Implicit elements of human behavior in public management process

Implicit elements of human behavior in public management process
ZHU Xiaoning
Natalia Kosana GOLDYSIAK
School of Political Science and Public Administration, University of Electronic Science and
Technology of China, Chengdu, P.R. China, 610054
Abstract: Efficient management of public workers’ behavior is crucial to the process of implementing
government policies. In order to manage human behavior it is necessary to get to know its mechanisms,
to understand why people behave the way they do. Visible behavior, i.e. how we see that people
behave, is affected by psychological, implicit elements, which are motivation, attitude and personality.
Therefore, it is crucial for a manager to know how to motivate people, how to affect their attitude, how
to minimize negative personality traits and strengthen the positive aspects. This paper, by introducing
different management models and theories, presents various ways to influence implicit constituents of
human behavior in order to affect employees’ performance and raise the effectiveness of public
management.
Key words: Human resource management, Public management, Organizational Behavior, Personality,
Attitude, Motivation
1 Introduction
The most basic functions of management, such as planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting and budgeting, are the same in both private and public sectors. However, public
organizations operate in a very different environment, for example they are subject to less market
exposure (which may cause less incentive for cost reduction), more legal constraints and public
scrutiny (which may cause the managers to be under strict control) etc. Because of this, there is no
simple solution to the challenges of public management, such as “public organizations should be
managed like businesses”, and the variables in the public management environment have to be
accounted for. Still, just as private companies, public organizations have to focus on performance, and
in areas where environmental influences are minimal, private sector management techniques are
applicable in the public sector (Wissink, Schwella & Fox, 1991). One of such areas is human resource
management, or, more specifically, human behavior management. Until recently, studies on HRM
have paid little attention to public organizations. However, over the last few decades traditional,
Weberian models of public management became obsolete, the importance of human resource
management in public sector is starting to be widely recognized and more and more scholars are
focusing on effective HRM as the key to increasing efficacy of public organizations (Bach, 2009).
2 Theoretical framework
2.1 Organizational behavior
The approach to human resources management has changed drastically over time. Early theories,
such as Weberian bureaucracy or Taylor’s Scientific Management focused mostly on controlling
employees and manipulating work environment in order to maximize productivity and work
effectiveness. Employees were perceived as extensions of tools and money was a sole means of
motivating them. It was not until the publication of Hawthorne study in the 1930s that social factors
were introduced into organizational behavior theory (Dehhardt, Dehhardt & Aristigueta, 2002).
2.2 Importance of social factors in human resources management
The Hawthorne study showed that human behavior and motivation are much more complex, being
influenced by many factors, such as feelings, attitudes, relationships at work and the meaning assigned
by workers to the tasks they perform. Subsequent research confirmed these findings. For example, in
The Human Side of the Enterprise published in 1960, McGregor stressed the necessity of developing
the morale and encouraging cooperation among employees in order to increase efficiency, arguing that
traditional theories, based on the belief that people are lazy and motivated solely by money causes

employees to act according to such belief, while introducing social elements to human resource
management brings much better results (Dehhardt, Dehhardt & Aristigueta, 2002).
2.3 Theory X and Theory Y – humanistic approach to management
McGregor believed that management is based on basic assumptions about human behavior
and human nature. He identified two opposing sets of assumptions and according to these sets
described two managerial approaches, called Theory X and Theory Y. As Theory X has proven to be
counter effective, Y Theory assumptions became the base of modern management.
X Theory, widely used at the time, assumes employees are motivated solely by money,
inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can, so they need to be closely supervised and controlled.
Theory X managers rely heavily on threat and coercion to gain their employees' compliance, which
leads to mistrust, highly restrictive supervision, and a punitive atmosphere.
