 50 45 .544 .456 .088
0 85 45 .480 .394 .086
3 25 5 .804 .742 .062
3 50 5 .773 .705 .068
3 85 5 .725 .650 .075
Table 3: Change in win probability due to a turnover for several different scores, field
positions, and time remaining.
3.3.2 Applying the estimated win probabilities
We can now return to the types of strategy considerations that were evaluated earlier using
expected points. For this discussion, we use the logistic approximation to the win probability
(because the CPT results are not available for all of the situations we are interested in).
We do not use the dynamic programming results because it is evident that more work is
required to make this approach feasible. It should be noted however that the dynamic
programming approach is a promising one for addressing detailed strategy questions.
Recall that Carter and Machol (1971) found that the effect of a turnover did not depend
on the location on the field where the turnover occurred. It seems likely that the time
remaining in the game will make a difference with respect to this issue. Table 3 gives
the probability of winning before and after a turnover at several different locations at two
different points in the game. Early in the game we find that the Carter and Machol result
holds, but later in the game the location of the turnover on the field does matter. Turnovers
near your own goal late in a close game are more costly than turnovers near midfield, as
intuition might suggest.
Interestingly, the optimal fourth down strategy also depends on the time remaining.
Early in the game, win probabilities support the recommendation derived using expected
points, teams should go for the first down rather than kick a field goal. However, optimal
23

late-game strategy appears to be sensitive to the model used for estimating win probabilities.
The logistic approximation does not inspire great confidence so we do not provide any details
here.
Win probabilities might also be used to evaluate team performances. The offensive
part of a football team could, for example, be judged by their net effect on the team’s win
probability. CPT propose win probabilities for precisely this purpose and work through
three games in detail. The CPT approach only estimates win probabilities at the start of
each possession so that it would be difficult to use them for evaluating individual plays or
players. If win probabilities were available for every possible situation, as they would be
if dynamic programming were used to estimate them, then it might be possible to give a
player credit for the changes in the team’s win probability that result from his contributions.
This approach could also be used to assess the effectiveness of running plays and passing
plays or the effect of penalties by summing the changes in win probability associated with
all plays of a given type. Once again the difficult problem of partitioning credit among the
several players involved in each play requires some thought.
3.3.3 Limitations
Conceptually, win probabilities come closest to providing the ideal information needed to
make effective strategy decisions. One limitation of this approach is that, as with expected
point values, the win probabilities are estimated from aggregate data (using either the CPT
or dynamic programming approach) and thus may not be relevant for a particular team or
game. The win probability for Team A in a particular situation may be different than if
Team B were in the same situation. It still seems that a set of “average” win probabilities
would be a useful decision-making tool.
A more important issue at this point in time is the difficulty in obtaining credible
estimates for the win probabilities. There are problems with both the empirical approach
24

of CPT and the dynamic programming approach that we considered. Large amounts of
data are required to apply the empirical approach of CPT and to expand the number of
situations for which win probabilities are defined. We must also decide how many different
situations to address. For example, in professional football in the United States the home
team is usually thought to have a three-point advantage, or put another way, the home
team wins approximately 59% of all games. Should we compute separate win probabilities
for the home and visiting team for each state? Dynamic programming, our second approach
to estimating win probabilities has great potential but also requires additional data. Data
are needed to construct realistic distributions for the various plays/actions. In addition,
it would be good to expand the model to include both offensive and defensive choices of
actions at each state. This would make things more realistic than the offense-only model
considered here. During games, teams try to outguess each other, so that the offense will
try to use a run play when the defense expects a pass play. Incorporating offensive and
defensive actions would require the distribution of outcomes for each offensive action under
a variety of assumptions about the defensive team’s strategy. Unfortunately, this would
take our fairly large dynamic programming problem and make it even more complex.
Some researchers have worked in the opposite direction, constructing simpler models
that can yield informative results on particular questions, e.g., Brimberg and Hurley (1997)
describe a simple model of football and use it to assess the effect of turnovers on the
probability of winning a game.
4 Rating of teams
Due to the physical nature of football, teams usually play only a single game each week. This
limits the number of games per season to between 10 and 20 games (depending on whether
we are thinking of United States college football, United States professional football, or
Canadian professional football). The seasons are not long enough for each team to play
25

every other team. Typically teams are organized in leagues or divisions within which all
teams play each other once or twice; however these teams will play different schedules outside
of the division. Because teams play unbalanced schedules, an unequivocal determination
of the best team is not possible. Playoff tournaments are used to determine champions in
professional football but not in major United States college football. There are more than
100 college teams competing at the highest level and a unique champion is not determined
on the field of play. The performances of the best teams are judged by a poll of coaches or
sportswriters to identify a champion. It is natural to ask whether statistical methods can
be used to rate teams and identify a champion. Even though professional football uses a
playoff tournament to identify a champion, there is some interest in rating teams there as
well, especially in the middle of the season. This is primarily because the question of how
to find suitable ratings for teams is closely related to questions concerning prediction of
game outcomes and preparation of a betting line. Prediction is covered in Chapter 12 later
in the book so here we limit ourselves to a brief review of the work that has been carried
out concerning the rating or ranking of football teams.
There has been interest in rating college football teams with unbalanced schedules for a
long time. Dickinson (1941) describes an approach that he used in the 1920s and 1930s which
gave teams points for each game they won, with the number of points depending on the
quality of the opponent. This is an example of a rating method that relies only on a record of
which teams have defeated which other teams (with no use made of the game scores). Other
examples of this type in the statistical literature include the methods of Bradley and Terry
(1952) or Andrews and David (1990) for data consisting of contests/comparisons of two
objects at a time. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) is the governing
body for college sports in the United States and is responsible for determining champions
in a variety of sports. The NCAA relies on a measure of this type, the Ratings Percentage
Index (a combination of a team’s winning percentage, the average of its opponents’ winning
26

