Im project,09.01.12

Preface

Environment of global markets is challenging and has a multiple connotations
for the marketer. Today the corporate world cannot survive with restricting
themselves within the domestic boundaries. As the consumers across countries
become more universal in nature, it is mandatory to look at the whole world as
markets are growing continuously. The number of companies operating
internationally is growing constantly. The world is opening up for foreign firms
and new destinations in the company business are increasing. Because of high
competition the companies operating abroad are faced with a much larger task
then before.

What surprises do the new decade, century, and millennium hold in store for all
of us? Which will prove the better, Chinese gradualism or the Russian big-bang
approach to economic and political reform? Will the information technology
boom of the previous decade be followed by a demographics bust? Or will
NAFTA and the young folks in Mexico provide a much needed demographic
balance? Will the economic tsunami of 2008–2009 or global terrorism as
represented by the September 11, 2001, attacks evolve into something even
worse? What unforeseen advances or disasters will the biological sciences bring
us? Will we conquer AIDS⁄HIV in Africa? Will weapons and warfare become
obsolete?

International marketing will play a key role in providing positive answers to all
these questions. Markets are mushrooming in emerging economies in Eastern
Europe, the Commonwealth of Independent States, China, Indonesia, Korea,
India, Mexico, Chile, Brazil, and Argentina—in short, globally. These emerging
economies hold the promise of huge markets in the future.

In the international challenges, culture and political issues are the main
obstacles that are becoming crucial in the everyday work and can affect the
entire co-operation. Culture can influence the business in different ways such as
Language problems, pricing difficulties; culture collisions, political stability,
trading disputes, terrorist problem, licensing problem etc. The company must
be able to handle these difficulties in a way that is satisfying also for the other
part.

It is also important, even before entering the foreign country, to inform the
personal about the manners and customs in that new culture. If the first
impression becomes negative, this can be hard to shake. Culture can be both a
positive and negative influence and many companies are struggling in the new
and foreign environment.

The important thing to always have in mind is that the foreign culture is not as
we are used to at home and to be prepared before starting the new foreign

Page | 1 Siddhartha S Majumder (S-93)

operation. Respecting and understanding the new culture without forcing our
own beliefs on people, are things that can be extremely helpful to consider. By
learning the host country’s language, can respect and trust more easily be won,
and competitive advantages can arise.

The aim of this project is to introduce the International Marketing, which
explains how Markets operate globally in a global Environment in terms of
socio-cultural, business customs and political changes. What types of
difficulties/problems are interacting by the Global Companies in a Global market
due to these changes and how to minimize or resolve these problems? These
changes are dramatically altered the landscape of global business during last
ten decades. These changes affect the practice of business worldwide, and they
mean that companies will have to constantly examine the way they do business
and remain flexible enough to react rapidly to changing global trends to be
competitive.

The structure of this project report has been divided in to three topics, i.e.
cultural dynamics, Business customs & Political environment, followed by
conclusion. Effect of each of these changes is broadly discussed in this report
with example. This project report is prepared based on the secondary data
collected from various sources from internet and books as mentioned in the
bibliography.


Table of Contents

1. Introduction 4-5

2. Cultural Dynamics in assessing global market

2.1 What is Culture 5-5
2.2 Culture’s pervasive impact 5-7
2.3 Origin of Culture 7-8

2.3.1 Geography
2.3.2 History
2.3.3 The political economy
2.3.4 Technology
2.3.5 Social Institutions

2.4 Elements of Culture 8-12

2.4.1 Cultural Values
2.4.2 Rituals
2.4.3 Symbols
2.4.5 Language
2.4.6 Belief
2.4.7 Thought process
2.4.8 Cultural Sensitivity & Tolerance

2.5 Cultural Change 12-13

2.5.1 Cultural Borrowing
2.5.2 Similarities: an illusion
2.5.3 Resistance to change
2.5.4 Planned & Unplanned change
2.5.5 Consequence of change

3. Business Customs in Global Marketing 13-17

3.1 Required Adaptation
3.2 Imperatives, Adiaphora & Exclusive
3.3 Methods of doing business
3.4 Sources & level of opportunity
3.5 Management Objectives & Aspirations.
3.6 Personal Goals
3.7 Security & Mobility
3.8 Personal life

3.9 Social acceptance
3.10 Power
3.11 Communications emphasis
3.12 Formality & Tempo

3.13 P-time Vs M-time
3.14 Negotiation emphasis
3.15 Gender bias in international business

4. Critical Concerns of Political Environment 18-24

4.1 The Political environment
4.2 National-states & Sovereignty
4.3 Stability of Govt. Policies
4.4 Forms of Govt. & Political Parties
4.5 Nationalism
4.6 Targeted Fear and/or Animosity
4.7 Trade Dispute
4.8 Political risk of Global Business
4.9 Confiscation, Expropriation & Domestication
4.10 Economic Risk
4.11 Exchange Controls
4.12 Local – current Laws
4.13 Import Restrictions
4.14 Tax Controls
4.15 Price Controls
4.16 Labour Problems
4.17 Violence, Terrorism & War
4.18 Assessing Political Vulnerability
4.19 Political Sensitive Products & Issues
4.20 Forecasting Political Risk
4.21 Lessening Political Vulnerability
4.22 Joint Venture
4.23 Expending the Investment Base
4.24 Licensing
4.25 Planned Domestication
4.26 Political Bargaining
4.27 Political Payoffs
4.28 Govt. Encouragement

5. Conclusion 24-24

6. Bibliography 25-25


1. Introduction

At the beginning of the last millennium, the Chinese were the outstanding
international traders. Chinese silk had been available in Europe since Roman
times. At the beginning of the last century the British military, merchants, and
manufacturers dominated the seas and international commerce. Literally, the sun
did not set on the British Empire.

