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Internet and Digital Economics Principles Methods and
Applications 1st Edition Eric Brousseau Digital Instant
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Author(s): Eric Brousseau, Nicolas Curien
ISBN(s): 9780521855914, 0521855918
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 6.67 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english

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Internet and Digital Economics
Principles, Methods and Applications
How are our societies being transformed by Internet and digital eco-
nomics? This book provides an accessible introduction to the econom-
ics of the Internet and a comprehensive account of the mechanisms of
the digital economy. Leading scholars examine the original economic
and business models being developed as a result of the Internet system,
and explore their impact on our economies and societies. Key issues
are analyzed, including the development of open source software and
online communities, peer-to-peer and online sharing of cultural goods,
electronic markets and the rise of new information intermediaries,
e-retailing and e-banking. The volume examines how Internet and
digital economics have transformed the organization of firms, indus-
tries, markets, commerce, modes of distribution, money, finance, and
innovation processes, and provides the analytical tools to understand
both these recent transformations and the likely future directions of the
“New Economy.”
E R I C B R O U S S E A U is Professor of Economics at the University of
Paris X.
N I C O L A S C U R I E N serves as Commissioner for the French Regulation
Commission for Electronic Communications and Postal Services
(ARCEP). He is also Professor of Economics at the Conservatoire
National des Arts et Métiers, Paris.

Internet and Digital Economics
edited by
Eric Brousseau and Nicolas Curien

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
First published in print format
ISBN-13 978-0-521-85591-4
ISBN-13 978-0-521-67184-2
ISBN-13 978-0-511-28895-1
© Cambridge University Press 2007
2007
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521855914
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of
relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
ISBN-10 0-511-28895-6
ISBN-10 0-521-85591-8
ISBN-10 0-521-67184-1
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
hardback
paperback
paperback
eBook (EBL)
eBook (EBL)
hardback

Contents
List of figures page x
List of tables xiii
Notes on contributors xiv
Acknowledgements xxv
1 Internet economics, digital economics
ERIC BROUSSEAU AND NICOLAS CURIEN 1
Part I Toward a new economy? 57
2 Evolution of the new economy business model
WILLIAM LAZONICK 59
3 Discourse on the new economy – passing fad or
mobilizing ideology?
PATRICE FLICHY 114
4 The Internet boom in a corporate finance retrospective
ULR ICH HEG E AND SÉBASTIEN MICHENAUD 142
Part II On-line communities 171
5 Information goods and online communities
MICHEL G ENSOLLEN 173
6 Online consumer communities: escaping the tragedy
of the digital commons
NICOLAS CURIEN, EMM ANUELLE FAUCHART,
GILB ERT LA FFOND AND FRANÇOIS MOREAU 201
7 Network cooperation and incentives within online
communities
GODEFROY DANG NGU YEN AND THIER RY PÉNARD 220
vii

Part III Network externalities and market
microstructures 237
8 The Internet and network economics
NICHOLAS ECONOMIDES 239
9 E-commerce, two-sided markets and info-mediation
ALEX GAU DEUL AND BRUNO JU LLIEN 268
10 The economics and business models of prescription
in the Internet
PIER RE-JEAN BENGHOZI AND T HOMAS PARIS 291
Part IV Producing, distributing and sharing
information goods 311
11 Bundling and competition on the Internet
YANNIS BAKOS AND ERIK BRYNJOLFSSON 313
12 Pricing information goods: free vs. pay content
MARC B OU RREAU AND VIRG INIE LETHIAIS 345
13 Open software: knowledge openness and cooperation
in cyberspace
DOMINIQUE FORAY, SYLVIE THORON AND
JEAN-B ENOÎT ZIMMERM ANN 368
14 Simulating code growth in Libre (open source) mode
JEAN-MICHEL DALLE AND PA UL A . DAVID 391
Part V How e-markets perform 423
15 Economic insights from Internet auctions
PAT RICK B AJARI AND ALI HORTAÇSU 425
16 Consumer search and pricing behavior in Internet markets
MAARTEN C. W. JANSSEN, JOSÉ LUIS MORAGA-
GONZÁLEZ AND MATT HIJS R. WILDENBEEST 460
17 Are neighbors welcome? E-buyer search, price competition
and coalition strategy in Internet retailing
JACQUES LAYE AND HERVÉ TANGUY 484
18 Bidding and buying on the same site
MARC B OU RREAU AND CHRISTIAN LICOPPE 510
viii Contents

Part VI Evolving institutional infrastructures 537
19 An economic analysis of conflicts resolution in cyberspace
BRUNO DEFFAINS, YANNICK GABUT HY A ND
PHILIPPE FENOGLIO 539
20 Payment and the Internet: issues and research
perspectives in economics of banking
DAVID B OUNIE AND PIERRE GAZÉ 569
21 Electronization of Nasdaq: will market makers survive?
DELPHINE SAB OUR IN A ND THOMAS SERVAL 588
22 Multi-level governance of the digital space: does a
“second rank” institutional framework exist?
ER IC BROUSSEA U 617
Part VII The impacts of the Internet at the macro level 649
23 Mobile telephony and Internet growth: impacts on
consumer welfare
GARY MADDEN, MICHAEL SCHIPP AND JOACHIM TA N 651
24 Globalization, the Internet and e-business: convergence
or divergence in cross-country trends?
KENNETH L. KRA EMER AND JASON DEDRICK 663
25 ICTs and inequalities: the digital divide
A LAIN RALLET AND FABRICE R OCHELANDET 693
References 718
Index 777
Contents ix

Figures
2.1 Cisco’s stock options, 1990–2004 page 91
2.2 Relative importance of objectives of ongoing stock
option programs, ICT companies operating in the
United States, 1996–2003 98
2.3 Semiconductor employees (full-time) Silicon Valley,
Route 128, Dallas, USA 1994–2002 100
2.4 Average real annual earnings, full-time employees,
semiconductors, Silicon Valley, Route 128, Dallas,
USA 1994–2002 100
2.5 Software publisher employees (full-time), Silicon Valley,
Route 128, Dallas, USA 1994–2002 101
2.6 Average real annual earnings, full-time employees,
software publishers, Silicon Valley, Route 128, Dallas,
USA 1994–2002 101
2.7 IBM’s profit rate, rate of R&D spending, and payout
behavior, 1981–2003 105
2.8 US patenting, IBM, leading Japanese electronics
companies, and other top 10 patenters, 1989–2004 106
2.9 IBM’s stock options, 1982–2003 109
2.10 Stock price movements, Cisco, Lucent, AT&T, and IBM
compared with the S&P500 and Nasdaq indices 110
4.1 Venture capital funding in the United States and share
of Internet start-ups 144
4.2 Total number of IPOs, share of Internet IPOs and
first-day returns 165
8.1 An information superhighway 243
8.2 A simple star network 243
8.3 A simple local and long-distance network 244
8.4 A pair of vertically related markets 245
8.5 Construction of the fulfilled expectations demand 250
8.6 Monopolistic competition with network externalities
and M compatible goods 252
x

8.7 Choice between compatibility and incompatibility 254
8.8 Mix-and-match compatibility 255
8.9 Compatibility decisions are less flexible than vertical
integration decisions 258
8.10 Compatibility 258
8.11 Incompatibility 259
8.12 AB is a bottleneck facility 262
8.13 Intermodal competition 262
8.14 Choice between old and new technology 265
9.1 Lizzeri vs. Guerra 284
10.1 The prescription markets: a three-pronged structure 295
10.2 Some configuration of prescription markets 296
10.3 Three forms of prescription 304
10.4 The three standard forms of prescription 305
11.1 Demand for bundles of 1, 2 and 20 information goods
with i.i.d. valuations uniformly distributed in [0,1]
(linear demand case) 319
11.2 Competing imperfect substitutes 326
11.3 Good A1, sold separately, competes with good B1,
part of a large bundle 328
11.4 Distribution of valuations for good B1 (including
an impulse at the origin), when good A1 is priced at pA1 328
11.5 Correlated valuations: nA and nB cannot differ by more
than 1 r, 0 r 1 332
11.6 Increase in sales by firm B from a small decrease in pB 342
13.1 Pure contribution game with oi – ni 0: each
developer devotes all his ability to open software 381
13.2 Pure contribution game with oi – ni 0: the less
competent developers do not contribute at all 382
13.3 Contribution game with learning: contributions are a
non-monotonic function of competencies – the most
competent developers do not contribute at all 384
14.1 Graphical representation of a software system’s growth
as an upwards-evolving tree 407
14.2 A simulation of the growth of a software project 414
14.3 Gini coefficient for module size distribution 416
14.4 Social utility (without maintainers) 420
15.1 Bidder uncertainty and winning bids 439
16.1 Buyers randomize between one search and no
search (l ¼ 1
3) 469
16.2 Buyers randomize between one search and two searches 470
16.3 Equilibrium conditions 471
List of figures xi

