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Lecture Notes in EducationalTechnology
Jinbao Zhang
JunfengYang
Maiga Chang
Tingwen Chang Editors
ICT in
Education in
Global Context
The Best Practices in K-12 Schools

Lecture Notes in Educational Technology
Series editors
Ronghuai Huang
Kinshuk
Mohamed Jemni
Nian-Shing Chen
J. Michael Spector

The series Lecture Notes in Educational Technology (LNET), has established itself
as a medium for the publication of new developments in the research and practice of
educational policy, pedagogy, learning science, learning environment, learning
resources etc. in information and knowledge age, – quickly, informally, and at a
high level.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11777

Jinbao Zhang • Junfeng Yang
Maiga Chang • Tingwen Chang
Editors
ICT in Education in Global
Context
The Best Practices in K-12 Schools
123

Editors
Jinbao Zhang
Educational Technology School
Beijing Normal University
Beijing
China
Junfeng Yang
Education School
Hangzhou Normal University
Hangzhou, Zhejiang
China
Maiga Chang
School of Computing and Information
Systems
Athabasca University
Edmonton, AB
Canada
Tingwen Chang
Smart Learning Institute
Beijing Normal University
Beijing
China
ISSN 2196-4963 ISSN 2196-4971 (electronic)
ISBN 978-981-10-0372-1 ISBN 978-981-10-0373-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0373-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015950902
© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by SpringerNature
The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd.

Preface
With technology integrated into education, various best practices in innovations of
infusing technology into education have emerged in different parts of the world.
However, there is a problem of scaling up these innovations to promote using
technology in education for smart learning. With the purpose to promote innovative
use of technology in education to scale-up educational innovations all over the
world, this edited volume is composed of 14 best practice cases on technology
enhanced educational innovations. Experts from Turkey, Tunisia, Cyprus, Italian,
Malaysia, China, India, and Finland have contributed to these cases, providing the
current state of the art in the use of technology in education in their counties. Topics
cover the best practices of smart classroom building, effective use of tablets and
interactive whiteboards, virtual learning environment, digital learning spaces,
game-based learning, synchronous remote classroom, micro-lectures, and so on.
The book therefore covers new emerging technologies and pedagogies in different
countries for promoting learning effectiveness.
Chapter 1 by the editors provides a framework of Context-Input-Process-Output
(CIPO) to analyze and evaluate the status of ICT in education in a region which is
the basis of utilizing the cases of best practices in the local context. The key
components of case studies for ICT in education are discussed and some sugges-
tions are given to promote the scale-up of innovative cases for utilizing ICT in
teaching and learning.
Chapter 2 by Petek Aşkar, Arif Altun, Nurettin Şimşek, and Selçuk Özdemir
describes a pilot project with the purpose of evaluating the effectiveness of tablet
PCs and interactive/smart whiteboard for 9th grade students and their teachers in
Turkey. In the case, they found that (a) teachers think that interactive/smart
whiteboard would have more impact, whereas students consider tablet PCs would
have more impact and (b) students are more anxious about using tablet PCs and
interactive whiteboards during instructional processes than teachers.
Chapter 3 by Sadegül Akbaba Altun and Hale Ilgazb provides students’,
teachers’ and administrators’ ﬁrsthand experiences on using tablet PCs in their
schools from a qualitative paradigm in Turkey. It was found that students preferred
v

tablet use for entertainment, communication, and educational purposes. Teachers
had doubts about the educational benefits of tablet PCs. Administrators faced
mainly the technical problems.
Chapter 4 by Dr. Riadh Besbes is a study from Tunisia entitled Teaching and
Learning Effectiveness Enhancement Project “TLEEP”, with the aim to improve
teaching and learning effectiveness within academic institutions by exploiting data
mining methods on collected databases for educational knowledge extraction. It is
claimed that the project’s data mining strategy in the educational context could
support and develop teachers’ expertise, enhance and scaffold students’ learning,
and improve and raise the education system’s performance.
Chapter 5 by Dr. Riadh Besbes introduces a project of Learning Effectiveness
Enhancement Project (LEEP) from Tunisia, which creates productive,
student-centered learning environments that have the following overarching
objectives: improve ability to personalize learning and individual progress, enhance
student engagement and motivation, strengthen teaching effectiveness, equip
teachers and stakeholders with useful data that helps to shape interventions, sharpen
educational policies, and lighting learning pathways.
Chapter 6 by Dr. Riadh Besbes introduces the project Teaching Effectiveness
Enhancement Project (TEEP). This study aims to improve teaching effectiveness
within academic institutions by measuring observational data, collecting them in
databases, and extracting knowledge from them using intelligent processes. An
intelligent system is designed, able to help to assess in quantifiable terms, 35
educational concepts from teachers’ practices, attitudes, and behaviors in learning
contexts within the class session. This study finds that all processed results on
educational concepts can be automatically generated by this system.
Chapter 7 by Vimala Judy Kamalodeen, Trinidad and Tobago investigates
whether teachers are ready for the new digital learning spaces. Results show that
teachers preferred asynchronous tools such as blogs over synchronous tools such as
chats and chose to participate when and how they wanted. Findings also showed a
preference to reading over writing.
Chapter 8 by Betul Yikici, Zehra Altinay, Fahriye Altinay, Gulyuz Debes, and
Yusuf Deviren discusses how to develop teachers’ ability through three cases in
Cyprus. Awareness of ICT competence and digital literacy through trainings for all
target groups are very essential in developing countries. It has been observed that
teachers help each other for the new trends, which shows their enthusiasm. The
education ministry should make mandatory in-service training activities for digital
citizenship and digital literacy.
Chapter 9 by Earp, Jeffrey, and Dagnino Caponetto introduces pilot experiences
performed in the MAGICAL project in game making for learning from Italy. They
found the experience appeared to have particular benefits for enhancing learner
motivation and engagement, and for triggering collaborative attitudes and behavior.
They also found there was a need to ensure that the technological infrastructure is
properly prepared and managed, and functions as expected; other lessons learned
from the case were also discussed.
vi Preface

Chapter 10 by Mei Lick Cheok and Su Luan Wong introduces the study of
teachers’ experience by using FROG Virtual Learning Environment in Malaysia
schools conducted by the Ministry of Education (MOE). After discussing the
outcomes of the project, a few challenging areas that the MOE will still need to look
into to ensure sustainability and scalability of the programme are put forward.
Chapter 11 by Hsien-Sheng Hsiao and Jyun-Chen Chen introduces a smart
classroom project to spread inquiry-based nature science courses for elementary
school in Taiwan. The research guides the concept of the standard operating pro-
cedure, which means everything has its standard operating procedure to ensure
effectiveness and quality; this is also beneficial for large-scale promotion.
Chapter 12 by Mari Petrelius, Mikko-Jussi Laakso, Ilkka Jormanainen, and
Erkki Sutinen introduces a case from Joensuu region in Finland, with the aim to
improve teachers’ ability to use ICT toward the level needed for the implementation
of the new K12 curricula. The new Finnish K12 curricula is characterized by the
use of ICT as both a tool and a learning outcome in all the subject areas.
Chapter 13 by Imran A. Zualkernan and Asad Karim describes the use of a host
of learning technologies to provide just-in-time teacher training and mentoring and
technology-based formative assessments to remote rural schools in Pakistan. The
case study deals with improving numeracy skills for grade 5 students in government
schools that have little or no ICT infrastructure.
Chapter 14 by Liang Yu and Shijian Chen introduces the case of Chengdu No.
7 online school in which Synchronous Remote Class (SRC) is one of the methods
to solve the shortage of high quality teachers in rural areas in China. SRC uses the
video conferencing system to connect K-12 classes in developed and undeveloped
areas to share the high quality teacher’s class with cyber face-to-face communi-
cation between classes.
Chapter 15 by Yongbin Hu, Jinbao Zhang and Ronghuai Huang introduces a
typical government-led project “J class” microlecture project, which is an ICT in
education project with the vision to provide quality learning resources, support
individualized learning, and balance district-wide education in Putuo district,
Shanghai.
ICT is playing a significant role in education in the digital age, and learning is
being reshaped by various educational technology innovations. This book captures
those innovations in the form of best practices from different parts of the world.
Teachers, school administrators, policy makers, and also researchers from all over
the world are expected to benefit from this book on how to integrate technology into
teaching and learning in K-12 schools. It is also our editors’ aim to achieve through
our efforts.
Jinbao Zhang
Junfeng Yang
Maiga Chang
Tingwen Chang
Preface vii

Contents
1 Towards a Critical Understanding to the Best Practices
of ICT in K-12 Education in Global Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jinbao Zhang, Junfeng Yang, Maiga Chang and Tingwen Chang
2 How Teachers and Students Depict Interactive Whiteboards
and Tablet PCs in a 9th Grade Classroom?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Petek Aşkar, Arif Altun, Nurettin Şimşek and Selçuk Özdemir
3 A Qualitative Case Study of Tablet Use in a High School
in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Sadegül Akbaba Altun and Hale Ilgaz
4 Teaching and Learning Effectiveness Enhancement Project
“TLEEP” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Riadh Besbes
5 Learning Effectiveness Enhancement Project “LEEP” . . . . . . . . . . 71
Riadh Besbes
6 Teaching Effectiveness Enhancement Project “TEEP” . . . . . . . . . . 83
Riadh Besbes
7 Are Teachers Ready for New Digital Learning Spaces:
Case Study of an Online Social Networking Site
for Secondary Teachers in Trinidad and Tobago. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Vimala Judy Kamalodeen
8 Information Communication Technologies in Education
for Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Zehra Altinay, Betul Yikici, Gulyuz Debes, Yusuf Deviren
and Fahriye Altinay
9 An Italian Pilot Experience in Game Making for Learning . . . . . . 171
Jeffrey Earp, Francesca Maria Dagnino and Ilaria Caponetto
ix

10 Frog Virtual Learning Environment for Malaysian Schools:
Exploring Teachers’ Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Mei Lick Cheok and Su Luan Wong
11 Building a Smart Classroom—A Case Study of Spreading
Inquiry-Based Nature Science Courses for Elementary
School in Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Hsien-Sheng Hsiao, Jyun-Chen Chen and Tzu-Chien Liu
12 How to Improve K12 Teachers’ ICT Competence in Finland:
The Joensuu Region Case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Mari Petrelius, Mikko-Jussi Laakso, Ilkka Jormanainen
and Erkki Sutinen
13 Using Learning Technologies to Enhance Numeracy
Competence in Rural Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Imran A. Zualkernan and Asad Karim
14 Synchronous Remote Classroom Connecting K-12
Schools in Developed and Undeveloped Areas: A Case
Study from China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Liang Yu and Shijian Chen
15 Developing, Sharing, and Using of Micro-lectures in Region:
Implications Derived from a Government-Oriented
Micro-lecture Project in Shanghai. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Yongbin Hu, Jinbao Zhang and Ronghuai Huang
x Contents

Chapter 1
Towards a Critical Understanding
to the Best Practices of ICT in K-12
Education in Global Context
Jinbao Zhang, Junfeng Yang, Maiga Chang and Tingwen Chang
Abstract It is believed that ICT has a fundamental influence on the teaching and
learning, and many best practices are emerging in different countries. However, there
is a challenge on how to scale up these cases to reap the beneﬁts of ICT in education
in a large scale. This challenge motivates this book to critically understand the
emerging best practices to promote ICT in education. First, the literatures on case
studies of ICT in education was analyzed in this chapter; then the general devel-
opment trends of ICT in Education was discussed; after that, an analysis and eval-
uation framework of CIPO (four dimensions of analysis and evalution—Context,
Input, Process and ouput) was introduced. Finally, the key components of case
studies for ICT in education were discussed and some suggestions were given to
promote the scale up of innovative cases for utilizing ICT in teaching and learning.
Keywords Case study ICT in education Analysis and evaluation framework
Teachers’ ICT competence Learning environment Patterns of innovative
instruction
J. Zhang () T. Chang
Beijing Normal University, Yanbo Buidling 116, no. 19, XinJieKouWai St., Haidian District,
Beijing 100875, People’s Republic of China
e-mail: zhangjb@bnu.edu.cn
T. Chang
e-mail: tingwenchang@bnu.edu.cn
J. Yang
Educaiton School, Hangzhou Normal University, 16 Xuelin St., Xiasha Higher Education
Zone, Hangzhou 310036, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
e-mail: yangjunfengphd@gmail.com
M. Chang
School of Computing and Information Systems, Athabasca University, 1200, 10011-109
Street, Edmonton, AB T5J 3S8, Canada
e-mail: maiga.chang@gmail.com
J. Zhang et al. (eds.), ICT in Education in Global Context,
Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0373-8_1
1

1.1 Introduction
In realization of the potentials of ICT (information and communication technology)
in education, many countries in the developing world, including the least developed
countries, are making significant investments on developing their respective ICT in
education plans and on bringing various ICT equipment and resources into schools.
Even with extremely constrained financial resources, some countries are purchasing
one laptop for every primary or secondary student (Kozma and Vota 2014). ICT
holds promise in providing not only anywhere and anytime access to knowledge,
but also equal opportunities for networking and communications that allow
knowledge sharing, participation, and lifelong learning (UNESCO 2013). Inspired
by a humanistic vision of education based on human rights and social justice,
UNESCO affirms that the remarkable advances in ICT and the rapid expansion of
internet connectivity have made today’s world increasingly interconnected, and
rendered knowledge and familiarity with ICT essential for every girl and boy,
woman and man (UNESCO 2015).
Alongside the development of ICT in education, the role and capacity of teachers
have become more critical than ever. It has been one of the big challenges, especially
for developing countries, on how to enable teachers use and integrate appropriate
technology into the teaching and learning process. The case study of best practice
was regarded as an important method for promoting teacher ability for integrating
ICT in their teaching. With the public investment for ICT in education, many best
practices have been emerging in counties and regions. It is timely now to introduce
some of the typical cases to scale up these innovations with the appropriate methods.
1.2 Literatures on Case Studies and Best Practices of ICT
in Education
Case study is a common method of research on educational policy and issues.
A case can be something relatively concrete such as an organization, a group or an
individual, or something more abstract such as an event, a management decision or
a change program. Robert K. Yin defines the case study research method as an
empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life
context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly
evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin 1984, p. 23).
Case study emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events
or conditions and their relationships. Case studies act as a valuable supplement,
providing researchers and practitioners with opportunities to experience and respond
to complex practice issues in a variety of professional settings. In the process,
readers can reflect on relevant theories and techniques as they attempt to understand
a real problem, develop a response, and consider the potential consequences.
2 J. Zhang et al.