The American domination of information technology has since been followed by
the political upheaval of 9/11 and the economic shocks of 2001 and 2008. China
started that decade as the largest military threat to the United States, and it has
become a leading, often difficult trading partner.

The economic, political, socio-cultural and Business customs changes that have
occurred over the last decade have dramatically altered the landscape of global
business. Consider the present and future impact of the following:

• Threat of global terrorism as represented by the September 11, 2001,
attacks

• Major armed conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East

• The potential global recession emanating from the United States

• The emerging markets in Eastern Europe, Asia, and Latin America, where
more than 75 percent of the growth in world trade over the next 20 years is
expected to occur

• The European Monetary Union and the successful switch from local-country
currencies to one monetary unit for Europe, the euro

• The rapid move away from traditional distribution structures in Japan,
Europe, and many emerging markets

• The growth of middle-income households the world over

• The continued strengthening and creation of regional market groups such as
the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA), the
Central American Free Trade Area (CAFTA), ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA),


the Southern Cone Free Trade Area (Mercosur), and the Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC)

• The successful completion of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the creation of the World Trade
Organization

• (WTO), the latter now including China and Taiwan

• The restructuring, reorganizing, and refocusing of companies in
telecommunications, entertainment, and biotechnology, as well as in
traditional smokestack industries around the world

• The continuing integration of the Internet and cell phones into all aspects of
companies’ operations and consumers’ lives

These changes affect the practice of business worldwide. Companies must
examine continuously the way they do business and remain flexible enough to
react rapidly to change global trends to be competitive.

Marketing has always been recognized as economic activity involving the
exchange of goods and services. However, in recent years socio-cultural
influences have been identified as determinants of marketing behavior, revealing
marketing as a cultural as well as economic phenomenon. But our understanding
of marketing culture bound. We must acquire knowledge of diverse cultural
environment in order to achieve successful international marketing.

Business customs are as much a cultural element of a society as is the language.
Culture establishes the criteria for day to day business behavior, patterns of
attitude and motivation. Executives are to some extent captives of their cultural
heritages and cannot totally escape language, heritage, political and family ties,
or religious backgrounds. A lack of empathy for and knowledge of foreign
business practices can create insurmountable barriers to successful business
relations. Knowledge of the business culture, management attitudes, and
business methods and a willingness to accommodate the differences are
important to success in an international market.

Each of the world’s national governments regulates trade and commerce with
other countries and attempts to control the access of outside enterprises to
national resources. Every country has its own Government which controls the
country’s legal and regulatory system that impacts the operations and activities
of the global enterprise. Unfortunately Governments of any country are not
always stable and friendly. Any change in the government policy that adversely
impacts the company’s ability to operate effectively and profitability. Therefore,
international marker must understand the political climate of every country.

2. Cultural Dynamics in Assessing Global Markets

2.1 What is culture?

There are many ways to think about culture. Culture refers to “the human-made
part of human environment—the sum total of knowledge, beliefs, art, morals,
laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as
members of society”. Culture is the integrated sum total of learned behavioral
traits that are shared by member of society. Culture – Ways of living, built up by
a group of human beings that are transmitted from one generation to another.

2.2 Culture’s Pervasive impact

Culture influences every part of our lives. Cultures also impact on birth rates.
Almost everywhere smaller families are becoming favored. Birthrates have
implications for sellers of diapers, toys, schools, and colleges. Consumption of
different types of food influence is culture: Chocolate by United Kingdom, seafood
by Japanese preference, Dried Pasta by Italy, wines by France and Italy. Even
diseases are influenced by culture: Heart disease by Germany & US, stomach
cancer in Japan, and lung cancer in Netherlands.

Birth rate of United States, Singapore and Japan has been shown below (Table-1)


Table-1 (Sources World Bank, World Development indicators, 2010

The products compared are those that might impact on health as well as
influencing the causes of death. Table-3 shows the death rate. Japan has the
lowest birthrate and highest life expectancy. US have the lowest birthrates and
highest life expectancy (among the selected country shown in Table-3).

Table-2: Consumer expenditure for selected countries.


Table-3: Consequences of consumption

The point is that culture matters and it is imperative for international marketers
to learn to appreciate the intricacies of cultures different from their own if they
are to be effective in international markets.