16.4 The impact of lower search cost c 477
16.5 The impact of the search engine rate of adoption l 481
17.1 Coalition structures 494
17.2 Profits comparison 498
19.1 The impact of d on the defendant’s equilibrium strategy 550
19.2a The first-period settlement zone in Cybersettle 552
19.2b The last-period settlement zone in Cybersettle 552
21.1 The organization of Nasdaq 596
21.2 Comparison of ask price-quantity schedules within
the pure DM and the pure ELOB 605
21.3 Private-value buyer segmentation within the pure DM
and the pure ELOB for different values of c and M 606
21.4 Illustration of Result 4 when the trader buys shares 608
22.1 Internet governance: the current institutional framework 642
23.1 Compensating variation CV 653
24.1 Conceptual framework 665
24.2 E-business diffusion and wealth 671
24.3 Degree of globalization of each economy 671
24.4 Internet-based e-business diffusion, 1998–2003 677
24.5 Firm uses of e-business 679
24.6 B2B and B2C e-business in highly local and highly
global firms 681
24.7 E-business uses across economies 683
24.8 Firm impacts from e-business 685
24.9 Competitive impacts of e-business 686
24.10 Performance impacts of e-business in different
economies 687
xii List of figures

Tables
2.1 Employment, 1996–2003, at the top 20
“Old Economy” companies by 2003 sales page 67
2.2 Employment, 1996–2003, at the top 20
“New Economy” companies by 2003 sales 68
2.3 Top five companies by worldwide sales in computer
hardware sectors, 1984 72
2.4 Cisco Systems acquisitions, by value, employees, and
mode of payment, 1993–2004 93
6.1 A typology of online consumers communities 204
6.2 Contribution and trust issues in experience-sharing
and user communities 217
10.1 Sources of revenue for prescribers 297
10.2 Types of prescriber 306
10.3 Prescription business models 308
11.1 Equilibrium quantities, prices, and revenues in different
settings 333
12.1 Content spending by category 349
14.1 Gini coefficient for module size distribution 417
14.2 Social utility 419
16.1 Summary of comparative statics results 473
20.1 Typology and characteristics of electronic payment systems 587
21.1 ELOB illustration: ECN Island 591
21.2 Market share by venue in December 2002 593
23.1 Network, price and income coefficients estimates 657
23.2 Direct welfare gain by telecommunications service 657
23.3 Indirect welfare gain by telecommunications service 658
23.4 Mobile and fixed-line service price ratio 658
24.1 GEC survey sample 667
24.2 Firm drivers of e-business adoption 674
24.3 Firm barriers to e-business adoption 675
24.4 B2B and B2C sales and services 680
xiii

Notes on contributors
PATRICK BAJARI is Professor at the University of Minnesota. He re-
ceived his PhD from the University of Minnesota in 1997. He teaches
in the areas of industrial organization and applied econometrics. His
current research includes the econometrics of strategic interactions,
demand estimation in differentiated product markets, and the empiri-
cal analysis of asymmetric information. He is Managing Editor of the
International Journal of Industrial Organization and Associate Editor for
the Journal of Business and Economic Statistics.
YANNIS BAKOS is Associate Professor of Management at the Leonard
N. Stern School of Business at New York University where he teaches
courses on the economic and business implications of information
technology, the Internet, and online media. Professor Bakos pioneered
research on the impact of information technology on markets, and in
particular on how Internet-based electronic marketplaces will affect pri-
cing and competition. He holds PhD, MBA, Masters and Bachelors
degrees from MIT.
PIERRE-JEAN BENGHOZI is presently Reseach Director at the National
Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) and is directing the Pole for
Research in Economics and Management at Ecole Polytechnique
(Paris). He developed a research group on information technology,
telecomunications, media, and culture. His current projects draw
attention to adoption and uses of ITC in large organizations, structur-
ing of e-commerce and ITC-supported markets and supply chains.
Pierre-Jean Benghozi publishes on these topics in French and English.
He teaches regularly at Paris University.
DAVID BOUNIE is Assistant Professor of Economics at Télécom Paris.
He completed his graduate work at the University of Paris 1
Panthéon-Sorbonne in public economics and received his PhD in
economics from ENST. His research interests include economics of
payment systems and Internet economics. He is currently working on
xiv

economics of payment and econometrics of consumer payment behav-
ior. Prior to this affiliation with Télécom Paris, he served for three years
as an economist with the Groupement des Cartes Bancaires (CB), the
leading interbank payment and cash withdrawal system in France.
MARC BOURREAU is Assistant Professor at Ecole Nationale Supérieure
des Télécommunications (ENST, Paris) and member of the Laboratory
of Industrial Economics (LEI) of the Center for Research in Economics
and Statistics (CREST). His main research interests are economic and
policy issues relating to broadcasting, telecommunications, and the
Internet.
ERIC BROUSSEAU is Professor of Economics at the University of
Paris X, and Director of EconomiX, a joint research center between
the CNRS (French National Science Foundation) and the University
of Paris X. He is also Co-Director of the GDR TICS (Research
Consortium “Information Technologies and the Society”) of the
CNRS. His research agenda focuses on the economics of institutions
and the economics of contracts, with two main applied fields: the
economics of intellectual property rights and the economics of the
Internet and digital activities. On this last issue he works both on
digital business models and on the governance of the Internet and of
the information society.
ERIK BRYNJOLFSSON is Director of the MIT Center for Digital
Business, the Schussel Professor of Management at the MIT Sloan
School, and director or advisor of several technology-intensive firms.
His research focuses on the economics of information and information
technology, including productivity, organizational change, and the
pricing of digital goods. Professor Brynjolfsson previously taught at
Stanford Business School and Harvard Business School. He holds
Bachelors and Masters degrees from Harvard University and a PhD
from MIT.
NICOL AS CURIEN serves as Commissioner for the French Regulation
Commission for Electronic Communications and Postal Services
(ARCEP). He held several positions as an economist in the
Administration (France Telecom, Ministry of Defence, Institute of
Statistics and Economic Studies) and as an academic (Professor of
Economics at the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers and at
the Ecole Polytechnique). He is also a member of the French Academy
of Technology and a member of the International Telecommunications
Society (ITS). He has published several books and many scientific
articles in the field of telecommunications and Internet economics.
Notes on contributors xv

JEAN-MICHEL DALL E is Professor with University Pierre et Marie
Curie and an associate researcher with IMRI-Dauphine (Paris,
France). He works on the economics of innovation and has notably
focused since 1998 on the economics of software and open source
software. He is an alumnus from Ecole Polytechnique and ENSAE,
and holds a PhD in economics from Ecole Polytechnique. He is also
the Managing Director of Agoranov, a major non-profit science-based
incubator located in Paris.
GODEFROY DANG NGUYEN is Deputy Scientific Director at ENST
Bretagne, an engineer’s school in France, and Professor at the College
of Europe in Bruges. His research focuses on Internet and telecom-
munications economics, on which he has written two books, and on
institutional issues related to ICT. He is the scientific director of a
network of seven universities and institutions located in Brittany. This
network carries out statistical and case studies on adoption and usage
of ICT. Professor Dang Nguyen has been an expert with the European
Commission since 1983, and has been consultant for many institu-
tions including the World Bank and ITU.
PAUL A. DAVID is known internationally for contributions to economic
history, economic and historical demography, and the economics of
science and technology. He divides his working life equally between
Stanford University in California, where he is Professor of Economics
and Senior Fellow of the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy
Research, and the University of Oxford, where he is Senior Fellow
of the Oxford Internet Institute and Emeritus Fellow of All Souls
College. In 2003 he edited (with M. Thomas) The Economic Future
in Historical Perspective.
JASON DEDRICK is Co-Director of the Personal Computing Industry
Center and Senior Research Fellow at the Center for Research on
Information Technology and Organizations (CRITO), at the University
of California, Irvine. His research is focused on the globalization of
information technology production and use, and the economic
impacts of IT at the firm, industry, and national levels. He is co-author
of Global E-Commerce: Impacts of National Environment and Policy,
Cambridge University Press, 2006.
BRUNO DEFFAINS is Professor of Economics at University of Nancy,
France. For the past few years, he has been Vice-President for
research activities there and he developed a new program in law and
economics which is now associated to the CNRS. He is the author of
articles and books in law and economics. His research has focused on
xvi Notes on contributors