There are many case studies in the field of research on Educational Technology
or ICT in education. Based on the collective case study of five Asian countries in
the Microsoft’s Partners in Learning (PiL) initiative, Lim (2007) discusses the best
practices and associated problems, and formulates lessons learned and recom-
mendations for the sustainability and scalability of a public–private sector
partnership. They found that the partnerships (at the local and national levels) are
usually based on commonly agreed objectives and many have chosen to focus on
building capacity of local stakeholders and end users. At the same time, the creation
of partnerships with the local teacher education institutions is seen as a way to
ensure sustainability and scalability of the initiative. Dr. Vivian H. Wright, project
leader of The University of Alabama Computers and Applied Technology Program
(2009), designed the resources, skills, and knowledge necessary to successfully
integrate technology into everyday instruction, which included unique scenarios
related to each topic with focus and discussion questions. The topics include teens
and technology, ubiquitous computing, cyber ethics, podcasting, cyberbullying,
social networking, cell phones, wikis, etc. The frameworks of case studies include
five parts: background information, focus questions, case study, questions for
discussion and references.
However, critics of the case study method believe that the study of a small
number of cases can offer no grounds for establishing reliability or generality of
findings. Others feel that the intense exposure to study of the case biases the
findings. Yet researchers continue to use the case study research method with
success in carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and
problems.
In management science, best practice, sometimes used as benchmarks, is a
method or technique to show results superior to those achieved with other means.
Sometimes a “best practice” is not applicable or is inappropriate for a particular
organization’s needs. When applying best practice to organizations, it is necessary
to adapt and deal with the unique qualities of an organization. In order to under-
stand cases of best practice for ICT in education, it is necessary to know the overall
background of the case, as well as the overall status and trends of ICT in education.
As the principal contributor to the World Bank’s EduTech blog, Trucano (2010)
declares that if adopting “best practice” is fraught with difficulties, and “good prac-
tice” often noted but ignored, perhaps it is useful instead to look at “worst practice’”.
His essays and posts, exploring emerging research, good (and bad) practice examples
from successful (and failed) projects, new technologies and initiatives, are widely
referenced and cited by policymakers and practitioners alike. He blogged about worst
practice in ICT use in education—nine worst practices in ICT for education includes:
(1) Dump hardware in schools, hope for magic to happen; (2) Design for OECD
learning environments; (3) Think about educational content only after you have rolled
out your hardware; (4) Assume you can just import content from somewhere else;
(5) Do not monitor, do not evaluate; (6) Make a big bet on an unproven technology
(especially one based on a closed/proprietary standard) or single vendor, do not plan
for how to avoid “lock-in” (7) Do not think about (or acknowledge) total cost of
ownership/operation issues or calculations; (8) Assume away equity issues; (9) Do
1 Towards a Critical Understanding to the Best Practices of ICT … 3

not train your teachers (nor your school headmasters, for that matter). We think it is
necessary for everyone to avoid all common mistakes. After all, it is not completely
true that school with full of technology is a fashion.
1.3 General International Status and Trends of ICT
in Education
ICT resources are critically important for education, both because their use can
improve teaching and learning processes and because they offer an opportunity for
innovation in contents, methods and pedagogy. From 2013 to 2015, an international
research on ICT in education entitled “International Development Research on ICT
in Education” was organized by Collaborative and Innovative Center for
Educational Technology (CICET) of China, and jointly supported by China’s
Ministry of Education and Intel Corporation. The mission of the research is to trace
the development ICT in education to look at the general status and trends from a
global perspective. By now there are a series of reports released on the status and
trends of ICT in education. In the report of year 2014, researchers collect more than
19 countries and regions’ documents on policy, initiatives, research projects, public–
private cooperation, and innovative applications of technologies. There are ten main
conclusions of international development research on ICT in education: (1) There
are exponential increases in the emerging technologies and new ideas in recent years
which have enabled the diversification of innovation in school education;
(2) Lacking the design of learning activities and curriculum for digital natives in
technology rich environment, combined with digital divide led to “learning crisis” in
both developing and developed countries; (3) ICT in education has been imbedded
in the national strategies by the majority of developed countries; the efforts for
overall design of the development of ICT in education have been enhanced by the
central governments of those countries; (4) Policies related to ICT in education vary
significantly among different countries, which generally match the respective
country’s stage of the development of ICT in education; (5) The research field of
technology enhanced learning has integrated various areas including pedagogy,
psychology, sociology, and information science; (6) Significant differences for ICT
in education can be found in the different regions, which match the political, eco-
nomic and social situation in that region; (7) Educational equity has become a major
focus of national strategies for ICT in education in majority of the countries in the
world; (8) Multiple investments guided by the governments and cost-sharing
mechanisms by various stakeholders are the important factors for sustainable
development of ICT in education; (9) Growth of IT industries focusing on education
sector is critical for the development of ICT in education; (10) International orga-
nizations and academic communities promote global sharing of knowledge and
practical experience of ICT in education, bridging the gap of educational philosophy
among different countries and regions (Zhang et al. 2014).
4 J. Zhang et al.

In the 2015 report for “ICT in education in global context”, the five themes were
investigated: (1) deploying strategies of infrastructure in national and region’s level;
(2) development model of digital resources; (3) innovative instructional practices;
(4) design and development of learning environment; and (5) teachers’ leadership
and capability development. Ten main findings were found in the 2015 report:
(1) cloud platform, achieved shared service is the trend of construction and
application in education; (2) learning device gradually diversified, but their appli-
cation prospects are good; (3) new teaching and learning way, becoming more
helpful impetus, act as an engine for education to innovate; (4) Internet supported
micro quality resources promote teaching way of deep change; (5) construction
digital resources content, and intelligent tool and integrative support service system
is the trend for most countries to construct digital resources; (6) governments,
enterprises and schools act as different roles in participating the construction of
digital resources; (7) learning space in school will gradually change from single
function of general classroom to multifunctional learning district; (8) Virtual
learning environment rendering out different features for different customers;
(9) establish need-oriented training system will be best choices for every country to
ensure providing adequate support for teacher professional development;
(10) Sound third party assessment mechanism can help to establish regulatory and
effective development systems for teachers (Zhang et al. 2015).
As we all know, successful integration of ICT into education calls for under-
standing of the opportunities technology offers and of the needs emerging from the
context of application. Unless innovation is truly embraced, technology is unlikely
to become an integral part of the education system, but outside the prospect of
effective teaching and learning improvements, the use of technology will not last
over time (Bottino 2014). Fortunately, there are examples of educational systems,
schools and education professionals finding solutions to the challenges, such as
digital literacy, new learning environments, institutional change and professional
development. The chapters in this book, except from this chapter, are all case study
about recent year’s best practice in different country. If only it were possible to
share such knowledge efficiently, avoid much reinvention of wheels and repetition
of history.
1.4 Analysis and Evaluation Framework of ICT
in Education Based on CIPO Model
It is the pursuing goal for researches to look at ICT in education from a higher and
more comprehensive perspective so as to have a positive impact on future theo-
retical research and practical activities. In this chapter, we set up an analysis and
evaluation framework of ICT in education based on CIPO model which is adapted
from CIPP model (Stuffiebeam 2003). See Fig. 1.1.

(1) Context: A combination of factors that affect the objectives, necessity and
feasibility of ICT in education include the aspects of education, culture,
economy, technology, institution and so on;
(2) Input: This is the part that a variety of ICT in education projects directly invest
in, generally including hardware, software, service (including training) and
support;
(3) Process: This includes involved participants (initiators, facilitators, change
agents and policy makers), innovative contents (ideas, methods, tools and
systems), diffusing mode (decision-making, adoption and dissemination) and
sustaining the application and integration of ICT;
(4) Output: This focuses on analyzing the effectiveness for the reform at micro,
meso and macro levels.
1.4.1 Analysis and Evaluation on Context of ICT
in Education
For analyzing the factors of why all nations are eager to develop ICT in education,
the external factors (such as globalization and diversity, demands from the devel-
opment of education, science, technology, culture, society and economy) cannot be
Fig. 1.1 Analysis and evaluation framework of ICT in education based on CIPO model
6 J. Zhang et al.

ignored. Globalization is the process of international integration arising from the
interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture, which
takes the economy as the guide, the values as the core, the politics as the supple-
ment and the general culture as the main body. While the development of infor-
mation society is the process transforming from the society dominated by the
material production to that dominated by information industry. One of the main
reasons for the countries all over the world to compete in investing in ICT in
education is the inevitable product in the trend of globalization and the development
of ICT, especially that the rapid development of information industry demands for
opening up much broader market space for itself (Fig. 1.2).
Since the complex links existing between the development of economy, society
and education, especially with the introduction of ICT, strong political overtones
have been added to the development of ICT in education. Chinese government is
actively adapting itself to the need of international competition in the circumstances
of globalization, and also fully understands that informationization is the general
trend of the development of the present world as well as the important power that
promotes the economic and social reform. Education has been endowed with a key
role in responding to the challenges of globalization and informationization by the
Chinese government. The strategy of rejuvenating the country through science,
technology and education and that of reinvigorating the country through human
resource development have been clariﬁed.
Fig. 1.2 Context of ICT in education

By examining the relationships among various contradictions within education,
we can also see that people have great expectations for ICT in education. From a
macro perspective, the education in China faces the following four critical chal-
lenges, which are the lack of investment in education in general, extremely
unbalanced development of education, unreasonable personnel structure and mode
for talent training, and incomprehensive ideas of educational institutional reform.
Those aspects are influencing the ideas and approaches of the educational reform
and development in China.
Above all, the development of ICT in education has a strong historical and social
background. It is the requirement of the nation in realizing economic development,
social development, educational development and technology development and so
on. In such a broad context, the implementation of ICT in education requires us to
be aware of the related requirements generated by all aspects, to comprehensively
review them and to design systematically so as to formulate the strategic objectives
for the development of ICT in education (Fig. 1.3).
1.4.2 Analysis and Evaluation on Input of ICT in Education
A research report (OECD 2005) shows that the infrastructure of ICT in education is
becoming more popularized both in developed and developing countries. There are
Society
Politics
Education
Culture
Science and
Technology
Economy
ICT in
Education
• Distance Education has
more advantages in costs
and profits
• Students from poor
families must have
equal opportunity to
acquire the technology.
Women should be
offered more
opportunities of using
computers in
education. Provide as
many opportunities to
use the technology for
the disadvantaged
group as possible.
• Computers have become a
necessity in learning.
• Educators have the obligations to
supervise students for surfing the
Internet and to construct an e-
learning environment in favor of
students’ development.
• The application of the latest
technology in education
comparatively falls behind.
There are many “out-of-
date” equipment and
resources in schools. Most
teachers have not received
appropriate training on
technology. Schools cannot
acquire the great power
brought by the latest
technology.
• Change the simple guidance idea of
using computers to adopting more
utilization of new technology in the
guidance of constructivism. Insist on
using the software good for single skill
and use the technology that supports
comprehensive activities of multiple
subjects as often as possible.
• It will become one of
the trends of
educational
informationization to
expand the scope of
education by distance
education and other
technologies.
Fig. 1.3 Aims and tasks of ICT in education
8 J. Zhang et al.

four elements are very common known, i.e. “infrastructural construction”, “infor-
mation resources construction”, “training for ICT talents” and “policies, regulations
and standards of ICT”
1. “Infrastructural construction” refers to a variety of equipment, such as computer
equipment, networking equipment, mobile devices, multimedia equipment, etc.
On the premise of the constraint of funding for education, profit and funding are
difficult to sustainable guarantee, so ICT in education is required to solve the
problems, such as “effective input”, “on-demand design”, “strengthening the
maintenance and management,” “improving efficiency” and “enhancing profit”.
2. “Information resources construction” can be divided into resources related to
supporting teachers’ instruction, recourses related to supporting students’ learn-
ing and recourses related to supporting educational management. Digitization of
information resources is an effective way of sharing educational resources of high
quality, and also a necessary precondition to carry out the integration of infor-
mation technology and curriculum in education. This aspect has received the
amount of investment from the nation only second to the aspect of.
3. “Infrastructural construction”. Over recent years, it has got a large amount of
educational resources and established a number of focused educational resources
databases. As the construction of educational resources is not simply digitalized,
but concerns the needs of users, so the top priorities of current construction of
information resources are how to get more investment to develop the themed
educational resources with more specific focuses, how to strengthen the mecha-
nism of resource sharing and opening up, including standards for resource con-
struction in order to deliver more free resources to the units in need of them and
how to build up a more intelligent resource searching and classification system.
4. “Training for ICT talents” includes not only IT teachers and other technical
supporting staff, but also the informational literacy and ICT skills of subject
teachers and school administrators, which is of great significance to ensure the
smooth development of ICT in education and also is the important service in the
investment of ICT in education. Training for ICT talents has to make great
efforts to train IT teachers, subject teachers and students as well as to strengthen
the building of multidisciplinary faculties.
5. “Policies, regulations and standards of ICT” includes the investment planning
and financial policies of ICT in education, the incentive policies for encouraging
the application of information technology, and various series of specifications
and requirements for hardware, software and services, etc., which are important
guarantees of ICT in education. However, the problems in this aspect are the
coordination among national policies and the differences of systematic educa-
tional reform and the reform itself, which cannot be solved by a single reform
approach.
“To build for use” is an incontestable truth. However, some people started to
doubt the effectiveness of ICT in education. One important reason is the lack of
measurement methods for the cost and profit of ICT in education. According to the
research report by World Bank, currently there still lacks an effective measurement

for the costs of the construction of ICT in education. Therefore, it is very necessary
to focus on the research into the costs of ICT in education. Here are some research
fields worth focusing
(1) The contents of total costs of ICT in education, such as opportunity costs,
equipment costs, maintenance costs, ownership costs, calculation method, etc.
(2) Correlation study on the input and output of the investment in education in
different regions, different phases and different educational methods. For
example, which kind of ICT in education should be currently carried out in
western China to produce maximum profit?
(3) The problem of costs for achieving the objectives with different technical
plans and different forms of media. For example, cost differences in Internet
access, cost differences between resources development and delivery and
maintenance, etc.
(4) Research into the cost of specific forms of ICT in education. For example, the
launching costs in distance education, the average cost of learners, the average
cost of graduate students, as well as the problem of cost transferring and the
enormous cost in the using and maintaining the donated computers.
(5) The impact of financing mechanisms of ICT in education on cost saving, such
as the methods of government investment, public–private partnerships, local
credit, personal credit, etc.
1.4.3 Analysis and Evaluation on Promotion Process
of the Use of ICT in Education
Although the infrastructure is gradually popularized, the effect of application has not
reached the required level. A very important reason is the lack of attention in pro-
moting the application of ICT in education. In the past, the analysis of the application
of ICT in education mainly focuses on the input elements of ICT in education, such as
system design, equipment performances and maintenance, resource development, the
quality of the users and so on, but seldom focuses on the process of application, which
prevents the proper promotion of the application of ICT in education.
Based on the theory of Diffusion of Innovation by Rogers (1995) and
Concern-Based Adoption Model by Hall et al. (2015), we divide the analysis and
evaluation of the promotion process of the application of ICT in education into four
aspects.
(1) The stakeholders of ICT in Education include all kinds of educational policy
makers and administrators, initiators, facilitators and the ultimate users of the
application of ICT in education. As the differences of roles, different stages in
career (e.g., pre-service, in-service, and post-service), individual factors (such
as life stages, families, hobbies, personal characteristics, life crisis, critical
events, etc.), social factors (such as rules and regulations, management
10 J. Zhang et al.

methods, the public trusts, social expectations, experts’ opinions, the units one
works for, etc.), differences of innovation and degrees of risks (such as pio-
neers, early adopters, early majority, late majority, those who are left behind),
differences of the adoption and decision-making process (such as autonomous
decision-making, collegial decision-making and authorized decision-making),
the communication and exchanges among the stakeholders of ICT in educa-
tion has become the key to the application of ICT in education.
(2) The content of the application of ICT in education includes the application of
information-oriented concepts of education and instruction (also known as
“innovative concept”), methods of instructional design and instructional
strategies (also known as “innovative technology”), information-based tools
and information-based systems (also known as “innovative product”) and so
on in education. Because they are different in comparative advantages, com-
patibility, complexity, the features for observation and experimentation, there
will be of great differences in the concrete promotion process, which has to
draw the attention of all practitioners in the ﬁeld of ICT in education.
(3) Promotion mode of ICT in education. It directly affects the speed and effects of
the proliferation of the content of the application of ICT in education. The
effects of dissemination and proliferation are affected by media channels (such
as mass media, interpersonal communication, administrative orders, etc.),
dissemination mode (such as point-to-point mode, vertical dissemination
mode, horizontal dissemination mode, etc.), degrees of users’ engagement in
the innovation and development (such as function-oriented development,
user-oriented development, demand-oriented development, reform-oriented
development, etc.).
(4) Deepening information-oriented education. It is the key to realize sustainable
development of ICT in education and ultimately realize the goal of ICT in
education. Users experience three phases of “focusing on oneself”, “focusing
on work” and “focusing on the effects in cognition”, experience eight phases
of “unused”, “orientation”, “preparation”, “rote implementation”, “routiniza-
tion”, “specialization”, “integration” and “update” in behaviour. Adjusting the
promotional activities and process according to the users’ feedback and pro-
viding necessary support for them are indispensable work in promoting ICT in
education to a further development.
It should be pointed out that the concrete application of present ICT in education
is often constrained by four aspects, which are the effectiveness of application, the
speciﬁcity of application, the routinization of application and the conditions of
application. Those problems have been affecting the whole process of the appli-
cation of ICT, and they are also the four aspects of promoting the application of ICT
in education.