2.3 Origin of Culture

Most traditional definitions of culture is the sum of the values, rituals, symbols,
beliefs and thought process that are learned, shared by a group of people and
transmitted from generation to generation. So culture resides in the individual’s
mind. Culture has been conceptualized as:

1. “Software of the mind” culture is a guide for humans on how to think and
behave; it is a problem-solving tool (Hofstede)

2. An invisible barrier… a completely different way of organizing life, of thinking,
and of conceiving the underlying assumptions about the family and the state,
the economic system, and even Man himself” (Hall)

3. A “thicket” (U.S. Ambassador Hodgson)


2.3.1 Geography

Geography directly effect on consumer choice. Geography (include climate,
topography, flora, fauna and microbiology) has influenced history, technology,
economies, our social institutions and our ways of thinking. Geographical
influences manifest themselves in our deepest cultural values developed
through the millennia and geography changes humans can adopt immediately.

2.3.2 History

The impact of specific events in history can be seen reflected in technology,
social institutions, cultural values and even consumer behaviour. For instance,
much of American trade policy has depended on the development of tobacco
being the original source of the Virginia colony’s economic survival in the
1600s. Also the military conflicts in the Middle East in 2003 bred new cola
brands – Mecca-Cola, Muslim Up, Arab-Cola and Cola Turka.

2.3.3 The Political Economy

For most of the 20th Century three approaches to governance competed for
world dominance: fascism, communism, and democracy/free enterprise. It is
necessary to appreciate the influence of the political economy on social
institutions and cultural values and ways of thinking.

2.3.4 Technology

Various technological innovations also impact institutions and cultural values.
Certainly Jet Aircraft, air-conditioning, televisions, computers and the internet
all influenced culture. Arguably the greatest impact is the pill that has allowed
women to have careers and freed men to spend more time with kids.

2.3.5 Social Institutions

Social Institutions including family, religion, school, the media, government and
corporations all affects the culture. The family, social classes, group behavior,
age groups and how societies define decency and civility are interpreted
differently within every culture.

Family behavior varies across the world, e.g., extended families living together
to Dad washing dishes. Japans mother carrying for her to children pretty much
by herself, the Australian family in Melbourne – both parents work hard to
support their family.

Religious value systems differ across the world, e.g., Muslims not allowed
eating pork to Hindus not allowed to consume beef.

School and education most important social institutions, affects all aspects of
the culture, from economic development to consumer behavior.

Media (magazines, TV, the Internet) influences culture and behavior.

Government policies influence the thinking and behaviors citizens of adult
citizens, e.g., the French government offers new “birth bonuses” of $800 given
to women as an incentive to increase family size

Corporations influence culture via the products they market, e.g., MTV

2.4 Elements of Culture

Five elements of culture are values, rituals, symbols, beliefs and thought
processes. International marketers must design products, distribution systems
and promotional programs with due consideration of each of the five.

2.4.1 Cultural Values

A difference in cultural values, which is found to exist among countries, affects
consumer behavior. The most useful information on how cultural values
influence various types of business and market behavior comes from seminal
work by Geert Hofstede. Studying over 90000 people in 66 countries, he found
that the cultures of the nation differed along 4 primary dimensions are as
follows:

1. Individualism/ collectivism index (IDV), which focuses on self-orientation.

2. Power distance Index (PDI), which focuses on authority orientation.

3. Uncertainly avoidance index (UAI), which focuses on risk orientation.

4. Masculinity/Femininity Index (MAS), which focuses on assertiveness and
achievement.

The IDV is the most useful dimensions and MAS is the least useful dimensions.
IDV Score, PDI score, UAI score, Primary language and distance from English of
various countries are shown in Table-3 above.

Individualism/Collective Index (IDV)

The Individualism / Collective Index refer to the preference of behavior that
promotes one’s self-interest. High IDV cultures reflect an “I” mentality and tend
to reward and accept individual initiative, while low IDV cultures reflect a “we”
mentality and generally subjugate the individual to the group.

Power Distance Index (PDI)

The power distance index measures power inequality between superiors and
subordinates within a social system. Cultures with high PDI scores tend to be
hierarchical, with members citing force, manipulation and inheritance as


sources of power. Those with low score tend to value equality and reflect
egalitarian views.

Table-3 Hofstede’s Indexes, language and linguistic distance
Country IDV PDI UAI Primary Distance
Score Score Score Language from
English
Arab Countries 38 80 68 Arabic 5
Australia 90 36 51 English 0
Brazil 38 69 76 Portuguese 3
Canada 80 39 48 English(French) 0.3
Colombia 13 67 80 Spanish 3
Finland 63 33 59 Finnish 4
France 71 68 86 French 3
Germany 67 35 65 German 1
Great Britain 89 35 35 English 0
Greece 35 60 112 Greek 3
Guatemala 6 95 101 Spanish 3
India 48 77 40 Dravidian 3
Indonesia 14 78 48 Bahasa 7
Iran 41 58 59 Farsi 3
Japan 46 54 92 Japanese 4
Mexico 30 81 82 Spanish 3
Netherlands 80 38 53 Dutch 1
New Zealand 79 22 49 English 0
Pakistan 14 55 70 Urdu 3
South Korea 18 60 85 Korean 4
Taiwan 17 58 69 Taiwanese 6
Turkey 37 66 85 Turkish 4
United States 91 40 46 English 0
Uruguay 36 61 100 Spanish 3
Venezuela 12 81 76 Spanish 3
Source: From Geert Hofstede, Culture’s Cosequences, 2001

Uncertainty Avoidance Index(UAI)

The uncertainty avoidance index measures the intolerance of ambiguity and
uncertainty among members of a society. High UAI cultures are highly
intolerant of ambiguity, experience anxiety and stress; accord a high level of
authority to rules as a means of avoiding risk. Low UAI cultures are associated
with a low level of anxiety and stress, a tolerance of deviance and dissent, and
a willingness to take risks.