economics of accidents law, conflicts resolution, internet regulation,
comparison of legal systems, as well as the question of the extent to
which law constrains economic growth.
NICHOLAS ECONOMIDES is Professor of Economics at the Stern
School of Business of New York University and Executive Director
of the NET Institute. His fields of specialization and research include
the economics of networks, especially of telecommunications, com-
puters, and information, the economics of technical compatibility and
standardization, industrial organization, the structure and organiza-
tion of financial markets, application of public policy to network
industries, and strategic analysis of markets. He has published widely
in the areas of networks, telecommunications, oligopoly, antitrust,
product positioning, and on liquidity and the organization of financial
markets and exchanges. His website on the economics of networks at
http://www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/ has been ranked by The Economist
as one of the top four economics sites worldwide.
EMMANUELL E FAUCHART is Assistant Professor of Economics at the
Laboratory of Econometrics at CNAM, France. Her interest in re-
search is the field of industrial organization, and more particularly
information-sharing patterns, industrial dynamics, firm demography,
and the economics of online communities.
PHIL IPPE FENOGL IO is Assistant Professor of Economics at University
of Nancy (France). His research interests include industrial organi-
zation (oligopolistic competition, product differentiation) and eco-
nomics of innovation and new technology. He is also working on the
economics of alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drugs and is the co-author
of several reports on this topic for public organizations.
PATRICE FLICHY is Professor of Sociology at Marne la Vallée University,
LATTS. His main research topics include online computerization
movements and technological utopianism.
DOMINIQUE FORAY holds the Chair of Economics and Management of
Innovation at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne
(EPFL). He is also Director of the Collège du Management at EPFL.
His research interests include all topics and issues related to economic
policy in the context of the new knowledge-based economy. This broad
field covers the economics of science, technology, and innovation.
Intellectual property and competition policy, information technology
and the new economy, capital market and entrepreneurships, national
systems of innovation, education, and training policy are fields of high
relevanceinhisresearch.In2004hepublishedTheEconomicsofKnowledge.
Notes on contributors xvii

YANNICK GABU THY is Assistant Professor of Economics at the
University of Nancy and member of the BETA research laboratory
(CNRS) since 2005. He received his PhD in economics from the
University of Lyon in 2003 and was a visitor at the University of
Essex in 2001. His main area of research is law and economics, with
special interest in dispute resolution (bargaining and arbitration). He
conducts experimental research on these topics.
ALEX GAUDEUL is a lecturer at the School of Economics, University of
East Anglia and a faculty member at the Centre for Competition
Policy. He holds a PhD from the University of Toulouse, France and
is an industrial economist with an interest in the Internet, open source
software and media industries. Current work examines the open
source software production model in order to evaluate its impact on
traditional methods of software production. He is also working on how
intermediaries regulate competition on the Internet between the firms
they intermediate.
PIERRE GAZÉ is Assistant Professor of Economics at the University of
Orléans since 1999. He received his PhD in economics from the
University of Orléans. His research interests are in economics of
banking and industrial organization. His recent works include bund-
ling and tying practices in the banking industry and retail payments
innovations.
MICHEL GENSOL LEN was trained as an economist and an engineer in
telecommunications. From 1990 to 2000 he was Chief Economist at
France Telecom, in charge of the Economic and Strategic Studies
department. He is currently working at the SES (Economics and
Social Sciences) department at Télécom Paris. His recent publications
focus on electronic commerce, network-based firms, information
economy, and the new business models triggered by the development
of the Internet and ICT.
ULRICH HEGE is Associate Professor in Finance at HEC School
of Management in Paris. He has previously taught at Tilburg
University and ESSEC and holds a PhD from Princeton University.
His research interests are in corporate finance, on questions related to
venture capital, corporate governance, joint ventures, bankruptcy,
credit risk and credit structure, and internal capital markets.
ALI HORTAÇSU is Assistant Professor of Economics at the University of
Chicago. He is interested in the theory and econometrics of auction
and matching markets, product markets with search frictions and
xviii Notes on contributors

Other documents randomly have
different content

and courtly customs. The restriction placed on the admission of idle
visitors, who hourly intruded on him, caused much offence, and
became the subject of remonstrance, even from intelligent men. One
of the first acts of Washington’s administration was to empower the
legislature to become responsible for the general debt of the States,
and to levy taxes for the punctual discharge of the interest upon it.
The operation of the new government was in every respect
satisfactory, its beneficial influence being apparent in the increasing
prosperity of the country; and before the end of the second year’s
presidency, Rhode Island and North Carolina, which at first were
dissentient, desired to participate in the benefits of the Union, and
were admitted as members. In 1790, Washington concluded a treaty
with the hostile Indians on the Southern frontier; but the war which
he directed against the Indians on the North Western frontier was
unfortunate, the American forces sustaining three severe defeats.
Upon the whole, however, the period of his first Presidency passed
over prosperously and tranquilly. He was annoyed by occasional
differences in his cabinet, and by the discontent of the anti-federal
party; but being supported by John Adams, Hamilton, and other able
men, his government suffered no real embarrassment.
In 1792, as he possessed the general confidence of the people, he
was unanimously re-elected President; and in March, 1793, again
took the oaths of office. The French Revolution was hailed with joy
by the Americans, among whom an almost universal wish prevailed,
to assist in establishing, as they thought, true freedom in Europe.
But Washington perceived that the real interests of his country
required peace. He acknowledged the Government of the French
Republic, and sent an ambassador to Paris; but declared his
resolution to adopt a strict neutrality in the contest between France
and the allied powers of Europe. Still the enthusiasm in favour of the
French continued to increase; and, at the instigation of M. Genet,
envoy from Paris, privateers were armed in the American ports, and
sent to cruise against the British. Washington promptly suppressed
this practice; and the conduct of Genet having been intemperate and
insolent towards the President, and calculated to produce serious

disturbance in the States, he took the requisite steps for having him
recalled. The determination of the President to preserve peace was
not the only ground of popular discontent. The imposition of excise
taxes, as they were termed by the people, excited serious
murmurings; and, in 1794, a general rising took place in
Pennsylvania, which was put down without bloodshed by a vigorous
display of force, and the principals, after being condemned to death,
were pardoned. The ferment among the people made a war with
England seemingly unavoidable. Washington, at this juncture,
appointed Mr. Jay envoy to England, with full powers to conclude a
treaty, in which all points then at issue between the two nations
should be adjusted. With the concurrence of the Senate he ratified
this treaty, regardless of the outcry raised against it; and
subsequently upheld the authority of the President, in refusing to
permit the House of Representatives to revise the articles it
contained. The people soon perceived that the advantages to be
derived from the contentions in Europe made it impolitic for their
own country to become a party to them, and confidence and good
will towards the President were in a great measure restored. These
favourable dispositions were confirmed by the termination of a
successful war against the Indians, and by a treaty with Spain, by
which the navigation of the Mississippi to the Ocean was secured to
the Americans.
Among the acts which immediately proceeded from Washington
during his Presidency, were those for forming a fund to pay off the
national debt, and for organizing the militia of the country. He was
active and assiduous in his duties as chief magistrate, making tours
through the States, and ascertaining the progressive improvement in
each, and the means which would most tend to increase it. The
limited powers conferred on the President prevented his effecting so
much as he desired, and the public measures originating from him
were but few. He declined being nominated a third time to the office
of President, and on his retirement published an address to the
people of the United States, in which, after remarking on the
condition and prospects of the country, he insisted on the necessity