1.4.4 Analysis and Evaluation on Output of ICT
in Education
The analysis of the output of ICT in education reflects people’s attention to the effects
of ICT in education. On the one hand, people are eager to know the status quo of its
development; on the other hand, it is the evaluation of the degree to which the
objectives have been achieved. Because people’s expectations and purposes for ICT
in education are different, the focuses on the analysis of the output of ICT in education
are also not the same. According to the report by World Bank, there are no widely
accepted criteria for evaluation of ICT in education at present. The United States and
Europe utilize a set of standards for the technology use of students, teachers and
school administrators. The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE)
came up with the National Education Technology Standards (NETS) Project (http://
cnets.iste.org/) the primary goal of which is to enable stakeholders in PreK-12 edu-
cation to develop national standards for the educational uses of technology that will
facilitate school learning. (See attachment for more details on the ISTE NETS
standards.) The fact that the other countries did not indicate any existing standards
that can monitor the use of technology reflects the lack of qualitative indicators. Many
countries merely focus on providing the technology that is making computers and
Internet access available (UNESCO 2003). In addition, different countries have
obvious differences in the evaluation indicators (shown as Table 1.1).
This paper argues that, although there are certain differences among the evaluation
system developed by different countries or agencies, we cannot arbitrarily determine
that the higher the level of evaluation is, the more comprehensive it will be. The
starting point of selecting or developing their own evaluation indicators should be
based on their own objectives, that is the purpose of the evaluation. According to the
author’s understanding, the analysis of the output of ICT in Education can be divided
into three levels, which are “promoting the reform of teaching and learning”, “pro-
moting the reform of school” and “promoting the reform of education”.
Table 1.1 Evaluation index levels and indicator types of the effects of ICT in education in some
countries
Countries Levelsa
Qualitative
evaluation
indicator
Quantitative
evaluation
indicator
USA, Canada, Europe (Denmark, Sweden,
Finland, Norway and UK), Australia, South
Korea, South Africa
3 √ √
New Zealand 2 √ √
Japan, India, Malaysia, Thailand, Uzbekistan,
Commonwealth of Independent States countries
and Baltic States countries
2 √
Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Slovenia 1 √
a
Level 1 only includes input indicator; Level 2 includes input and process indicators; Level 3
includes input, process and output indicators
12 J. Zhang et al.

1. The Level of “Promoting the Reform of Teaching and Learning”
The ultimate objective of ICT in Education should lie in promoting the develop-
ment of students and teachers’ profession. Reflected in the output of ICT in
Education, the teaching reform in the context of ICT in Education reflects changes
in three aspects: (1) the roles of teachers and students; (2) instructional process and
methods; and (3) evaluation process. Therefore, the analysis of this level should
focus on above three aspects.
However, the research into the analysis of the output of the level of “promoting
the reform of teaching and learning” shows that the popular four approaches of the
application of ICT in American school education are still computer teaching, lesson
preparation, instructional inquiry, as well as word processing and presentation. The
successful mode of the integration of ICT in or out of school instruction is still
unclear. In other words, further efforts are needed for promoting ICT in Education
in the reform process of teaching and learning process (World Bank 2007).
The report by OECD points out that currently ICT is far from being the core of
the learning process, although it is believed that ICT will have a positive impact on
learning performances; and there is still a lack of evidence for a positive impact of
ICT in Education on students’ performances. However, some researches show that
if ICT in Education is related to education, it will be much easier to have a positive
impact on students’ performances; and from the perspective of motivation, the
application of ICT in education effectively encourages teachers and students. And
some other researches finds that the opportunity of obtaining ICT will influence
users’ confidence and the utilization of ICT can enhance learners’ autonomy. Those
are part of the issues to be focused on when analyzing the output of ICT in
education on this level (OECD 2005).
2. The Level of “Promoting the Reform of Schools”
ICT in education involves the reforms of school management, instructional working
habits, and infrastructure and so on. However, any reform is bound to affect the
school’s cultural traditions, management system, and teachers’ habit. Thus, a
comprehensive reform is difficult to break through only by the school’s own culture
and system evolution. Unless someone with strong achievements in technology,
theory and instruction, etc., strongly push it, together with the institutions and
organizations with strong educational backgrounds, backgrounds of educational
technology theory as well as technical problem-solving capacity that break the
cultural inertia by external attacks in order to promote the reform of schools.
On the level of the reform of schools, data collection and decision support
provided by ICT help to improve the scientific and planning school management, to
promote the implementation of school-based management, to realize the “off
centre-oriented” in the process of school management, and to realize openness and
transparence of school administrative affairs. Therefore, those are important aspects
of ICT in promoting the reform of schools.
Both OECD countries and those with low level of development have some
successful experience about the utilization of ICT on the level of promoting the

reform of schools. Some of the successful experience has been well documented,
such as the series of reports on “Education for Tomorrow” by OECD. However, on
the whole, successful experience or failure lessons of ICT in Education are rarely
widely disseminated, or there are no easily acceptable approaches presented for
decision makers; nor have they been clearly examined in the educational context
related to the Millennium Development Goals. Therefore, there is still a lot of work
to be done by ICT on the level of the reform of school management system.
3. The Level of “Promoting the Reform of Education”
On the level of promoting the reform of educational system, ICT in education will
finally make the realization of the “Education for All” possible and help to reduce
the uneven distribution of educational resources among different regions to achieve
fair requirement for education. In addition, the enhancement of the degree of ICT
will also contribute to the diversification of educational objectives and evaluation.
The report by World Bank points out that the utilization of ICT in improving the
efficiency of educational organizations and educational system, including the
application of it in anti-corruption work in the departments of education is currently
the very period of high rate of return for developing countries (World Bank 2007).
Research report points out that on the level of the reform of educational system
level, different countries have different government departments responsible for the
work of ICT in education and successful policies for ICT in education need to take
the main bodies of multiple interests into account. The report also shows that ICT
does play a good role in the field of special education, such as in helping the
handicapped, etc., which will contribute to the realization of educational equity, but
the ICT itself has the possibility of expanding unfairness to lead to digital divide. In
the areas with a higher marketing degree, ICT helps to the dissemination and
sharing of educational contents.
1.5 Disscussion and Conclusion
The rationales of implementing ICT in education in developing countries include
the use of educational ICT to support economic development, social progress, and
education reform (Kozma and Vota 2014). Challenges existing in developing
countries include limited electrical or Internet infrastructure in rural areas, limited
availability of technically skilled support staff, the predominance of minority lan-
guages, and underqualified teaching staff. For most developing countries, the
challenges of ICT in education include: (1) Affordability: recurrent budget to ensure
universal access to ICT devices and online digital resources, and regularly update
ICT in education; (2) Capacities: in making and managing sector-wide ICT in
education policies; institutional and individual capacities in executing polices;
(3) Inclusion: equal opportunities for the economically and/or demographically
disadvantaged populations; (4) Content: ICT facilitates and complicates the content
development and dissemination at the same time; OER and open textbooks holds
14 J. Zhang et al.

potentials, but barriers remain huge and complex; (5) Quality assurance: quality of
digital content/textbooks; reform of quality framework to embrace new
ICT-enabled learning outcomes; quality of online learning (Fengchun 2013).
Various factors affect the development of ICT in education in different countries
and regions. It is no wonder why some best practices in some place could not easily
be transplanted to another success in another place. As various factors influence the
success of ICT in education projects, it is often hard to describe a case of best
practices. Therefore, all the cases in the book is structured of case overview,
background, initiative description, outcomes, and conclusion, in order to provide a
full picture of these best practices. The cases include various models of teacher
training, technology-enriched environment and innovative instruction practices.
However, it is necessary to clarify the limits of case studies. In General, the limi-
tations of the case studies usually include the following: (1) it is difficult to
deductive the finding; (2) technical limitations and biases of the researchers, and
(3) a lot of time and effort spent. If we really want to learn about what does and does
not work in a variety of countries and contexts, we need share, discuss or even
apply these knowledge in real-world settings with others who may be considering
using technology to improve both teacher training, teaching and learning.
Using the cases of best practices needs adaptation and re-innovation according
the local context. The growing complexity of education and change of information
technologies are forcing practitioners and researchers to forge new vertical and
horizontal alliances and to seek greater flexibility and efficiency in responding to
education changes. The adaptation process is leading educational organization
towards greater and more strategically directed integration and networking with
external agencies, and to the adoption of a sophisticated toolkit in their design and
development activities to enhance developmental flexibility, speed and efficiency.
While re-innovation, an extension of innovation, is renowned for its potential in
creating competitive advantage with reduced cost, time implications or improve-
ment of the effectiveness.
In this chapter, an analysis framework of ICT in education was developed to
provide a tool to look at the development status of educational informatization in a
region. It is necessary for readers (Policy makers, researchers, facilitators, practi-
tioners, IT manufacturers, etc.) to consider the context when they want to adopt
cases in their practice. The framework can serve as a good tool for understanding
the context for adapting and re-innovating the best practices.
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Author Biographies
JinBao Zhang is an Associate Professor, who is a supervisor on the majors of Educational
Technology and Science Education in Beijing Normal University. He serves as a committee in the
Ministry of Chinese E-Learning Technology Standards, Secretary of expert committees on Teacher
Education, etc. His research focuses on the diffusion of Innovations, the twenty-first
Century learning, and the development of students’ innovation ability. He has published more
than 60 academic articles and participated in around ten educational programs. He has a long-term
cooperation with institutions and IT companies such as Microsoft, Intel, CISCO, etc. Now, he is
in-charge of the Research Centre of 3D Technology and the development of students’ Creativity in
Beijing Normal University.
16 J. Zhang et al.

Dr. Junfeng Yang has been an Assistant Professor with the School of Education in Hangzhou
Normal University since 2009. He is the author of more than 20 articles in ICT in education. His
research interests include ICT in education, smart learning environment, and digital generation of
learners. Dr. Yang was a recipient of the best paper awards from International Conference in Smart
Learning Environment 2014, and the outstanding service as Technical Manager for the 13th IEEE
International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies from IEEE computer society.
Dr. Maiga Chang is Associate Professor in the School of Computing Information and Systems at
Athabasca University, Canada. His researches mainly focus on mobile learning and ubiquitous
learning, museum e-learning, game-based learning, educational robots, learning behaviour
analysis, data mining, intelligent agent technology, computational intelligence in e-learning and
mobile healthcare.
Dr. Tingwen Chang is a researcher and the Director of International Cooperation Ofﬁce in Smart
Learning Institute of Beijing Normal University (SLIBNU) for doing the research on Smart
Learning as well as making many international cooperation projects. He was associate research
fellow of Collaborative Innovative Center for Educational Technology at Beijing Normal
University in China from 2014 to 2015. Since 2011–2013, he was a postdoctoral fellow at
Athabasca University in Canada, funded by NSERC/iCore/Xerox/Markin Industrial Research
Chair Program. Before, he worked as a PhD Student Researcher at Athabasca University funded
by National Science Council in Taiwan through the Graduate Students Study Abroad Program and
as Graduate Researcher and Lecturer in National Chung Cheng University. He received his B.S.
degree in Computer Science and Information Engineering from Tamkang University, Taiwan, in
2001 and the M.S. and Ph.D. Degrees in Computer Science and Information Engineering from
National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan, in 2003 and 2011, respectively. His research mainly
focus on technology enhanced learning, adaptivity and personalization, user/student modelling,
multimedia learning instruction, multi-screen learning environment and computer assisted
instruction.

Chapter 2
How Teachers and Students Depict
Interactive Whiteboards and Tablet PCs
in a 9th Grade Classroom?
Petek Aşkar, Arif Altun, Nurettin Şimşek and Selçuk Özdemir
Abstract This paper describes a pilot project with the purpose of evaluating the
effectiveness of tablet PCs and interactive/smart whiteboard for 9th grade students
and their teachers. The pilot study was designed to explore students’ and teachers’
perceived effectiveness of using tablet PCs and interactive/smart whiteboards. The
participants included a total of 136 teachers from various state funded schools and
732 9th grade students, who were provided with tablet PCs and interactive/smart
whiteboards and were trained in their use. A survey was distributed to the partic-
ipants at the end of the semester. This paper describes the pilot project and the
survey results. We observed that (a) teachers think that interactive/smart whiteboard
would have more impact whereas students consider tablet PCs would have more,
and (b) students are more anxious about using tablet PCs and interactive white-
boards during instructional processes than teachers.
P. Aşkar
TED University (Emeritus), Mutlukent mah. 2028. St. No:1 Ümitköy-Çankaya,
Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: petek.askar@tedu.edu.tr
A. Altun ()
Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, College of Education,
Hacettepe University, Beyetepe-Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: altunar@hacettepe.edu.tr
URL: http://www.ontolab.hacettepe.edu.tr/en
N. Şimşek
Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies, Faculty of Educational
Sciences, Ankara University, Cebeci, 06600 Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: nurettin.simsek@ankara.edu.tr; nsimsek@ankara.edu.tr
URL: http://bote.education.ankara.edu.tr/
S. Özdemir
Gazi Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional
Technology, College of Education, Gazi University, Bosna Building 3. Floor Room Number:
28 Besevler, Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: selcukozdemir@gmail.com
URL: http://w3.gazi.edu.tr/*sozdemir/index_eng.htm
19

Keywords Tablet PC Interactive/smart whiteboards Instructional technology
Secondary education
2.1 Introduction
Integrating emerging ICT tools into school systems at the national level is always a
challenge for governments at the decision-making level and for schools at the
implementation level. Although the ministries of education have a keen interest in
equipping schools with those technologies and empowering teachers with new
competencies, there are various barriers and hurdles to successfully address those
issues, leading mostly to another challenge which is another step in adjusting to
change as the use of digital technologies in education rapidly changes and expands
(Bates 2000; Duderstadt 1999).
Most of the time, students’ effective learning experiences are (or should be) at
the center of all these interventions in an education setting. The questions such as
what level of interaction is essential for effective learning? How technology can be
used to facilitate effective interactions? And how can we achieve it? are at the core
of measuring the impact of such interventions. Addressing these questions, Moore
(1989) outlined three types of interaction in terms of students’ learning experiences:
learner–content interaction, learner–instructor interaction, and learner–learner
interaction.
According to Moore (1989), learner–content interaction refers to the process of
‘‘intellectually interacting with content’’ (p. 2) to make changes in learners’ existing
schema and understanding. Learner–instructor interaction addresses the issues such
as increasing learners’ motivation, attention, and stimulation for the subject matter
in order to create a healthy and rich learning environment for the learners. Learner–
learner interaction refers all types of interaction ‘‘between one learner and another
learner, alone or in group settings.’’ 18(p. 4). Hillman et al. (1994) goes further to
add another type of interaction, learner–interface interaction, which refers to ‘‘a
process of manipulating tools to accomplish a task” (p. 34).
In this study, students’ learning experience with the tablet PC and interactive
whiteboards is analyzed through these four types of interaction. In addition, similar
approach was taken to elicit teachers’ responses while implementing the use of
tablet PCs and interactive/smart whiteboards. Finally, it was compared to what
extend teachers’ and students’ perceptions show similarities and differences.
Earlier studies investigating the use of tablet PCs and interactive whiteboards
indicate that both these technological tools have something to offer student learning
at schools (some references will go here). The purpose of the pilot project described
here was to observe and evaluate students’ and teachers’ applications of tablet PCs
20 P. Aşkar et al.