Masculinity/Femininity (MAS)

Masculinity: Men are assertive, competitive and concerned with material
success and Women nurturing and welfare.


Femininity: Social role of men and women overlap with neither gender exhibit
overly ambitious or competitive behavior i.e. Japan and Austria.

2.4.2 Rituals

Rituals are patterns of behavior and interaction that are learned and repeatedly
vary from country to country, e.g., extended lunch hours in Spain and Greece.

2.4.3 Symbols

Language as Symbols: the “languages” of time, space, things, friendships, and
agreements. French attempting for preserve the purity of their language. In
Canada, language has been the focus of political disputes including secession.
Also, difference in language vocabulary varies widely.

Aesthetics as Symbols: the arts, folklore, music, drama, and dance of a culture
influences marketing.

2.4.4 Language

Language is a social institution. Expert communication requires a thorough
understanding of the language as well as the ability to speak it. A new concept,
linguistic distance provide market segmentation and strategic entry decisions

English spreads around the world via school systems and the internet, cultural
values of individualism and egalitarianism will spread with it. Distance from
English of various countries has been shown in Table-3.


2.4.5 Beliefs

Beliefs, which stem from religious training, vary from culture to culture. Eg :
The western aversion to the number 13 or refusing to walk under a ladder.
Japanese concern about Year of the Fire Horse. The Chinese practice of Feng
Shui in designing buildings. Also, belief is an organized pattern of knowledge
that an individual holds to be true about the world.

2.4.6 Thought Processes

Thought process is the degree to which ways of thinking vary across cultures.
Thought processes also vary across cultures: e.g. “Asian and Western” thinking.
Finally, marketers must consider larger cultural consequences of marketing
actions.

2.4.7 Cultural Sensitivity and Tolerance

Successful international marketing begins with cultural sensitivity- being
attuned to the nuances of culture so that a new culture can be viewed
objectively, evaluated and appreciated. Cultural sensitivity, or cultural empathy,
must be carefully cultivated.

Just because a culture is different does not make it wrong. Marketers must
understand how their won cultures influence their assumption about another
culture. Being culturally sensitive will reduced conflict and improve
communication and thereby increase success in collaborative relationships.

2.5 Cultural Change

Culture is dynamic in nature; it is a living process. International marketers
should appreciate how cultures change and accept or reject new ideas. How
culture change, e.g., war (changes in Japan after World War II) or by natural
disaster.

2.5.1 Cultural Borrowing

Hofstede has shown that consumers’ acceptance of innovations varies across
cultures innovation was associated with higher individualism (IDV), and lower
power distance (PDI) and uncertainty avoidance (UAI). International marketers
should be aware the extent to which cultures borrow ideas and learn from other
cultures. It helps in the marketing of products from one culture to a different
culture.

2.5.2 Similarities: an illusion

For the inexperienced marketer, the similar but different aspect of culture
creates illusions of similarity that usually do not exist. Several nationalities can


speak the same language or have similar race and heritage, but it does not
follow that similarities exist in other respect.

Marketers must assess each country thoroughly in terms of the proposed goods
or services and never rely on an often used axiom that if it sells in one country,
it will surely sell in another.

2.5.3 Resistance to Change

A characteristic of human culture is that change occurs. Cultures change
gradually with resistance to changes. The resistance varies inversely with the
interest a society has in the change. Culture doesn’t resist change if the product
is a status-valued imported item, a fashion item, or is given the advantage of
inferior feelings about local products. Marketers can expect resistance to their
products, with greater resistance to those products with the greatest deviation
from the cultural norm or status quo. Examples of cultures that resist change:

1. Working women in Masculine societies like Saudi Arabia.

2. Acceptance of genetically modified foods (or “Franken food”) in Europe.

2.5.4 Planned and Unplanned Cultural Change

Cultures that are resistant to change represent a major hurdle in marketing
products. Cultural change can be accomplished by:

• First, determine which cultural factors conflict with an innovation, thus
creating resistance to its acceptance.

• Second, change those factors from obstacles to acceptance into stimulants
for change.

• Third, marketers can cause change by introducing an idea or product and
deliberately setting about to overcome resistance and to cause change that
accelerates the rate of acceptance.

• Firms can use a strategy of planned change by deliberately changing those
aspects of the culture offering resistance to predetermined marketing goals,
e.g., introducing western foods and baseball into Japan.

2.5.5 Consequences of innovation

Changes happen within a social system due to acceptance of an innovation.
Product diffusion and adoption may bring change that affects social systems.
Consequences of diffusion of an innovation may be functional or dysfunctional,
depending on whether the effects on the social system are desirable or
undesirable. For example, a change from breast feeding to bottle feeding at an


early age without the user’s complete understanding had caused dysfunctional
consequences.