Y Theory assumes that employees enjoy mental and physical work duties, possess the ability
for creative problem solving and are motivated by the satisfaction of performing well. Theory Y
emphasizes cooperation, minimal control and maximal effectiveness. It implies that the managers
should provide opportunities for the employees to become ambitious and take initiative, as while given
the proper conditions, they will learn to accept responsibility and to exercise self-control in
accomplishing objectives to which they are committed. Creating such an environment, among others,
requires managing workers’ personalities, influencing their attitudes and shaping their motivations
(Sahni & Vayunandan, 2010; Randhawa, 2007).
3 Personality management
Personality can be defined as the essence of a person, a pattern in which they think, feel and
behave (Moynihan & Peterson, 2004). It is generally accepted, that personality is both inherited from
our parents and acquired during interaction with the environment (Kiffin−Petersen, 2006).
As different positions in an organization require different sets of personality traits, personality
assessment is essential to successful management. It allows to predict employees’ behavior and to
choose the people best suited for performing organizational duties. Moreover, according to their
personalities, people respond differently to different managerial styles, and personality assessment
enables the manager to create a managerial model that will strengthen positive qualities of employees’
personalities and minimize the impact of the negative qualities.
There are a number of different ways in which personality has been categorized. The most
popular and most widely accepted model is the “big five” or “five factor” model and it will be used to
illustrate personality management in this paper. The Big Five factors are openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Their representative traits are presented below.
Table 1 the Five−Factor model of personality (Adapted from McCrae & Costa, 2012)
Neuroticism Agreeableness Extraversion
Calm Worrying Ruthless Soft−hearted Reserved Affectionate
Even−tempered Temperamental Suspicious Trusting Loner Joiner
Self−satisfied Self−pitying Stingy Generous Quiet Talkative
Comfortable Self−conscious Antagonistic Acquiescent Passive Active
Unemotional Emotional Critical Lenient Sober Fun−loving
Hardy Vulnerable Irritable Good−natured Unfeeling Passionate
Conscientiousness Openness to Experience
Negligent Conscientious Down−to−earth Imaginative
Lazy Hardworking Uncreative Creative
Disorganized Well−organized Conventional Original
Late Punctual Prefer routine Prefer variety
Aimless Ambitious Uncurious Curious
Quitting Persevering Conservative Liberal

Research indicates that conscientiousness is the personality characteristic that is most related
to job performance across a variety of jobs, both on individual and group level. A person who is high
in conscientiousness will usually be better suited to perform a job, task−oriented and focused.
Neuroticism (also called emotional stability, when scored oppositely) is universally accepted
as detrimental variable in work performance. Employees with low emotional stability are more likely
to be distracted from work by stress, deadlines, or situations in their personal lives, whereas those with
high levels of this trait are more able to control their emotions and feelings at work.
Preference on whether an employee is high in or low in agreeableness is dependent on the
type of job. It is positively correlated with good team work skills (groups with high mean
agreeableness have higher team viability) and negatively correlated with leadership skills.
Extraversion has been shown to have positive effects o individual job performance for tasks
requiring high degree of social interaction, a person low in extraversion is more comfortable working
on their own and is less gregarious. Teams low on extraversion have lower team viability and perform
poorer, however groups with very high proportions of extraverted members may have problems of
reduced cohesion, as too many people try to dominate the group.
As with agreeableness and extraversion, the degree to which an employee is benefited by
openness depends on the job. High openness is important in jobs that require creativity and flexibility,
however, some jobs require routine work, creativity is not needed or desired, and person low in
openness will perform better (Moynihan & Peterson, 2004).
In summary, high emotional stability and conscientiousness are significant predictors of job
performance, desirable in nearly all jobs, and the level of agreeableness, extraversion, and openness to
experience are dependent on the job duties and requirements. Moreover, emotional stability,
extraversion and conscientiousness also influence job satisfaction, which suggests that job satisfaction
is partially based o employee’s personality (Kiffin−Petersen, 2006).