and Interactive whiteboards as well as to understand how they perceive the con-
tribution of those tools to teaching and learning process in a classroom setting. The
pilot study would help us answer questions such as
• How do teachers perceive the effectiveness of tablet PCs and interactive/smart
whiteboards with regard to some variables related to interaction?
• What challenges/pitfalls are there in using these technological tools in educa-
tional settings?
2.2 Study Site
This study has been carried out in schools which were part of a broader piloting
process of FATIH project, carried out by the Ministry of National Education
(MoNE). The pilot phase of FATIH project was launched with the delivery of tablet
PCs and LCD Interactive Boards to 52 schools across Turkey. High schools around
the country have been equipped with LCD Interactive Boards, and 8.500 tablet PCs
have been distributed in 52 schools in 17 provinces within a pilot program. In the
expanded pilot phase 49,000 tablet PCs have been distributed to both students and
teachers in 81 provinces. By the Ministry of National Education (see http://
fatihprojesi.meb.gov.tr/tr/english.php for more information about FATIH project).
The study site included eight high schools from different geographical regions in
Turkey: two schools in Ankara, ﬁve schools in Kastamonu, and one school in
Karaman province. A total of 136 teachers, teaching the 9th graders at those
schools, participated in the study. 50 % of the participating teachers were male
(n = 68) and 47.1 % of them were females, whereas 2.9 % (n = 4) did not mention
their genders. 5.1 % of the teachers were between 20 and 29 age intervals (n = 7);
56.6 % of them were between 30 and 39 age intervals (n = 77); 30.1 % of them
were between 40 and 49 age intervals (n = 41); 5.9.1 % of them were between 50
and 59 age intervals (n = 41); and, 2.2 % were missing values (n = 3). Teachers’
graduated schools included College of Education 44.9 % (n = 61), College of
Science and Letters 50 % (n = 68), College of Theology 2.2 % (n = 3),
Conservatory 0.7 % (n = 1), and undeﬁned 2.2 % (n = 3). Demographics related to
teachers’ distribution across their teaching subject areas are presented in Table 2.1.
Teachers who have their own PCs were 94.1 % (n = 128), those who did not
have were 4.4 % (n = 6), with 1.5 % (n = 2) no response; those who indicated that
they used tablet PCs before were 3.5 % (n = 32), those who did not use were 73.5 %
(n = 100), with 2.9 % (n = 4) no response; when teachers’ computer use in years
were analyzed, it was observed that 12.5 % of them had 16 or more years of
experience (n = 17); 27.2 % of them had between 11 and 15 years (n = 37); 41.2 %
of them had between 6 and 10 years (n = 56); 14.7 % of them had between 1 and 5
(n = 20), and 0.7 % of them (n = 1) never used a computer before. 3.7 % of the
2 How Teachers and Students Depict Interactive Whiteboards … 21

teachers did not respond this item (n = 5). Teachers who had previous
interactive/smart whiteboard experience were 33.8 % (n = 46), whereas those who
never used them before were 65.4 % (n = 89), with 0.7 % no response (n = 1).
In addition to the teachers, a total of 732 9th grade students in those selected
schools participated in the study. The distribution of students across schools is
presented in the following ﬁgure (see Fig. 2.1).
Table 2.1 Teachers’
distribution across subject
areas
Subject areas n %
German 3 3.7
Physical education 1 0.7
Biology 8 5.9
Geography 7 5.1
Literature 1 0.7
Philosophy 2 1.5
Physics 3 2.2
Religious studies 2 1.4
English 5 3.7
Chemistry 4 2.9
Mathematics 12 8.8
Music 1 0.7
Teaching as a profession 2 1.5
Guidance and psych. counseling 2 1.5
Art 2 1.5
History 8 5.9
Turkish lang. and literature 17 12.5
Undeﬁned 54 39.7
Total 136 100.0
119
90 96
50
28
145
63
141
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
School A School B School C School D School E School F School G School H
Fig. 2.1 Student participation across schools
22 P. Aşkar et al.

2.3 Implementation Process
Piloting in the selected schools had been started at the beginning of Spring 2012
and took about 4 months, until the end of the school year. In order to better describe
the piloting process, a detailed descriptive information regarding the implementa-
tion process will be summarized for each school.
School A is located in Kastamonu province with relatively low school
achievement scores. 1/3 of students leave high school and move into vocational
school after 9th grade due to either their low achievement, or repeating. At the time
of the piloting, the school had a computer lab and interactive white board in the 9th
graders’ classroom. Tablet PCs were distributed to students by getting written
consent from their parents. School B had classes with 30 or less students in each
class. The school has a boarding option, where students were registered to the
school from nearby cities and/or villages. Similarly, school C also had a boarding
option for students. School administration embraced the vision for technology use
at their schools. School D also provided boarding option, where students were
coming from nearby cities. Before the implementation process, teachers brought
their own computers and projection devices into their classes since there were not
enough computers to use at the school. School E, which is the last school in
Kastamonu region, was the most successful one in the province according to the
nationwide exam statistics results. 60 % of the school students were boarding
students and there was a housing option for 25 teachers, who stayed and provided
extended study hours for boarding students after school hours. This school had a lab
for each content area teaching, sports arena, and a rich library. Each class had
laptops and projection devices which were provided by the school administrators.
School F, located in Karaman, was a religious high school where boys and girls
attended the school in two different buildings. The university entrance ratio was low
for the school. Almost 60 % of the students were boarding students at the school.
School G, which was rated in the top 10 Anatolian high school nationwide, was
located in Ankara with considerably better physical conditions compared to the
other schools. All classes were equipped with interactive whiteboards. The mate-
rials and orientation process is narrated below.
2.4 Materials and Orientation Process
During the piloting process, various digital platforms and materials were prepared
either by the Ministry of Nation Education or SEBIT, an organization developing
digital platforms and educational materials for K-12 education. The following table
shows the materials utilized in the process.
During the piloting process, teachers were provided an in-service training about
basics of PC use, effective uses of interactive boards, tablet PCs, and their edu-
cational uses. Within the basics of PC use module, teachers were trained on

operating systems functions and MS Office and its functional uses. These training
sessions were provided face-to-face by the Ministry of National Education for 30 h.
Tablet PCs and interactive/smart boards included users’ guides, which included
information about their technical specifications, their functions, as well as how-to
visuals. In addition, another in-service training was provided for teachers which
lasted 15 h during one week of training.
The third training program included educational use of interactive/smart boards
and tablet PCs. This program included both theoretical and practical sessions. The
theoretical part included the educational benefits and their functional use in class-
rooms. In the practice session, the program included lesson plans and the use of
embedded software in tablet PCs. These software were browsers, classroom man-
agement system, word processing, spreadsheet, presentation, e-book reader, market
application, and calendar application. Teachers were provided sample lesson plans
with good practice samples and scenarios related to their content areas. These sessions
were designed in a show-and-tell and discussion format, face-to-face, and lasted 15 h.
These sessions were completed in an intertwined manner in each meeting with
teachers and time was extended when needed. In addition, an online help desk was
made available for teachers synchronously. Teachers were expected to train their
students accordingly during their class time.
2.4.1 Data Collection Tools
The data were collected through three different survey tools. The demographic
survey tool was designed to gather teachers’ personal characteristics, such as
gender, age, how many years they have been using a computer, their subject matter,
graduation information, whether they used a tablet PC and interactive/smart board
before in their teachings, and whether they had a personal computer at home. The
second (the effectiveness of using tablet PC and interactive/whiteboards in class-
room settings: Teacher form) one was adapted from Askar, Koksal, Yavuz
(1992) to determine how teachers perceive the effectiveness of those emerging
technologies when used in a classroom setting. This tool had the same variables to
measure both for tablet PC and the interactive/smart board. They were mainly asked
to compare their experiences in using the tablet PCs and interactive whiteboard to
the environments where they did not use them nor these technologies were avail-
able. The third tool (the effectiveness of using tablet PC and interactive/whiteboards
in classroom settings: Student form) was identical to the second except that they
were addressed to students.
In those survey tools given both to teachers and students were 25 variables
included. Those variables included interest in the subject matter, understanding the
course, attention span to the course, amount of readings, help from teacher, fear,
embarrassment, noise, self-evaluation, leisureliness, teacher–student interaction,
student–student interaction, receiving awards, curiosity, trust, speed of learning,
amount of vocabulary, willingness to study, success, liking the school, liking the
24 P. Aşkar et al.

course, amount of writing, participation to discussions, number of questions posed,
and anxiety. Both students and teachers were asked to rate their perceived effec-
tiveness with one of the three observations: increases, does not change, or decrease.
For example, the ﬁrst variable would be read by the participants as “In settings
where tablet PCs are used, teacher–student interaction increases/does not
change/decreases-,” and the student checks the appropriate checkbox.
2.4.2 Data Analysis
Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics and signiﬁcant tests. In order to
determine whether students’ and teachers’ responses change, chi-square test was
run, followed by Tamhane post hoc tests.
2.5 Students’ and Teachers’ Perceived Effectiveness
of Using Interactive/Smart Whiteboards
and Tablet PCs
The analyses of students’ and teachers’ perceived effectiveness of using
interactive/smart whiteboards and tablet PCs were presented in Tables 2.2 and 2.3,
respectively. As presented in Table 2.2, most of the students hold the belief that
their interest in the subject matter, understanding the course, attention span to the
course, help from teacher, self-evaluation, leisureliness, teacher–student interaction,
student–student interaction, curiosity, trust, speed of learning, amount of vocabu-
lary learnt, willingness to study, success, liking the school, liking the course, par-
ticipation to discussions, and number of questions posed would decrease (ranges
between 30 and 70 %); whereas, the amount of writing and noise levels would
increase when the interactive/smart whiteboard were used in their classes. On the
other hand, the amount of readings, fear, anxiety, and receiving rewards would not
change.
Majority of teachers (ranges between 50 and 80 %) on the other hand, hold the
belief that when the interactive/smart white whiteboard were used in the class-
rooms, students’ interest in the subject matter, understanding the course, attention
span to the course, noise, self-evaluation, leisureliness, teacher–student interaction,
student–student interaction, curiosity, trust, speed of learning, amount of vocabu-
lary, willingness to study, success, liking the school, liking the course, participation
to discussions, and number of questions posed would decrease; whereas, seeking
help from teachers, fear, receiving rewards, and anxiety would not change. Yet,
their embarrassments and amount of reading and writing would increase. The
percentages of the teachers in favor of the effectiveness of the interactive white-
board ranges between 10 and 40 % (Table 2.4).

Table 2.2 Materials embedded in Tablet PCs
Component Purpose
Educational Information
Network (EIN) market
Portal where MoNE presents all its approved digital content
and services
EIN internet browser EIN Internet browser is provided for safe internet surﬁng and
accessing the materials in the market
EIN bookcase Books which were distributed by the MoNE free of charge in
pdf format
Classroom management
application
An application to be used by teachers to manage their courses
by using their tablet PCs. With this application, teachers are
able to start and end a class; integrate interactive whiteboards
with their tablet PCs, can take attendance; rule certain
restrictions such as locking students’ tablet PCs, or their
internet access; can take snapshots from interactive
whiteboards or from any student’s or their own tablet tos hare
later; can view students’ tablet views individually; and
ﬁnally, can control interactive whiteboard remotely
Clickers An application with which teachers could design their own
interactive quizzes and polls, evaluate the results, and share
what they like accordingly
Messaging Teachers could send a message to their students
V-Book An application to access subject and concepts with tablet
PCs. Each V-Book included examples, interactive exercises,
experiments, simulations, sample questions with answers,
and diagnostic multiple choice questions for students to
evaluate their learning process
Students were given option to add web pages and bookmarks
to their v-books. Search capability was also present in
v-books
Z-Book Z-book is an application to deliver textbooks prepared and
distributed by the MoNE. In these z-books, content is
enriched by simulations, interactive activities, videos, and
interactive questions. Bokmarking, highlighting, note-taking
were made available with z-books
Vitamin Vitamin is a K-12 interactive e-content platform, including
tutorials, library, study plans, and exams. Teachers can
access the library to select and use appropriate content for
their classes
It is possible for teachers to design their lesson plans, share
their plans, send questions and/or exams to their students,
and monitor their students’ progress. Students can access
interactive activities, simulations, experiments, interactive
activities, videos, and interactive questions
Support center Upport center was an embedded application in tablet PCs,
where many how-to materials were presented in video format
Vitamin teacher portal A professional development portal for teachers. This portal
hosts various asynchronous educational videos and live
seminars
(continued)
26 P. Aşkar et al.

When the distributions of students’ and teachers’ responses were compared,
teachers and students tend to differ in their perceptions of number of questions
posed, the amount of writing, liking the school, success, willingness to study, speed
of learning, trust, receiving awards, help from teacher, amount of readings, attention
span to the course, interest in the subject matter, and understanding the course.
When students’ responses to using tablet PCs were examined (see Table 2.3), it
has been observed that most of the students hold the belief that their fear, embar-
rassment, noise level in the classroom, and the amount of writing would increase;
whereas, no change would be observed in receiving awards. Yet, apart from those
mentioned above, there will be a decrease in the rest of the statements (ranges
between 34 and 78 %).
Majority of teachers on the other hand, hold the belief that when tablet PCs were
used in the classrooms, students’ fear, and the amount of writing and readings
would increase; whereas, no change would be observed in students’ participation to
discussions, anxiety, receiving awards, embarrassments, and the seek for help from
teachers. Yet, apart from those mentioned above, teachers are of the opinion that
there will be a decrease in the rest of the statements (ranges between 36 and 78 %).
When the distributions of students’ and teachers’ responses were compared,
teachers and students tend to differ in their perceptions of the amount of writing and
reading, liking the school, willingness to study, amount of vocabulary learnt, noise
level in the classroom, and the help from teachers. Overall, teachers think that
interactive/smart whiteboard would have more impact whereas students consider
tablet PCs would have more. According to teachers, interactive/smart whiteboard
would have more negative impacts whereas students think that tablet PCs would
have more negative impacts.
Comparison analyses indicate that students are more anxious about using tablet
PCs and interactive whiteboards during instructional processes than teachers. When
designing instructional materials and delivery tools, socio-cognitive factors, such as
Table 2.2 (continued)
Component Purpose
Other applications In addition to those applications mentioned above, tablet PCs
included the following applications:
• Kingsoft Ofﬁce
• Notes Mobile (MyScript)
• RealCalc
• Grapher
• Sketch n Draw
• Snapbucket
• EBookDroid
• Jorte Calendar
• Mobo Player
• Tangram

Table
2.3
Descriptive
and
X
2
statistics
results
related
to
students’
and
teachers’
perceived
impacts
on
education
with
interactive/smart
whiteboard
In
a
setting
where
interactive/smart
whiteboard
are
used
Student
Teacher
Overall
Increases
Does
not
change
Decreases
Increases
Does
not
change
Decreases
X
2
p
Difference
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
1.
Interest
in
the
subject
matter
79
11.1
110
15.4
525
73.5
0
0
13
14.9
74
85.1
11.015
0.004
**
2.
Understanding
the
course
83
11.6
183
25.6
449
62.8
1
1.2
19
22.1
66
76.7
10.683
0.005
**
3.
Attention
span
to
the
course
186
26.1
178
25
349
48.9
8
9.4
23
27.1
54
63.5
12.016
0.002
**
4.
Amount
of
readings
176
24.8
279
39.2
256
36.0
34
41.5
30
36.6
18
22.0
12.088
0.002
**
5.
Help
from
teacher
157
22.1
274
38.6
279
39.3
24
28.6
38
45.2
22
26.2
5.622
0.060
*
6.
Fear
304
42.7
337
47.3
71
10.0
38
44.7
43
50.6
4
4.7
2.478
0.290
7.
Embarrassment
307
43.4
328
46.3
73
10.3
41
48.2
39
45.9
5
5.9
1.927
0.382
8.
Noise
level
in
the
classrom
302
42.2
187
26.2
226
31.6
28
32.6
28
32.6
30
34.9
3.177
0.204
9.
Self-evaluation
65
9.2
257
36.4
384
54.4
6
7.1
32
38.1
46
54.8
0.417
0.812
10.
Leisureliness
46
6.5
158
22.3
506
71.3
3
3.5
17
19.8
66
76.7
1.650
0.438
11.
Teacher-student
interaction
184
25.8
193
27.0
337
47.2
16
18.2
23
26.1
49
55.7
3.004
0.223
12.
Student-student
interaction
168
23.7
203
28.6
339
47.7
16
18.2
29
33.0
43
48.9
1.553
0.460
13.
Receiving
awards
87
12.3
406
57.3
215
30.4
5
6.0
40
48.2
38
45.8
9.130
0.010
**
14.
Curiosity
42
5.9
109
15.2
565
78.9
1
1.1
13
14.8
74
84.1
3.553
0.169
15.
Trust
57
8.0
292
40.9
365
51.1
2
2.4
27
32.1
55
65.5
7.574
0.023
**
(continued)
28 P. Aşkar et al.

