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Intersectionality in Action A Guide for Faculty and Campus Leaders for Creating Inclusive Classrooms and Institutions 1st Edition Peter Felten Intersectionality in Action A Guide for Faculty and Campus Leaders for Creating Inclusive Classrooms and Institutions 1st Edition Peter Felten Intersectionality in Action A Guide for Faculty and Campus Leaders for Creating Inclusive Classrooms and Institutions 1st Edition Peter Felten

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Intersectionality in Action A Guide for Faculty and Campus Leaders for Creating Inclusive Classrooms and Institutions 1st Edition Peter Felten
Intersectionality in Action A Guide for Faculty and Campus Leaders for Creating Inclusive Classrooms and Institutions 1st Edition Peter Felten
I N T E R S E C T I O N A L I T Y I N A C T I O N Barnett.indb i Barnett.indb i 12/16/2015 12:14:07 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:07 PM
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INTERSECTIONALITY IN ACTION A Guide for Faculty and Campus Leaders for Creating Inclusive Classrooms and Institutions EDITED BY Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten Foreword by Eboo Patel STERLING, VIRGINIA Barnett.indb iii Barnett.indb iii 1/7/2016 10:57:20 AM 1/7/2016 10:57:20 AM
COPYRIGHT © 2016 BY STYLUS PUBLISHING, LLC. Published by Stylus Publishing, LLC 22883 Quicksilver Drive Sterling, Virginia 20166-2102 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, recording and information storage and retrieval, without permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Barnett, Brooke, 1972- editor. | Felten, Peter, editor. Title: Intersectionality in action : a guide for faculty and campus leaders for creating inclusive classrooms / edited by Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten ; foreword by Eboo Patel. Description: First edition. | Sterling, Virginia : Stylus Publishing, LLC, 2016. | Includes index. Identifiers: LCCN 2015027655| ISBN 9781620363201 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781620363195 (cloth : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781620363218 (library networkable e-edition) | ISBN 9781620363225 (consumer e-edition) Subjects: LCSH: Inclusive education--United States. | Education, Higher--United States. | Educational leadership--United States. Classification: LCC LC1201 .I56 2015 | DDC 371.9/046--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015027655 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-319-5 (cloth) 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-320-1 (paperback) 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-321-8 (library networkable e-edition) 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-322-5 (consumer e-edition) Printed in the United States of America All first editions printed on acid-free paper that meets the American National Standards Institute Z39-48 Standard. Bulk Purchases Quantity discounts are available for use in workshops and for staff development. Call 1-800-232-0223 First Edition, 2016 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Barnett.indb iv Barnett.indb iv 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
Brooke: For my parents and siblings, who supported my inclusion work long before it was a job, and for Tom, Lily, and Jack, who support it today. Peter: For my mother, who always held my hand at the intersections. The editors wish to thank Laura St. Cyr of Elon University for using her exceptional organizational and editorial skills to support this project. Barnett.indb v Barnett.indb v 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
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vii CONTENTS FOREWORD ix Eboo Patel INTRODUCTION xiii Working at the Intersections Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten PART ONE: PEOPLE 1. STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 3 A Case for Capacity Building Alta Mauro and Angela Mazaris 2. RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 15 Colleagues Paul Parsons 3. LEADERSHIP AT THE INTERSECTION 25 A Developmental Framework for Inclusive Leaders Niki Latino 4. LEADERS, GOVERNING BODIES, AND ADVISORY BOARDS 36 Jeff Stein and Leo M. Lambert 5. IT TAKES A CAMPUS 48 Building Capacity to Sustain the Diversity Journey Michael A. McDonald, Sarah B. Westfall, and Eileen B. Wilson-Oyelaran PART TWO: ENVIRONMENT 6. STRIVING FOR AN INCLUSIVE AND NURTURING CAMPUS 63 Cultivating the Intersections Jon Dooley and Lucy LePeau Barnett.indb vii Barnett.indb vii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
viii CONTENTS 7. WHEN THINGS GO WRONG 77 Avoiding and Managing Collisions in the Intersections Leigh-Anne Royster 8. BRINGING LIFE TO LEARNING 87 Civic Engagement, Intersections, and Transforming College Students Amy Howard, Juliette Landphair, and Amanda Lineberry PART THREE: LEARNING 9. DIVERSIFYING DIVERSITY, DIVERSIFYING DISABILITY 101 Danielle R. Picard and Nancy L. Chick 10. LEADERSHIP FOR A GLOBAL, CARING SOCIETY 112 Ed Taylor 11. THE INTERSECTION OF LIFE AND LEARNING 125 What Cultural Wealth and Liberal Education Mean for Whole Student Development Ashley Finley and Tia McNair CONCLUSION 137 Guiding Principles for Working at the Intersections Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS 141 INDEX 145 Barnett.indb viii Barnett.indb viii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
ix FOREWORD I n early 2015, I was invited to give a series of talks on diversity at the University of California–Los Angeles (UCLA), where I first heard the story of Rachel Beyda. Like all students, Rachel Bedya had many identities—a woman, a second-year student, an economics major, a leader in several Jewish organizations, and a 20-year-old who dreamed of a law career. Beyda’s professional aspirations led her to apply for a seat on UCLA’s prestigious Judicial Board. The application process involved an interview with representatives of the UCLA student government, and the interview itself involved a set of discussions on Beyda’s various identities. Interestingly, the focus of the interview had little to do with Beyda’s academic major and career goals, but focused heavily on her gender and religion. Furthermore, those two identities were treated very differently. Being a woman was viewed approvingly; the student-government representatives conducting the inter- view argued that the Judicial Board needed more strong women. But Beyda’s Jewish faith was regarded with suspicion. She was asked to respond to ques- tions like “Given that you are a Jewish student and very active in the Jewish community, how do you see yourself being able to maintain an unbiased view?” Beyda was then asked to leave the room so the student government could debate the issue in private. During the next 40 minutes of discussion, captured both on video and in written minutes, the student representatives decided that Beyda’s Jewish identity would in fact bias her in inappropriate ways, and they voted to reject her nomination. It was not until a faculty adviser pointed out the potential prejudice at play in viewing Jewish iden- tity as a negative mark that the students revisited the issue and ultimately approved a seat for Beyda. A few weeks later, the Beyda incident was on the front page of the New York Times (Nagourney, 2015) and became the most e-mailed story of that day. Barnett.indb ix Barnett.indb ix 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
x FOREWORD The Beyda case is instructive for anyone on a college campus seeking to understand and engage the variety of identities students bring to cam- pus. First, identity matters. Or, more accurately, identities matter—often in surprising ways. The student government representatives conducting the interview did not focus primarily on how Rachel’s coursework or leadership experience prepared her for the responsibilities of serving on the Judicial Board; rather, they wanted to discuss how her gender and religion might add to or detract from the manner in which she would carry out her responsi- bilities. It is easy to imagine similar conversations happening around race, nationality, geography, and/or sexuality. This, of course, is a central dynamic of intersectionality theory—none of us can be reduced to a single identity, and the most salient identities in any given situation can be surprising. It is interesting to note how gender played positively in this scenario and religion played negatively. It is hard to read this particular situation as any- thing other than prejudicial toward religious identity, perhaps even tinged with anti-Semitism. After all, why should the narratives, symbols, and soli- darities associated with being a woman be understood positively, while the narratives, symbols, and solidarities associated with being Jewish mark some- one as unfairly biased? In lifting up intersectionality, campus professionals have an opportunity to reflect on dimensions of identity they are more comfortable working with and on those with which they feel less comfortable engaging. After all, we all bring a variety of identities to the table, identities that interact with our students’ hybridity in ways that might confer privilege upon certain identi- ties and ignore or marginalize others. It is also useful to pay attention to how charged the issue became. Approv- ing a student to a leadership post on a campus happens tens of thousands of times a year, but when the process involves questions about certain dimen- sions of identity, the case can easily emerge as a front-page news story. One reason for the national scrutiny given to this story is that the issues at play are electric in the broader culture. National debates on gender issues, such as the dearth of women in positions of corporate leadership and the unequal pay given to men and women in similar professional roles, might well have played a part in the discussion of Beyda’s femaleness as an asset. Similarly, the rag- ing controversy over Middle East policy, and the polarization this has caused between Muslim and Jewish students on campuses, very likely played a role in the questions regarding Beyda’s Jewishness. These religious and political tensions were certainly present at UCLA, where the student government had recently passed a resolution urging divestment from Israeli companies. All of this can be boiled down to some insights that appear common- sensical while also being intensely complicated. All of us have a variety of Barnett.indb x Barnett.indb x 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
FOREWORD xi identities. Those identities matter, guiding patterns of belief, behavior, and belonging. Identities do not exist in vacuums but are made more or less sali- ent given larger contexts (policy debates, social movements, etc.). Different identities can lead to tension and conflict, most certainly within a diverse student body, but also within a single individual. Walt Whitman (1892) expresses this beautifully in his famous verse: Do I contradict myself? Very well then I contradict myself, (I am large, I contain multitudes). I love that this line can be read as both celebrating the joys of variety and being resigned to the inevitable tensions caused by diversity. If the primary business of campuses was to make furniture or cars, all of this might be viewed as an unwelcome distraction. But since our primary purpose is to fashion leaders for a diverse democracy, nurturing graduates who can engage these inevitable tensions in positive and proactive ways is essential to the work of a college campus. This work—as we all know—can range from difficult and frustrating one day to inspiring and heartwarming the next. The good news is that you hold in your hands a book that raises the right questions and casts light upon possible answers for shaping campus communities that serve as both labora- tories for our diverse democracy and launching pads for a new generation of leaders. May it enrich our work, our campuses, our students, and our shared future. Eboo Patel Founder and President Interfaith Youth Core Chicago, Illinois References Nagourney, A. (2015, March 5). In U.C.L.A. debate over Jewish student, echoes on campus of old biases. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes .com/2015/03/06/us/debate-on-a-jewish-student-at-ucla.html?_r=0 Whitman, W. (1892). Song of myself. Retrieved from http://www.poetryfoundation .org/poem/174745 Barnett.indb xi Barnett.indb xi 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
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xiii I N T R O D U C T I O N Working at the Intersections Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten I ssues of diversity and inclusion are central in higher education today, and they will only become more important in the future as U.S. demograph- ics change and globalization accelerates. Many colleges and universities have developed elaborate programs and structures to support inclusive excel- lence. Nearly every campus has academic departments that study and teach human diversity, student life programs that welcome and support people with a range of identities, and human resource specialists to train faculty and staff in best (and in legal) practices. However, the people on our campuses—the students, faculty, and staff—do not encounter diversity in the fractured ways that match the organizational structures of our institutions. For instance, a student is not an accounting major in the classroom, a woman in her living-learning com- munity, a first-generation college student in her advising support group, and a visa-holding undergraduate when working with administrators on paper- work in preparation for a semester abroad. Instead, she is all of those things at once. Additionally, an individual’s identity is not fixed; it evolves over time, and different aspects of identity might be more or less salient in different contexts. Still, as Ruthellen Josselson (1996) explained in her book Revising Herself, we typically do not experience the world from the perspective of only one facet of our identity, but see ourselves as an integrated whole: “Living our identities is much like breathing. We don’t have to ask ourselves each morning who we are. We simply are” (p. 29). That unity is rarely supported on campus. Most higher education insti- tutions are structured in ways that make organizational sense but may not reflect the experiences and needs of our students. For example, a report pub- lished by the American Council on Education (ACE) critiqued the ubiqui- tous division between international and multicultural education programs on campuses across the United States (Olson, Evans, & Schoenberg, 2007). Students learn about diverse people and cultures, and about themselves, in remarkably similar ways through these two parallel structures. Almost a Barnett.indb xiii Barnett.indb xiii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
xiv INTRODUCTION decade ago, the ACE suggested that this division should be bridged, if not eliminated. Since that ACE report appeared, however, few institutions have adopted its recommendations; many programs, even excellent ones, operate within organizational silos. We believe that the time has come for institutions to move intention- ally toward intersections—of study abroad and multiculturalism, of race and gender and religion, and of other essential aspects of our educational pro- grams and our students’ identities. This will not be easy. Exploring the intersections is complex work that can create new (or exacerbate existing) social or political tensions, and it may prompt competition for scarce resources. However, a focus on intersections opens doors to new possibilities that better prepare our students for life in a diverse world. It also allows our institutions to become more efficient and effective as we strive not simply to do things better in our own separate spheres, but to do better things by working together across difference. To encourage such a shift, Sturm (2006) emphasized the need for “institutional mindfulness” to ensure that we are attending to the complex- ity of inclusion work on a college campus. This requires “creating institu- tional roles that place people with knowledge, influence, and credibility in positions to influence practice at pivotal locations” within an organization and a community (Sturm, 2006, p. 251). While being positioned at the institutional intersections is essential, it is not enough. We also need atten- tiveness to the plural, fluid, and intersecting identities of individuals on our campuses (students, faculty, staff, and others). Only by attending to all of these intersections will we ensure that both diversity across the uni- versity and diversity within and among groups are at the center of higher education. This book aims to help readers, no matter what position they occupy on campus, to develop the knowledge and capacities necessary to do this essential work. Throughout this book, chapter authors use intersectionality as a frame- work to examine how a particular topic affects individuals, groups, poli- cies, and programs on campus. Intersectionality is rooted in the premise that understanding identity, oppression, power, and marginalization can- not be accomplished by looking solely at single identities. This is not an entirely new idea. In the 1850s, for instance, Sojourner Truth asked, “Ain’t I a woman?” and challenged the reformers at a women’s convention to con- sider how gender and race intersect in American society (Painter, 1997). More than a century later, law professor Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989) coined the term suggested by Truth—intersectionality. Crenshaw used this frame- work to explain that various biological, social, and cultural identities interact Barnett.indb xiv Barnett.indb xiv 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