4 Influencing attitude
Attitudes are formed through experience during the socialization process, when people
develop a range of feelings toward other persons, objects, events or activities in their environment. As
expressions of favor or disfavor, attitudes always apply to an identifiable object, which can be broad
and general, such as a particular country, religion or government, or very specific, like a specific
person or company (Tosi & Pilati, 2011).
Attitudes contain affective, cognitive, and behavioral components. The first one is the
emotional element, feelings of like or dislike toward the object and the second one reflects a person’s
perceptions or beliefs, formed while observing elements of environment and associating them with the
object of an attitude. The behavioral component, the only observable component of an attitude, is the
way attitude is reflected in a person’s behavior (Tosi & Pilati, 2011).
As the days of simple command and control management are over, managers need to learn
how to shape employees’ attitudes in order to control their workplace behavior and raise effectiveness.
Attitudes can be changed through persuasion, a process when one individual (the source) tries to
influence the attitude of another person (the object or the target) towards a certain matter (the message).
The outcome of persuasion depends on the strength of the source’s influence, the resilience of the
target and on the message itself (Nelson & Quick, 2012).
The strength of the source’s influence is based on three major characteristics, expertise,
trustworthiness and attractiveness (Nelson & Quick, 2012). Expertise refers to knowledge, experience
and skills possessed by the source. For example, if a message is conveyed by a person who is
perceived as an expert or a person holding high rank it will be accepted much more easily than if it was
relayed by an individual unknown to the target. Trustworthiness is based on the target’s perception of
the source’s believability, dependability and honesty. The last characteristic, attractiveness, is
connected with the feelings the target has towards the source and is determined by whether the target
finds the source to be attractive (Shimp, 2007).
Target resilience depends on such traits of the target as intelligence and self esteem – usually
more intelligent people with broad knowledge and high self esteem are less easily persuaded by one-

sided messages. The mind frame and mood of the target also plays a role in this process, as a person in
good mood will change their attitude more easily. Also, individuals who hold very extreme attitudes
are very resistant to persuasion (Nelson & Quick, 2012). Managers need to recognize target
characteristics and take appropriate actions to lower target’s resilience, such as matching target’s needs
and personality, using appropriate language, creating friendly atmosphere etc.
The nature of the message plays a huge role in persuasion. It can affect all components of
attitude, by influencing emotions, perception and behavior. Strength of a message depends on
characteristics such as style (metaphorical expressions usually have bigger persuasive effect), intensity
of language (for example, female sources using obscene vocabulary will most likely make a strong
impression on the target) or strategy used by the source (for example, implicit or explicit conclusions,
choice and order of arguments, message repetition) (Reardon, 1991).
The impact of a message is also determined by the way the data is relayed to the target. In the
central route to persuasion the individual processes the message content directly, weighs logical and
convincing arguments given by the source, to finally arrive to an attitude changing conclusion. In the
peripheral route to attitude change, the individual is discouraged to look at the content of the message,
as they view it as personally irrelevant or are distracted by the characteristics of the source (expertise,
trustworthiness and attractiveness). In the peripheral route the target is often presented with numerous
statistics and arguments, which are not related to the actual content of the message (Nelson & Quick,
2012).
5 Motivation shaping
5.1 What is motivation?
The importance of motivation was captured by Norman R. F. Maier, who defined job
performance as a product of “ability × motivation”. The resources used by an organization to increase
employees’ abilities are wasted, if an employee chooses not to learn what is being taught or not to
apply newly acquired knowledge. That’s why one of the basic qualities of a manager is the ability to
galvanize and inspire individuals to exert effort, to commit to the pursuit of an organization’s values
and goals and to remain in such highly motivated state for a long period of time (Latham, 2007).
In the early twentieth century some researchers focused on internal drives and needs as an
explanation for motivated behavior, while others examined the influence of individuals' cognitive
processes or studied how individuals base current behavior on previous experiences. Over time, these
major theoretical streams of research in motivation were classified into two major schools: content
theories of motivation and process theories of motivation (Steers, Porter, and Bigley, 1996).