Table
2.3
(continued)
In
a
setting
where
interactive/smart
whiteboard
are
used
Student
Teacher
Overall
Increases
Does
not
change
Decreases
Increases
Does
not
change
Decreases
X
2
p
Difference
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
16.
Speed
of
learning
79
11.0
149
20.8
488
68.2
3
3.5
23
26.7
60
69.8
5.565
0.062
*
17.
Amount
of
vocabulary
71
9.9
228
31.8
417
58.2
10
11.8
30
35.3
45
52.9
0.907
0.635
18.
Will
to
study
67
9.4
182
25.5
464
65.1
5
5.9
35
41.2
45
52.9
9.634
0.008
**
19.
Success
64
9.0
235
33.1
412
57.9
1
1.2
31
36.9
52
61.9
6.141
0.046
**
20.
Liking
the
school
28
3.9
199
27.9
485
68.1
1
1.1
33
37.9
53
60.9
4.911
0.086
*
21.
Liking
the
course
35
4.9
212
29.9
463
65.2
2
2.3
28
31.8
58
65.9
1.298
0.523
22.
Amount
of
writing
460
65.1
149
21.1
98
13.9
64
76.2
15
17.9
5
6.0
5.385
0.068
*
23.
Participation
to
discussions
98
13.7
293
41.0
323
45.2
16
18.8
26
30.6
43
50.6
3.935
0.140
24.
Number
of
questions
posed
126
17.7
287
40.3
300
42.1
15
17.6
24
28.2
46
54.1
5.354
0.069
*
25.
Anxiety
281
39.4
326
45.7
107
15.0
36
42.4
42
49.4
7
8.2
2.830
0.243
Student
n
=
714
Teacher
n
=
85
*0.10
**0.05

Table
2.4
Descriptive
and
X
2
statistics
results
related
to
students’
and
teachers’
perceived
impacts
on
education
with
Tablet
PCs
In
a
setting
where
tablet
PCs
are
used
Student
Teacher
Overall
Increases
Does
not
change
Decreases
Increases
Does
not
change
Decreases
X
2
p
Difference
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
1.
Interest
in
the
subject
matter
71
10.0
87
12.2
554
77.8
8
10.8
10
13.5
56
75.7
0.177
0.915
2.
Understanding
the
course
78
11.0
172
24.2
462
64.9
8
11.1
20
27.8
44
61.1
0.496
0.780
3.
Attention
span
to
the
course
164
23.0
171
24.0
377
52.9
13
18.1
18
25.0
41
56.9
0.940
0.625
4.
Amount
of
readings
152
21.4
270
38.0
288
40.6
37
50.7
24
32.9
12
16.4
34.02
0.000
**
5.
Help
from
teacher
150
21.2
267
37.8
290
41.0
22
30.1
33
45.2
18
24.7
7.826
0.020
**
6.
Fear
325
45.9
296
41.8
87
12.3
34
47.2
33
45.8
5
6.9
1.858
0.395
7.
Embarrassment
319
44.9
308
43.4
83
11.7
33
45.8
36
50.0
3
4.2
4.028
0.133
8.
Noise
level
in
the
classroom
291
41.1
204
28.8
213
30.1
23
31.9
18
25.0
31
43.1
5.210
0.074
*
9.
Self-evaluation
66
9.4
278
39.4
361
51.2
10
14.1
30
42.3
31
43.7
2.325
0.313
10.
Leisureliness
50
7.1
160
22.6
497
70.3
4
5.5
18
24.7
51
69.9
0.363
0.834
11.
Teacher-student
interaction
155
21.9
185
26.1
368
52.0
14
18.9
24
32.4
36
48.6
1.414
0.493
12.
Student-student
interaction
139
19.6
197
27.8
372
52.5
14
19.2
23
31.5
36
49.3
0.457
0.796
13.
Receiving
awards
84
11.8
381
53.7
244
34.4
6
8.5
35
49.3
30
42.3
2.013
0.365
14.
Curiosity
42
5.9
131
18.5
536
75.6
4
5.4
12
16.2
58
78.4
0.286
0.867
(continued)
30 P. Aşkar et al.

Table
2.4
(continued)
In
a
setting
where
tablet
PCs
are
used
Student
Teacher
Overall
Increases
Does
not
change
Decreases
Increases
Does
not
change
Decreases
X
2
p
Difference
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
15.
Trust
56
7.9
253
35.7
400
56.4
5
7.0
23
32.4
43
60.6
0.453
0.797
16.
Speed
of
learning
74
10.4
144
20.3
493
69.3
8
11.1
20
27.8
44
61.1
2.444
0.295
17.
Amount
of
vocabulary
62
8.7
234
32.9
415
58.4
17
23.3
16
21.9
40
54.8
16.59
0.000
**
18.
Will
to
study
68
9.6
165
23.3
476
67.1
7
9.9
28
39.4
36
50.7
9.475
0.009
**
19.
Success
70
9.9
222
31.4
416
58.8
9
12.7
24
33.8
38
53.5
0.921
0.631
20.
Liking
the
school
29
4.1
194
27.3
487
68.6
1
1.4
33
45.8
38
52.8
11.38
0.003
**
21.
Liking
the
course
39
5.5
214
30.4
450
64.0
5
6.8
29
39.2
40
54.1
2.864
0.239
22.
Amount
of
writing
412
58.4
157
22.2
137
19.4
56
75.7
13
17.6
5
6.8
9.905
0.007
**
23.
Participation
to
discussions
104
14.7
308
43.6
294
41.6
11
15.3
35
48.6
26
36.1
0.868
0.648
24.
Number
of
questions
posed
129
18.2
266
37.5
315
44.4
16
22.2
24
33.3
32
44.4
0.880
0.644
25.
Anxiety
267
37.6
314
44.2
130
18.3
30
42.3
33
46.5
8
11.3
2.255
0.324
Student
n
=
712
Teacher
n
=
74
*0.10
**0.05

curiosity, student interaction, trust, and participation to the discussion should be
emphasized and integrated into teaching process along with the content materials.
The study results also indicated that both teachers and students equally agree on
four items that would decrease the overall impact. Yet, teachers emphasized that
fear would stay still. In the survey tools, there were 25 items, upon which both
teachers and students indicated either a positive or negative impacts on education.
This finding clearly shows that those emerging technologies carry a lot of expec-
tations for both students and teachers. Teachers would be advised to develop
activities for students to address cognitive issues, such as attention, memory, and
learning independent from content matters.
2.6 Conclusion and Discussion
The impact of tablet PCs and interactive/smart whiteboards in teaching and learning
has been investigated in various school levels, including elementary (i.e., Kravcik
et al. 2004; Jang et al. 2012), secondary (i.e., Alvarez et al. 2013), high schools (i.e.,
Betcher and Lee 2009), and universities (i.e., Eurell et al. 2005). When the results
are reviewed for tablet PCs, it can be concluded that tablet PCs can help enhance
students’ note-taking ability (Eurell et al. 2005); improved their ability to organize
class materials, and allowed them to integrate handwritten notes and course
materials (e.g., Enriquez 2010); provided students individualized feedback and that
such feedback was related to student engagement behavior (Xu 2010; McVey
2008); enhanced the learning environment for many mathematics students and that
the technology engaged students with different learning styles (Fister and McCarthy
2008); enhanced classroom dynamics, teaching effectiveness, and student learning
in science and engineering courses (Rogers and Cox 2008).
According to Lee (2010), the interactive/smart whiteboard revolutionized the
classroom system. Yet, Lee (2010) observed at schools during school visits that
teachers initially maintained their existing pedagogical style with the interactive
whiteboards. Moreover, Lee (2010) also emphasized that teachers had employed
the full spectrum of approaches from the strongly teacher-centric to strongly
student-centric as well as beginning to explore new ways of using the technology as
they practice it more. Citing Lee and Winzenried’s study, Lee (2010) went further
to add that variables articulated for successful implementation of instructional
technologies are held true for integrating interactive/smart whiteboards: teacher
acceptance, classroom availability, ongoing in-house support and development,
quality infrastructure, funding, and most importantly quality leadership.
Another study by Somyurek et al. (2009) identified the problems hindering the
effective and efficient use of smart boards in Turkish primary and secondary
schools, as compared to previous ICT integration efforts by MoNE. Based on the
data collected from both teachers and students, the researchers reported that the
factors hindering the use of IWBs in education are correlated with factors occurring
in previous ICT integration projects. In other words, the lessons learned from
32 P. Aşkar et al.

previous ICT projects were not applied to the smart board integration project.
Furthermore, such large-scale projects draw public interest, as well. Therefore, the
researchers point out the fact that before negative opinions spread “in the public
mind, and before ICT in education loses its novelty to educational actors, necessary
measures must be taken by institutions technical support, maintenance, and
administrative cooperation” (p. 373).
Research about the effectiveness of interactive whiteboards usually addressed
teachers’ acceptance and schools’ willingness to use the whiteboard. Teacher and
student acceptance and use of the whiteboard were explored based on various
models such as Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge model (e.g., Jang
and Tsai 2012) and/or various versions of Technology Acceptance Model (e.g.,
Türel 2011). The attractiveness of the whiteboard to the students, the enhanced
student attendance, and how they help improve student behavior (Lee and
Winzenried 2006) and the signiﬁcant improvements in teacher efﬁciency (Becta
2007, p. 48) are also explored in detail. According to Lee (2010), enhancing the
quality of teacher and student usage is the next major challenge. The results of this
case study, therefore, is a contribution to the existing effectiveness research in
exploring the perceived effectiveness of using two emerging technologies during a
piloting period at various high schools. Based on the results of this case study, the
following suggestions could be made;
Lessons Learnt:
• More effort is needed to improve interactions to change students’ perceptions
regarding fear, noise level in the classroom, and anxiety.
• Socio-cognitive variables, such as curiosity, student interactions, trust, and
contribution to discussions, are to be integrated into curricula when designing
instruction with Tablet PCs and interactive/smart whiteboard.
• Independent from course materials, teachers need to be trained in designing
activities related to attention, memory and learning by using Tablet PCs and
interactive/smart whiteboard.
• Teachers need more time to internalize tablet use in their classes before their
students. Providing tablet PCs to teachers and students at the same time seemed
to create synchronization problems.
• Applications embedded in tablet PCs need to be revisited based on teachers’
expectations and needs.
• Teachers and other stakeholders should be well-informed much earlier in time
before scaling up.
• Schools’ infrastructures are crucial and support should be provided just-in-time
and on-site for teachers.
Acknowledgments This study was initiated and funded by SEBIT inc. to provide a perspective
about FATİH project run by the Ministry of National Education.

References
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literacies in the classroom through collaborative problem solving supported by digital pens
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resID=33980
Betcher, C., Lee, M. (2009). The interactive whiteboard revolution. Melbourne, Australia:
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58(3), 77–84.
Eurell, J. A., Diamond, N. A., Buie, B., Grant, D., Pijanowski, G. J. (2005). Tablet computers in
the veterinary curriculum. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 32(1), 113–116.
Fister, R. K., McCarthy, M. L. (2008). Mathematics instruction and the tablet PC. International
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distance education: An extension of contemporary models and strategies for practitioners.
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Jang, S., Tsai, M. (2012). Exploring the TPACK of Taiwanese elementary mathematics and
science teachers with respect to use of interactive whiteboards. Computers Education, 59(2),
327–338.
Kravcik, M., Kaibel, A., Specht, M., Terrenghi, L. (2004). Mobile collector for ﬁeld trips.
Educational Technology Society, 7(2), 25–33.
Lee, M. (2010). Interactive whiteboards and schooling: The context. Technology, Pedagogy and
Education, 19(2), 133–141.
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Australian Educational Leader, 28(3), 22–25.
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1–7.
Rogers, J. W., Cox, J. R. (2008). Integrating a single tablet PC in chemistry, engineering, and
courses. Journal of College Science Teaching, 37(3), 34–39.
Somyurek, S., Atasory, B., Ozdemir, S. (2009). Board’s IQ: What makes a board smart?
Computers Education, 53, 368–374.
Türel, Y. K. (2011). An interactive whiteboard student survey: Development, validity and
reliability. Computers Education, 57, 2441–2450.
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34 P. Aşkar et al.

Author Biographies
Dr. Petek Aşkar has a major in Mathematics Education and minor in Physics Education. Her Ph.D
was on educational measurement and evaluation. Dr. Askar, has been involved in several projects
on ICT applications in education at the school and national level. She worked as a research
coordinator in IBM Computer Aided Education Center, in Turkey and was the head of Information
Technologies in Education Division in the Ministry of National Education. She worked as a
professor of computer education and instructional technology in Hacettepe University for eleven
years, as an assistant and associate professor of measurement and evaluation and math education in
Middle East technical University for 20 years. She was the founding dean of Faculty of Education at
TED University. She is a member of editorial board of several journals. She has developed or
adapted more than twenty tests and instruments. Her current interests are implementation and
analysis of e-learning environments and learning analytics. She is currently at the survey team on
distance education, blended learning on mathematics education for ICME 2015.
Arif Altun is a professor of computer education and instructional technologies at Hacettepe
University, Ankara, Turkey. His current research areas include cognitive issues in learning with
hypertext, designing personalized e-learning environments, computerizing neuro-psychological
tests, and developing educational ontologies. He is currently running the ONTOLAB with a team
of researchers to explore various cognitive processes in order to understand and develop sound
instructional decisions for e-learning. He has been conducting research about technology
integration at the classroom level by combining existing research ﬁndings to develop personalized
learning experiences for individuals.
Dr. Nurettin Şimşek is a professor of educational technology and head of department at Ankara
University Faculty of Educational Sciences, and member of Distance Education Commission at
Higher Education Council. In generally, his researches include creation and management of
technology-enriched teaching and learning environments. He is the editor in chief of Journal of
Educational Sciences Practice (ISSN 1303-6475) and president of Association for Educational
Sciences Practice.
Dr. Selçuk Özdemir married and having two daughters, has been working on the development
and use of educational software since his undergraduate years. His focus is especially on creating
self-learning environments where kids can gain skills of coding, 3D design, web design, robotic
design/coding, and entrepreneurship. He is the founder of Bilişim Garaj Akademisi (ICT Garage
Academy) (bilisimgarajakademisi.com), where the children between ages 7 and 16 can learn how
to use computers and internet as a production and problem solving tool using online learning
content.