INTRODUCTION xv dynamically and must be critically examined to fully understand the basis of discrimination or oppression. Researchers and educators now use intersectionality to go beyond a single aspect of identity or inequality and analyze how multiple aspects of identities and inequalities factor into experiences with power, inequality, and difference (Dill, McLaughlin, & Nieves, 2007). Intersectionality, in short, “provides a critical analytic lens to interrogate racial, ethnic, class, physical ability, age, sexuality, and gender disparities and to contest existing ways of looking at these structures of inequality” (Dill & Zambrana, 2009, p. 1). Weber (1998) argued that prior to this emphasis on intersectionality, schol- arship generally treated identity as “assigned a single location along a dimension, which is defined by a set of presumably mutually exclusive and exhaustive cat- egories” (p. 18). This approach was and still is helpful for research and practice focused on single aspects of identity. The “single story” framework provides the basis of much of what we know, for example, about racial identity formation, and higher education researchers and practitioners commonly disaggregate data into distinct categories as a useful practice to ensure that variances across groups are understood. Yet such single-identity data rarely address the differences within groups or the impact of intersecting identities on students’ experiences in higher education (Bowleg, 2008; Jones & Abes, 2013; Jones & McEwen, 2000). Although intersectionality can provide a clarifying lens to focus on the complexities of diversity on campus, it is not without flaws; perhaps most importantly, some scholars have cautioned that attention to intersectionality in higher education can unintentionally obscure real differences by “flattening,” or inappropriately equating all aspects of identity (Luft, 2009 p. 104). While the perils of superficial analysis are real, we believe that the inter- sectional framework provides a helpful heuristic for exploring questions of diversity and inclusion in colleges and universities (Mitchell, Simmons, & Greyerbiehl, 2014; Ouellett, 2011). Like any heuristic, it is not perfect. However, focusing on the intersections helps us to be attentive to both the complexity of individual experiences on campus and the organizational structures that make it possible (or seemingly impossible) for us to engage deeply with difficult questions of diversity and inclusion. This book explores the practices and perspectives necessary for rethink- ing higher education to focus on the intersections of identity. Building on the emerging literature about intersectionality and on the rich scholarship about diversity and inclusion and rooted in the context of a range of dif- ferent campuses, this book includes chapters by an array of experts from different institutions and roles. Each chapter offers action-oriented analysis focusing on particular campus intersections, rather than attending to specific demographic groups. Chapter authors also build on their own local expertise Barnett.indb xv Barnett.indb xv 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
xvi INTRODUCTION of doing this work on campuses that often do not have deep pockets or rich histories of such efforts. The book is organized into three parts: 1. People focuses on the broad concept of diversity, considering how we recruit and engage the students, faculty, and staff in the campus community and how we work with governing boards and others to promote inclusive excellence. 2. Environment focuses on inclusion, including residence life, the local com- munity, the working and learning environment, and external factors, such as national and international news events or town-gown relationships. 3. Learning focuses on perspective taking and learning about difference in the core curriculum, the disciplines, and the cocurriculum, as well as professional development for faculty and staff. Part One: People Chapter 1: Student Recruitment and Retention at the Intersections: A Case for Capacity Building by Alta Mauro and Angela Mazaris This chapter explores innovative approaches to recruitment and retention of students, supporting identity without silos. It focuses on student identity formation and development and explores ways to ensure that an institu- tion’s strategy attends to the needs of current and future students while also navigating the legal and practical complexities of this work. Chapter 2: Recruitment and Retention at the Intersections: Colleagues by Paul Parsons This chapter considers maintaining staff for continuity and development, creating positive personal and professional environments. While the student population turns over with every admissions and graduation cycle, faculty and staff colleagues often spend many years at an institution. How can an institution address recruitment and retention in ways that create a workplace of choice for colleagues from all backgrounds? Chapter 3: Leadership at the Intersection: A Developmental Framework for Inclusive Leaders by Niki Latino This chapter explores a developmental model, grounded in critical race the- ory, of White inclusive leadership. The chapter considers the implications and applications of this framework for leaders who have majority status in Barnett.indb xvi Barnett.indb xvi 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
INTRODUCTION xvii other salient identity categories (e.g., religion or sexuality) in their campus context. Chapter 4: Leaders, Governing Bodies, and Advisory Boards by Jeff Stein and Leo M. Lambert This chapter offers concrete examples and practical advice to engage campus boards, advisers, and institutional leaders with the important work of diver- sity and inclusion. Chapter 5: It Takes a Campus: Building Capacity to Sustain the Diversity Journey by Michael A. McDonald, Sarah B. Westfall, and Eileen B. Wilson-Oyelaran This chapter uses institutional and personal stories to stress the importance of personal commitment and agency for everyone on campus—faculty, staff, and administration—to further the goals of diversity and inclusion. How do we cultivate the buy-in and develop change agents across a campus (not just among the likely subjects)? Part Two: Environment Chapter 6: Striving for an Inclusive and Nurturing Campus: Cultivating the Intersections by Jon Dooley and Lucy LePeau This chapter emphasizes the essential role of partnerships in the complex work of cultivating an inclusive campus climate for all students, faculty, and staff. Chapter 7: When Things Go Wrong: Avoiding and Managing Collisions in the Intersections by Leigh-Anne Royster This chapter focuses on creating and implementing bias and discrimination response and education teams that can function effectively across a range of identity and programmatic intersections. Chapter 8: Bringing Life to Learning: Civic Engagement, Intersections, and Transforming College Students by Amy Howard, Juliette Landphair, and Amanda Lineberry This chapter considers the location of the university, acknowledging it as both an asset and a challenge. How do you effectively cultivate the diverse assets within your local community, creating complementary intersections between town and gown? Barnett.indb xvii Barnett.indb xvii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
xviii INTRODUCTION Part Three: Learning Chapter 9: Diversifying Diversity, Diversifying Disability by Danielle R. Picard and Nancy L. Chick This chapter considers how ability and disability intersect in classrooms and shape the learning experience for all students. Chapter 10: Leadership for a Global Caring Society by Ed Taylor This chapter uses a single undergraduate course as a case study to explore how the diverse identities and experiences students bring to a classroom can prompt critical reflection on the larger purposes and practices of higher education. Chapter 11: The Intersection of Life and Learning: What Cultural Wealth and Liberal Education Mean for Whole Student Development by Ashley Finley and Tia McNair This chapter considers how the process of learning is central to students’ personal and civic identity formation. Conclusion: Guiding Principles for Working at the Intersections by Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten This final section synthesizes the essential principles and practices from the previous chapters while emphasizing the need for thoughtful assessment and strategic planning to put intersectionality into action in all aspects of the university. The practices and scholarship in these chapters capture some of the power of using intersectionality to think about and organize diversity and inclusion work on campus. Moving from theory to practice is rarely easy, but it is fundamental to the mission and purpose of higher education. References Bowleg, L. (2008). When Black + lesbian + woman ≠ Black lesbian woman: The methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative intersectionality research. Sex Roles, 59, 312–325. Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago legal forum, feminism in the law: Theory, practice and criticism, vol. 1989 (139–167). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Legal Forum. Barnett.indb xviii Barnett.indb xviii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
INTRODUCTION xix Dill, B. T., McLaughlin, A. E., & Nieves, A. D. (2007). Future directions of femi- nist research: Intersectionality. In S. N. Hesse-Biber (Ed.), Handbook of feminist research (pp. 629–637). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dill, B. T., & Zambrana, R. E. (2009). Emerging intersections: Race, class, and gender in theory, policy, and practice. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Jones, S. R. (1997). Voices of identity and difference: A qualitative exploration of the multiple dimensions of identity development in women college students. Journal of College Student Development, 38, 376–386. Jones, S. R., & Abes, E. S. (2013). Identity development of college students: Advanc- ing frameworks for multiple dimensions of identity. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Jones, S. R., & McEwen, M. K. (2000). A conceptual model of multiple dimensions of identity. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 405–414. Josselson, R. E. (1996). Revising herself: The story of women’s identity from college to midlife. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Luft, R. E. (2009). Intersectionality and the risk of flattening difference: Gender and race logics, and the strategic use of antiracist singularity. In M. T. Berg & K. Guidroz (Eds.), The intersectional approach: Transforming the academy through race, class, and gender (pp. 100–117). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Mitchell, D., Jr., Simmons, C. Y., & Greyerbiehl, L. A. (Eds.). (2014). Intersectional- ity and higher education: Theory, research, and praxis. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Olson, C. L., Evans, R., & Schoenberg, R. E. (2007). At home in the world: Bridg- ing the gap between internationalization and multicultural education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education. Ouellett, M. L. (Ed.). (2011). An integrative analysis approach to diversity in the col- lege classroom. New directions for teaching and learning #125. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Painter, N. I. (1997). Sojourner Truth: A life, a symbol. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. Sturm, S. P. (2006). The architecture of inclusion: Advancing workplace equity in higher education. Harvard Journal of Law & Gender, 29(2), 247–334. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=901992 Weber, L. (1998). A conceptual framework for understanding race, class, gender, and sexuality. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 13–22. Barnett.indb xix Barnett.indb xix 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
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PART O NE PEOPLE Barnett.indb 1 Barnett.indb 1 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
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3 1 S T U D E N T R E C R U I T M E N T A N D R E T E N T I O N AT T H E I N T E R S E C T I O N S A Case for Capacity Building Alta Mauro and Angela Mazaris Conventional wisdom around the recruitment and retention of diverse students is founded on several assumptions: • Diversity is traditionally defined solely as students of color. • Success is measured by the number of students of color who enroll each year. • Responsibility for recruiting and retaining diverse students lies primarily with multicultural centers and offices of diversity and inclusion, and sometimes with women’s centers and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) centers. This chapter seeks to reframe the conversation around student recruitment and retention by focusing on institutional capacity building. We posit an institution-wide integrative model that acknowledges the many different identities of our students. By breaking down silos between departments and units, this approach strategically empowers divisions, departments, and offices throughout the institution to approach the day-to-day work of diver- sity and inclusion as part of their core organizational mission. The capacity-building model proposes an alternative framework for thinking about recruitment and retention. Tenets of this approach include the following: • The term diversity refers to a broad mix of potential identities, includ- ing race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, age, socioeconomic status, Barnett.indb 3 Barnett.indb 3 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
4 PEOPLE gender, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, and disability, as well as differences in life experiences, intellectual back- ground, and political viewpoint. • Students from underrepresented groups often need specific forms of support, as not all identity categories shape student experiences in the same way. • Successful recruitment and retention of a diverse mix of students require broad-based cultural competence across institutional structures, including within offices, departments, and divisions that are not explicitly charged with “doing diversity.” • Our model of capacity building is specifically focused on building this cultural competence capacity in a range of spaces, including but not limited to academic departments, admissions offices, financial aid offices, and student affairs divisions. In this chapter we present a rationale for embracing the capacity-building model as a best practice for the recruitment and retention of students tra- ditionally defined as diverse. We also point to specific examples of how institutions have incorporated aspects of this model into their policies and practices. We hope this chapter will serve as a resource for institutions seek- ing innovative and cross-cutting strategies for diversity recruitment and retention. We define capacity building in this context as a system in which staff and faculty competence around diversity and inclusion is considered a core institutional value and a key indicator of success across departments and disciplines. Within a capacity-building model, staff diversity and inclusion competencies are regularly assessed, implemented or improved, and reassessed. Diversity and inclusion are explicitly articulated as values and are inextricably linked to the university’s mission. Efforts to expand institutional capacity typically include training, coaching, and mentoring. These efforts are measured as part of performance goals at the individual, departmental, and institutional level. Embedded in strategic planning cycles, a commitment to continual investment in professional develop- ment at this level has the potential for systemic, sustainable, and measur- able impact. Shifts in Support: Affirmative Action, Multiculturalism, and Inclusion Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, numerous shifts have occurred in the provisions made for women, people of color, and other Barnett.indb 4 Barnett.indb 4 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 5 historically marginalized or underserved populations in higher education. Perhaps the most notable public policy is affirmative action, which emerged from the civil rights movement of the 1960s as a method of ensuring equal opportunities for women and members of minority groups in both education and employment. Universities adopted the policy upon President Lyndon Johnson’s 1965 executive order, after which African American and Latino college enrollment began to increase steadily (“Affirmative Action,” n.d.). As critical masses of students of color began matriculating, universi- ties moved to establish formal support and resources for underrepresented minority groups, primarily through offices of minority affairs. The role of such centers ranged from supporting efforts to recruit (mostly) Black stu- dents to providing safe and affirming spaces for those experiencing univer- sity life at the margins, both of which correlated to greater minority student retention. As enrollment of other ethnic minorities and international stu- dents increased, many staff and students called for an expansion of support services beyond those for Black students. In developing offices of multicul- tural affairs and/or cultural centers, university officials linked strategies for improved campus climate to specific administrative offices (Patton, 2012). While this anchoring provided direct points of contact and support for stu- dents of color, it situated accountability for them and the campus issues that were indicative of increasing structural diversity with the staff and faculty in those spaces. In short, the community work of achieving excellence in diversity was, in many cases, systematically siloed among a very few profes- sionals. Administrative offices designed to offer support for LGBTQ student communities have been similarly siloed. Positioning such rich resources within these narrow confines leaves administrators overburdened if they attempt to do such critical work alone. Additionally, these models limit the opportunities of colleagues in other functional areas to develop skills that support our most vulnerable stu- dents. While traditional understandings of diversity have focused on race and ethnicity as defining factors of identity, today’s students often consider themselves members of multiple identity groups. For example, a Black stu- dent may be aware of not only her racial identity but also her identity as a lesbian and first-generation college student. Particular attention must be paid to the experiences students bring to campus and the intersectionality of their identities in order to craft support systems that meet their varied needs. This shift from isolated support of specific demographic groups to a more integrated approach to inclusion is a critical adjustment that many universities have made in efforts to push beyond historically raced language and related tensions. Often, this shift results in the establishment of an office of equity, diversity, and inclusion. Such a unit is typically headed by a chief Barnett.indb 5 Barnett.indb 5 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