of cementing the Union of the States, and upholding the supremacy
of the Federal Government; he also advised them never to admit the
influence of foreign powers, and to reap benefit from the quarrels
amongst the States of Europe, by remaining at peace with all.
Washington passed the rest of his days at Mount Vernon, engaged in
the society of his friends, and in the improvement of his estate. He
was for several years a member of the British Agricultural
Association; and the efforts he made to form a similar society in
America, and his letters to Sir John Sinclair, (a fac simile copy of
which is deposited in the British Museum,) show the interest he took
in agricultural affairs. He died December 13, 1799, in his sixty-eighth
year, after a few days’ illness, and was buried at Mount Vernon. He
left no family. Congress suspended its sitting on receiving the
intelligence of his death, and a public mourning was ordered for him.
In person, Washington was robust, and above the middle height. He
was thoughtful and reserved, without being repulsive; and his
manners were those of the old school of English gentlemen.
Although mild and humane, he was stern in the performance of duty,
and never, upon such occasions, yielded to softness or compassion.
His speeches and official letters are simple and earnest, but wanting
perhaps in that conciseness which marks vigour of thought. Whilst
President, he was assailed by the violence of party spirit. On his
decease his worth was justly appreciated, and the sorrow at his loss
was universal and sincere. Washington was distinguished less by the
brilliancy of his talents than by his moral goodness, sound judgment,
and plain but excellent understanding. His admirable use of those
sterling, though homely qualities has gained a rank for him among
the greatest and best of men; and his name will be co-existent, as it
was co-eval, with that of the empire, of which, no less by his rare
civil wisdom than his eminent military talents, he may be considered
the founder.
The virtues which distinguish him from all others who have united
the fame of statesman and captain, were two-fold, and they are as
great as they are rare. He refused power which his own merit had

placed within his reach, constantly persisting in the preference of a
republican to a monarchical form of government, as the most
congenial to liberty when it is not incompatible with the habits of the
people and the circumstances of society; and he even declined to
continue longer than his years seemed to permit at the head of that
commonwealth which he had founded. This subjugation of all
ambitious feelings to the paramount sense of duty is his first
excellence; it is the sacrifice of his own aggrandizement to his
country’s freedom. The next is like unto it; his constant love of peace
when placed at the head of affairs: this was the sacrifice of the
worthless glory which ordinary men prize the most, to the tranquillity
and happiness of mankind. Wherefore to all ages and in all climes,
they who most love public virtue will hold in eternal remembrance
the name of George Washington; never pronouncing it but with
gratitude and awe, as designating a mortal removed above the
ordinary lot of human frailty.
The words of his last will in bequeathing his sword to his nephews—
the sword which he had worn in the sacred war of liberty—ought to
be graven in letters of gold over every palace in the world: “This
sword they shall never draw but in defence of freedom, or of their
country, or of their kindred; and when thus drawn, they shall prefer
falling with it in their hands to the relinquishment thereof.”
For farther information we refer to the works of Ramsay and
Marshall; and to the Correspondence of Washington, published by
Mr. Sparkes.

[Statue by Canova in the
Capitol at Washington.]
Engraved by E. Scriven.
MURILLO.
From the original Picture
by Himself
in the Private Collection of
the King of the French.

Under the Superintendance
of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge.
London. Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street.

MURILLO.
The Spanish school may be said to hold a middle place between the
schools of Italy and Flanders. The most natural and the most
indigenous style it can boast is, unquestionably, that of Murillo, who
was never out of Spain; and although it is true that he formed his
manner, in a great degree, from the study of Ribera and Vandyck,
the principles of those painters are so different, that it would be
difficult to recognise either model in a union of the two. But Murillo
superadded much that was his own, and much that was
immediately, and somewhat too indiscriminately, derived from the
observation of nature. The artists of the school of Seville, of which
Murillo is the chief, were generally called naturalistas, as opposed to
those who followed the Italian purity of taste in design, invention,
and imitation. Although it is hardly safe to class all the professors of
one province under a particular designation, the earlier school of
Valencia may be considered the rival of the naturalistas: its Italian
character is to be traced from Vincent Juanes, who was compared by
Palomino to Raffaelle; in Ribalta, a work by whom, it is said, was
mistaken in Rome for a performance of Raffaelle’s; in Jacinto
Gerónimo di Espinosa, by Cean Bermudez called a second
Domenichino; and in Pedro Orrente and Luis Tristan, who imitated
Bassano and Titian. The appearance in Italy of the fac-similists and
tenebrosi (corresponding with the Spanish naturalistas, with whom
they are connected by Ribera’s imitation of Caravaggio) is
considered, with some reason, to have hastened the decline of
painting in that country; in Spain and Flanders, on the other hand,
the art which had before been a feeble or mannered imitation of the
best Italian works, then only began to be great when the style of the

naturalistas was introduced. The practice of the Sevillian painters in
copying objects of still life as a preparatory study, was probably
derived from the Netherlands, and this style again, which was
ominous of degradation and decay in Italy, was the cause of much of
the excellence of the Andalusian painters. The taste of these
painters, in short, was for individual nature; a taste which was in
some degree, and in spite of themselves, corrected by their being
almost exclusively employed in painting for churches. The arts in
Spain, from their earliest introduction, have been devoted to
religion; nor is it to be wondered that this should be the case in a
country which seems to have considered itself in an especial manner
the representative of Catholicism, a natural consequence, perhaps,
of its defending the outposts of Christendom from the infidels. The
representation of the human figure is strictly forbidden by the Koran,
and there can be no doubt that the spirit of opposition was
manifested in this point, as in every other, by the antagonists of the
Moors. The conquest of Granada at the close of the fifteenth century
happens to correspond with the beginning of the great æra of art in
Italy, but the demand for altar-pieces in Spain, before and after that
time, is proved by a constant influx of Italian, Flemish, and even
German painters; a fact which is commonly explained by the wealth
which flowed or was expected to flow into the country by the
discovery of America about the same period. However this may be,
so late as the seventeenth century, when painting may be supposed
at length to have been appreciated for itself, and to have been
applied to the ends of general cultivation, as the handmaid of history
and poetry, it is a curious fact that neither Roelas, Castillo, nor
Murillo, not to mention earlier names, ever painted a mythologic or
merely historic subject. From the sublimest mysteries of the church,
and from themes demanding more than ordinary elevation, the
Sevillian painters turned with eagerness to the homely materials of
modern miracles, and from these descended only to indulge their
fondness for indiscriminate imitation. The pictures of Beggar Boys by
which Murillo is perhaps most known in this country, come under the
class of subjects and display the mode of treatment which a school
of mere copyists of nature would prefer. Some works of this kind,

however, attributed to Murillo, and possessing great merit, are said,
with probability, to be the work of Nuñez de Villavicencio, his pupil.
It was, however, precisely such studies as these, which enabled
Murillo and his contemporaries to infuse into their religious subjects
that powerful reality which was among the means of naturalizing the
art in Spain, and which thus produced a new style, uniting
sometimes the dignity of the Italian School with the truth and
vivacity of Flemish imitation.
Bartolomé Esteban Murillo is supposed by the writers who follow
Palomino, among whom Cumberland is one, to have been born at
Pilas, a town five leagues west of Seville, in the year 1613; but the
discovery of the memorial of his baptism in Seville, with every proof
of identity, shows that he was born in that city, January 1, 1618. His
early fondness for drawing induced his parents to place him with
Juan del Castillo, a designer of some merit, although not remarkable
as a colourist. The gentle manners and good education of Murillo
soon recommended him to his master, who appears to have
preferred him to his other scholars, among whom were Pedro de
Moya, and Alonzo Cano; but this preference did not exempt the
favourite from the servile offices of grinding colours, preparing
canvasses, and all the mechanical preparations which the Spanish
painters considered an essential part of an artist’s education. It
appears that the schools of Seville generally were deficient in casts
from the antique: and in investigating the structure of the human
frame, the studies of the artists were chiefly limited to an anatomical
figure by Becerra, a sculptor who had returned to Spain early in the
sixteenth century, from the school of M. Angelo. The living model
was, however, constantly referred to, and the fellow-students of
Murillo were in the habit of sitting to each other for portions of
figures that were wanted, when they could not afford to pay hired
models. It was also the custom of the schools to study drapery
arranged on the mannequin, or lay-figure, by the master. It was
more usual to paint than to draw from the figures, but no student
was permitted to copy the model thus till he had attained dexterity
with the brush by imitating objects of still life: a practice which