3. Business Customs in Global Marketing

Marketers must remain flexible in their own attitudes by accepting differences in
basic patterns of thinking, local business tempo, religious practices, political
structure, and family loyalty, otherwise, they will hampered, if not prevented,
from reaching satisfactory conclusions to business transactions.

This topic focuses on specially related to the Business environment. Besides an
analysis of the need for adaptation, it will review the structural elements,
attitudes and behavior of international business processes.

3.1 Required Adaptation

Adaptation is a key concept in international marketing and willingness to adapt
is a crucial attitude. There are ten basic criteria that all who wish to deal with
individuals, firms, or authorities in foreign countries should be able to meet.
They are: (1) open tolerance, (2) flexibility, (3) humility, (4) justice/fairness,
(5) ability to adjust to varying tempos, (6) curiosity/interest, (7) knowledge of
the country, (8) liking for others, (9) ability to command respect, and (10)
ability to integrate oneself into the environment.

3.2 Degree of Adaptation

Essential to effective adaptation is awareness of one’s own culture and the
recognition. The self-reference criterion (SRC) is especially operative in
business customs. In China it is important to make points without winning
arguments; criticism, even if asked for, can cause a host to “lose face.” In
Germany, it is considered discourteous to use first names unless specifically
invited to do so. In Brazil, do not be offended by the Brazilian inclination to
touch during conversation.

Once a marketer is aware of the possibility of cultural differences and the
probable consequences of failure to adapt, the seemingly endless variety of
customs must be assessed.

3.3 Imperatives, Adiaphora and Exclusives


Business customs can be grouped into imperatives, customs that must be
recognized and accommodated; adiaphora, customs to which adaptation is
optional; and exclusives, customs in which an outsider must not participate. An
international marketer must appreciate the nuances of cultural imperatives,
cultural adiaphora, and cultural exclusives.

Cultural Imperatives

Cultural imperatives refer to the business customs and expectations that must
be met and conformed to or avoided if relationships are to be successful. In
China, Japan, and other Asian cultures it is imperative to avoid causing your
counterpart to “lose face.” In China to rise your voice, to shout at a Chinese
person in public, or to correct them in front of their peers will cause them to
lose face.

Cultural Adiaphora

Cultural adiaphora relates to areas of behavior or to customs that cultural aliens
may wish to conform to or participate in but that are not required. The majority
of customs fit into this category. One need not greet another man with a kiss (a
custom in some countries). On the other hand, a symbolic attempt to
participate in adiaphora is not only acceptable but also may help to establish
rapport.

3.4 Cultural Exclusives

Cultural exclusives are those customs or behavior patterns reserved exclusively
for the locals and from which the foreigner is excluded. For example, a Christian
attempting to act like a Muslim would be repugnant to a follower of Mohammed.
Equally offensive is a foreigner criticizing a country’s politics, mores, and
peculiarities (that is, peculiar to the foreigner) even though locals may, among
themselves, criticize such issues.

3.5 Methods of Doing Business


Because of the diverse structures, management attitudes, and behaviors
encountered in international business, there is considerable latitude in ways
business is conducted.

Among the four dimensions of Hofstede’s cultural values discussed in previous
section i.e. Individualism/Collectivism (IDV) and Power Distance (PDI) are
especially relevant in examining methods of doing business among countries.

3.6 Sources and Level of Authority

Business size, ownership, public accountability, and cultural values that
determine the prominence of status and position (PDI) combine to influence the
authority structure of business. Although the international businessperson is
confronted with a variety of authority patterns i.e. top-level management
decisions; decentralized decisions; and committee or group decisions.

Top-level management decision making is generally found in family business
that are small enough to make such centralized decision making possible.

Decentralized decision making is generally found large-scale business with
highly developed management systems such as those found in the United
States.

Committee decision making is by group or consensus. Committees may operate
on a centralized or decentralized basis, but the concept is quite different.

3.7 Management Objectives and Aspirations

The training and background (i.e., cultural environment) of managers affect
their personal and business outlooks. Society establishes the status of
management, and cultural background dictates patterns of aspirations and
objectives among businesspeople. These cultural influences affect the attitude
of managers toward innovation, new products, and conducting business with
foreigners. In dealing with foreign business, a marketer must be particularly
aware of the varying objectives and aspirations of management.

3.8 Personal Goals

Individual goals are highly personal in any country, so it is hard to generalize to
the extent of saying that managers in anyone country always have a specific
orientation. For example, studies have shown that Kuwaiti managers are more
likely than American managers to make business decisions consistent with their
own personal goals. Swedish managers were found to express little reluctance
in bypassing the hierarchical line, while Italian managers believed that
bypassing the hierarchical line was a serious offense.

3.9 Security and Mobility


Personal security and job mobility relate directly to basic human motivation and
therefore have economic and social implications. For example, in France and
Italy, there is a strong paternalistic orientation, and it is assumed that
individuals will work for one company for the majority of their lives. There is
much less mobility among French managers than British.

3.10 Personal Life

For many individuals, a good personal life takes priority over profit, security, or
any other goal. To the Japanese, personal life is company life. Many Japanese
workers regard their work as the most important part of their overall lives. The
Japanese work ethic maintenance of a sense of purpose-derives from company
loyalty and frequently results in the Japanese employee maintaining identity
with the corporation.