6 PEOPLE diversity officer who reports directly to the president. When appropriately established and utilized, such an office can provide institutional leadership around diversity and inclusion from an intersectional lens and help colleagues throughout the university to appreciate, engage, and practice empathy across lines of nationality, religion, ethnicity, race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and social location. The focus on both structural diversity and inclusive practice elevates our approach to student support from one focused on equality (i.e., equal representation vis-à-vis admissions and retention numbers) to an approach designed to achieve equity. This is a fundamental paradigm shift, in that efforts to maintain equality ignore social stratification, which relegates non- dominant groups to subordinate positions on the margins. Equity, however, acknowledges unequal access to full participation in the campus community, thus seeking acknowledgment and redress of historical barriers and creating opportunities for historically underserved groups to engage in meaningful and culturally relevant ways. Despite the viability of cultural centers and the additional reach of the diversity and inclusion paradigm, universities must take further steps to ade- quately recruit and retain diverse students. One method of bolstering such support is the adoption of a capacity-building model. Moving Beyond Silos in Recruitment and Engagement In many institutions, responsibilities for recruitment lie solely with admissions teams, largely unaffected by colleagues in offices of diversity and inclusion, multicultural centers, or other functional areas. Whereas it makes sense that staff in admissions work alone in estimating yield and other, more calculated aspects of the process, it is critical that a cross section of stakeholders work collaboratively to influence conversations about prospective student readiness and “institutional fit.” The latter concept may be the most critical, as “institu- tional fit” is often the language used to describe students whose identities do not match the majority of the student body, or whose cultural values require them to engage in behaviors that are sometimes foreign to those in the major- ity. It is not uncommon for staff and faculty who are engaged in efforts to support historically underserved students to be critical of admissions offices, the seemingly shrouded nature of their processes, and what appears to be ambivalence toward calls for greater student diversity. When silos are bro- ken down, however, and colleagues are invited to work in partnership with admissions officers, they can develop greater appreciation for the complexity involved in recruiting and admitting a class.These advocates may also educate Barnett.indb 6 Barnett.indb 6 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 7 admissions staff on critical histories that affect student identity and the barri- ers prospective students may perceive between themselves and the university. This deeper understanding engenders wider institutional ownership over the recruitment-to-retention cycle, and it positions colleagues to commit to more genuine support of university efforts in this regard. Beyond facilitating greater institutional commitment to admissions work, this approach deepens the capacity of those working in admissions. As they expose their workflow and invite critique, they are able to devise new strategies for success through the lens of colleagues working across func- tional areas. Over time, the admissions officer who leaned on staff in an LGBTQ center to engage openly gay students comes to see herself as capa- ble of responding to student need appropriately as a result of her sustained engagement with colleagues in that area. That same admissions officer may have had initial reservations about supporting a growing, ethnically diverse Muslim student population. As a result of her exposure to identity develop- ment theories and the concept of intersectionality, the officer may be better equipped to engage these students and their families in authentic dialogue about their needs or reservations, as opposed to simply suggesting that the student connect with staff in the chaplain’s office. Similarly, partnering with faculty in history, sociology, or economics to educate financial aid staff on the complex history of class and access to wealth capitalizes on the university’s intellectual command and boosts the capacity of financial aid offices to offer nuanced approaches to student need. Just as a siloed understanding of identity limits us from admitting increas- ingly diverse cohorts and fully understanding their needs, a siloed approach to diversity and inclusion prevents us from meeting those needs adequately. For example, consider the student affairs professional who directs a univer- sity cultural center, supervising a small staff. Colleagues value the work the director has organized through the center, and they routinely call upon the director for support in ensuring that their own work is sensitive and cultur- ally relevant. In any given year, this individual can accurately report that between 20% and 30% of his or her time spent at work is dedicated to researching, troubleshooting, and otherwise negotiating sensitive cultural issues with—and often for—colleagues who lack cultural competence skills or who do not believe in their abilities to navigate such terrain more inde- pendently. For many middle managers, this translates to almost a full work day per week spent in significant operation in different functional areas. Imagine that same director being free to use that time to advance his or her departmental mission. A capacity-building model creates opportunities for the director to train or coach professional peers on cultural competence and culturally relevant pedagogy, empowering them to act more independently. Barnett.indb 7 Barnett.indb 7 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
8 PEOPLE Rather than serving as a proxy employee in multiple functional areas, the director can operate as a consultant to colleagues, advising to a degree, but not becoming enmeshed in others’ work. In short, we should approach staff and faculty competence with the same high expectations we apply to other aspects of our work and provide support for the continual development of other competencies, with a challenge to achieve excellence. Capacity Building in Action Effectivecapacitybuildingtowardincreasedstudentengagementandretention requires assessing the breadth and depth of current efforts and understanding which schools, units, or departments are working intentionally toward the university’s equity goals. For example, in an attempt to determine the range of cultural/intercultural efforts already in place, New York University–Abu Dhabi staff have launched a heat-mapping project, in which staff and faculty across the university are asked to indicate how their work has encouraged student self-awareness related to culture, intercultural communication, or intercultural understanding. At the time of publication, student affairs staff were being asked to participate in focus groups by functional area in order to determine the degree to which their work addresses these topics, and to find ways to maximize the impact of these efforts. Initiated by the newly launched Office of Intercultural Education and Spiritual Life, this surveying method has revealed great opportunities for intentional collaboration to deliver more of what Kuh calls “high-impact educational practices” (Kuh, 2008, p. 21). The key project deliverable is a heat map, which will depict the col- leges, programs, and departments where intercultural efforts must be under- taken consciously versus those where the nature of the academic discipline necessitates the consideration of culture, globalization, and so forth (e.g., in political science departments or study abroad programs). An analysis of the map may reveal the institutional structures or practices that interact to reinforce either equity or bias. The heat map will also depict whether there are colleges, programs, and departments where there are no relevant efforts in place. Critically, this map could reveal that there are physical spaces on campus that are devoid of intercultural efforts, or that are otherwise a chilly climate for diverse students where microaggressions are common and psychological damage related to “-isms” is likely to occur (Sedlacek & Brooks, 1976). Armed with the information that there are certain stretches of campus where efforts toward intercultural education and equity are chal- lenged, administrators can strategize an appropriate institutional response. A commitment to continual campus audit work of this kind positions senior Barnett.indb 8 Barnett.indb 8 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 9 leaders to focus energy and resources on boosting capacity in the least effec- tive areas. While we offer capacity building as a model for structural integration of student support, we recognize that many of us face challenges within our institutions because of structural silos, scarcity of resources, and student engagement. Here, we offer examples of institutions that have sought creative solutions to the challenges of recruiting and retaining a diverse student body. Structural Barriers There are numerous structural barriers to effective student recruitment and retention. First, from a social and economic perspective, we recognize that many students face structural challenges that are larger than our educa- tional institutions. Colleges and universities must grapple with the disparate impacts of race and socioeconomic status on their students, and the ways in which these and other identities impact both who applies to college and how they fare when they matriculate. Second, we recognize that within universi- ties themselves, organizational structures may hamper attempts at providing integrated support throughout the recruitment and retention process. The University of Texas at Austin (UT Austin) has adopted promising practices to lower some of these barriers. Faculty and administrators have used data from the Office of Institutional Research to create the UT System Dashboard to predict student success. By calibrating a number of factors that include SAT scores, high school class rank, family income, and first-generation status, the Dashboard identifies those students at the greatest risk of not com- pleting their degrees on time. Officials have used these data to create targeted supports, including smaller classes, additional mentorship and guidance, and leadership development programs aimed at raising both academic and profes- sional success (Tough, 2014; see also www.utsystem.edu/offices/strategic-initi atives/productivity-dashboard). Researchers at Stanford University, UT Austin, and elsewhere have also shown that offering at-risk students basic, positive messages about ability and belonging can significantly improve their chances of success. When stu- dents in a nondominant group (students of color, women, first-generation students, etc.) hear messages related to the following themes early in their academic career, they are statistically more likely to achieve results on par with their peers from dominant groups: • Belonging: Students from at-risk and nondominant groups often feel a profound sense of social and academic nonbelonging when they arrive on campus. Simple messaging stating that it is normal to feel Barnett.indb 9 Barnett.indb 9 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
10 PEOPLE this way and that it is a temporary state helps prevent students from becoming alienated and derailed by this sense of difference. • Ability: At-risk students who experience failure early in their college careers (e.g., a poor test grade, a lower GPA than expected) often internalize this failure and consider it evidence of their lack of suitability for higher education. Early messaging to students that failure is a normal part of learning and that brains are malleable—and thus capable of growth and expansion—gives students the confidence to keep trying after early setbacks. While these interventions should not be seen as magic bullets—they cer- tainly do not undo the discrepancies in preparation and resources that exist between various groups of students—they have consistently been shown to positively impact student performance (Walton & Cohen, 2011; Yeager & Dweck, 2012). In a pilot experiment conducted at UT Austin, all incom- ing first-year students were exposed to one of four messages: a message that targeted either belonging, ability, belonging and ability, or a random control message. The at-risk students who received the combined messaging about belonging and ability were significantly more likely to complete at least 12 credits of coursework in their first semester than their at-risk peers who watched the control message (Tough, 2014). While not all colleges and universities have the capacity to develop a sophisticated data tracking system like the UT System Dashboard, incor- porating messaging to all incoming students about belonging and ability is a way to overcome some perceived barriers. At Wake Forest University, for example, as part of their training, all lower-division academic advisers are instructed to provide this messaging to their new advisees in group and indi- vidual advising sessions. This ensures that those students potentially at risk of noncompletion, regardless of whether they are identified early, receive these messages in their first days of university life. Staffing, Resources, and Silos As we have noted, a move toward a capacity-building model of diversity recruitment and retention requires working across silos to ensure that offices, departments, and divisions across the university are equipped to support a diverse range of students as part of their core mission. Using a capacity- building approach can also provide institutions with opportunities to strate- gically deploy resources for maximum impact. One method of increasing staff capacity to support inclusive excellence is a quarter-time, or collateral duty, system, in which employees in one Barnett.indb 10 Barnett.indb 10 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 11 functional area are allowed to work on specific projects in another area for roughly a quarter of their weekly working hours. Lehigh University max- imizes this system among entry-level staff who have expressed interest in learning about various functional areas under the dean of students umbrella. These new professionals not only add competencies to their repertoire, but also become pseudo- or proxy staff in what are typically understaffed depart- ments. A small student affairs division could benefit from this form of cross- training while investing in its team’s development. Further, a rotating system allows for a continual newness that encourages employee engagement. In short, the opportunity to work a quarter-time position may lead to greater staff development, engagement, and retention, as well as create increased support for at-risk students. Bates College employs a different spin on job sharing with their “Swing Dean” program, in which two staff members share two traditionally separate roles, one in the admissions office and one in the dean of students’ office. Rather than having a diversity dean for admissions who helps to recruit students and a different diversity dean within the stu- dent affairs division who supports students once they matriculate, Bates has combined these two positions into a two-year rotating job, held by two staff members. Each dean spends one year recruiting a new class of students (with a particular focus on students of color and first-generation college students), and then moves into the dean of students’ office to serve as that group’s class dean for freshman year. The Bates program builds on the close relation- ships underrepresented students often form with the admissions representa- tives who recruit them and leverages those relationships to provide the kind of support that bolsters student retention—without creating new full-time positions. As these examples demonstrate, developing diversity and inclusion com- petence for staff in units across the university has a twofold value. First, it supports the institutional goals of recruiting and retaining a diverse student body, and second, it bolsters the missions of individual units across the cam- pus by providing added value to their core functions. Student Engagement and Intersectionality Supporting college students can be immensely rewarding work. It is espe- cially gratifying to witness students coming to identify who they are—and who they will be—in the world. Practitioners committed to being what Baxter-Magolda called “good company” take a special pride in mentoring young adults through identity formation (Baxter-Magolda, 2002, p. 3). The formative time from 18 to 23 years of age is typically marked by movement toward a more solidified identity, with most students consciously considering Barnett.indb 11 Barnett.indb 11 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