accounts for the number of well-painted Spanish pictures of this
class. Such pictures, often representing eatables with kitchen
utensils, are known by the general name of Bodegones. Herrera el
Mozo was called by the Italians “Lo spagnuolo de’ pesci,” from his
skill in painting fish, and Pedro de Camprobin equalled the best
masters in fruit and flowers. Velasquez and Murillo, it is said,
acquired their power of execution from their early practice in this
kind of imitation. The mode of copying the human figure was
dictated by these preliminary studies; freedom of hand, a disdain of
minuteness more than compensated by powerful effects,
indifference as to selection, and consequently, a very moderate
degree of beauty of form, distinguish the Spanish naturalistas. About
the time Murillo began his career, the school of Seville was rapidly
advancing under the influence of four distinguished masters and
teachers of the art, Herrera the elder, or, to give him his Spanish
appellation, Herrera el viejo, Pacheco, (under both of whom
Velasquez studied), Roelas, and Castillo. The greatest emulation
existed among their respective scholars; and in all public works in
which the latter competed, the credit of the master was considered
at stake as well as their own.
Murillo soon distinguished himself in the school of Castillo; his first
commissions from public bodies were a Madonna del Rosario, with
St. Domingo, painted for the college of Santo Tomas; and a Virgin,
with St. Francis and other saints, for the convent of “la Regina.” In
these works the artist followed, in some degree, the style of Castillo.
His master having removed to Cadiz, the young painter remained
without recommendation and without employment, and was
compelled to do coarse altar-pictures and saints for the feria, or
market, which was held once a week in the parish “Omnium
Sanctorum,” and which seems to have been chiefly devoted to the
commerce with South America. The paintings offered in this market,
or fair, for sale, were generally the work of the most inferior artists,
and the expression “pintura de feria” is still proverbially applied to
pictures of the lowest class. Such was the rapidity with which these
works were done, that it appears it was not uncommon for the artist

to produce his saint while the purchaser was cheapening the
bargain, and the Spanish writer, whose authority is chiefly followed
in this memoir, goes so far as to say, that a San Onofre was
presently transformed to a San Cristobal, or a Virgen del Carmen to
a San Antonio, or even to the representation of the Souls in
Purgatory. Better artists, however, occasionally condescended to
paint such pictures, and with some augmentation of price; but even
the worst performers were known, in some instances, to acquire
such dexterity by this work, that very little additional study in the
regular schools converted them into respectable artists. This singular
mode of attaining mechanical facility must therefore be reckoned
among the causes which influenced the executive style of the
Sevillian painters; and Murillo, among others, no doubt benefited by
his practice in the feria.
A circumstance occurred about the same time which had great
influence on his life. His fellow-student, Pedro de Moya, who had
accompanied the army to Flanders, conceived a great admiration for
the works of Vandyck, and went to London to study under the
Flemish painter, where he soon formed a style bearing a strong
resemblance to that of his master. On the death of Vandyck, Moya
returned to Seville, where he presently attracted the attention of his
former companions by the accurate, yet powerful manner of painting
which he had acquired. To Murillo the style was so new, that he
determined at once to go either to Flanders or Italy, to perfect
himself in the art. It was at this moment that he felt his poverty to
be a serious misfortune; but, not dismayed by difficulties, he set to
work afresh for his South American and West Indian patrons, and
having saved a small sum of money, without communicating his
intentions to any one, and without even taking leave of his sister,
whom he left with an uncle, he quitted Seville for Madrid, with the
intention of proceeding to Italy, at the age of twenty-four. On his
arrival at the capital, he naturally waited on Diego Velasquez, who
was a native of Seville and had received his professional education
there; he was at this time first painter to the king (Philip IV.). To this
distinguished artist Murillo opened his desire to visit Italy, and

begged some letters of introduction for Rome. Velasquez received
him with kindness, promised him assistance, and made him most
liberal offers for his immediate advantage. Meanwhile the desire of
the young painter to see the best specimens of the art was in a
great measure gratified under the auspices of his new friend, by his
inspection of the pictures in the Royal Palace, at Buen Retiro, and in
the Escorial. He immediately expressed a wish to make copies of
some of these works, and while Velasquez accompanied the King to
Aragon, in the year 1642, Murillo copied some pictures by Vandyck,
Spagnoleto, and Velasquez himself. These copies were shown to the
King on his return by Velasquez, and were admired by all the court.
The disgrace of the minister Olivarez, in 1643, was deeply felt by
Velasquez, to whom the Count Duke had been a generous patron;
and although it did not diminish the esteem in which the King held
the painter, this circumstance seems first to have disgusted Murillo
with Madrid. On the return of Velasquez from Zaragosa, in 1644, he
was astonished at the progress of his scholar, and finding him
sufficiently advanced to profit by a visit to Italy, he offered to
procure for him letters of recommendation and other assistance from
the King himself. Murillo had, however, already determined to return
to Seville, influenced either by domestic considerations, or by having
already satisfied the wish which first urged him to leave his native
city. Velasquez regretted this resolution, imagining that the young
painter would have arrived at still greater perfection if he could have
studied for a time in Rome.
The first works done by Murillo after his return to Seville in 1645
were the pictures of the convent of San Francisco. The building was
destroyed by fire in 1810, but several of the paintings are now in the
collection of Marshal Soult. In the pictures of San Francisco, Cean
Bermudez recognises an imitation of Vandyck, Ribera, and
Velasquez, the three painters whom Murillo chiefly studied while at
Madrid. His new works excited general attention; so little had he
been known before he left Seville, and so studious and retired had
been his habits, that his absence had scarcely been noticed, and his
re-appearance with so masterly a style of painting astonished his

fellow-citizens. The fame of Herrera, Pacheco, and Zurbaran, was at
once eclipsed, and he was universally acknowledged the first painter
of the Sevillian School. The obscurity in which he had lived before
his visit to Madrid was now exchanged for the most flattering
attentions of the powerful and wealthy, and many of the chief
citizens wished to have their portraits done by him. Meanwhile he
painted the Flight into Egypt, in the church de la Merced, which has
been attributed to Velasquez, and other works now no longer in
Spain. In 1648, he married Doña Beatriz de Cabrera y Sotomayor, a
lady of birth and some fortune, a native of Pilas, from which
circumstance, perhaps, originated the mistake of Palomino in
assigning that town as the birth-place of her husband. A change in
his manner of painting, adopted, as Cean Bermudez asserts, to
please the public, is observable soon after this period. It succeeded
in pleasing all parties, for the new manner was extolled even by the
warmest admirers of the previous performances of the master. The
works of Murillo may be divided into three distinct styles: the first,
necessarily very different from his subsequent manner, is to be
sought in the specimens which date before his departure for Madrid;
the second, is that which he acquired in the capital, and is
exemplified by the works above-mentioned, done immediately after
his return; the third manner dates from about 1650, and the first
public work which may be cited as illustrating it, is an Immaculate
Conception (a subject often treated by the Spanish painters) in the
convent of San Francisco, painted in 1652.
The latter and characteristic style of Murillo may be generally
described as possessing more suavity, and softer transitions of light
and shade, than that of the naturalistas of his time. It is remarkable,
besides, for a general harmony of hues; for considerable, but by no
means uniform, softness of contour; for simplicity and propriety of
attitude and expression; for physiognomies, if not always
distinguished by beauty or refinement, yet interesting from a certain
character of purity and goodness; for free yet well-arranged drapery;
for a force of light on the principal objects, and, above all, for
surprising truth in the colour of the flesh, heightened by an almost

constant opposition of dark-grey backgrounds. The two pictures of
St. Leander and St. Isidore, in the sacristy of the Cathedral, were
done in 1655. In the same year Murillo painted the Nativity of the
Virgin, now in the Cathedral; and in 1656 the great picture of St.
Antony of Padua, the altar-piece of the Baptistery of the same
church: the picture of the Baptism of Christ in the same Retablo, or
architectural frame, is also by Murillo, but by no means equal to the
St. Antony. The four half circles, formerly in the church of Santa
Maria la Blanca, belong to the same time, as well as a Dolorosa, and
St. John the Evangelist, done for the same church. In 1658 Murillo
undertook, without any aid from the government, to establish a
public academy in Seville; and, after great difficulties, owing to the
imperious temper of his rivals Juan de Valdes Leal and Francisco de
Herrera el Mozo, who was just returned from Italy, he succeeded in
his object, and the academy was opened in 1660. Murillo was the
first president, but, from whatever cause, he was not re-elected to
that office after the first year: the multitude of his occupations is,
however, the most probable reason to be assigned for this. Although
the best Spanish painters, such as Velasquez, Murillo, Zurbaran, and
others, arrived at the excellence they attained without an early
acquaintance with the antique, there being, as we have seen, no
casts from the Greek statues in the private schools of Seville, yet, on
the establishment of a public academy, it might be supposed that it
would have been furnished with the best examples of form. Such,
however, does not appear to have been the case: except a few
drawings by the professors, which were copied by mere beginners,
there were, it seems, no other models than the living figure and the
draped mannequin; and when once admitted to copy from the life,
the students were in the habit of confining their practice to painting,
without considering that of drawing at all essential. This method of
instruction was peculiar to the Academy of Seville, as distinguished
from other similar establishments in Spain; and it is evident that the
object was to follow up the method which had already been
sufficient by itself to render the school illustrious. It may be
observed that the study of drapery in this school had the effect, to a
certain extent, of ennobling the style of the painters; and they were