5.2 Content theories of motivation
Content theories focus on internal drives that cause motivation, that compel an individual to
act toward the satisfaction of individual needs. Major content theories of motivation are Maslow's
hierarchy of needs, Alderfer's ERG theory, Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, and McClelland's
learned needs or three-need theory (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2011).
Maslow identified five basic groups of human needs that emerge in a hierarchy of importance.
Once a lower level need is satisfied, a higher level need emerges and demands satisfaction (Lunenburg
& Ornstein, 2011). These needs are:
1. Physiological needs, such as food, clothing, shelter etc. This means that person who is hungry
or cold does not care about their workplace duties or achievements.
2. Safety needs refer to protection from physical or emotional harm, and are reflected in
employees’ desire for a stale job with medical and retirement benefits.
3. Social needs are longing for a suitable social environment, feelings of friendship, love,
acceptance, belongingness etc. Promoting social interaction among employees can increase
morale and productivity.
4. Esteem needs, such as need for recognition, status and attention, are expressed by people’s
desire for prestige, promotion and opportunities to show their competence. This need can be
satisfied by, for an example, public acknowledgement of employee’s achievements and worth.

5. Self−actualization needs refer to personal growth, self−fulfillment and use one's abilities to
the fullest and most creative extent. Managers should help workers to discover growth
opportunities inherent to their posts and to achieve their potential in order to increase their
motivation (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2011).
According to Maslow, needs that are satisfied for most of the time (as the basic needs in most
modern industrialized societies) are no longer determinants of the behavior, and are perceived as
relatively important (with the exception of self-actualization needs, which are always important).
Moreover, Maslow acknowledges that some behavior may be a result of something else than
unsatisfied needs (for example an expression of personality), or motivated by a need outside of the five
basic groups (for example, aesthetic need) (McKenna, 2000).
Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory is an extension of Maslow findings. He divides needs into
three categories, existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G). Existence needs are comparable to
Maslow's physiological and safety needs, relatedness needs involve interpersonal relationships, just as
Maslow's social and esteem needs. Growth needs are related to the attainment of one's potential and are
similar to Maslow's esteem and self-actualization needs. However, there are two major differences
between these theories. Maslow proposes that a lower level need must be satisfied before a higher level
need emerges and Alderfer suggests that people may experience several needs simultaneously, which
makes the ERG theory more flexible in terms of individual differences between people (Lunenburg &
Ornstein, 2011). The second difference is that, as opposed to Maslow theory, according to the ERG
theory, if a person is unsuccessful in gratifying higher needs for a longer time and becomes frustrated,
they will show increased desire in the lower, already satisfied need (McKenna, 2000).
Different approach is proposed by Frederick Herzberg, who focuses on the work environment
as the factor that causes motivation or its lack. Based on his research, Herzberg argued that meeting the
lower-level needs (hygiene factors) of individuals would not motivate them to exert effort, but would
only prevent them from being dissatisfied and will cause employees’ to perform on minimum levels.
Motivation is possible only if higher-level needs (motivators) are met (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2011).
Comparison of the influence of hygiene factors and motivators on job satisfaction or dissatisfaction is
presented in below.
Figure 1Herzberg’s two factor−model (From Nelson & Quick, 2012)

The fourth major content theory is David McClelland's three−needs theory. He identifies three
primary needs: need for affiliation (n Aff), need for power (n Pow) and need for achievement (n Ach).
The need for affiliation is a desire to establish social relationships with others and it reflects Maslow’s
social needs. The need for power, similar to Maslow’s esteem needs, is an urge to control one's
environment and influence others. The need for achievement can be associated with self-actualization
needs, as it is a desire to take responsibility, set challenging goals, and obtain performance feedback.
These needs vary in intensity among individuals and occupations, so one of main duties of managers is
identifying the presence of n Aff, n Pow and n Ach in themselves and in others, since each needs to be
affiliated with certain job characteristics. For example, people in the top management positions should
have a high need for power and a low need for affiliation, as they cannot worry about being disliked
(Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2011).