12 PEOPLE the ideological positions with which they will be aligned for the first time in their lives (Shaffer, 2005). As Shaffer noted, Erikson referred to identity for- mation as a “crisis,” arguing that the process to find oneself has the potential to induce great stress (p. 191). The process of learning (or claiming) one’s identity becomes more com- plicated when students realize that a single identity does not adequately encompass their sense of self. In many cases, when people determine that they identify with more than a single identity, the already complex path to personhood becomes a winding road. Our efforts to create and maintain spaces where today’s college student feels affirmed must reflect an acknowl- edgment of these intersections. Interdepartmental collaborations can provide necessary linkages between support services as students come to recognize the impact of their intersect- ing identities. For example, staff in Wake Forest University’s Office of Mul- ticultural Affairs and Office of Sustainability collaborated to present “My Neighborhood Is Killing Me,” a program focusing on environmental racism overwhelmingly affecting impoverished minority communities across the United States. In connecting issues of race, class, and systemic injustice, col- leagues encouraged students from different racial minority groups to see con- nections between their experiences as people of color. Perhaps most critically, many students from low-resourced communities expressed that their experi- ences as people who are poor positioned them to have more in common with other people who are poor—despite race or ethnicity—than with middle- class or wealthy people of the same race. This linkage may seem intuitive to some, but many have not considered that there are fundamental similarities between the ways in which they and others who don’t appear to be similar experience life. The organizers’ goal was not to minimize the differences in their lived experiences, but to begin to establish understanding, empathy, and, ideally, coalition building across these lines of difference. Leadership From the Top Facilitating holistic student identity development requires integrated ideo- logical and structural approaches, the most foundational being a shared value of inclusion at the board and cabinet levels. Trustees must understand that maintaining relevance in higher education means not only attracting a diverse student body but also ensuring that students feel safe embracing and per- forming the complexity of their identities. More so than structural diversity, it is students living as their authentic selves, presenting multiple perspectives and influencing each other, that actually delivers a rich learning environment. Barnett.indb 12 Barnett.indb 12 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 13 Practitioners can add value by positioning this rationale as the business case for maintaining progressive models of inclusion. Despite genuine com- mitment to the academic mission of the university, trustees and senior lead- ers may not always understand the correlation between diversity, inclusive excellence, and the retention of top talent from a wide array of backgrounds. Armed with data from across academic and administrative units, a wise prac- titioner can demonstrate linkages in staff and faculty diversity, recruitment efforts and targets, curricular offerings and cycles of curricular innovation, attrition among at-risk populations, and other critical points of concern. In return, trustees can reflect a sophisticated understanding by demanding that diversity and inclusion remain top university priorities, empowering admin- istrators to prioritize relevant action at every level of the university. Conclusion: Capacity Building as a Best Practice Recruitment and retention of the historically underserved in higher education are subjects of considerable public debate. As university officials consider strategic directions, it is important to reflect on both the history of these groups and current college-going trends. Further, it is essential to honor what decades of research on identity have taught us while also acknowledg- ing the shifting notions of personhood and identity politics that mark our current social reality. It is important to include room for considerations of race, nationality, class, gender, gender expression, and sexual orientation, as well as of religious and political affiliation, in our broad definitions of at risk. Considering the richness that students from these groups bring to our cam- puses is essential, as opposed to viewing them from the oft-adopted deficit perspective. Our approach to recruiting, engaging, and supporting college students must reflect our awareness of barriers to success as well as an insti- tutional commitment to collaborative solution building. If we are to craft new ways of achieving sustainable progress, we must think creatively about opportunities to lower the walls that separate administrative functional areas and bridge the gulfs between staff and faculty colleagues. We thus suggest a capacity-building approach, whereby ownership of university goals and responsibility toward underserved students become shared values. References Affirmative action. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/ affirmative-action-overview.aspx Barnett.indb 13 Barnett.indb 13 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
14 PEOPLE Baxter-Magolda, M. B. (2002). Helping students make their way to adulthood: Good company for the journey. About Campus, 6(6), 2–9. Kuh, G. D. (2008). High impact educational practices: What they are, who has access to them, and why they matter. Washington, DC: AAC&U. Patton, L. D. (2012). Culture centers in higher education: Perspectives on identity, the- ory, and practice. Sterling, VA: Stylus. Sedlacek, W. E., & Brooks, C. C., Jr. (1976). Racism in American education: A model for change. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall. Shaffer, D. (2005). Social and personality development (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage. Tough, P. (2014, May 15) Who gets to graduate? NewYorkTimes Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/18/magazine/who-gets-to-graduate .html?_r=0 Walton, G., & Cohen, G. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331, 1447–1451. Yeager, D., & Dweck, C. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47, 302–314. Barnett.indb 14 Barnett.indb 14 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
15 2 R E C R U I T M E N T A N D R E T E N T I O N AT T H E I N T E R S E C T I O N S Colleagues Paul Parsons T he student body changes with every admissions and graduation cycle, but the faculty and staff stay relatively constant. They will spend years, maybe even a career, at an institution, meaning that their selection and retention become decisions that can impact a university for decades. The importance of a workforce mirroring the demographics of society is arguably greater for some occupations and professions than others. Diversity among those who report our news and teach our children seems more impor- tant than diversity among those who build our houses or staff an accounting firm. Diversity in the workforce is particularly important in colleges and universities, where faculty and professional staff serve as role models and mentors in guiding the education of future generations. The value of diversity, though, sometimes encompasses words that are not really operational in a faculty or staff search. We want socioeconomic diversity, but do not explore a person’s background in that way. We may value religious diversity, but do not probe into matters of faith. Ideological diversity certainly seems appropriate in an academic setting, but how would we operationalize the concept—mount a hiring spree for liberals or conserva- tives, depending on which is in short supply? Diversity can be hard to achieve if you cannot see it or ask about it. As a result, diversity initiatives understandably tend to focus on gender, race, and ethnicity. In 1900, only 4% of students in high school went on to higher educa- tion, and these elites were almost all White males (Smith & Bender, 2008). Barnett.indb 15 Barnett.indb 15 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
16 PEOPLE Today, 75% of high school students spend at least some time studying in a higher education setting, and more than 35% of undergraduate students across the nation are from minority populations (U.S. Department of Educa- tion, 2013). Compare that to the National Center for Education Statistics report (U.S. Department of Education, 2014), which noted that 19% of full- time college faculty are minorities (6% Black, 4% Hispanic, 9% Asian). As Matthew Lynch (2013) put it, “More Americans from every color and creed are now earning college educations, so college faculty should reflect that. While students can certainly learn from people outside their own sex, ethnic- ity and belief system, faculty with similar backgrounds provide stronger role models.” Similarly, female students now outnumber male students on college cam- puses, yet women hold only a third of full-time professorial positions (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). These numbers are an improvement from decades before, but because faculties change more slowly than other sectors of society, these discordant numbers highlight the importance of meaningful recruitment and retention processes. Lynch’s article on the Diverse: Issues in Higher Education website noted the following: Faculty positions are extremely competitive. . . . Sometimes sex and race are simply not part of the hiring equation. Facts and figures on a resume are tangible ways to show what a particular candidate can bring to the job. It is more difficult for higher education decision makers to gauge the benefit of a person’s background or life experience on the students that pay good money to learn at a particular institution. That being said, many colleges . . . try to piece together the most well-represented group of educa- tors possible. (Lynch, 2013) Recruiting a Diverse Faculty and Staff Meritocracy is a good thing; candidates should be evaluated primarily on their accomplishments. But a search is nuanced. The most accomplished researcher may be a poor teacher. The candidate with the most impressive set of credentials may not be the best fit for the needs of the department. Diver- sity is not an end in itself, but is important as a means to an end—having a faculty and staff better mirroring the composition of students on campus because they are at the forefront of preparing the next generation. Even before a position exists, a program can begin identifying prospec- tive colleagues. This involves taking initiative. Some universities urge faculty and staff members to “prospect” for potential female and minority candidates Barnett.indb 16 Barnett.indb 16 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 17 at professional and academic meetings and, when vacancies occur, to recruit these individuals to the candidate pool. Another example, sometimes used as a screening device, is to create a brown-bag luncheon series or topical panel as a way of inviting minority academics to campus. The school will benefit from their presence and guest presentations even if the faculty decide not to pursue any of the individuals as future colleagues. For instance, a university invited a faculty member of color to be on a panel about entrepreneurship in the discipline. It went well, and she received a second invitation to campus a few months later. For the second meeting, she was scheduled to have an hour with the dean following the presentation. She wondered why. A few days before her trip, she received a revised agenda that included a tour of the city with a real estate agent at the end of the day. Very odd, she thought, because it appeared she was being recruited for a posi- tion she had not applied for. Still, why not see where this may be leading? In her meeting with the dean, she was offered an administrative position that was at the dean’s discretion, and she ultimately accepted the position. Many in the academy would find this veiled search process to be annoy- ing, and it poses the question of whether the person may be entering an environment where the faculty were not enthusiastic about the plan. In addi- tion, most openings are not at the discretion of an individual, but involve an appointed search committee. The formation of a search committee is the typical way of conducting a search. The composition of search committees, of course, should be diverse. This helps mitigate the very understandable tendency for search committee members to select people like themselves to be their future colleagues. If a department does not have sufficient female or minority representation to prevent one or two colleagues from the undue burden of always being asked to serve, think about drawing on a faculty member from a related discipline who can make the committee representationally diverse and also add a fresh perspective to the search process. Just as a course is organized through the creation of a syllabus, a faculty search needs an organizational structure. Start with the position description. The narrower the parameters, the narrower the search will be. In an age of increasing specialization, a faculty position can be constructed with such spec- ificity that it attracts only a handful of applicants. The first step in attracting a more diverse applicant pool, then, is to craft a position description as broadly as is feasible. Larger departments have an advantage here because their facul- ties are large enough to provide some flexibility. Still, a mind-set must exist that having a diverse faculty is as important to the well-being of an academic program as a specialization wish list. Barnett.indb 17 Barnett.indb 17 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