perhaps led to pay attention to this branch of the art, from so often
witnessing the fine effect of drapery in the dresses of the religious
orders. Sir Joshua Reynolds has somewhere justly observed, that a
grand cast of drapery is sometimes of itself sufficient to give an air
of dignity to a picture.
About 1668, Murillo began the celebrated series in the Hospital de
San Jorge, or de la Caridad, whence came several of the pictures
now in the possession of Marshal Soult. Among those that remain,
the most remarkable and most copious compositions, are the Moses
striking the Rock, and the miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. The
Prodigal Son, Abraham receiving the Angels, the Pool of Bethesda,
and the Deliverance of Peter from Prison are now in Paris; they are
all excellent specimens of the master. The Picture of San Juan de
Dios bearing an infirm mendicant, is celebrated for its strength of
effect, and has been compared, and even attributed, to Spagnoleto.
Another composition, now in Madrid, representing Santa Isabel
curing the diseased poor, a wonderful specimen of imitation, was the
greatest favourite of the series with the common people, when in its
original place, owing, perhaps, to the very familiar and disgusting
details of the subject; it was generally known by the name of el
Tiñoso, from the principal figure, a boy whose sore head the Saint is
dressing. The habit of copying to illusion the merest accidents of
nature without distinction, naturally led the Spanish painters to all
the deformities that can be excused by the epithet “picturesque.”
The details of the picture just mentioned would be loathsome, even
in words, yet other Sevillian painters went beyond it; and Murillo
himself, on seeing a picture in which some dead bodies are painted
with repulsive reality by Juan de Valdes, in the church of the
Caridad, observed to that artist, that “it could only be looked at
while holding the nostrils.”
Cean Bermudez remarks of the Tiñoso, that the figure of the Queen
Santa Isabel (whom by the way he makes a Queen of Portugal in
one of his works and a Queen of Hungary in another) is equal to
Vandyck; the face of the boy illuminated by the reflection of a basin
of water, worthy of Paul Veronese; and an old woman and a

mendicant unbinding his leg, as fine as Velasquez. He concludes by
asserting, that if instead of the numbers of copies, good, bad, and
indifferent, that have been made from all the pictures of the Caridad,
a series of accurate engravings after them had been executed, these
compositions would be as much celebrated and admired as those of
the best Italian painters. The pictures of the Caridad were finished in
1674. The Capuchin Convent is another vast gallery of the fine works
of Murillo. Without reckoning smaller pieces, there are twenty
pictures by his hand in the convent with figures the size of life.
Among these one is said to have obtained the especial preference of
the painter himself; the subject is Santo Tomas di Villanueva
distributing alms. In the Nativity, Murillo has followed the artifice of
Correggio, by making the light emanate from the infant: this picture
is one of the best of the series. The Annunciation is remarkable for
the beauty and dignity of the Angel, and for the graceful humility of
the Virgin. Three pictures, done for the Hospital de los Venerables,
about 1678, are mentioned by the author already quoted as
admirable performances: among them the Penitence of St. Peter is
described as surpassing the same subject by Ribera, and an
Immaculate Conception as superior in colour and admirable
management of light and shade to every similar composition by the
artist himself. In the refectory of the convent is the portrait of Don
Justino Neve, by whom Murillo was employed to paint the pictures
just mentioned; his biographer says it is in all respects equal to
Vandyck. The altar pictures of the Convent of San Agustin, and a
long list of single figures of saints, some larger than life, together
with many portraits of superiors of religious orders, scarcely
complete the catalogue of Murillo’s public works in Seville, and it
would be too long to enumerate those which exist in other parts of
Spain. The pictures which he executed for private collections were
almost equally numerous, and his biographer asserts, that at the
beginning of the last century there was scarcely a house of
respectability in Seville that was not ornamented with some work of
his. They began to disappear when Philip V. and his court visited the
city. Many were presented or sold to the noblemen and ambassadors
who accompanied the king, and are now in galleries of Madrid and

other cities of Europe. Since that time, however, several of the
principal families have made their pictures heir-looms, and thus
guarded, as far as possible, against a further dispersion of their
countryman’s works. Murillo’s last work was the altar-piece of the
Capuchins, at Cadiz, representing the Marriage of St. Catherine.
While employed on this picture he fell from the scaffold; and a
serious malady, which was the consequence, compelled him to
return to Seville, where he soon after died, April 3, 1682. He was
buried in a chapel of the Church of Santa Cruz. It was to this chapel
he was in the habit of going to contemplate Campana’s picture of
the Descent from the Cross; and shortly before his death, being
asked by the sacristan, who wanted to shut the church, why he
lingered there, he answered, “I am only waiting till these holy men
shall have taken down the Lord from the Cross.” The picture of the
marriage of St. Catherine was finished by Francisco Menéses Osorio,
one of the eleven scholars of Murillo enumerated by Cean Bermudez.
The short account of Murillo, in Cumberland’s “Anecdotes of eminent
Painters in Spain,” is taken from the incorrect but amusing “Parnaso
Español pintoresco laureado” of Palomino. A very good general and
concise history of the Spanish school (though containing several
errors of the press in dates), with an interesting list, not to be found
elsewhere, of the early pictures of Murillo, is contained in the
Foreign Quarterly Review, No. 26. There are, probably, no other
English works on the subject, except in a Dictionary of Spanish
Painters, not yet complete, and the incidental notices in books of
travels. The foregoing account is chiefly taken from a Letter by Cean
Bermudez, “Sobre el estilo y gusto en la Pintura de la Escuela
Sevillana, c. Cadiz, 1806,” published subsequently to his
“Diccionario Histórico de los mas ilustres profesores de las Bellas
Artes en España, Madrid, 1800,” which has also been consulted.

[Holy Family of Murillo.]
Engraved by E. Mackenzie.
CERVANTES.
After the Spanish Print,
engraved by D. F. Selma.

CERVANTES.
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra was baptized October 9, 1547, at
Alcalà de Henares, a town of New Castile, not far from Madrid. The
exact date of his birth does not appear; and even the locality of it
has been disputed by several towns, as the Grecian cities contended
for the honour due to the birth-place of Homer. Sprung from noble,
but not wealthy parents, he was sent at an early age to the
metropolis, to qualify himself for one or other of the only lucrative
professions in Spain, the church, the law, or medicine; but his
attention was diverted from this object by a strong propensity to
writing verses. Juan Lopez de Hoyos, a teacher of some note, under
whom he studied ancient and modern literature, thought Cervantes
the most promising of his pupils; and inserted an elegy, and other
verses of his favourite’s composition, in an account of the funeral of
Queen Isabel, wife of Philip II., published in 1569. These, like the
greater number of Cervantes’ early poems, which are very
numerous, do not rise above mediocrity; though the author, who
was a long time in discovering that his real talent lay in prose
writing, seems to have thought otherwise. He was an indefatigable
reader, and used to stop before the book-stalls in the street,
perusing anything that attracted his attention. In this manner he
gained that intimate knowledge of the old literature of his country,
which is displayed in his works; especially in the “Canto de Caliope,”
the “Escrutinio de la libreria de Don Quixote,” and the “Viage al
Parnaso.” Thus he spent his time, reading and writing verses,
seemingly heedless of his future subsistence, until the pressure of
want, and the ill success of his poetry, drove him to quit Spain, and
seek his fortune elsewhere. He went to Rome, and entered the