3.11 Social Acceptance

In some countries, acceptance by neighbors and fellow workers appears to be a
predominant goal within business. The Asian outlook is reflected in the group
decision-making so important in Japan, and the Japanese place high importance
on fitting in with their group.

3.12 Power

Although there is some power-seeking by business managers throughout the
world, power-seems to be a more important motivating force in South American
countries. In these countries, many business leaders are not only profit-
oriented but also use their business positions to become social and political
leaders.

3.13 Communications Emphasis

Languages & thoughts are the basic communication tool for marketers in
foreign lands. Similar business terms in English and Japanese often have
different meanings. The best policy when dealing in other languages is to stick
to formal language patterns. Foreign language skills are critical in all
negotiations. In a low-context culture one-gets down to business quickly. In a
high-context culture it takes considerably longer. The international marketer
must have a mastery over the language, customs and culture of business.


3.14 Formality and Tempo

France ranks high on PDI scale while the United States ranks much lower and
such differences can lead to cultural misunderstandings. Hurriedness and
impatience are common mistakes of North Americans attempting to trade in the
Middle East. Most Arabs do not like to embark on serious business discussions.
So, international marketers have to deal with foreign executives in ways that
are acceptable to the foreigner.

3.15 P-Time versus M-Time

Edward Hall defines two time systems in the world: monochromic (M-time) and
polyphonic time (P-time). M-time, typifies most North Americans, Swiss,
Germans, and Scandinavians. They tend to concentrate on one thing at a time.
Most low-context cultures operate on M-time. P-time is more dominant in high-
context cultures. P-time is characterized by the simultaneous occurrence of
many things and by “a great involvement with people.” P-time allows for
relationships to build and context to be absorbed as parts of high-context
cultures.

Most cultures offer a mix of P-time and M-time behavior. In Japan where
appointments are adhered to with the greatest M-time precision but P-time is
followed once a meeting begins.

3.16 Negotiations Emphasis

The basic elements of business negotiations are the same in any country; they
relate to the product, its price and terms, services associated with the product,
and finally, friendship between vendors and customers. But the negotiating
process is complicated and the risk of misunderstanding increases when


negotiating with someone from another culture. One standard rule in
negotiating is “know thyself’ first, and second, “know your opponent.”

3.17 Gender Bias in International Business

It is a fact that men and women are treated very differently in some cultures.
In Saudi Arabia, for example, women are segregated, expected to wear veils,
and forbidden even to drive. In Japan, where Japanese women rarely achieve
even lower-level management positions, representatives of U.S. firms are seen
first as Americans, second as representatives of firms, and then as males or
females. Similarly, women in China are seen as foreigners first and women
second. Being foreign is such a major difference that being a woman is
relatively minor. So, International marketer must be aware of the gender bias
in different culture.

4. Critical Concerns of Political Environment

4.1 The Political Environment

Global marketing activities take place within the political environmental of
governmental institutions, political parties, and organizations through which a
country’s people and rulers exercise power. Any company doing business
outside its home country should carefully study the government structure in the
target country and analyze salient issues arising from the political environment.
These include the governing party’s attitude toward sovereignty, political risk,
the threat of equity dilution, and expropriation.

4.2 The Sovereignty of Nations

In the context of international law, a sovereign state is independent and free
from all external control; enjoys full legal equality with other states; governs its
own territory; selects its own political, economic, and social systems; and has
the power to enter into agreements with other nations. Sovereignty refers to
both the powers exercised by a state in relation to other countries and the
supreme powers exercised over its own members. A state sets requirements for
citizenship, defines geographical boundaries, and controls trade and the
movement of people and goods across its borders.


The European Union, NAFTA, NATO, and WTO represent examples of nations
voluntarily agreeing to give up some of their sovereign rights to participate with
member nations for a common, mutually beneficial goal.

4.3 Stability of Government Policies

The ideal political climate for a multinational firm is a stable friendly
government. Unfortunately, governments are not always stable and friendly,
causes poor economic conditions, bias against foreign investment.

There are five main political causes of instability in international markets:

1) Forms of Government and Political Parties

Today there are 3 forms of Govt. like monarchy (or dictatorship), aristocracy
(or oligarchy), and democracy.

Table-5 lists a sampling of the countries having different types of Govt. The
International marketer must know the philosophies of all major political parties
within a country.

2) Nationalism

Economic and cultural nationalism is another important factor in assessing
business climate. Nationalism can best be described as an intense feeling of
national pride and unity which can take an anti–foreign business bias. National
interest and security are more important than international relations.

Table-5: Sample of Govt. type


Country Government Type
Afghanistan Islamic republic
Belarus Republic in name, though in fact a dictatorship
Bosnia and Herzegovina Emerging federal democratic republic
Burma (Myanmar) Military junta
Canada Confederation with parliamentary democracy
China Communist state
Congo, Democratic Dictatorship, presumably undergoing a transition to representative government
Cuba Communist state
Iran Theocratic republic
Libya Jamahiriya (a state of the masses) in theory, governed by the populace through local
councils; in fact a military dictatorship
North Korea Communist state, one-man dictatorship
Saudi Arabia Monarchy
Somalia No permanent national government; transitional, parliamentary federal government
Sudan Authoritarian regime—ruling military junta
United Kingdom Constitutional monarchy
United States Constitutional federal republic
Uzbekistan Republic ; authoritarian presidential rule, with little power outside the executive
branch
Vietnam Communist state

3) Targeted Fear and/or Animosity

The marketers should not to confuse nationalism, whose animosity is directed
generally toward all foreign countries, with a widespread fear directed at a
particular country. This confusion was a mistake made by Toyota in the United
States in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Declining sales of Japanese cars in
the States also made confusion.