18 PEOPLE An institution may simply advertise a position in the Chronicle of Higher Education and through disciplinary organizations and, well, hope for a decent applicant pool. This unimaginative strategy can be ineffective if a program wants a diverse applicant pool. Think about ways to be proactive. Spread the word among professional and academic organizations representing persons of diverse backgrounds. Send special mailings to historically Black institutions with graduate pro- grams in the discipline. Make personal calls to friends and colleagues at other institutions. For example, a school with a growing Hispanic student body but few Hispanic faculty decided to be proactive. Faculty members called their own PhD-granting institutions to see if they had Hispanic doctoral candidates that year. One large state university did, and the school made a special invita- tion to a doctoral student to be part of a candidate pool. She impressed the current faculty, was offered a position, and three years later is an outstanding colleague. Frankly, she may not have emerged as the top candidate had the school been conducting a narrow disciplinary search. But by having more freedom with respect to disciplinary focus, the university identified her as an excellent faculty member who enhances diversity while contributing to the discipline overall. Ensure that every hiring pool contains diverse candidates before selec- tion of finalists is made. While exceptions may need to exist for highly spe- cialized positions that typically attract fewer applicants, the fact remains that when a hiring pool contains no women or minorities, the outcome is already predetermined in terms of gender and racial diversity. Some search committees appoint a member to serve as a “diversity advo- cate” so that the committee does not lose sight of the value of a diverse candidate pool as it begins to select finalists. At this stage, a committee’s focus often centers solely on credentials. Having someone at the table (ide- ally someone other than a minority) reminding the committee about other important considerations can be helpful. Some institutions would rather have every search committee member primed to see and value diversity in the candidate pool. The belief is that a diversity advocate might cause other members to close their eyes to diversity, relying instead on the advocate to bring forward a diverse candidate worthy of consideration. Here, however, is where an administrator can make a difference. Some- times a search committee has settled on its top two or three candidates based on credentials; who could argue with that? But if there is a worthy candi- date in the wider pool who would add to a program’s diversity, a dean could increase the number of finalists by one to ensure a campus visit by a diverse candidate. The diverse candidate may sweep the faculty off its collective feet Barnett.indb 18 Barnett.indb 18 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 19 and receive the first offer, or may emerge as an attractive candidate in the finalist pool in the event the first choice does not accept an offer. The concept of “cluster hiring” is possible in larger university environ- ments. The cluster hiring of faculty members in multiple departments was originally designed to expand interdisciplinary efforts, but faculty clusters also have the potential to help diversify a university’s faculty and improve institutional climate. A report from the Urban Universities for Health rec- ommended being up-front about diversity goals when cluster hiring (Urban Universities for Health, 2015). Two alternatives to permanent faculty positions are visiting professors and adjunct faculty. Both can play an important role in adding to diversity. For instance, a school invited an Iraqi professor to come to the United States as a visiting professor for three years. The professor was not a perfect fit in terms of discipline, but was ideal for a general education course about global experiences. Students appreciated his expertise and international per- spective, colleagues learned from his vastly different professional experiences, and the university was able to make the faculty appointment permanent. Adjunct faculty are essential in higher education these days. In fact, the American Association of University Professors reports that adjunct faculty, defined as full-time and part-time faculty in non-tenure-track positions, make up three-quarters of the teaching force at U.S. colleges and universi- ties, totaling more than one million instructors (Salomon-Fernandez, 2015). Most programs do not conduct formal searches for adjunct faculty. Instead, they recruit locally for PhD holders in the discipline or working profession- als, depending on the discipline. Urban universities have a huge advantage in being able to hire women and minorities as adjunct faculty. Programs in areas with fewer available part-time faculty often lament their geographic realities that limit the diversity of adjunct pools, requiring greater proactivity on their part to attract a diverse applicant pool. Indeed, academic programs have multiple sets of goals in faculty selec- tion: educational credentials; professional experience (in professional pro- grams); the academic triumvirate of teaching, scholarship, and service; the ubiquitous institutional “fit”; and the need for diversity in gender, race, and ethnicity. In their diversity plans, some schools carefully add diversity aspects to the criteria that will be considered. Here is one example: “The school will use a candidate’s potential for increasing ethnic and cultural diversity in teaching perspectives, research interests and professional role models as a major criterion for recruitment, evaluation and selection.” Another school refers to a candidate’s racial diversity as a “non-traditional strength,” further describing it as “the ability to attract minority students or offer new and Barnett.indb 19 Barnett.indb 19 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
20 PEOPLE different research ideas.” One school includes a blunt preferential statement in its diversity plan: “All other factors being considered equal, minorities and women will be given preference over male members of the majority” (ASJMC Diversity Committee, 2008, p. 11). Scheduling the campus visit offers another opportunity to attend to diversity. For instance, if a finalist is African American, he or she may want to visit with other African Americans on campus to gauge the community and campus environment and to ask questions in a risk-free way. A host uni- versity will show sensitivity to diverse candidates if it offers to schedule such a conversation. In fact, the best practice is to offer personalized conversation options to all candidates so that those less visible forms of diversity such as religion or sexual orientation can also be addressed. For example, this prompt may lead to questions about parental leave policies and balancing work and life with small children, or questions from single colleagues about commu- nity-building opportunities. Sometimes finalists themselves take the initiative on a sensitive point before the campus visit. For example, a few days before a finalist made his campus visit, he sent the department chair an e-mail letting her know that, for religious reasons, he would not be shaking her hand or the hand of any female faculty or staff member during his visit. This triggered a spirited dis- cussion among faculty about whether this was a custom to accept, or whether it might be indicative of a practice of treating women in the workplace as inferior. Upon the candidate’s arrival, faculty were surprised to discover the candidate was a Minnesotan of Irish descent who had recently converted to Islam. The debate over handshaking became a moot point when his teaching and scholarly presentations went poorly. Laws govern the faculty and staff search process. For example, it is illegal to ask questions regarding gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disabil- ity, and religion, to name a few factors. A search must be unbiased in regard to these factors, so it serves no useful purpose to know them. Nevertheless, the government requires state institutions to report statistics on applicant pools to the best of their ability. A number of institutions consider it less burdensome and more accurate to send personal data forms to the applicant pool rather than review each CV in an effort to determine the numbers of women and minorities in the applicant pool. In one search, for example, committee members assumed that a candidate whose research focused on African Americans and the media was African American. He was not. Search committees at many universities operate under affirmative action policies that require a broad and inclusive search process, with institu- tional officers looking over the shoulders of search committees. Lists must Barnett.indb 20 Barnett.indb 20 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 21 be generated showing recruitment efforts to reach diverse populations, the diversity of the applicant pool, the diversity of those invited to interview on campus, and ultimately the one offered the position. On at least one campus, if no offer is made to a minority individual among the finalists, the affirma- tive action office requires a written report explaining the reason for not hiring the individual. If an offer is declined, a school may wish to conduct a follow- up interview with the diverse candidate to determine the reason, in hopes of learning something that will help the next search be more successful. In sum, consider the following best practices in recruiting: • Think of faculty and staff recruiting as continuous and proactive, not as periodic and occurring only when a position is available. This may involve a panel event or brown-bag lunch series to invite diverse aca- demics to campus. • Make a position description as broad as possible to attract a more diverse applicant pool. • Itemize search strategies beyond mere publication of a job announce- ment in order to help build a diverse applicant pool. • Make sure all search committees have female representation and, when possible, minority representation. • Ensure that the hiring pool contains diverse candidates before selection of finalists. • Add an additional candidate to the finalist list if the candidate is qualified and would enhance diversity. • Use visiting appointments or adjunct appointments to enhance faculty diversity if permanent faculty positions are unavailable. • Recruit minority professionals interested in making a transition to the academy and support their credentialing process in what universities call “grow your own” programs. Retention of a Diverse Faculty and Staff Building a diverse faculty is the first step; supporting and retaining that faculty is the second step. Institutions need to support and retain all good faculty—White males as well as Hispanic females—and prune away any faculty who do not meet standards of quality, regardless of gender or race. Broad-based faculty support strategies, such as faculty mentoring and flexible scheduling for those who are parents or primary caregivers, belong in a faculty development statement that applies to all. But some faculty support Barnett.indb 21 Barnett.indb 21 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
22 PEOPLE strategies may be directly applicable to diversity rather than to the faculty as a whole—for example, monitoring faculty salaries for gender and racial ineq- uity or providing a private nursing area for a staff member who has a baby. It takes both right actions and right reactions to create an environment in which diversity and inclusiveness can flourish. In recruitment, the quest for better faculty and staff diversity has a required action (seek out and hire) and a required reaction (don’t discriminate). Similarly, building a culture that supports retention can involve action (encourage faculty and staff to be role models whose actions and attitudes demonstrate tolerance and respect for others) as well as reaction (respond appropriately and meaningfully to incidents and situations that are inappropriate). One idea for measuring actions and reactions is to have a standing com- mittee monitor a program’s culture and environment as they relate to diver- sity. An institution could periodically gather diverse faculty and staff members and ask them about the academic culture. A university could require all newly hired faculty and staff to attend a diversity training program early in their employment to learn how to work effectively in a multicultural organization. One institution schedules a session for adjuncts to discuss creative ways in which diversity issues can be effectively communicated in the classroom. The goal is to create an environment that embraces diversity rather than sees it as a matter of compliance. You want to not only attract diverse colleagues to your institution, but also help them be happy, comfortable, productive, and successful in navigating university life. All faculty would benefit from colleagues occasionally visiting a class and offering constructive feedback, in the same way that faculty would benefit from observing one another and seeing what works for others. Build this sort of interaction into the system so that new and minority faculty feel less isolated. A department chair who sees course evaluations should read those of new faculty and diverse faculty first because those faculty may be the most impacted by what students say, especially if a few students make negative comments about a teacher’s mannerisms, personal characteristics, body type, or dress. In fact, empirical studies have shown that minority faculty members tend to receive lower student evaluations than their White colleagues, some- times with direct references to gender, race, or ethnicity (Merritt, 2012). Department chairs can work closely with faculty to address student com- ments that appear to be based on inappropriate criteria for evaluation or unfair criticism. Pay attention to the diversity reflected on panels and in public settings. Diverse faculty and staff will be more likely to stay at an institution that Barnett.indb 22 Barnett.indb 22 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 23 publicly recognizes and values its diversity. For instance, a university realized on the eve of a major campus event that everyone scheduled to be on the podium was a White male. By realizing this in advance, the school was able to modify the participant group to better reflect the diversity that actually existed. In sum, consider the following list of best practices for faculty retention: • Establish a culture that embraces diversity, which will require proper actions and reactions. • Monitor faculty and staff salaries for gender and racial inequities. • Have a standing committee periodically gather the perspectives of underrepresentedfacultyonwaystoimprovethecampusenvironment. • Create an expectation that all new faculty and staff will attend a diversity workshop within the first year or host one in your own unit. • Schedule a session for adjunct faculty to discuss creative ways to communicate diversity issues in the classroom. • Monitor student evaluations for harmful comments, and visit classes to offer useful feedback. • Be cognizant of the diversity (or lack of it) reflected in panels and public events. Conclusion The road to inclusion is really an intersection. The recruitment and retention of faculty and staff often fail to acknowl- edge the intersectionality among diverse communities. Rather than being singular dimensions, categories such as gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, disability, age, religious belief, and social class can overlap and intersect in dynamic ways that shape each individual (Kelly, 2014). A Bentley University report concluded that “if individuals cannot be their authentic selves in their organizations, they will not be as engaged, will not thrive, and may in fact leave” (Goux, 2012). The report added that millennials are particularly seen as valuing the multiplicity of their identities—the whole self—as opposed to just the conventional delineations to which they belong. In the end, the recruitment and retention of a diverse faculty and staff are about creating a place that is good for all—faculty, staff, students, and society. Barnett.indb 23 Barnett.indb 23 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
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Fin dal 1893 uno degli alunni del Lattes, il dott. Bartolomeo Nogara, già citato, (cfr. pag. 118), raccolse calchi e disegni di iscrizioni etrusche da lui fatti nel Museo di Perugia, (1º viaggio epigrafico 1893), e un primo manipolo di iscrizioni messapiche depositate con quelle etrusche presso la R. Accademia Scientifico-Letteraria nel 1895 (2º viaggio epigrafico). Incoraggito dai premi Lattes, il dott. Nogara continuò le sue ricerche e le sue collezioni di calchi e disegni per gli anni successivi in altre città dell'Etruria fino all'anno scorso (3º viaggio 1896; 4º, 1897; 5º, 1898; 6º-7º 1899); ved. Relazioni nell'Annuario della R. Accademia Scientifico- Letteraria, dall'anno 1894 fino al 1900. 92. L. A. Milani, Museo topografico dell'Etruria. Firenze-Roma, Bencini, 1898. 93. Ved. Gellio, Nott. att., XVII, 21. 94. Ved. Orazio, Epistol. II. 1, 156-57. Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes Intulit agresti Latio. 95. Ved. Virgilio, Aeneis, VI, 843-853. 96. Ved. Livio, Stor. Rom., l. XXXIX, c. 4 (orazione di Catone per la legge Oppia). 97. Su Damofilo e Gorgaso, che lavoravano al tempio di Cerere (493 a. C.), ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXV, 154: Ante hanc aedem tuscanica omnia in aedibus fuisse auctor est Varro. Quindi i due artisti greci sono per lo meno anteriori a Fidia e a Polignoto. 98. Ved. Livio, I, 56: Fabris undique ex Etruria accitis. 99. Livio, I, 55: Arcem eam imperii caputque rerum fore. 100. Ved. intorno al tempio di Giove Capitolino la descrizione di Dionigi d'Alicarnasso, IV, 61, 3, 4, e la ricostruzione in Durm, Baukunst der Etrusker und Römer. Cfr. un suo disegno in un rilievo di Aureliano (Durm, op. cit., pag. 45); B. v. Köhne, Der Tempel des kapitolin. Jupiter nach den Münzen, Berlino, 1870. 101. Donaldson, Architect. num., pag. 6-11, tav. 3; Cohen, Méd. impér. I2, Vespas. n. 409; Domiz. n. 174 (?); cfr. Ephem. epigr. VIII 1892, tav. II, 5 (Dressel).