service of Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva; but soon after enlisted as a
private in the armament which Pope Pius V. fitted out in 1570 for the
relief of Cyprus, then attacked by the Turks. In 1571 he fought in the
famous battle of Lepanto, when the combined squadrons of the
Christian powers, commanded by Don Juan of Austria, defeated and
destroyed the Ottoman fleet. On that memorable day Cervantes
received a gun-shot wound, which for life deprived him of the use of
his left hand. Far however from repining, the generous Spaniard
always expressed his joyfulness at having purchased the honour of
sharing in that victory at that price. The wounded were landed at
Messina, and Cervantes among them. Having recovered his health,
he enlisted in the troops of Naples, then subject to the crown of
Spain. In 1575, as he was voyaging to Spain, the vessel was taken
by corsairs; and being carried to Algiers, Cervantes became a slave
to Dali Mami, an Albanian renegade, notorious for cruelty. The high-
spirited Spaniard bent all his energies to effect an escape; and
contrived to get out of the city of Algiers, and conceal himself in a
cave by the sea-coast, near a garden belonging to a renegade,
named Hassan, whose gardener and another slave were in the
secret. He was there joined by several Christian prisoners; and the
party remained in the cave for several months, hoping that the
opportune arrival of some vessel might deliver them from their
anxious duress. At last a ransomed captive, a native of Majorca and
friend of Cervantes, left Algiers, and returning to his country, fitted
out a vessel, with the intention of releasing his countrymen. He
arrived off the coast in the night, and was on the point of landing
near the entrance of the cave, when some Moors, who were passing
by, spied him, and raised the alarm, on which the vessel stood out
again to sea. One of Hassan’s two servants next day went to the
Dey, and, in hopes of a reward, informed him that fifteen Christians
were concealed in the cave. They were immediately seized and
loaded with chains. Cervantes, who appeared the leader, was closely
questioned by the Dey himself, whether he had any accomplices in
the city. He answered steadily, that the scheme had been planned
and carried on by himself alone. After this examination, he was
returned to his master. Nothing disheartened, he devised other

means of escape, which likewise failed; until at last he conceived the
daring scheme of organising a general rising of the Christian slaves
in Algiers, and taking forcible possession of the town. But by the
cowardice of some of them, the plot was betrayed; and Cervantes
was again seized, and carried to the prison of the Dey, who declared
that his capital and his ships were not safe “unless he kept himself a
close watch over the crippled Spaniard.” So earnest was he in this
feeling, that he even purchased Cervantes from his master, and kept
him confined in irons; but he did not otherwise ill treat the prisoner,
partly, perhaps, out of respect for so brave a man, partly in the hope
of obtaining a high ransom for him. Father Haëdo, in his “Topografia
de Argel,” gives an account of Cervantes’ captivity, and of the
repeated attempts which he made to escape. Meantime his widowed
mother and his sister in Spain had not forgotten him, and they
contrived, in the year 1579, to raise a sum of 300 ducats, which they
delivered to two monks of the order of Trinity, or Mercy, who were
proceeding to Algiers for the ransom of slaves. In 1580 they arrived,
and treated with the Dey for Cervantes’ ransom, which, after an
extravagant sum had been demanded, was settled at 500 golden
scudi. The good fathers made up the deficiency in the sum they had
been intrusted with; and at last, in September of that year,
Cervantes found himself free. Early in the following year he returned
to Spain. Having met nothing but misfortunes and disappointment in
his endeavours to make his fortune in the world, he now determined
to return to his literary pursuits. In 1584 he published his “Galatea,”
a pastoral novel. At the end of that year he married Doña Catalina
Palacios de Salazar, a lady of ancient family, of the town of
Esquivias. This marriage, however, does not seem to have much
improved his fortune, for he began soon after to write for the stage
as a means of supporting himself. In the next five years he
composed between twenty and thirty plays, which were performed
at Madrid, and, it would seem, most of them with success. A few are
still remembered, namely, “Los Tratos de Argel,” in which he
describes the scenes of Algerine captivity; “La Destruccion de
Numancia,” and “La Batalla Naval.” He ceased to write for the stage
about 1590, when Lope de Vega was rising into reputation. After this

he lived several years at Seville, where he had some wealthy
relatives, and where he appears to have been employed as a
commercial agent. He was at Seville in 1598, at the time when Philip
II. died. The pompous preparations for the funeral, the gorgeous
hearse and pall, and the bombastic admiration of the people of
Seville at their own magnificence on the occasion, excited the grave
and sober Castilian’s vein of irony, and he ridiculed the boastful
Andalusians in a sonnet which became celebrated, and which begins
Voto à Dios que me espanta esta grandeza.
“I declare to God that all this magnificence quite overwhelms me,” c.
He has also given an amusing account of the peculiar character,
taste, and habits of the Sevillians in one of his tales, “Rinconete y
Cortadillo,” in which he describes the several classes of the
inhabitants of that city, which is the second in Spain, and, in many
respects, offers a strong contrast to Madrid. It was in one of his
journeys between these two cities that he resided some time in the
province of La Mancha, which he has rendered famous by his great
work. He examined attentively both the country and the people; he
saw the cave of Montesinos, the Lagunas de Ruydera, the plain of
Montiel, Puerto Lapice, the Batanas, and other places which he has
described in Don Quixote. Being intrusted with some commission or
warrant for recovering certain arrears of tithe due from the village of
Argamasilla to the Prior of St. John of Consuegra, he incurred the
hostility of the villagers, who disputed his powers, and threw him
into prison; and he seems to have remained in confinement for some
time, as during that period he imagined and sketched the first part
of Don Quixote, as he himself has stated in the preface. He fixed
upon this village of Argamasilla as the native place of his hero,
without however mentioning its name, “which,” he says at the
beginning of the book, “I have no particular wish to remember.”
After this occurrence, we find Cervantes living with his family at
Valladolid in 1604–5, while Philip III. and his court were residing
there. There is a document among the records of the prison of that
city, from which it appears that, in June 1605, Cervantes was taken

up on suspicion of being concerned in a night brawl which took place
near his house, and in which a knight of Santiago was mortally
wounded. The wounded man came to the house in which Cervantes
lived, and was helped up-stairs by one of the other lodgers whom he
knew, assisted by Cervantes, who had come out at the noise. The
magistrate arrested several of the inmates of the house, which
contained five different families, living in as many sets of chambers
on the different floors. From the examinations taken it appears that
Cervantes, his wife and daughter, his widowed sister and her
daughter, his half sister, who was a monja, or domestic nun, and a
female servant, occupied apartments on the first floor; and that
Cervantes was in the habit of being visited by several gentlemen,
both on commercial business and on account of his literary merit.
Cervantes was honourably acquitted; as the wounded man, before
he died, acknowledged that he had received the fatal blow from an
unknown stranger, who insolently obstructed his passage, upon
which they drew their swords. Soon afterwards, in 1605, the first
part of Don Quixote appeared at Madrid, whither Cervantes probably
removed after the court left Valladolid. It seems at once to have
become popular; for four editions were published in the course of
the year. But it was assailed with abuse by the fanatical admirers of
tales of chivalry, by several dramatic and other poets unfavourably
alluded to, and also by some of the partisans of Lope de Vega, who
thought that Cervantes had not done justice to their idol.
Cervantes did not publish anything for seven years after the
appearance of the first part of Don Quixote. He seems to have spent
this long period in studious retirement at Madrid: he had by this time
given up all expectations of court favour or patronage, which it
would appear that he at one time entertained. Philip III., although
remarkably fond of Don Quixote, the perusal of which was one of
the few things that could draw a smile from his melancholy
countenance, was not a patron of literature, and he thought not of
inquiring after the circumstances of the writer who had afforded him
some moments of innocent gratification. Cervantes, however, gained
two friends among the powerful of the time, Don Pedro de Castro,