Chapter 3
A Qualitative Case Study of Tablet Use
in a High School in Turkey
Sadegül Akbaba Altun and Hale Ilgaz
Abstract Within the scope of FATIH project, tablet PCs have been distributed to
teachers and students starting with pilot schools. The purpose of this study is to
understand students’, teachers’, and administrators’ first-hand experiences on using
tablet PCs at their schools from a qualitative paradigm. A total of 101 students, 13
teachers, and 4 administrators participated in this study. Data were gathered through
interview forms. Three different interview forms, which contained 12 open-ended
questions for students, 10 questions for teachers, and 8 questions for administrators
are prepared. Participants were asked to fill the interview forms. Data analyzed by
descriptive and content analysis. It was found that students preferred tablet use for
entertainment, communication, and educational purposes. Teachers had doubts
about the educational benefits of tablet PCs. Administrators faced mainly the
technical problems. One reason of this result may be attributed to introducing two
novelties (interactive boards and tablet PCs) at the same time. Second, when
teachers and students made comments about their experiences, they mainly com-
pared tablet PCs with interactive whiteboards. These experiences might lead us to
conclude that if you put two novelties together into the system at the same time, it is
possible that one will fall under the shadow of another and will be preferred more
than the other. Thus, it can be suggested that in order to have successful ICT
integration, novelties can be introduced into the system one by one but aligned with
each other, and with the curriculum.
Keywords Tablet PC Teachers Students Administrators Turkey
S.A. Altun ()
Faculty of Education, College of Education, Başkent University, Eskişehir Yolu 20. Km
Bağlıca Kampusü/Etimesgut, Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: akbabas@baskent.edu.tr
H. Ilgaz
Distance Education Center, Ankara University, 50. Yıl Kampusu,
J Blok Golbasi, Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: hilgaz@ankara.edu.tr
37

3.1 Introduction
Computers have been introduced to schools in Turkey for more than three decades.
In 1984, Turkey’s Ministry of National Education (MoNE) ﬁrst introduced com-
puters to secondary schools. Then in 1991, national policy included computer-aided
instruction. Later, in 1998, the MoNE received a loan from the World Bank to
invest in a two-phase National Basic Education Program (BEP). As a compre-
hensive educational investment project, the objectives of the BEP were to expand
8-year compulsory education, to improve the quality of education, and to make
basic education schools become learning centers of the community. In order to
improve the quality of Turkey’s education, one of the objectives of this develop-
ment program was to ensure each student and teacher becomes at least literate in
information and communication technology (ICT). With the completion of these
projects almost all elementary schools equipped them with computers, printers,
scanners, TVs, videos, multimedia software, and slides. All schools had the same
number and type of IT tools, except for the number of computers. Laptop com-
puters were supplied to primary education supervisors who were then trained on
computer literacy, active learning, and teaching strategies. In addition, almost all
elementary school teachers were trained on computer literacy in various in-service
programs provided by the MoNE. Moreover, computer coordinators were trained
(MEB 2004; Akbaba-Altun 2006).
After implementation of this project, many studies were conducted about the
ICT integration in Turkey. Research results (Akbaba-Altun 2005, 2006; Karagöz
2004; Ünal and Öztürk 2012) and MoNE reports have indicated that IT classrooms
were not being used effectively (Reg No: 13, 2002), and suggest some precautions
to supervisors and administrators. Integration of computer technologies into edu-
cation was a reform in the Turkish education system which was aiming at leading
toward a knowledge society. However, without providing well-planned and
up-to-date training programs for supervisors, school administrators, computer
coordinators, and teachers, this process was mostly found to be ineffective
(Akbaba-Altun 2006). In addition, lack of ICT-based teaching resources, the effect
of traditional approaches on teachers’ practices, inadequacies regarding in-service
teacher training, and lack of time were reported as some barriers in front of ICT
integration (Ünal and Öztürk 2012).
In 2005, MoNE changed elementary and secondary education curriculum with
the emphasis on constructivist approach. With this curriculum change, in some
subject areas ICT integration was placed to curriculum as attainment. But, still ICT
has not been fully integrated into curriculum.
In 2010, MoNE stared another huge project which is called FATIH. FATIH
Project has been initiated by the Ministry of Education nationwide in order to
ensure all students access to equal opportunities in education and the information
and communication technologies as well as to train individuals who have the skills
required by the twenty-ﬁrst century. The Project implemented by the Ministry of
National Education has covered preschool, primary- and secondary-level schools.
38 S.A. Altun and H. Ilgaz

LCD Interactive Boards and Internet network infrastructure is provided to 570.000
classrooms within the scope of the project, and tablet PCs are given to all teachers
and students. Within the scope of FATIH Project, the infrastructure, hardware,
education informatics network (EBA), and in-service training of teachers have been
carried out in subprojects. First of all, it was started to be implemented as a pilot
scheme in 2010–2011 academic year, and it was designed as a 5-year project. The
main components of FATIH Project included the following activities:
1. Provision of hardware and software infrastructure
2. Ensuring educational e-content and managing
3. Effective usage of IT in education program
4. In-service training of teachers
5. Conscious, securely, manageable, and scalable use of IT (MEB 2015).
The foundations of the project have been based on the Strategy Document of the
Higher Council of Science and Technology projecting toward the period 2003–
2023. With the coordination of The Scientific and Technological Research Council
of Turkey (TUBITAK), the strategy document has emphasized individual differ-
ences in education and in learning and in people-oriented education system in the
Vision 2023 report (TÜBİTAK 2004).
In order to find solutions to possible upcoming problems and make the process a
smooth transition, a pilot phase was carried out. When the studies regarding the
piloting process were evaluated, it is observed that the attempts were initiated in the
last quarter of 2012 by soliciting experiences of administrators, students, and par-
ents (Günbayı and Yörük 2014; Kalelioğlu and Altın 2013; Güllüpınar et al. 2013;
Keser and Çetinkaya 2013; Dursun et al. 2013). Many studies emphasized the need
for school principals’ technological leadership (Bailey 2000; Akbaba-Altun 2002,
2004, 2006; Anderson and Dexter 2005).
In a recent study conducted by Günbayı and Yörük (2014), it was intended to
explore school administrators’ views and opinions regarding the implementation
process of FATIH project at schools. According to school principals, the perceived
benefits of the project was regarded as highly beneficial for increasing self-efficacy
and project outcomes; and more efforts were needed to make learning processes
aligned with ICT tools. School administrators also stated that their organizations
were moderately ready for this change so is the e-content.
In their qualitative study exploring school principals’ opinions regarding FATIH
project, Kalelioğlu and Altın (2013) reported that most school principals stated that
they found the project to be an affirmative contribution to education. In another
study conducted by Dursun et al. (2013), school principals had stated that teachers
could not use the interactive whiteboards and tablets as effectively as they used to
be due to the inefficiencies in e-content. In addition, school principals went further
to add that this project should have been embraced because of its investments in
infrastructure and their potential contribution to education.
In their study with teachers who took part in FATIH pilot process, Kurt et al
(2013) pointed out that interactive whiteboards were the most heavily used tool
among the others. In addition, the researchers had found out that teachers’
3 A Qualitative Case Study of Tablet Use in a High School in Turkey 39

interactive whiteboard use were correlated with teachers’ initial interest, attitudes,
their access frequencies in various materials and course materials, and their com-
petencies in technology use. With the help of this project, teachers believed that,
their schools became well-known, resulting in various visits from outside and
increased demand in school registration rates. Teachers also reported that tech-
nology integration process created an interactive support culture in teacher–teacher,
teacher–student, and student–student relations.
In another study, Güllüpınar et al. (2013) explored parents’ views on pilot process
at schools. The researchers concluded that parents held the belief of positive effects of
ICT integration on condition that teachers integrate them rich in content and effective
in organization to train future creative, explorative, and questioning generation.
Various research results indicate that the use of interactive whiteboards led
positive attitudes (Öztan 2012; Koçak, 2013; Pamuk et al. 2013; Kurt et al. 2013;
Sayır 2014; Devecioğlu and Kaymakçı 2014; Altın and Kalelioğlu 2015), whereas
the use of tablet PCs produced mixed results.
In their research exploring secondary school students’ views and expectations
from tablet PCs, Kalelioğlu and Akbaba-Altun (2014) reported that almost all
students were hesitant toward tablet PCs, were not informed enough, but excited
and happy to receive a tablet PC. Pamuk et al. (2013) found that the use of tablet
PCs was too low at schools. Kurt et al. (2013) reported that when students were
interacting with their tablet PCs, they missed eye contact with their teachers,
according to whom, this created classroom management issues.
As Altın and Kalelioğlu (2015) pointed out tablet PCs were not used purpose-
fully in classes; e-content was not adequate both for interactive whiteboards and
tablet PCs; therefore, they are useless, according to teachers. When considering the
effective use of tablet PCs at classrooms, students also share teachers’ views.
Improper use of and lack of e-content in tablet PCs might lead such negative
attitudes in students. In addition, students hold the belief that learning with tablet
PCs prevented their recollection of learning, did not make learning easier, and did
not increase their motivation toward the courses.
Within the scope of FATIH project, tablet PCs have been distributed to teachers
and students starting with pilot schools. Since there are mixed results in tablet PC
use, the purpose of this study is to understand students’, teachers’, and adminis-
trators’ ﬁrst-hand experiences on using tablet PCs at their schools from a qualitative
paradigm.
3.2 Methodology
This study is designed as a case study to understand students’, teachers’, and
administrators’ perceptions regarding to using tablet PCs in learning environments.
Case studies are used to describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life
context in which it occurred while “how” or “why” questions are being posed
(Yin 2003).

3.2.1 Participants
A total of 101 students, 13 teachers, and 4 administrators participated in this study.
The teachers’ content areas were literature, chemistry, English, math, physics, and
philosophy education. The administrators’ background was literature, chemistry, and
religious education. The participants’ demographic data are presented in Table 3.1.
3.2.2 Data Collection and Analysis
Data were gathered through interviews forms. Three different interview forms,
which contained 12 open-ended questions for students, 10 questions for teachers,
and 8 questions for administrators, were prepared for students, teachers and
administrators. Participants were asked to fill the interview forms. After data col-
lection, first each group data were coded by both researchers. Then, those coded
data were compared and emerged themes were determined.
Finally, two independent domain experts were asked to recode the data based on
the emerging codes and themes. According to Creswell (2007), researchers are to
obtain detailed field notes and transcribe these records carefully to increase the
reliability, which refers to stability of responses to multiple coders of data sets. For
this study, inter-coder agreement technique was used. Cohen’s Kappa coefficient
was calculated and found 0.72, which is within the range of acceptance
(Krippendorff 2004; Landis and Koch 1977).
Table 3.1 Demographic data
of participants
Students f
Gender Male 40
Female 61
Age 14 3
15 62
16 34
17 2
Teachers f
Gender Male 4
Female 9
Length of service 0–3 years 1
7–18 years 8
19–30 years 4
Administrators f
Gender Male 4
Female –
Length of service 19–30 years 3
30 and more years 1
3 A Qualitative Case Study of Tablet Use in a High School in Turkey 41

3.3 Findings
3.3.1 What Does “Tablet” Mean?
Students’ perceptions related to the tablets were related to the physical character-
istics and the intended use. Students have seen the tablets as a small and portable
computer. Also, it has been seen that they described it as a communication and
entertainment device, which helped them develop their lessons, enable them to play
games, to surf the Internet, etc.
On the other hand, teachers’ responses revealed the themes of use and their
economical dimension. They have stated that the improper use would have no
contribution to students’ learning and that the students have used the tablets for the
purpose of playing games. From an economical perspective, they stated that tablets
led to unnecessary costs and the technical infrastructure of tablets was inadequate.
Administrators’ opinions about the tablets are grouped in themes as outputs of
use, classroom management and technical issues. They think that tablets would be
useful if they were properly used, and the courses would have been performed more
efﬁciently. They think that it would be useful, if teacher control is ensured.
Moreover, the integration with other devices such as smart boards should be
provided.
3.3.2 Why Are You Given a “Tablet PC”?
Students’ responses regarding the reason for why they thought they had been given
tablets were categorized under the following themes: the purpose of supporting
learning, ergonomics, and equal opportunity”. Students mostly think that the tablets
have been distributed to help them learn. They also think that tablets have been
distributed to make studying easier and more enjoyable, to teach lessons effectively,
to help their homework, to contribute to education and to provide more visual
learning by reaching different materials on the Internet. They see that tablets save
students from carrying their heavyweight backpacks as they will not carry books. In
addition, tablets will help them learn and provide equal opportunity for people
whom economic situation is not good, and who cannot access technological devices
such as tablets. One student stated his/her ideas on this subject as follows:
Because, textbooks were doing too much weight. They all wanted to facilitate learning and
to teach courses technologically by putting them in a tablet. [S-49]
Tablet was given to facilitate our learning, now we will get information more easily.
[S-30]
Teachers’ opinions about the distributed tablets to students have been catego-
rized in the following themes: diversity of material, access, and ﬁnding them
unnecessary. Teachers have emphasized that visual support which tablets had
provided and saving students from the weight and cost of books had been among

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ÉTUDES SUR L'ISLAM ET LES
TRIBUS MAURES: LES BRAKNA ***

Au lecteur
Table des matières
Table des illustrations
COLLECTION DE LA REVUE DU MONDE MUSULMAN
PAUL MARTY
ÉTUDES SUR L'ISLAM
ET LES
TRIBUS MAURES
LES BRAKNA

PARIS
ÉDITIONS ERNEST LEROUX
28, RUE BONAPARTE (VIe
)
1921
ÉTUDES SUR L'ISLAM
ET LES
TRIBUS MAURES
COLLECTION DE LA REVUE DU MONDE MUSULMAN
PAUL MARTY

ÉTUDES SUR L'ISLAM
ET LES
TRIBUS MAURES
LES BRAKNA
PARIS
ÉDITIONS ERNEST LEROUX
28, RUE BONAPARTE (VIe
)
1921
A MONSIEUR LE COLONEL GADEN
GOUVERNEUR DES COLONIES
COMMISSAIRE DU GOUVERNEMENT GÉNÉRAL EN MAURITANIE
Respectueux hommage.
PAUL MARTY.