percentages and the average of its opponents’ opponents’ winning percentage) in a variety
of sports but not football.
An extremely popular approach to rating teams makes use of the scores accumulated by
each team during their games. Such ratings have become increasingly popular due to their
relevance for prediction (see also Chapter 12). Most often these ratings approaches apply
the method of least squares or related normal distribution theory to obtain ratings that
minimize prediction errors (Leake, 1976; Stefani, 1977, 1980; Harville, 1977, 1980; Stern,
1995; Glickman and Stern, 1998). We briefly describe the basic idea of these approaches.
Suppose that Ri is used to represent the rating for team i and Rj is the rating for team j.
When team i plays team j the ratings would predict the outcome as Ri − Rj ± H where
H is a home-field advantage measure (approximately 3 points in professional and college
football in the United States) and the sign of H depends on the site of the game. If we
use Y to represent the actual outcome when these teams play, then the prediction error
is Y − (Ri − Rj ± H). Given the results from a collection of games, we can estimate the
ratings to be those values that make the prediction errors as small as possible, e.g., least-
squares ratings minimize (Y − (Ri − Rj ± H))2. Ratings of this type appear in the USA
Today newspaper during the college football season. Of course, it is not necessarily true
that methods based on normal distributions are appropriate for analyzing football scores.
Mosteller (1979) presents a “resistant” analysis of professional scores to prevent unusual
scores (outliers) from having a large effect. Bassett (1997) introduces the possibility of
using least absolute values in place of least squares in order to minimize the effect of unusual
observations. Rosner (1976) builds a model for rating teams or predicting outcomes that
makes explicit use of the multiple ways of scoring points in football. Mosteller (1970) and
Pollard (1973) provide exploratory analyses of football scores but do not focus on rating
team performance.
27

5 Some other topics
Any presentation of the relationship of probability and statistics to football (or any other
sport for that matter) will focus on those aspects of the sport that the author finds most
interesting and promising. This section provides references to other work not discussed in
detail. We also mention some problems that have not received much attention but might
benefit from statistical analysis.
Professional football teams are constructed primarily by two means, teams draft play-
ers from college football teams and teams sign “free agents” (players currently without a
contract). Evaluating the contributions of players and placing an economic value on those
contributions are obviously relevant to making personnel decisions. These issues have not
yet received much attention. The player dispersal draft that allocates new players to teams
has been around a long time but has also not received much attention. Price and Rao (1976)
build a model for evaluating a variety of different player allocation rules. Other business
and economic issues are addressed by Noll (1974). In one chapter of that edited volume,
Noll carries out an analysis of attendance in many sports including football.
One strategy issue that is not appropriately addressed by any of the discussion here is
the effective use of timeouts and other time management strategies. Carter and Machol
(1971) discuss this issue briefly in their work on expected points. CPT also discuss the
use of timeouts but both discussions are mainly qualitative. As regards time management
strategies, Sackrowitz and Sackrowitz (1996) carry out an investigation of time management
by asking whether altering one’s strategy to use more/less time can increase the probability
of winning.
28

6 Summary
Football teams have expressed a willingness use statistical methods to learn from available
data. Most teams keep detailed records of opponents’ tendencies and use that information to
plan strategy for upcoming games. In addition, Bud Goode has a long history of consulting
for professional teams, identifying the key variables correlated with winning football games
and then providing advice on how teams might improve their performance with respect to
these variables (see, e.g., Goode, 1978). The discussion here shows that more extensive use of
statistical methods in football might provide an opportunity for enhanced player evaluation,
and improved decision-making. In this era of greater freedom in player movement from team
to team, research regarding the value of a player or the relative values of two players will
become even more crucial. With respect to decision-making, the results here suggest that
football coaches should attempt fewer field goals (worth 3 points) and instead take more
fourth-down risks in pursuit of touchdowns (worth 6,7,or 8 points). More complete results
about player evaluation and optimal strategy will require more data and a more substantial
research effort.
7 References
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32

Figure 1. Expected points for a team with first down and ten yards to go from various
points on the field and the associated least squares line. Data are from Carter and Machol
(1971).
Figure 2. Probability of winning as a function of the score difference, s, the time remaining
(in minutes), t, and yards from the goal, y, using the logistic approximation: (a) probability
as a function of time remaining for three selected score/yards-from-goal combinations; (b)
probability as a function of yards from goal for three selected score/time-remaining combi-
nations; (c) probability as a function of score difference for two time-remaining/yards-from-
goal combinations.
33

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