Count de Lemos, and Don Bernardo de Sandoval, Archbishop of
Toledo. To the first he was introduced by his friends, the two
brothers and poets Argensola, who were attached to the household
and enjoyed the confidence of the Count. In 1610, when De Lemos
went as Viceroy to Naples, Cervantes expected to go with him; but
he was disappointed; and he attributed his failure to the coldness
and neglect with which his application to that effect was treated by
the Argensolas. It is certain, however, that he received from the
Count de Lemos some substantial marks of favour, and among them
a pension for the remainder of his life. To this nobleman Cervantes
dedicated the second part of his Don Quixote, and other works, with
strong expressions of gratitude. The Spanish biographers say also
that he received assistance in money from the Archbishop of Toledo.
These benefactions, added to his wife’s little property at Esquivias
and the remains of his own small patrimony, kept him above
absolute want, though evidently in a state of penury.
In 1613 he published his “Novelas Exemplares,” or moral tales. They
have always been much esteemed, both for the purity of the
language and for the descriptions of life and character which they
contain.
In 1614 Cervantes published his “Viage al Parnaso,” in which he
passes in review the poets of former ages, as well as his
contemporaries, and discusses their merits. While rendering justice
to the Argensolas, he alludes to the above-mentioned
disappointment which they had caused him. He complains of his own
poverty with poetical exaggeration, and styles himself “the Adam of
poets.” He next sold eight of his plays to the bookseller Villaroël,
who printed them; after observing, however, that Cervantes’ prose
was much better relished by the public than his poetry, a judgment
which has been generally confirmed by critics. These plays were
dedicated to the Count de Lemos, whom he tells that he was
preparing to bring out Don Quixote armed and spurred once more.
Cervantes had then nearly finished the second part of his immortal
work; but before he had time to send it to press, there appeared a
spurious continuation of the Don Quixote, the author of which,

apparently an Aragonese, assumed the fictitious name of Avellaneda.
It was published at Tarragona towards the end of 1614. It is very
inferior in style to the original, which it strives to imitate. The writer
was not only guilty of plagiarisms from the first part of Cervantes’
work, already published, but he evidently pirated several incidents
from the second part, which was still in MS., and to which, by some
means or other, he must have found access. At the same time, he
scruples not to lavish vulgar abuse on Cervantes, ridiculing him for
the lameness which an honourable wound had entailed upon him,
and for his other misfortunes. This disgraceful production was
deservedly lashed by the injured author in the second part of Don
Quixote, which was published in 1615, and received with universal
applause. His fame now stood at the highest, and distinguished
strangers arriving at Madrid were eager to be introduced to him. His
pecuniary circumstances, however, remained at the same low ebb as
before. The Count de Lemos, who was still at Naples, appears to
have been his principal friend.
In October, 1615, Cervantes felt the first attacks of dropsy. He bore
the slow progress of this oppressive disease with his usual serenity
of mind; and occupied himself in preparing for the press his last
production, “Persiles y Sigismunda,” an elegant imitation of
Heliodorus’s Ethiopian story. The last action of his life was to dictate
the affecting dedication of this work to the Count de Lemos. He died
without much struggle, April 23, 1616, in his sixty-ninth year. It is a
singular coincidence, that Spain and England should have lost on the
same day of the same year the peculiar glory of their national
literature: for this was the day upon which Shakspeare died. By his
will he appointed his wife and a friend as his executors, and
requested to be buried in the monastery of the Trinitarios, the good
fathers who had released him from captivity. After the custom of
pious Spaniards, he had inscribed himself as a brother of the third
order of St. Francis, and in the dress of that order he was carried to
his grave. No monument was raised to his memory. The house in
which he died was in the Calle (or street) de Leon, where the Royal
Asylum now stands.

Cervantes’ great work is too generally known to require criticism. It
is one of those few productions which immortalize the literature and
language to which they belong. The interest excited by such a work
never dies, for it is interwoven with the very nature of man. The
particular circumstances which led Cervantes to the conception of
Don Quixote have long ceased to exist. Books of chivalry have been
forgotten, and their influence has died away; but Quixotism, under
some form or another, remains a characteristic of the human mind in
all ages: man is still the dupe of fictions and of his own imagination,
and it is for this, that, in reading the story of the aberrations of the
Knight of La Mancha, and of the mishaps that befell him in his
attempt to redress all the wrongs of the world, we cannot help
applying the moral of the tale to incidents that pass every day before
our own eyes, and to trace similarities between Cervantes’ hero and
some of our living acquaintances.
The contrast between the lofty, spiritual, single-minded knight, and
his credulous, simple, yet shrewd, and earth-seeking squire, is an
unfailing source of amusement to the reader. It has been disputed
which of the two characters, Don Quixote or Sancho, is most skilfully
drawn, and best supported through the story. They are both
excellent, both suited to each other. The contrast also between the
style of the work and the object of it affords another rich vein of
mirth. Cervantes’ object was to extirpate by ridicule the whole race
of turgid and servile imitators of the older chivalrous tales; which
had become a real nuisance in his time, and exercised a very
pernicious effect on the minds and taste of the Spaniards. The
perusal of those extravagant compositions was the chief pastime of
people of every condition; and even clever men acknowledged that
they had wasted whole years in this unprofitable occupation, which
had spoiled their taste and perverted their imaginations so much,
that they could not for a long time after take up a book of real
history or science without a feeling of weariness. Cervantes was well
acquainted with the nature and the effects of the disease: he had
himself employed much time in such pursuits, and he resolved to
prepare a remedy for the public mind. That his example has been

taken as a precedent by vulgar and grovelling persons, for the
purpose of ridiculing all elevation of sentiment, all enthusiasm and
sense of honour, forms no just ground of censure on Cervantes, who
waged war against that which was false and improbable, and not
against that which is noble and natural in the human mind. Nature
and truth have their sublimity, which Cervantes understood and
respected.
The best Spanish editions of Don Quixote are that of the Spanish
Academy, in four vols. 4to., 1788; the edition by Don Juan Antonio
Pellicer, with a good life of Cervantes, five vols. 8vo., 1798; and the
edition by Don Martin F. de Navarrete, five vols. 8vo., 1819. The
edition published by the Rev. J. Bowle, six volumes in three, 4to.
London, 1781, contains a valuable commentary, explanatory of
idioms, proverbs, c. Of the English translations, the oldest by
Skelton is still much esteemed; there are also versions by Motteux,
Jarvis, and Smollet. A new translation was made for the splendid
London edition of 1818, four vols. 4to., enriched with engravings
from pictures by Smirke. Le Sage translated Don Quixote into
French; but with omissions and interpolations which render this a
very unfaithful version.
Next to Don Quixote, Cervantes’ best works are his ‘Novelas.’ They
have been translated into English. The language of Cervantes is pure
Castilian, and is esteemed by learned Spaniards to be one of the
best models for prose composition.
Don Agustin Garcia de Arrieta published in 1814 an inedited comic
novel of Cervantes, styled ‘La Tia Fingida,’ or ‘The Feigned Aunt,’ to
which he added a dissertation on the spirit of Cervantes and his
works. The best biographers of Cervantes are Pellicer and Navarrete,
already mentioned.

[Don Quixote and Sancho
Panza. From one of a
series of designs by
Vanderbanck.]
Engraved by E. Scriven.
FREDERICK II.

From the original by Carlo
Vanloo
in the Private Collection of
the King of the French.
Under the Superintendance
of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge.
London. Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street.

FREDERIC II.
The celebrated King of Prussia was in no respect indebted for his
personal greatness to the virtues or example of his immediate
progenitors. His grandfather Frederic I., the first of the House of
Brandenburg who assumed the title of King, was a weak and empty
prince, whose character was taken by his own wife to exemplify the
idea of infinite littleness. His father, Frederic William, was a man of a
violent and brutal disposition, eccentric and intemperate, whose
principal, and almost sole pleasure and pursuit, was the training and
daily superintendence of an army disproportionately greater than the
extent of his dominions seemed to warrant. It is however to the
credit of Frederic William as a ruler, that, notwithstanding this
expensive taste, his finances on the whole were well and
economically administered; so that on his death he left a quiet and
happy, though not wealthy country, a treasure of nine millions of
crowns, amounting to more than a year’s revenue, and a well-
disciplined army of 76,000 men. Thus on his accession, Frederic II.
(or as, in consequence of the ambiguity of his father’s name, he is
sometimes called, Frederic III.) found, ready prepared, men and
money, the instruments of war; and for this alone was he indebted
to his father. He was born January 24, 1712. From Frederic William,
parental tenderness was not to be expected. His treatment of his
whole family, wife and children, was brutal: but he showed a
particular antipathy to his eldest son, from the age of fourteen
upwards, for which no reason can be assigned, except that the
young prince manifested a taste for literature, and preferred books
and music to the routine of military exercises. From this age, his life
was embittered by continual contradiction, insult, and even personal

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