102. Su Turanius ved. Plinio, XXXV, 45. 103. Sul foedus latinum ved. Dionis. IV, 26; cfr. S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina, Milano, Hoepli, 1898, pag. 160-161. 104. Ved. per la tomba di Porsenna, Guhl-Koner-Giussani, op. cit. II, pag. 116. 105. Il trattato ci è conservato da Polibio nella sua storia romana, III, 22. 106. Cfr. pag. 196; ved. Plin., N. H., XXXV, 154. 107. Ved. Livio, Stor. rom., XLII, 3, Populum romanum ruinis templorum templa aedificantem. 108. Ved. S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina, Milano, Hoepli, 1898, pag. 144 e segg., tav. XXVI. 109. Ved. Livio, Stor. rom., XXVI, 27. 110. F. v. Quast, Die Basilika der Alten, Berlino, 1845; O. Mothes. Die Basilikenform bei den Christen der ersten Jahrhunderte. Lipsia, 1865: Holtzinger, Die römische Privatbasilika (in Repertorium für Kunstwerke): K. Lange, Excursus, II; Basilica Ulpia. — Lesueur, La basilique Ulpienne (Roma), Parigi, 1877; cfr. Donaldson, Architectura numismatica, 1859; utilissimo per lo studio delle monete rappresentanti basiliche romane. 111. Ved. Tacito, Annali, XIV, 21. 112. Ved. S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina, cit., p. 141 e segg. e tav. XXIII-XXV. A tav. XXV e pag. 143 si corregga “quonoro per quorum„ sfuggiti per errore, in “duonoro per bonorum„. 113. Cfr. Sui sarcofagi romani in confronto coi greci e coi cristiani, ved. Guhl- Engelmann, Matz, Über den Unterschied der griech und römischen
Sarkophage, dall'Archäol. Zeitung, XXV, pag. 16 e segg.; René Grousset, Étude sur l'histoire des sarcophages chrêtiens. 114. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca cit., pag. 43. 115. Cfr. S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina cit., tav. LII. È ora nel Museo Kircheriano al Collegio romano in Roma. L'iscrizione in carattere del VI sec. di R. dice: Dindia Macolnia filea[i] dedit | Novios Plautios med Romai fecid. La dama prenestina Dindia Macolnia passò in regalo la cista alla figlia. Si corregga quindi al luogo cit. dell'Epigrafia latina la voce filea in filea[i], come richiede il senso. Ved. per la Cista Ficoroni inoltre: E. Braun, Die Ficoronische Cista, Lipsia, 1830; O. Jahn, Die Ficoronische Cista, 1852; cfr. Schône, in Ann. Istit. Corr. Arch., 1868, pag. 150; e inoltre Annali, 1864, pag. 356; 1866, pag. 357; 1876, pag 105. 116. Le tombe prenestine sono abbondanti di ciste e d'oggetti d'ornamento muliebre. Fra le varie ciste una per la rappresentazione sua singolarmente importante è quella in cui pare raffigurata l'unione di Enea con Lavinia, onde sarebbe indicata la piena e diffusa esistenza della leggenda già nel VI secolo di Roma. Degli oggetti di toletta muliebre contenuti nelle ciste molti sono orientali, cioè vasetti d'alabastro, smalti, oreficerie, e provano le relazioni commerciali che fra il Lazio e i paesi transmarini erano mantenute da mercanti fenicî. 117. Ved. Livio, Storia rom., VI, 29. 118. Ved. Plinio, H. N. XXXV, 22 e segg. 119. Ved. Livio, Stor. rom. XXXVI, 52. 120. Ved. Livio, itid. XXXIX, 5. 121. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 2; cfr. Guhl-Koner e Giussani, La vita dei Romani, Torino, Loescher, 1891; Borsari, Topografia di Roma, Milano, Hoepli, 1897, pag. 165, 271 e segg.; Friedländer, Sittengeschichte Roms, II, pag. 322 e segg. della 5ª ediz. (1881).
122. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 24. 123. Ved. sui teatri in generale: Fr. Wieseler, Theatergebäude und Denkmäler des Bühnenwesens bei den Griechen und Römern, Göttingen, 1851; Scip. Maffei, Dei teatri antichi e moderni, Verona, 1753; Öhmichen, Bühnenwesen nell'Handbuch di Iwan Müller; W. Dörpfeld-E. Reisch, Das griechische Theater, Roma, Loescher, 1895. Una bibliografia molto copiosa sui varî teatri ho cercato di riunire nel lavoro: S. Ricci, Il teatro romano di Verona, Venezia, 1895, Memorie dell'Istituto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. 124. Sugli anfiteatri leggasi, dopo i lavori di Giusto Lipsio, Antwerpen, 1528 e di Poleni e Montenari, Vicenza, 1735, le osservazioni del Nissen, Pompejanische Studien, e del Friedländer, in Marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, III2, 2, 556 e segg. — Sui circhi ved. G. L. Bianconi, Descrizione dei circhi, particolarmente di quello di Caracalla, Roma, 1789; cfr. Burgess, Descrizione del circo sulla Via Appia presso Roma, Roma, 1829; Friedländer, in Marquardt's, Staatsverwaltung, III2, 504 e segg. 125. Il testamento di Augusto essendo infisso su lastre di marmo del tempio d'Augusto e di Roma in Ancira, è detto il Monumentum Ancyranum: vedasi S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina, Milano, Hoepli, 1898, pag. 187, not. 1 e pagg. 195-203. L'opera capitale intorno a questo è del Mommsen, Res gestae divi Augusti ex monumentis Ancyrano et Apolloniensi, Berlino, Weidmann, 1883; alle pagg. 197-198 del mio Manuale precitato vi è unita tutta la bibliografia relativa. 126. Ved. Svetonio, Vit. Aug., 29: Marmoream se relinquere quam latericiam accepisset. 127. Borsari, Topografia di Roma antica, Milano, Hoepli, 1897, pag. 261-265. 128. Oltre il nostro Atlante, sulle tavole qui sotto citate hanno illustrazioni del Pantheon, come anche dei principali monumenti di Roma imperiale, che saranno in sèguito descritti: H. Strack, Baudenkmäler des Alten Rom, Berlino, Wachsmuth, 1890; A. Schneider, Das alte Rom. Entwickelung
seiner Grundrisse und Geschichte seiner Bauten auf 12 Karten und 14 Tafeln dargestellt. Per uso didattico sono abbastanza utili, i Kunsthistorische Bilderbogen, zusammengestellt del Dottor Menge. Il nostro Melani ha pure illustrazioni della parte romana nei suoi Manuali, con speciale trattazione delle piante e degli stili degli edifizî nel volume dell'Architettura; delle riproduzioni romane di capilavori greci in quello della Scultura; degli affreschi soprattutto pompeiani in quello della Pittura (Milano, Hoepli, 1900). Il prof. Archinti di Milano ha pure edito un volume sulla storia dell'Architettura e degli stili con molte e belle tavole (Milano, Vallardi, 1889), e il Melani un altro sull'ornamento artistico. Cfr. per altre opere il mio indice bibliografico generale e speciale. 129. Virgilio, Eneide, I, v. 448-449. 130. Ved. Dione, l. III. 27. 131. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 24. 132. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, Milano. Hoepli, 1892, vol. I, pag. 83, 115. Cfr. Atlante, tav. LVII, LIX, LXXXIII. 133. Da questo fatto della fusione del bronzo per i pezzi d'artiglieria sorse il proverbio: Quod non fecerunt barbari fecerunt Barberini. I due piccoli campanili laterali che stettero un pezzo alla disapprovazione di tutti erano stati posti dal Bernini per ordine dello stesso papa Urbano VIII, ed erano detti gli orecchioni del Bernini. 134. Ved. Lanciani, Notizie degli Scavi, 1881, anche per la bibliografia. 135. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, Milano, Hoepli, 1883, pag. 87, 135-138, cfr. Atlante (parte greca) tav. LXIV-LXV; CV-CVIII. 136. Cfr. F. Cerasoli, Documenti inediti medievali circa le terme di Diocleziano in Bull. Comm., archeol. comunale. Roma, 1895, pag. 301 e seg.
137. Ved. Borsari, op. cit. pag. 87, 311-313; Cfr. Middleton, Ancient Rom II, 282, 288-292; Lanciani, Forma Urbis, t. 8. 138. Ved. O. Marucchi, Gli Obelischi egiziani in Roma, in Bull. Comm. Arch. com. Roma, 1896. 139. Ved. Guhl-Koner-Giussani, La vita dei Greci e dei Romani. Parte II, i Romani, pag. 120 e segg., fig. 101: Piramide di Cestio. 140. Cohen, Médailles imperiales, I2, pag. 252, 254, n. 25-29; 48. 141. Ved. intorno agli archi Bellorius e De Rubeis, Veteres arcus Augustorum, triumphis insignes, Roma, 1690, 1824; L. Rossini, Gli archi di trionfo degli antichi Romani, Roma, 1836. — Gräf, Triumphbogen, inserito nel dizionario di archeologia e di antichità del Baumeister, Denkmaeler, III, pag. 1865 e segg. 142. Ved. Bucoliche, Ecloga IV, 5. 143. Ved. Gentile, Atl. cit. (Parte romana), tav. XXXVIII; Porta Maggiore in Roma (acquedotto di Claudio imperatore). 144. R. Lanciani, Commentarii di Frontino intorno le acque ed acquedotti di Roma, Roma, 1880. In quest'opera è citata la bibliografia precedente, specialmente Raffaele Fabretti, De aquis et aquaeductibus veteris Romae, Roma, 1680; 2ª edizione, 1738; Castro, Corso delle acque antiche, Roma, 1757, 2 voll.; De Prony, Réchérches sur le systeme hydraulique de l'Italie; A. Secchi, Avanzi di opere idrauliche antiche nell'Alatri, Roma, 1865. 145. Intorno all'opinione che l'incendio debba veramente attribuirsi ai Cristiani ved. G. Negri, Nerone e il Cristianesimo (Rivista d'Italia, 1899, fasc. 8, 9); C. Pascal, L'incendio di Roma e i primi cristiani, Milano, 1900; A. Coen, La persecuzione neroniana dei cristiani (Atene e Roma, 1900, n. 21-23).