LIVRE PREMIER
HISTOIRE GÉNÉRALE
CHAPITRE PREMIER
LES ORIGINES. INVASIONS BERBÈRES (Çanhadja) ET ARABES
(Hassanes)
J'ai donné dans mon ouvrage «L'Émirat des Trarza» les traditions historiques
et légendaires relatives au séjour dans la basse Mauritanie du premier peuple
que nous y voyons installé, à l'aurore de son histoire, vers le dixième siècle: le
peuple bafour.
On retiendra seulement que ce peuple, qu'il soit noir, comme le veulent
plusieurs traditions maures, ou d'extraction juive, comme le croit M. Gaden, vit
mettre un terme à son indépendance par la poussée des tribus berbères
çanhadja du Sud marocain. La plus grande partie de ces Bafour descendit vers le
fleuve Sénégal; ils le traversèrent et refoulèrent à leur tour vers le sud, les
peuples socé de la rive gauche du Sénégal.
D'autre part, certaines fractions bafour restèrent sur les lieux, après avoir fait
acte de soumission, et payèrent tribut aux vainqueurs. Plusieurs lettrés maures
affirment que ces Bafour asservis sont, dans le Trarza, les actuelles fractions
zenaga Id Rarla des Lemradin, et dans le Brakna, les Ahel Ramouch, qui sont
tantôt chez les Zombot du Trarza et tantôt dans le Chamama du Brakna, les uns
et les autres tributaires des émirs. Il est plus vraisemblable que les Bafours
primitifs n'ont pas seuls donné naissance à ces fractions, d'ailleurs métissées,

mais qu'ils ont contribué par fusion avec des éléments maures, à les former au
cours des siècles.
Le mouvement almoravide a pour principaux effets d'introduire la race
berbère et la religion islamique jusqu'aux abords du fleuve Sénégal. Désormais
toute la région saharienne qui est au nord du fleuve, ou plus exactement au
nord du Chamama, devient le territoire des parcours des berbères lemtouna et
de leurs innombrables troupeaux. C'est le sort du pays brakna actuel, comme
celui du Trarza. Les tribus qui vivent à la frange méridionale de la région
saharienne vont, par leur contact quotidien avec les Nigritiens, se teinter
fortement de noir. Ceux-ci remontaient d'ailleurs beaucoup plus haut qu'à l'heure
actuelle, n'ayant pas perdu le souvenir du temps où ils dominaient jusque dans
l'Agan et sans doute plus au nord encore. Dans ce Brakna toucouleur, à chaque
puits, à chaque oued, à chaque pâturage, à chaque lieu dit même, le nom
maure est accompagné d'un nom poular. De multiples traditions et légendes
locales y sont attachées, qui seraient des plus utiles pour la reconstitution
historique du pays et qu'il est regrettable de voir disparaître à chaque
génération.

Jeune fille brakna.
Au sud, c'est-à-dire entre les dernières dunes sahariennes et le fleuve, dans
cette zone d'inondation et de cultures qu'on appelle le Chamama et où seuls les
Mélaniens peuvent vivre et travailler, l'élément noir continue à subsister; mais les
relations avec ses voisins blancs seront plus d'une fois tendues, et pratiquement
ces cultivateurs qui passent d'ailleurs le plus facilement du monde d'une rive à
l'autre, vivront dans un demi-état de dépendance, jusqu'au jour où les invasions
arabes viendront troubler cet équilibre politique et social, chasser la majeure
partie des Noirs vers le sud, asservir les autres et accaparer les terres.
C'est Abou Bekr ben Omar qui, à la tête de bandes lemtouna, Djodala et
Messoufa, descendues du sud marocain par la sebkha d'Idjil, fit, entre 1062 et
1087, la conquête de l'empire bafour précité. On retrouve aujourd'hui, sous ce

même nom, leurs descendants en basse Mauritanie: les Lemtouna dans le
Brakna, l'Assaba et le Tagant; les Guedala (ex-Djodala) dans le Tiris et le Brakna,
où, comme on le verra, les campements haratines des Oulad Abd Allah sont
dénommés haratines Igdala.
Il y avait évidemment dans cette invasion berbère bien d'autres tribus que
les ancêtres des actuels campements guedala et lemtouna. Comme on peut déjà
le constater dans l'Afrique du Nord, après un siècle d'occupation, certaines
fractions des peuples envahisseurs se sont accrues démesurément et ont fini par
être désignées sous leur nom propre, perdant ainsi leur nom général de tribu, et
arrivant même quelquefois à le remplacer chez les autres fractions.
En ce qui concerne le Brakna, il y a donc bien d'autres tribus que les
campements cités plus haut, qui soient d'origine berbère.
Il y a: 1o
une grande partie des fractions tributaires, plus spécialement
appelées zenaga (ou lahma, «viande»; ou ashab, «gens») chez les guerriers, et
telamides chez les marabouts; 2o
toutes les fractions proprement maraboutiques
(zouaïa, tolba). On en verra la liste plus loin de ces fractions qui sont aujourd'hui
les seules lettrées, se sont attribué, des origines, soit chérifiennes, soit pour le
moins arabes: c'est là une question de mode, une sorte de snobisme universel
dans le monde islamique, blanc ou noir. On ne nie pas la plupart du temps
provenir du haut pays marocain et être d'origine lemtouna et çanhadja, mais on
déclare qu'il ne faut pas confondre ces tribus, berbères si l'on veut par leur
habitat, avec les autres tribus berbères, les vraies, les autochtones marocaines,
les Chleuh. Les Chleuh sont des aborigènes. Les Çanhadja-Lemtouna sont les
descendants de tribus arabes, immigrées d'Orient en Afrique du Nord, les uns
peu après l'hégire, les autres mêmes antérieurement à l'islam, ce qui explique
leur islamisation tardive. On donne comme cause de leur établissement pré-
islamique au milieu des Berbères que le roi Friqicha, qui les avait à sa solde, les
abandonna dans le Moghreb, au cours de ses expéditions à travers le monde.
Ces Arabes étaient fils de Tobbaa, qui s'était enfui de chez ses frères d'Orient.
Par ces explications les plus intelligents d'entre les lettrés maures (Cheikh Sidia,
par exemple) espèrent concilier dans leur esprit leur indubitable origine berbère
marocaine et leur traditionnelle arrivée dans le Sahara méridional avec les
bandes d'Abou Bekr ben Omar, d'une part, et leur vif désir de se rattacher,
envers et contre tout, à une souche arabe d'autre part. On trouvera développé
plus loin, dans la notice consacrée à chaque tribu, le récit légendaire de ces
origines.
Quant à l'usage de parler zenaga, il est complètement tombé en désuétude
dans les tribus brakna. En dehors du Trarza, on ne le trouve plus en Mauritanie.
Mais le dialecte maure qui porte le nom de hassania, c'est-à-dire langue des
hassanes, Arabes des invasions, et qui s'est substitué par droit de conquête à la

langue zenaga a été fortement marqué par l'empreinte de cette dernière langue.
On y trouvera plus spécialement une foule de noms de lieux, de flore, de faune,
des termes concernant la vie matérielle, etc., tous mots constituant une
onomastique spéciale au pays, et que les Arabes ont dû emprunter aux tribus
qu'ils trouvaient sur les lieux et soumettaient à leur domination.
A tous ces titres et attendu que les traditions, forgées par les zouaïa, pour se
donner des origines chérifiennes, himyarites ou qoreïchites, ne reposent sur
aucune précision et leur sont contestées formellement par les hassanes très
souvent par leurs propres frères, marabouts comme eux, on peut conclure que
les tribus maraboutiques maures sont pour la très grande majorité des Berbères,
soit descendant des hordes guerrières qui suivaient Abou Bekr ben Omar, ce qui
est admis par les intéressés mêmes chez les Medlich, Tendra et Tadjakant
(Trarza), chez les Dieïdiba (Brakna), chez les Ida Ou Aïch (Tagant-Assaba), et
chez les Mechdouf (Hodh), soit issus des familles ou des individualités qui, par la
suite, vinrent chercher fortune dans la Mauritanie zenaguïa.
*
* *
A la fin du quatorzième siècle, se place un événement considérable qui allait
changer la face de la Mauritanie. Cet événement, générateur de la situation
actuelle, est l'arrivée dans l'Ouest saharien des bandes d'origine arabe. Cette
introduction de sémites, nomades guerriers et pillards, dans un milieu berbère,
devait être une cause de troubles; et comme elle devait se renouveler, les
immigrants, quoique moins nombreux, allaient dompter les Berbères, leur
imposer leurs conditions et modifier leur état social.
Je ne reviendrai pas sur l'histoire des Arabo-hassanes. Elle a été faite dans
mon ouvrage «L'Émirat des Trarza» et avec plus de détails encore dans «Les
tribus maures du Sahel et du Hodh».
On retiendra seulement ceci: les groupements hassanes, qui, vers 1400,
envahissent la Mauritanie sont au nombre de deux, issus des deux fils de
Hassan: Oudeï et Delim.
De Delim sont issus les Oulad Delim, dont il n'y a pas lieu de s'occuper ici.
C'est d'Oudeï que sont sorties les tribus hassanes qui peuplent le Brakna,
celles-là mêmes qui portent ce nom, à l'exclusion de toutes les autres tribus
maraboutiques zenaga ou haratines, qui peuvent habiter les pays Brakna (trab
brakna), mais ne sont pas dites telles. Voici ces origines d'après les traditions
générales et les généalogies données universellement, à quelques variantes
près. Ce tableau résume les données de la tradition maure. Il établit la filiation

arabe de ces tribus, leur parenté avec leurs cousins du Sahara et leur
rattachement commun à Oudeï, fils de Hassan.
Hassân.
Oudeï. Delim,
ancêtre des O.
Delim.
Hamma,
ancêtre des
Berabich.
Marfar,
ancêtre des
Merafra.
Rizg,
ancêtre des O.
Rizg.
Mohammed. Arrouq.
Othman. Daoud,
ancêtre des
Oulad Daoud
Mohammed.
Daoud,
ancêtre des
Oulad Daoud
Arrouq.
Omran. Yahia,
ancêtre des O.
Yahia ben
Othman.
Antar,
ancêtre des
Oulad Nacer.
Rehhal,
ancêtre des
Rehahla.
Heddaj. Mohammed,
ancêtre des O.
Mohammed et
des O. Mbarek.
Barkenni,
ancêtre des
Brakna.
Terrouz,
ancêtre des
Trarza.
Khouaou,
ancêtre des
Khouaouat
(disparus).

CHAPITRE II
LA DOMINATION DES HASSANNES OULAD RIZG
(XVe
SIÈCLE)
Le quinzième siècle paraît dominé: dans le Tiris et dépendances, par les
descendants et bandes de Rizg, fils d'Oudeï, fils de Hassan; dans l'Adrar et le
Hodh, par les descendants et bandes de Daoud, autre fils d'Oudeï.
Les Oulad Rizg, comme les appelle la tradition, comprenaient les
campements de ses cinq fils, à savoir les Oulad Mezzouq, les Oulad Aïd, les
Djaafar, les Sekakna et les Rehamna (ou Rehamin), respectivement issus ou
dépendants de Mezzouq, Aïd, Djaafer, Sekkoun et Rahmoun, fils de Bassin.
Des Oulad Rizg, il convient de dire que subsistent aujourd'hui dans le Trarza,
mais fort amoindries numériquement et politiquement, quelques petites
fractions, restées hassanes indépendantes: les Oulad Moussa, les Oulad
Beniouk, les Oulad Khalifa, les Oulad Ben Ali, qui marchent dans le sillage des
Oulad Ahmed ben Dâmân. Les autres: Oulad Aïd, quelques tentes Bassin, sont
fondus chez les Arroueïjat du Trarza, dans diverses tribus du Brakna et du
Gorgol, ou bien encore sont telamides des Ahel Barik Allah; et enfin quelques
tentes Rehamna et Zebeïrat qui ont été réduites à la suite de guerres
malheureuses, à l'état de tributaires des Oulad Ahmed ben Dâmân. Ils sont
guerriers néanmoins et marchent en rezzou avec leurs suzerains.
Les Oulad Rizg et les Agcharat (ceux-ci sont des Oulad Daoud) étaient
appelés alors Arabes Regueïtat, c'est-à-dire, dans la terminologie maure, Arabes
qui occupent un territoire inhabité, sorte de zone neutre, sise entre deux États
auxquels elle n'appartient pas.
Cette explication philologique éclaire singulièrement le rôle qu'au quinzième
siècle les envahisseurs arabes, installés approximativement dans l'Aftout, vont
jouer, tant vis-à-vis des Berbères du Nord (Tiris et Adrar) que des Noirs du Sud
(Chemama, Gorgol et Tagant).
Aux Berbères du Nord, ils font sentir leur présence par de nombreux pillages
et par toute sorte d'avanies. J'en ai fait le récit dans «L'Émirat des Trarza» et n'y
reviendrai pas.
Cet effacement des Berbères paraît tout à fait regrettable. S'ils avaient voulu
résister fermement aux envahisseurs, leur nombre et leurs richesses leur
permettaient facilement de dompter ces quelques pillards et de les rejeter au
loin ou de les assimiler. La civilisation berbère, pratique et progressiste, valait

bien les coutumes arabes, négatives ou oppressives, issus d'un nomadisme
invétéré, impropre à toute évolution sérieuse. Au point de vue économique, le
Sahara occidental, méthodiquement mis en valeur par la tenacité âpre et
presque cupide du Berbère, serait vraisemblablement beaucoup plus riche qu'il
ne l'est maintenant. Ce n'était pas seulement sur les tribus berbères que
s'exerçaient les pillages des hassanes. Les peuples noirs qui vivaient à ce
moment sur la rive droite du Sénégal et mettaient en valeur le Chamama, le
Gorgol et même le Tagant, avaient aussi à souffrir de leurs déprédations.
CHAPITRE III
LA DOMINATION DES OULAD MBAREK
(XVIe
SIÈCLE)
Pendant que les Oulad Rizg faisaient sentir leur prépondérance, une autre
branche, issue également d'Oudeï, se multipliait et allait conquérir, vers la fin du
quinzième siècle, la suprématie politique. Il s'agit des Merafra, ainsi nommés
parce qu'ils descendent de Marfar, fils d'Oudeï, et frère par conséquent de Rizg
et de Daoud.
Ces Merafra n'ont pas laissé un souvenir trop abhorré. Leur nom, passé dans
le langage courant, est synonyme aujourd'hui, chez les Tolba, de «guerriers
valeureux et relativement honnêtes».
Ils se présentent, dès le premier jour, sous la forme de deux bandes: l'une
composée de la famille et des amis et fidèles de Mohammed, fils d'Omran, fils
d'Othman, fils de Marfar. Ce sont les Oulad Mbarek. L'autre composée des
familles, amis et fidèles du frère de Mohammed, le nommé Heddaj, fils d'Omran,
fils d'Othman, fils de Marfar. Cette dernière bande, commandée par les trois fils
d'Heddaj: Terrouz, Barkenni et Khaou, est encore immobilisée par les
dissensions intestines. Elle n'apparaîtra définitivement constituée en corps de
tribus, sous le nom de Trarza, Brakna et Khouaouat, qu'un siècle plus tard, c'est-
à-dire vers la fin du seizième siècle.
Au commencement de ce seizième siècle donc, la suprématie du Tiris passe
aux Oulad Mbarek. Ce n'est probablement pas sans résistance que leurs cousins
Oulad Rizg leur cédèrent la place. Ni l'histoire ni la tradition n'en ont conservé le
souvenir, de même qu'elles ne font pas connaître si ces bandes de Merafra
arrivaient alors en Mauritanie en envahisseurs, ou si, venus un siècle plus tôt

avec les premiers hassanes, elles avaient crû et s'étaient formées sur les lieux
mêmes.
De la domination des Oulad Mbarek pendant le seizième siècle, la tradition
zouaïa ne nous cite que quelques faits, visant naturellement l'oppression qu'ils
faisaient subir aux marabouts.
Je n'y reviendrai pas, en ayant fait le récit dans «L'Émirat des Trarza».
Les Oulad Mbarek allaient passer, à la fin du seizième siècle, au second plan
de la scène politique du Tiris, en attendant que, quelques années plus tard, ils
émigrassent vers le Hodh, où ils constituent aujourd'hui la tribu que l'on connaît.
Cette chute paraît résulter des intrigues et des ruses des zouaïa exaspérés qui
surent mettre aux prises le groupement des Oulad Mbarek et celui des Trarza-
Brakna-Khouaouat.
Les Yaqoubïïn, c'est-à-dire les deux actuelles tribus tachomcha: Id Eqouïb et
Ahel Barik Allah (Trarza), alors campés à Tin Mejouk, allaient amener le
dénouement en refusant de payer leur tribut. Ahmed Doula, leur chef, dont la
famille existe toujours, vint faire part à Oudeïk, chef des Oulad Mbarek, de la
décision de la tribu. Le «Chauve», surnom d'Oudeïk, prit aussitôt ses
dispositions pour razzier les rebelles. Ceux-ci, qui regrettaient leur attitude de
révoltés, ainsi qu'il résulte des paroles que leur adressa Ahmed Doula: «Mes
discours à Oudeïk nous ont grandement nui», s'étaient groupés autour du saint
vénéré, Habib Allah ben Yaqoub, et lui demandèrent le secours de ses prières.
C'est alors que l'on apprit l'attaque imminente du camp d'Oudeïk par les
guerriers Brakna: les Oulad zenaguïa. Oudeïk, qui était précisément l'hôte du
faqih Habib Allah, lui confia ses bagages et partit au secours des siens. Le
combat se livra à Aguiert; et Oudeïk y fut tué par Al-Ograïra ben Al-Afna, dont la
famille vit toujours dans sa tribu des Oulad Abd Allah (Brakna). Les Zouaïa
étaient sauvés.
Le faqih Habib Allah, qui est manifestement l'artisan de cette heureuse
diversion, n'eut garde d'oublier de renvoyer à la famille d'Oudeïk les bagages
qu'il avait en dépôt. Quant à la femme d'Oudeïk, Kartoufa, à l'annonce de la
mort de son mari, elle monta à son campement d'In Saraïer sur un taïchot
(balanites cogytiaca) et fit entendre sans trève des gémissements. L'arbre en a
gardé le souvenir, et fut dès lors appelé le «Tichtaïa de Kartoufa».
Les Oulad Mbarek disparaissent de Mauritanie à la fin du seizième siècle, et
c'est à ce moment que s'élèvent les Trarza-Brakna dans la région, qui depuis a
porté leur nom.