5.3 Process theories of motivation
The second group of motivation theories is the process theories group. Instead of focusing on
what causes motivation, they explore how motivation occurs, how behavior is initiated. They assume
that many aspects of motivation arise when people are fully aware of their motives and actions. The
major process theories are goal-setting theory, expectancy theory and equity theory (McKenna, 2000).
According to the goal-setting theory, goals are the most important factors affecting the
motivation and behavior of employees. This motivation theory was developed primarily by Edwin
Locke, who proposed that performance was shaped by goal difficulty and goal specificity. Most people
attach importance in terms of self−actualization to the challenge of a difficult goal rather than easy one,
however too difficult or unattainable goals do not have a positive effect on motivation or even lead to
decrease in performance (McKenna, 2000). Specific, quantitative goals allow employees to know what
to try to accomplish and to measure their own progress, which lead to bigger motivation than simply
telling the worker: "do your best". Other important factors include goal acceptance (possibly by
allowing workers to participate in goal setting process) and commitment to the goal. However, in some
situations goal-setting may actually impair performance. For example, in case of complex tasks or
monetary rewards an individual may become more preoccupied with meeting the goals, rather than
performing tasks well (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2011).
Expectancy theory, developed by Victor Vroom, introduces three variables: expectancy
(belief that a certain effort will result in a certain performance level), instrumentality (relationship
between performance level and its outcomes, such as salary increase or promotion) and valence (value
placed by an individual on the outcome). These factors influence motivation in a multiplicative fashion,
so in order to achieve motivation all three must be high, as even if one factor is zero (for example, high
expectancy and instrumentality, but no valance) an individual will not be motivated (Lunenburg &
Ornstein, 2011). This theory stresses that employees’ need to perceive a strong relationship between
their performance and the rewards they receive in order to become motivated (McKenna, 2000).
Equity theory suggests that individuals engage in social comparison of each other’s inputs
(education, experience, effort, skills) and outputs (salary, promotion). The perception of individuals
about the fairness of their rewards relative to others influences their level of motivation. Equity exists
when individuals perceive that the ratio of inputs and outputs is the same for them as for others. If the
ratio is different, inequity arises, although different individuals may be more or less sensitive to
perceptions of inequity. Both feeling over−compensated as under−compensated can lead to a feeling of
discomfort, which causes the individuals to try to reduce perceived inequity. In such situations,
employees may increase (if they feel over−compensated) or decrease (if they feel under−compensated)
their input, try to change the output (for example ask for a raise) or modify perceptions of themselves
or others. Other options include changing the reference person or leaving the situation. Further
research on equity theory proved that in order to enhance positive perceptions and as a result raise
motivation, workers should be aware of what is involved in the process of reward distribution and be
clearly informed about decisions on the allocations of rewards (McKenna, 2000).
5.4 Reinforcement theory
Another important theory is the reinforcement theory, rooted in behaviorism. It argues that
behavior is based on consequences of previous actions. Behavior followed by a pleasurable

consequence will occur more frequently than behavior followed by adverse consequences. There are
four ways to apply reinforcement theory to control employees’ behavior. Positive reinforcement
implies increasing frequency of desired behavior by giving a positive response when an individual
shows required behavior, negative reinforcement refers to rewarding an employee by removing
negative consequences of a desired behavior in order to increase its frequency. The third way is
punishment, which decreases frequency of undesirable behavior by applying undesirable consequence
and the last way is extinction, which seeks to decrease frequency of a behavior by removing the
consequence that is reinforcing it. This theory suggests that managers can improve employees'
performance by using behavior modification techniques to reinforce desired behaviors and punish
undesired behaviors (Werner & DeSimone, 2008).
6 Chinese context
China’s 1978 opendoor economic reforms and widespread globalization have exposed China
to a flood of Western management practices. However, many managerial models encouraged by
American theorists too often assume to represent universal principles and are not applicable in
different cultural settings. Cross-culture and comparative management studies often cite Hofstede’s
cultural dimensions theory, which describes the influence of a culture on individual’s behavior.