146. Ved. Tacito, Annali, XV, 425; Svetonio, Nerone, 31; cfr. per maggiori particolari Guhl e Koner cit. II, pag. 104 e segg.; Borsari, Topografia di Roma antica, Milano, Hoepli, 1897, pag. 130, 132, 143-145, 349. 147. Ved. le monete con l'Anfiteatro Flavio in Cohen, Médailles impériales, vol. I2, n. 399. È riprodotto anche su un conio del Padovanino; Cfr. C. Fontana, L'Anfiteatro Flavio, 1725; Haag, 1776; C. Wagner, De Flavii Anphithéatro, Marburg, 1829-31; cfr. anche A. Pompei, Studî intorno all'anfiteatro di Verona, Verona, 1877, che contiene ottime osservazioni per lo studio generale degli anfiteatri. Altri particolari sul Colosseo aggiunge il Borsari, op. cit., pag. 132, 134. 148. Intorno alle terme romane in generale ved., oltre il lavoro di Baccio sulle terme libr. VII, Venezia, 1588: Andrea Palladio, Les thermes des Romains, ediz. di Londra 1732, Vicenza, 1785: Ch. Cameron, The baths of the Romains, Londra, 1772; Mirri, Le antiche camere delle terme di Tito, Roma, 1776; id. Descriptions des bains de Titus, Paris, 1786; Ant. de Romanis, Le antiche camere Esquiline dette Terme di Tito, Roma, 1822. Delle Terme di Tito e adiacenze si tratta anche in S. Ricci, La Ξυστικὴ Σύνοσος e la “Curia athletarum„ presso S. Pietro in Vincoli, Roma, 1891, (Bullettino della Commissione Comunale di Roma: Lanciani, ibidem, 1891-1892). 149. P. es., il celebre gruppo del Laocoonte, ora nel Vaticano, fu rinvenuto nell'anno 1566 in una nicchia di queste stesse terme di Tito; il così detto Toro Farnese, cioè il celebre gruppo di Zetos ed Anfione, Dirce ed Antiope, che ora si ammira nel Museo nazionale di Napoli, fu rinvenuto nell'anno 1546 nelle terme di Caracalla: ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca; op. cit., pag. 171, 176; cfr. A. Häckermann, Die Laocoonsgruppe, Greifswald, 1856; Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture grecque, Parigi, Didot, II, 533. 150. Si osservi qui per incidenza quanti utili cimelî per la conoscenza dell'arte e della vita si traggano dai monumenti dissepolti. Intorno alla vita dei Romani, specialmente privata, per es., basti rammentare quanti documenti autentici siansi tratti appunto dalle rovine di Ercolano e di Pompei, e quanto ancora si tragga intorno alla condizione della ricca civiltà romana del I secolo dell'Impero. Ved. per queste città e per gli scavi relativi: Overbeck-Mau, Pompei, citato nell'Indice bibliogr.
Di somma importanza per la storia della decorazione pittorica sono i ritrovamenti della Domus Vettiorum a Pompei, dei quali si occuparono, si può dire, tutte le Riviste d'archeologia e d'arte italiane e straniere. Cfr. A. Sogliano, La casa dei Vettii nei Monumenti antichi per cura della R. Accademia dei Lincei, VIII, 1898; Pasquale d'Amelio, Nuovi scavi di Pompei — Casa dei Vettii. Non meno importanti per gli affreschi e per l'uso di case alte più piani sono i ritrovamenti recentissimi di Boscoreale e di Ercolano (ved. tav. 57-61). Cfr. Mittheil. d. k. d. arch. Inst. Röm. Abth., 1894, p. 349 e segg.; 1896, pag 131-140, tav. III; A. Mau, Pompei in Leben u. Kunst, Lipsia, 1900. 151. Intorno all'Arco di Tito ved. S. Reinach, L'arc de Titus et les dépouilles du temple de Jerusalem, Parigi, 1890. Sugli archi trionfali, oltre le opere capitali del Bellorius e del De Rubeis, si studî quella già citata di L. Rossini, Gli archi di trionfo degli antichi Romani, Roma, 1836, e in particolare il lavoro del Mancini sull'arco d'Augusto a Fano, Pesaro, 1826; del Petersen sull'arco di Trajano a Benevento, Röm. Mittheil, VII, pag. 239 e segg.; del Massazza e del Ponsera sull'arco antico di Susa, Torino, 1750, 1841. 152. Ved. Cohen, Médailles impériales, II2, n. 545 fol., Circo; n. 542-544 pel ponte sul Danubio. 153. H. Thédenat, Le Forum romain et les forums impériaux, Parigi, 1898. Cfr. Melani, Archit., 3.ª ediz., tav. X (Ricostruzione). 154. Ved. Albertolli, Fregi trovati negli scavi del Foro Trajano con altri esistenti in Roma e in diverse altre città. Milano, 1838. Per la bibliografia intorno alla Colonna Trajana vedasi più innanzi; cfr. F. Cerasoli, I restauri alle colonne Antonina e Trajana ed ai cavalli marmorei del Quirinale al tempo di Sisto V, in Bull. comm. archéol. com. 1896, pag. 179 e segg. 155. Ved. Ammiano Marcellino, Rerum gestarum XVI, 10. 156. Ved. Cohen, Méd. impér., II2, n. 167-170. 157. Ved. A. v. Domaszewski, Die politische Bedeutung des Trajansbogen in Benevent in Jahresheft des österreisch. archäol. Instituts II, 2, pag. 173
e seg.; Frothingham, Der Trajansbogen in Benevent in Academie des inscriptions et belles lettres VII, 30. 158. Si riferisce che Costantino anzi, ridendo, forse con mal simulata invidia, dicesse il nome di Trajano esser così benemerito e noto e ricordato dapertutto da parere l'erba parietaria che alligna sopra ogni parete. 159. Ved. Dione Cassio, LXV, 4. 160. Intorno alle ville romane ved. all'Indice nostro bibliografico speciale “Architettura„, i nomi Castell, Marquez, Moule, Mazois. 161. Ved. Ch. Lucas, L'empéreur-architecte Adrien, Parigi, 1869. 162. Ved. Borsari, Topografia di Roma antica, cit., pag. 241. Una delle opere più importanti nei lavori d'escavo del Foro Romano fu l'isolamento del tempio, dietro alla cui area si può ora liberamente passare fra il templum Sacrae Urbis e la Basilica di Costantino (Ved. l'Appendice sugli scavi del Foro romano). 163. Intorno alla colonna di Marco Aurelio è uscito un lavoro esauriente per cura del Petersen e del Domazewski con le contribuzioni del Mommsen e del Calderini: Die Marcussäule auf Piazza Colonna in Rom, herausgegeben von E. Petersen und von Domaszewski, mit Beiträgen von Mommsen und G. Calderini, Monaco, Bruckmann, 1896. Cfr. R. Schröder, Germanische Rechtssymbolik auf der Marcussäule (Neue Heidelberger Jahrbücher, VIII, 2 pag. 248 e segg.). 164. Ved. C. Reichel, De Isidis apud Romanos cultu. Berlino, Schade, 1849; L. Preller, Les dieux de l'ancienne Rome, trad. Dietz, II partie: Cultes égyptiens: Isis et Sérapis; G. Lafaye, Histoire du culte des divinités d'Alexandrie (Sérapis, Isis, Harpocrate et Anubis), Parigi, Thorin, 1884; A. Veyries, Les figures criophores dans l'art grec, l'art gréco-romain et l'art chrétien. Parigi, Thorin, 1884.
165. Sulla Scuola di Pergamo ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, Milano, Hoepli, 1883, pag. 164 e seg.; cfr. Atlante, id., tav., e Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture grecque, II, pag. 500. 166. In questo volume non si tien conto che delle statue e delle opere d'arte più specialmente romane, riservando lo studio degli originali e delle copie dei capilavori greci al volume della Storia dell'arte greca, che si sta preparando interamente rifatto sull'edizione del prof. Gentile, (Milano, Hoepli, 1883), e che ha già a sua illustrazione un Atlante di 149 tav. (Milano, Hoepli, 1892). 167. Cicerone in Verr., IV, 2. 168. Ved. Orazio, Satire, 3, 64: Insanit veteres statuas Damasippus emendo. 169. Occorre il detto di Trimalcione: Meum intendere nulla pecunia vendo, e l'osservazione di Stazio circa la bravura del riconoscere l'autore d'un'opera anche senza essere segnato: Silvae, IV, 6: Artificium veteres cognoscere ductus — et non inscriptis auctorem reddere signis. 170. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca cit., pag. 145. Cfr. Atlante id., tav. CXV. 171. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 155. 172. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 41. 173. Ved. Bernouilli, Römische Ikonographie, nell'Indice bibl. e in altri autori, p. es. in Camillo Serafini, L'arte nei ritratti della moneta romana repubblicana in Bull. Comm. arch. com. di Roma 1897, pag. 3 e segg., tav. I. Pei confronti con lo stile dei ritratti greci, cfr. R. Foerster, Das Porträt in der griech. Plastik. Kiel 1882. 174. Ved. Boll. dell'Ist. di Corr. Arch. di Roma, 1863.
175. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, Milano, Hoepli, 1883, pag. 136 e segg., con la bibliografia a pag. 137-138. Cfr. M. Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture grecque. Parigi, Didot, 1897, II vol. pag. 215 e segg. 176. Intorno alla Colonna Trajana. Ved. Alph. Ciacconi, columnae trajanae orthographia, Roma, 1773; Froehner, La colonne trajane. Parigi, 1872- 74; F. Boucher, Die Charakterköpfe der Trajanssäule, 1893; C. Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, herausgegeben und historisch erklärt. Berlino, Reimer, 1896. I Tafelband: Die Reliefs des ersten dakischen Krieges (gran folio 57 tavole in eliotipia) — II Text-band: Commentär dazu (8 gr). 177. Intorno ai sepolcri, ai sarcofaghi, ai monumenti sepolcrali in genere ved. all'Indice generale, Bianchini, Bartoli e Belloni, inoltre G. P. Campana, Illustrazioni di due sepolcri del secolo di Augusto scoperti tra la via Latina e l'Appia presso la tomba degli Scipioni, Roma, 1852, 2ª ediz. Per i monumenti sepolcrali etruschi ved. nell'Indice generale Bindseil e Orioli. 178. Per errore è stato considerato dal Gentile (tav. LXX cit., n. 2) quale imperatore in piedi uno schiavo giudeo con le mani legate, e fu per svista ripetuto l'errore nella mia Epigrafia latina. (Tav. LX, n. 2). 179. Intorno ai camei e alle gemme, ved. King, Antique Gems, their origin, uses, Londra, 1872; Chabouillet, Catalogue général des camées et pierres gravées de la Bibliothèque impériale. Quanto all'arte della vetreria, non si può tenerne special conto se non nell'archeologia propriamente detta: cfr. pertanto Deville, Histoire de l'art de la verrerie dans l'antiquité, Parigi 1873. 180. Ved. sui bronzi Guillaume, La sculpture en bronze, 1868; Friederichs, Kleiner kunst und Industrie in Alterthum, Berlino, 1871; Longpérier, Notices des bronzes antiques du Louvre, 1879. Vedi per l'argenteria e la gioielleria, Quaranta, Di quattordici vasi d'argento dissotterrati in Pompei, Napoli, 1835; Arneth, Die antiken Gold und Silbermonumente der k. k. Münz- und Antiken Cabinettes in Wien, 1850; Michaelis, Das Corsinische Silbergefäss, 1859; Wieseler, Hildesheimer Silberfund, Gottinga, 1869. Intorno ai tesori di Boscoreale presso Pompei, ved. Notizie degli scavi, 1894, pag. 385; 1895, pag. 109, 207, 235; 1896, pag. 204, 230; 1899,
pagina 14. Uno studio a parte meriterebbe la ceramica, ma a chi non vuol dar polvere negli occhi occorre uscire dal tema per trattarne degnamente. Si confronti la letteratura nella parte greca e si aggiunga: Von Rohden, Die Terracotten von Pompei, Stuttgart, 1880. 181. Lavori d'indole generale sulle monete, i quali però possono dare un concetto esatto delle varie classi di monete antiche, sono: Mommsen, Histoire de la monnaie romaine, Parigi, 1865-1875, 4 volumi; Lenormant, La Monnaie dans l'antiquité, 3 vol., 1879; Imhoof-Blumer, Portraitköpfe auf römischen Münzen der Republik und der Kaiserzeit, Lipsia, 1879; Froehner, Les medaillons de l'empire romain, Parigi, 1878; Ch. Robert, Études sur les medaillons contorniates; S. Ambrosoli, Manuale di numismatica, Milano, Hoepli, 1895, 2ª ediz., pag. 79-145; Fr. Gnecchi, Monete romane, Milano, Hoepli, 1896. Di quest'opera è stampata ora la 2ª ediz. di molto accresciuta, anzi interamente rifatta dall'autore. Importantissimi articoli sulla numismatica romana sono anche inseriti nella Rivista italiana di Numismatica, diretta dai cavv. E. e Fr. Gnecchi. — Sulle relazioni che la storia dell'arte e l'architettura hanno con la numismatica, ved. Donaldson, Architectura numismatica, Londra, 1859, ove sono citati gli autori precedenti. Cfr. per le considerazioni d'indole artistica S. Ricci, Intorno all'influenza dei tipi monetari greci su quelli della repubblica romana. Introduzione al lavoro: L'arte greca nella numismatica romana della Repubblica e dell'Impero. Estratto dalle Mémoires du Congrès international de Numismatique del 1900, pp. 170- 204. 182. Di Timomaco scrisse F. Brandstätter, Timomachos' Werke und Zeitalter, Lipsia, 1889. 183. Plinio, H. N., XXXV, 20. 184. Léon Renier-Perrot, Les peintures du Palatin, in Rev. Archéol., serie XXI e XXII; F. Schwechten, Wanddekoration aus den Kaiserpalästen auf dem Palatin in Rom, Berlino, 1878. 185. Ved. Alte Denkmäler, Vol. I, 11; cfr. Sittl, Archeöl. d. Kunst, pag. 739, nota 10. Cfr. per gli affreschi nella villa “La Farnesina„ i Monumenti cit., vol. XI. tav. 44-48. XII, tav. 5-8; 17-34; cfr. Wand- und Deckenschmuch eines röm. Hauses aus der Zeit des Augustus. Berlino, 1891.