CHAPITRE IV
LES ORIGINES DES BRAKNA
Le tableau généalogique ci-après, dégagé des branches collatérales, permet
de saisir d'un coup d'œil les origines des Brakna.
Hassan.
Oudeï.
Marfar.
Othman.
Omran.
Heddaj.
(début du quinzième siècle).
Barkenni,
ancêtre des
Brakna.
Terrouz,
ancêtre des
Trarza.
Mellouk.
Kerroum.

Abd Al-Jebbar. Abd Allah,
ancêtre des
Oulad Abd
Allah.
Al-Yatim,
ancêtre des
Litama (Gorgol
et Assaba).
Mohammed,
etc.
Biri, etc.
ancêtre des
Oulad Biri.
Ahmed,
ancêtre des
Oulad Ahmed.
Au quinzième siècle, c'est-à-dire peu après l'arrivée des premiers hassanes
dans la haute Mauritanie, les fils de Heddaj: Barkenni et Terrouz, qui
conduisaient leur groupement d'envahisseurs, jusqu'alors uni, durent se séparer
à la suite de querelles intestines, nées à propos de partage de butin.
Le groupe des fils et serviteurs de Barkenni, se développant au cours du
quinzième siècle, devait constituer le peuple Brakna, que nous voyons apparaître
à la fin du seizième siècle seulement. Les Trarza se formaient de la même façon.
Trarza et Brakna dépouillent, comme il a été dit, les Oulad Mbarek de leur
suprématie et les repoussent vers l'est. Ils vont désormais et jusqu'à nos jours
rester chacun maître dans leur région.
Le quinzième siècle est approximativement rempli par les trois générations:
Barkenni, Mellouk fils de Barkenni, et Kerroum fils de Mellouk, sur lesquels nous
n'avons aucun renseignement.
Au début du seizième siècle, par les trois fils de Kerroum on voit se
constituer les tribus d'origine brakna: a) Abd Al-Jebbar donnera naissance par
son fils Ahmed aux Oulad Ahmed et par son fils Biri ould Mohammed aux Oulad
Biri.
b) Abd Allah donnera naissance aux Oulad Abd Allah, qui sont les seuls qui
portent dans le langage courant des tribus le nom de Brakna.
c) Al-Yatim est l'ancêtre éponyme des Litama.
Il y a donc à l'heure actuelle quatre tribus véritablement brakna; les Oulad
Biri, les Oulad Ahmed, les Oulad Abd Allah, les Litama.
Les Oulad Biri habitent les confins du Trarza et du Brakna. Dans cette marche
neutre, ils ont subi l'influence des Trarza plus fortement et sont, depuis un
siècle, et sous notre régime même, compris dans l'orbite trarza. Ils ont d'ailleurs
versé dans le maraboutisme. Mais ils n'ignorent pas leur origine brakna et à ce
titre ont toujours conservé avec ces tribus, et notamment avec les Oulad

Ahmed, leurs cousins plus immédiats, comme on le voit par le tableau précité, et
leurs voisins, des relations étroites de sympathie et d'alliance.
Les Litama ont appuyé vers l'est et, à demi assujettis par les Id Ou Aïch, à
demi fondus dans l'élément nègre, ils font aujourd'hui, sur les bords du Sénégal
et du Gorgol, figure de Zenaga.
Seuls les Oulad Abd Allah et les Oulad Ahmed sont restés vrais fils de
Barkenni, guerriers pillards, hassanes mécréants et chefs politiques du pays à
qui ils ont donné leur nom. Et encore seuls les Oulad Abd Allah ont-ils conservé
l'appellation de leur ancêtre éponyme, puisque seuls ils sont dits «Brakna».
J'ai décrit dans mon «Émirat des Trarza», d'après le «Chiam az-Zouaïa» les
luttes engagées et menées à bien par les Brakna et Trarza contre les Oulad Rizg,
au début du dix-septième siècle. Les hassanes des premières invasions furent
soumis et asservis.
Les Zouaïa, qui avaient pour le moins soutenu les vaincus de leurs
sympathies, furent très affectés de leur défaite et, craignant des représailles,
eurent un moment la pensée de s'enfuir avec eux. Le départ de l'Aroussi, le plus
acharné de leurs ennemis, les rassura. Ils restèrent donc, mais les discussions
qui les agitèrent alors provoquèrent un déclassement de tribus. Le «Chiam az-
Zouaïa» donne la liste de ces nouveaux groupements et, en ce qui concerne les
Brakna, signale que les Beni Iddan Abiaj, des Tachomcha, allèrent se joindre, à
cette date, aux Dieïdiba.
Les fils de Kerroum, qui, à la tête du groupement brakna et avec l'assistance
des Trarza, avaient réduit les Oulad Rizg, entendaient bien chausser leurs bottes.
Ils invitèrent donc les Berbères à acquitter entre leurs mains les redevances
coutumières. «Ceux-ci, dit le «Chiam az-Zouaïa», mirent la plus tenace
obstination dans leur refus et finirent par avoir gain de cause.»
La chose paraît fort douteuse, mais ce qui est plus étrange encore, c'est la
prétention qu'affectent les Zouaïa d'avoir reçu des gages de prix des hassanes.
Al-Mokhtar, fils d'Abd Allah ben Kerroum, l'ancêtre éponyme des Oulad Abd Allah
(Brakna), était venu offrir un chameau de choix à Al-Fadel (Sidi-l-Falli), fils de
Mohammed ben Dîman. Il fut rencontré par Ahmed ben Dâmân (Trarza), qui à
sa vue s'empressa de courir chez les siens et leur fit comprendre qu'il valait
mieux faire des cadeaux aux Zouaïa que de prélever sur eux des tributs. A la
suite de ce discours, les Oulad Dâmân se précipitèrent chez les Zouaïa avec
tellement de rapidité, qu'ils devancèrent les Oulad Abd Allah et purent effectuer
avant ceux-ci la remise de leurs présents. Le «Chiam az-Zouaïa» ne manque pas
de tirer la morale de ce récit: «Ce sont ces bons procédés qui sont la cause de la
situation élevée que les Oulad Dâmân ont conservée jusqu'à ce jour: il leur faut
donc honorer les descendants de Sid Al-Fadel.»

Il n'est pas impossible que les Brakna, comme les Trarza, aient fait des
cadeaux aux Zouaïa. La chose se passe encore de nos jours entre deux pillages
de campements tolba. Mais il est à croire que les hassanes continuaient, malgré
toute l'obstination des Berbères, à prélever sur eux le tribut. On en trouvera la
confirmation dans la haine que Sid Al-Fadel, qui paraît avoir été à ce moment le
personnage maraboutique le plus en vue des Zouaïa, portait aux hassanes. «Je
hais les Merafra, disait-il; car ils extermineront mes descendants. Une guerre
terrible doit incessamment éclater entre eux.»
La prédiction n'allait pas tarder à se réaliser. Sid Al-Fadel comprenait bien
que les deux peuples arabes et berbères ne pouvaient vivre ainsi sur le pied
d'égalité, et puisque les Berbères,—son peuple,—ne voulaient pas assurer leur
défense, les armes à la main, il fallait qu'ils s'inclinassent devant les guerriers.
Le «Chiam az-Zouaïa» signale un dernier trait: Sid Brahim, le chef des
Aroussiïn, n'avait pas abdiqué toute prétention sur les Zouaïa. Du nord où il
campait, il envoya un jour son fils Al-Habib, à la tête d'une forte bande, prélever
le tribut auquel il croyait avoir droit. Les Zouaïa concentrèrent leur force à Tin
Goufanin; mais plus confiants dans la ruse que dans la force, ils demandèrent
conseil à Lamin, fils de Barik Allah. Ils lui promirent par tente un tribut d'une
livre de grain (moudd) et d'une mesure de beurre fondu, s'il les débarrassait des
hassanes. Le marabout prit quatre piquets, récita sur chaque piquet un verset
du Coran, et les planta aux quatre coins du rassemblement tachomcha. Après
quoi il ordonna aux jeunes gens d'aller galoper autour de l'ennemi, cependant
que l'un d'eux: Abd Allah ould Kadda, des Id ag Jemouella, doué d'un organe
sonore, poussait des commandements retentissants, auxquels la troupe
répondait par des acclamations prolongées.
Il paraît que ce spectacle impressionna tellement les Aroussiïn, qu'ils levèrent
le camp et se retirèrent en fuyards.
CHAPITRE V
LA GUERRE DE BABBAH ET LES IMAMS BERBÈRES
Les graves événements qui allaient se dérouler en Mauritanie, vers le milieu
du dix-septième siècle, devaient bouleverser complètement les tribus maures et
établir d'une façon définitive les conditions de la vie sociale telles que nos

ancêtres les ont vues vers la fin du dix-septième siècle, et telles que nous les
voyons nous-mêmes aujourd'hui.
A cette date, politiquement, les Berbères, sans opposer de résistance
militaire, essaient de tenir tête aux prétentions des hassanes, tantôt par leur
obstination implacable à refuser tout tribut, tantôt par des offres de cadeaux,
qui peuvent écarter momentanément l'orage en semant la division chez
l'ennemi.
La politique du grand marabout et imam, Nacer ad-Din, allait être le signal
de profondes modifications. Portés un instant au pinacle par la volonté de fer de
ce saint homme et unis sous sa baraka, les Berbères faillirent triompher et
exterminer les hassanes. La mort de Nacer ad-Din, les divisions qui suivirent,
réduisirent à néant leurs succès. Ce sont là des aventures de marabouts, qui se
sont renouvelées maintes fois jusqu'à nos jours.
J'ai décrit longuement, dans L'Émirat des Trarza, la «guerre de Babbah»,
comme l'appelle la tradition maure, ses diverses péripéties, la fin de la lutte, ses
conséquences. Il n'y a pas lieu d'y revenir ici.
Il suffit de rappeler que les tribus maraboutiques du Brakna ne surent pas
s'unir contre l'ennemi commun. Seuls les Dieïdiba semblent s'être engagés à
fond à la suite de l'imam national. Les autres ou se désintéressèrent de la lutte,
ou se prétendirent contraints de tenir tête aux hassanes locaux. Les Brakna, au
contraire, marchèrent en bloc avec leurs cousins Trarza, fournirent des
contingents et des subsides et immobilisèrent leurs marabouts.
Les Dieïdiba, au cours de la lutte vers 1668, firent une fois bande à part et
faillirent provoquer une scission en élevant un anti-imam, Nahoui ben Agd Abd
Allah, contre Mounir ad-Din, frère de Nacer ad-Din et cinquième imam. L'accord
se fit et Mounir resta en titre, Nahoui fut son Khalifa officiel. Il ne put
malheureusement faire prévaloir ses avis sur ceux de Mounir, jeune homme
inexpérimenté, et tous deux par bravade acceptèrent avec des forces inférieures
le combat que leur offraient les hassanes. Ils furent tués à Dokol, à 20
kilomètres en amont de Dagana, et les troupes taillées en pièces (vers 1670).
On ne sait pas à quelle tribu appartenaient ce Nahoui, candidat des Dieïdiba,
et son frère Agd al-Mokhtar, qui fut le sixième et dernier imam. Il paraît établi
qu'ils étaient originaires d'une tribu maraboutique du Brakna, probablement des
Dieïdiba. C'est sur le territoire brakna, en effet, que se déroulèrent les derniers
incidents de la lutte (1670-1674). L'imam fit d'abord des courses, souvent
heureuses, contre les Oulad Abd Allah, les Oulad Mbarek et les Litama. Le
suprême combat s'engagea à Tin Ifdadh, près d'Ouezzan, dans l'Agan (Brakna
septentrional). Agd Al-Mokhtar, son frère Imijen, et les derniers guerriers zouaïa
y périrent.

On connaît le traité de paix qui intervint, en 1674, à Tin Iefdadh. En voici,
d'après la tradition brakna, les trois principales clauses: 1o
Les Zaouïa donneront
l'hospitalité à tous les Merafra qui viendront la leur demander, et cette hospitalité
durera au moins trois jours.
2o
Les Zaouïa feront parvenir chez lui (id est, sans traîtrise et en lui donnant
des montures) tout hassani qui leur demandera son chemin.
3o
Les hassanes auront droit au tiers de l'eau des puits, lors de l'abreuve des
animaux.
Les Dieïdiba comptèrent parmi les tribus les plus éprouvées, et se virent
affectés comme vassaux-marabouts aux Oulad Abd Allah mêmes. Cette alliance
a duré jusqu'à nos jours inclus. Les hassanes sont restés fidèles à leurs tolba,
comme ceux-ci l'étaient à leurs Arabes; ils se sont mutuellement porté secours,
au fil de leur histoire, et l'occupation française les a fait fuir ensemble vers le
nord, unis jusque dans la chute de l'ancien régime.
On remarquera, en terminant, combien jusqu'à cette fin du dix-septième
siècle la berbérisation a été profonde dans la basse Mauritanie. La plupart des
noms de lieux et même de personnes sont des noms berbères. Tout individu, à
côté de son nom arabe, a son nom berbère ou zenagui, sous lequel, dans le
langage courant, il est plus généralement désigné. La langue en usage est
encore le berbère. Mais, avec la conquête hassane, l'arabe va prendre le dessus
et refouler insensiblement langue et coutumes berbères. La langue berbère n'est
plus parlée du tout aujourd'hui sur le territoire brakna.
CHAPITRE VI
LA BRANCHE AÎNÉE DES ÉMIRS BRAKNA: OULAD NORMACH
C'est à cette date (deuxième moitié du dix-septième siècle) que se constituait
définitivement l'émirat des Brakna. Il est nécessaire de donner tout d'abord le
tableau généalogique des premiers Brakna de la tente princière.
1. Abd Allah,
ancêtre des Oulad
Abd Allah (seizième
siècle).

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