Hofstede proposed four dimensions along which this influence can be analyzed: power distance
(strength of social hierarchy), uncertainty avoidance (tolerance to uncertainty, ability to cope with
anxiety, need for rigid rules), individualism and masculinity (stress on competetiveness and
materialism, less regard for relationships and quality of life) (Chen, 2004). According to Geert
Hofstede’s, a pioneer in cross-cultural management research, China is a highly collectivist society with
high power distance (accepting inequalities between people), driven by competition, achievement and
success, willing to sacrifice leisure and focusing on tangible results (high masculinity). Chinese people
score low on uncertainty avoidance, as they are adaptable and entrepreneurial and regard laws and
rules to be flexible and ambiguous. This qualities mostly stem from Confucian philosophy, still deeply
rooted in people’s minds and hugely affecting organizational behavior (Hofstede, 2001).
For example, according to Confucian philosophy interpersonal relationships are based on
harmonious, mutually dependent obligations. This is reflected in organizational setting by the
subordinate owing their superior unquestioning respect, loyalty and obedience, and the superior
providing benevolent care. In such environment, participatory management model may prove
ineffective, as the managers are expected become benevolent father figures and have the right to
require loyalty and obedience from subordinates and to use an authoritarian style of leadership (Ryan
& Rose, 2010; Chen, 2004). Chinese employees may feel uncomfortable challenging their leaders and
showing initiative, as top-decision makers often have final authority and are not to be questioned
(Wang, Wang, Ruona & Rojewski, 2005).
Furthermore, as opposed to Western individualistic culture, Chinese culture is group oriented.
Both Confucian doctrines and strong attachment to family in ancient China create strong group
pressure that controls behavior, with individuals existing for the benefit of the group. Employees are
strongly affected by the organizations they belong to, and cannot easily distance themselves from other
members. This can promote teamwork and organizational citizenship, but can also cause lack of
personal accountability (Wang, Wang, Ruona & Rojewski, 2005).
Another key factor to management in China are the concepts of guanxi (relations) and mianzi
(face), which often cause Western theories to be non-effective. Guanxi can be explained as a network
of personal connections based on reciprocal favors that an individual may use to their advantage. It is
not a phenomenon unique to China, however in Chinese business, political and social life guanxi are of
upmost importance and are present on daily basis. While without proper guanxi it is virtually
impossible for an individual to achieve their goals, having guanxi allows to omit formal channels and
get everything faster and better that it would seem possible (Davies, Leung, Luk & Wong, 2003).
Detrimental role of guanxi puts Maslow’s social needs, Alderferer’s relatedness needs, or McClelland
need for affiliation in a completely new light (Jackson & Bak, 1998). Guanxi is closely related to
mianzi, “face”, a person’s social image and respect in which they are held. Chinese pursuit of mianzi is

often perceived as the equivalent of pursuing individual esteem needs in the West, however it’s much
more complicated, as it infiltrates every aspect of Chinese life, and heavily influences organizational
behavior (Ryan & Rose, 2010). Losing face denounces reputation of an individual and indicates lack of
trust and giving face to others in seen as a sign of utmost respect. Understanding guanxi and mianzi,
especially in relation to hierarchy and authority is a crucial element of understanding and developing
HRM practices in China (Wang, Wang, Ruona & Rojewski, 2005).
7 Conclusion
Organizational behavior of individuals is a result of various different factors, both external
and internal. Public sector managers, just as private sector managers, may use a variety of techniques
that will affect the behavior of their employees’ in order to increase the efficiency of public
management. This brief presentation does not explain the full complexity of the implicit elements of
human behavior, however it shows the importance of the “human factor” in public management, the
importance of trying to understand how behavior is formed and how to affect it, as it can greatly affect
the efficiency of public management.
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