No nation-state will tolerate penetration by a foreign company into its market
and economy if it perceives a social, cultural, economic, or political threat to its
well-being.

4) Trade Disputes

Finally, narrow trade disputes themselves can mix broader international
markets. Among several hot issues circa 2010 were undervalued Chinese
currency, the ban on beef imports into Japan, Chinese subsidies in apparent
violation of WTO rules, farm subsidies in developed countries, and the long-
simmering AIRBUS–Boeing battle over subsidies. Any of these disputes might
boil over and affect other aspects of international trade.

5) Political Risks of Global Business


Issues of sovereignty, differing political philosophies, and nationalism are
enhancing the risks of global business. Risks can range from confiscation, the
harshest, to many lesser but still significant government rules and regulations,
such as exchange controls, import restrictions, and price controls that directly
affect the performance of business activities.

4.4 Confiscation, Expropriation and Domestication

The most severe political risk is exclusion, that is, the seizing of a company’s
assets without payment. Expropriation is less drastic, but still severe, where the
government seizes an investment but makes some reimbursement for the
assets. A third type of risk is domestication, which occurs when host countries
gradually cause the transfer of foreign investments to national control and
ownership through a series of government decrees. The ultimate goal is to force
foreign investors to share more of the ownership, management and profits with
nationals.

4.5 Economic Risks

International companies are confronted with a variety of economic risks that
can occur with little warning. Restraints on business activity may be imposed
under the banner of national security to protect an infant industry, to conserve
scarce foreign exchange, to raise revenue, or to retaliate against unfair trade
practices, among a score of other real or imagined reasons. These economic
risks are an important and recurring part of the political environment that few
international companies can avoid.

4.6 Exchange Controls.

Exchange controls curtail from shortages of foreign exchange held by a country.
When a nation faces shortages of foreign exchange and/or a substantial amount
of capital is leaving the country, controls may be levied over all movements of
capital or selectively against the most politically vulnerable companies to
conserve the supply of foreign exchange for the most essential uses. A
recurrent problem for the foreign investor is getting profits in and out of the
host country without loss of value, which can occur when a currency is
devalued.

4.7 Local-Content Laws.

In addition to restricting imports of essential supplies to force local purchase,
countries often require a portion of any product sold within the country to have
local content, that is, to contain locally made parts. Thailand, for example,
requires that all milk products contain at least 50 percent milk from local dairy
farmers. NAFTA requires percent local content for all cars coming from member
countries.

4.8 Import Restrictions.

Selective restrictions on the import of raw materials, machines, and spare parts
are fairly common strategies to force foreign industry to purchase more
supplies within the host country and thereby create markets for local industry.
But, for that adequately developed sources of supply within the country should
be made available.

4.9 Tax Controls.

Controlling foreign investments, taxes must be classified as a political risk In
such cases, they are raised without warning and in violation of formal
agreements. India, for example, taxes PepsiCo and the Coca-Cola Company 40
percent on all soda bottled in India. The under developing countries are
generally uses such type of tax controls to makeup Govt.’s shortage of funds.

4.10 Price Controls

Essential public products such as pharmaceuticals, food, gasoline, and cars, are
often subjected to price controls. Such controls applied during inflationary
periods. They also may be used to force foreign companies to sell equity to local
interests.

4.11 Labor Problems.

In many countries, labor unions have strong government support that they use
effectively in obtaining special concessions from business. Layoffs may be
forbidden, profits may have to be shared, and an extraordinary number of
services may have to be provided. Some multinational companies are more
powerful than local labor unions. Wal-Mart closed a store in Quebec rather than
let it be unionized.

4.12 Political Sanctions

In addition to economic risks, one or a group of nations may boycott another
nation, thereby stopping all trade between the countries, or may issue
sanctions against the trade of specific products. The United States has long-
term boycotts of trade with Cuba and Iran and has come under some criticism
for its demand for continued sanctions against Cuba and its threats of future
sanctions against countries that violate human rights issues.

4.13 Violence, Terrorism and War

Violence is another risk for multinational companies. The world continues to be
victimized by thousands of terrorist attacks each year. Multinationals are

targeted to embarrass a government and its relationship with firms, to generate
funds by kidnapping executives to finance terrorist goals and to inflict terror
within a country to create political and social disputes, as did the events of
September 11, 2001, which raised the cost of doing business domestically and
internationally

Mumbai Terror Attacks, 2008 “9/11” Terrorist Attacks

Table-6: U.S. State Department Travel warnings Source: http://travel.state.gov/travel/,2010

Table-7: Armed conflicts around the world.


4.14 Assessing Political Vulnerability

There are many reasons for a company’s political vulnerability as there are
political philosophies, economic variations, and cultural differences. Countries
seeking investments in high-priority industries may well excuse companies from
taxes, customs duties, quotas, exchange controls, and other impediments to
investment.

India announced a new trade policy that eases restraints and offers tax breaks
for companies developing and maintaining infrastructure.

4.15 Politically Sensitive Products and Issues

Products that have an effect on the environment, exchange rates, national and
economic security, and the welfare of people or that are publicly visible, subject
to public debate, or associated with their country of origin are more likely to be
politically sensitive. Fast-food restaurants, which are intended to be visible,
have often been lightning rods for groups opposed to foreign companies.

Health is often the subject of public debate, and products that affect health
issues can be sensitive to political concerns. The European Union has banned
hormone-treated beef for more than a decade.

4.16 Forecasting Political Risk

A number of firms are employing systematic methods of measuring political
risk. Political risk assessments are an attempt to forecast political instability to
help management identify and evaluate political events and their potential
influence on current and future international business decisions. List of top 20
state is given below (Table-8)


Table-8: Top 20 States in Danger (Ranked in order to closest to failure)

Source: From Foreign Policy, “Failed States Index,” May/June 2009, online

4.17 Lessening Political Vulnerability

Although a company cannot directly control or alter the political environment of
the country within which it operates, a specific business venture can take
measures to lessen its degree of susceptibility to politically induced risks.
Relations between governments and MNCs are generally positive if the
investment (1) improves the balance of payments by increasing exports or
reducing imports through import substitution; (2) uses locally produced
resources; (3) transfers capital, technology, and/or skills; (4) creates jobs;
and/or (5) makes tax contributions.

4.18 Joint Ventures

Typically less susceptible to political harassment, joint ventures can be with
locals or other third-country multinational companies; in both cases, a
company’s financial exposure is limited. A joint venture with locals helps
minimize anti-MNC feelings, and a joint venture with another MNC adds the
additional bargaining power of a third country

4.19 Expanding the Investment Base

Including several investors and banks in financing an investment in the host
country is another strategy. This approach has the advantage of engaging the
power of the banks whenever any kind of government takeover or harassment
is threatened. This strategy becomes especially powerful if the banks have
made loans to the host country; if the government threatens expropriation or
other types of takeover, the financing bank has substantial power with the
government.

4.20 Licensing

A strategy that some firms find eliminates almost all risks is to license
technology for a fee. Licensing can be effective in situations in which the
technology is unique and the risk is high. Of course, there is some risk
assumed, because the licensee can refuse to pay the required fees while
continuing to use the technology


4.21 Planned Domestication

When a host country is demanding local participation, the most effective long-
range solution is planned phasing out, that is, planned domestication. As a
reasonable response to the potential of domestication, planned domestication
can be profitable and operationally expedient for the foreign investor. Planned
domestication is a gradual process of participating with nationals in all phases
of company operations.

4.22 Political Bargaining

Multinational companies clearly engage in lobbying and other sorts of political
bargaining to avoid potential political risks. Toyota once considered raising
prices of its cars in the American market to “help” its ailing American
competitors. The Japanese government has set quotas on auto exports in the
past as American car companies have struggled. China has agreed to put
quotas on its exports of textiles and to fl oat its currency as the American &
European criticism were growing. Finally, a cynical way to look at the
motivation behind corporate social responsibility in general is its use as a
bargaining chip with foreign publics and governments.

4.23 Political Payoffs

Political payoff is an attempt to lessen political risks by paying those in power to
intervene on behalf of the multinational company. It is used to lessen the
negative effects of a variety of problems. Bribery poses problems for the
marketer at home and abroad, because it is illegal for U.S. citizens. Political
payoffs may offer short-term benefits, but in the long run, the risks are high,
and bribery is an untenable option.

4.24 Government Encouragement

The most important reason to encourage foreign investment is to accelerate the
development of an economy. Multinational corporations may be expected to
create local employment, transfer technology, generate export sales, stimulate
growth and development of local industry, conserve foreign exchange, or meet
a combination of these expectations as a requirement for market concessions.
Recent investments in China, India, and the former republics of the Soviet
Union include provisions stipulating specific contributions to economic goals of
the country that must be made by foreign investors.


5. Conclusion

While entering global markets, global companies must take into account various
factors such as social, economic, political, culture and customs. They must
understand the local marketing environment, especially the local infrastructure
and the cultural issues. The risks involved with different entry options must be
carefully evaluated. There is a well known saying, “Well begun is half done.”
Similarly, the right entry strategy in an international market can generate
tremendous competitive leverage for global companies.

6. Bibliography

 www.wikipedia.org
 www.unesco.org/en/world-reports/cultural-diversity
 highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0070144478/.../Cateora_03.p...
 www.slideboom.com/.../International-Marketing%3A-Chapter-Four
 highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073380989/student.../chapter4/
 http://www.docstoc.com/docs/68366973/Chapter-4-Cultural-Dynamics-in-
Assessing-Global-Markets
 www.slideshare.net/.../a-project-report-on-export-proces... - United States
 International Marketing Management : Philip Kotler

 International Marketing: Warren Keegan

 International Business : AswaThapa


Im project,09.01.12

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