186. Degne di nota sono le opere del Mau intorno ai dipinti e agli scavi in genere di Pompei, le quali sono nella maggior parte inserite nella Römische Abtheilung delle Mittheilungen des deutschen. Archäolog. Instituts. Vi è anche una guida archeologica di Pompei curata recentemente dal Mau. Cfr. Presuhn, Die pompejanischen Wanddekorationen. Lipsia, 1882. 187. Ved. per Pompei: W. Helbig, Wandgemälde der von Vesuv verschutteten Städte Campaniens, Lipsia, 1868; O. Donner, Abhanlung über die antiken Wandmalereie in technischer Beziehung; ibidem, Appendice al libro precedente. Cfr. G. Boissier, Revue des deux mondes, ottobre, 1879; Fiorelli, Relazioni sugli scavi, dall'anno 1861 all'anno 1872; Pompei e la regione sotterrata dal Vesuvio. (Ved. Annali Ist. Corr. Arch.). A. Mau, Pompeji in Leben und Kunst, Lipsia, Engelmann, 1900. Per le varie piante e sezioni di case pompeiane, ved. tav. 314, 315, 316 (tav. 79- 81). 188. Ved. E. Petersen, I rilievi tondi dell'arco di Costantino. Mittheil. d. k. d. arch. Instit.: Röm. Abtheil. vol. IV (1889), pag. 314-339, tav. XII. Cfr. A. Monaci, Le sculture aureliane sull'arco di Costantino in Bull. Com. arch. di Roma, 1900, pag. 75 e segg. 189. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, op. cit., pag 171, 189, 190-91. 190. Sulle terme di Caracalla ved. Blouet, Restauration des thermes d'Antonin Caracalla. Parigi, 1828. Su quelle di Diocleziano ved. E. Paulin, Les thermes de Diocletien (Restauration des mon. ant.). Cfr. gli studi su altre terme, come p. es., su quelle di Civitavecchia: G. Torraca, Delle antiche terme taurine esistenti nel territorio di Civitavecchia. Roma. 1761; su quelle di Pisa: C. Lupi, Nuovi studi sulle antiche terme pisane. Pisa, 1885; per Pompei: Terme stabiane, in Nissen, Pompejanische studien. pag. 140 e segg. Ved. S. A. Iwanoff, Aus den Thermen des Caracalla. Mit Erlaüterungen von Chr. Hülsen. Berlino, 1891. 191. Cfr. Fr. Cerasoli, Documenti inediti medievali circa le terme di Diocleziano e il Mausoleo di Augusto, in Bull. Comm. arch. comun. di Roma 1895, pag. 301 e segg.
192. Cfr. C. F. Mazzanti, La scultura ornamentale romana nei bassi tempi, in Archivio Storico dell'arte, s. II, anno II, fasc. 1 e 2 p. 33 e segg.; fasc. 3, p. 161-185. 193. Tutto questo periodo dell'arte in Italia, che dalla decadenza dell'arte perfetta in Roma si estende fino al Rinascimento, è ora trattato egregiamente dall'illustre prof. Venturi nel suo recentissimo libro La Storia dell'arte in Italia (Milano, Hoepli, 1901), di cui è uscito il primo volume, che giunge fino a Giustiniano, opera ricca di tavole e di illustrazioni. Sono già in corso di stampa il secondo volume, che tratterà del periodo Dal tempo dei Longobardi all'inizio dello stile nazionale, e il terzo: Dal secolo XIII alla fine del Trecento. 194. Ved. Notizie degli Scavi di antichità comunicate alla R. Accademia dei Lincei. Roma, giugno 1900, pag. 220 e segg. 195. Ved. tavola allegata alle Notizie degli Scavi citate, a pag. 220-221: Sacra Via et continentia aedificia; cfr. Atti dei Lincei, Memorie della classe di Scienze mor., Serie 5ª, vol. VIII. 196. Ved. Reina, Triangolazione della città di Roma in Rivista di topografia e catasto. 1896. 197. Ved. l'arch. Boni, in Notizie degli Scavi, cit., pag. 229. 198. G. Tropea, La stele arcaica del Foro Romano, cronaca della discussione. III. Messina, tip. della Rivista di storia antica e scienze affini. 1900. Cfr. Parte Iª e IIª nella Rivista medesima, 1892. 199. Ved. Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità comunicate alla Regia Accademia dei Lincei, maggio 1889, pag. 151 e segg. 200. Ved. Nuova Antologia. 1 genn. 1900; cfr. 16 nov. 1900. 201. Ved. Notizie degli scavi, aprile 1900, pag. 143 e segg.
202. Il Pais ne discusse in varie riprese e recentemente nell'articolo: Le scoperte archeologiche e la buona fede scientifica inserito nella Rivista di storia antica e scienze affini di Messina; il Comparetti invece pubblica un lavoro a sè, intitolato: Iscrizione arcaica del Foro Romano. Firenze- Roma, Bencini. 1900. 203. A scanso di dimenticanze, ved. la cronaca citata dal prof. Tropea in op. e luogo citati. 204. Queste opinioni espressi già a suo tempo, nell'articolo di divulgazione dell'Almanacco italiano pel 1901, trattando delle Recenti scoperte archeologiche di Roma negli scavi del Foro Romano (ved. pag. 372 e segg.). 205. Da un articolo sul Popolo Romano del 23 maggio scorso il prof. Tropea trae un riassunto dei capisaldi dell'opinione del Milani, mentre si attende la sua pubblicazione nei Rendiconti della R. Accademia dei Lincei e nella seconda puntata dei suoi Studî e materiali di Archeologia e Numismatica. 206. Notizie degli Scavi d'antichità comunicate alla R. Accademia dei Lincei. Roma, maggio 1900, pag. 159 e segg. 207. Ved. in Bollettino della Commiss. archeologica comun. di Roma del 1900. Cfr. anche il Gatteschi nell'Indice bibliografico delle opere speciali.
Nota del Trascrittore Ortografia e punteggiatura originali sono state mantenute, correggendo senza annotazione minimi errori tipografici. Grafie alternative o arcaiche sono state analogamente conservate (terramare/terremare, sacrifizio/sagrifizio). Nelle sezioni bibliografiche, i titoli non italiani sono stati riprodotti fedelmente, tranne nel caso di evidenti errori.
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  • 8. Barnett.indb ii Barnett.indb ii 12/16/2015 12:14:09 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:09 PM
  • 9. INTERSECTIONALITY IN ACTION A Guide for Faculty and Campus Leaders for Creating Inclusive Classrooms and Institutions EDITED BY Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten Foreword by Eboo Patel STERLING, VIRGINIA Barnett.indb iii Barnett.indb iii 1/7/2016 10:57:20 AM 1/7/2016 10:57:20 AM
  • 10. COPYRIGHT © 2016 BY STYLUS PUBLISHING, LLC. Published by Stylus Publishing, LLC 22883 Quicksilver Drive Sterling, Virginia 20166-2102 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, recording and information storage and retrieval, without permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Barnett, Brooke, 1972- editor. | Felten, Peter, editor. Title: Intersectionality in action : a guide for faculty and campus leaders for creating inclusive classrooms / edited by Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten ; foreword by Eboo Patel. Description: First edition. | Sterling, Virginia : Stylus Publishing, LLC, 2016. | Includes index. Identifiers: LCCN 2015027655| ISBN 9781620363201 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781620363195 (cloth : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781620363218 (library networkable e-edition) | ISBN 9781620363225 (consumer e-edition) Subjects: LCSH: Inclusive education--United States. | Education, Higher--United States. | Educational leadership--United States. Classification: LCC LC1201 .I56 2015 | DDC 371.9/046--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015027655 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-319-5 (cloth) 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-320-1 (paperback) 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-321-8 (library networkable e-edition) 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-322-5 (consumer e-edition) Printed in the United States of America All first editions printed on acid-free paper that meets the American National Standards Institute Z39-48 Standard. Bulk Purchases Quantity discounts are available for use in workshops and for staff development. Call 1-800-232-0223 First Edition, 2016 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Barnett.indb iv Barnett.indb iv 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 11. Brooke: For my parents and siblings, who supported my inclusion work long before it was a job, and for Tom, Lily, and Jack, who support it today. Peter: For my mother, who always held my hand at the intersections. The editors wish to thank Laura St. Cyr of Elon University for using her exceptional organizational and editorial skills to support this project. Barnett.indb v Barnett.indb v 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 12. Barnett.indb vi Barnett.indb vi 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 13. vii CONTENTS FOREWORD ix Eboo Patel INTRODUCTION xiii Working at the Intersections Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten PART ONE: PEOPLE 1. STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 3 A Case for Capacity Building Alta Mauro and Angela Mazaris 2. RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 15 Colleagues Paul Parsons 3. LEADERSHIP AT THE INTERSECTION 25 A Developmental Framework for Inclusive Leaders Niki Latino 4. LEADERS, GOVERNING BODIES, AND ADVISORY BOARDS 36 Jeff Stein and Leo M. Lambert 5. IT TAKES A CAMPUS 48 Building Capacity to Sustain the Diversity Journey Michael A. McDonald, Sarah B. Westfall, and Eileen B. Wilson-Oyelaran PART TWO: ENVIRONMENT 6. STRIVING FOR AN INCLUSIVE AND NURTURING CAMPUS 63 Cultivating the Intersections Jon Dooley and Lucy LePeau Barnett.indb vii Barnett.indb vii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 14. viii CONTENTS 7. WHEN THINGS GO WRONG 77 Avoiding and Managing Collisions in the Intersections Leigh-Anne Royster 8. BRINGING LIFE TO LEARNING 87 Civic Engagement, Intersections, and Transforming College Students Amy Howard, Juliette Landphair, and Amanda Lineberry PART THREE: LEARNING 9. DIVERSIFYING DIVERSITY, DIVERSIFYING DISABILITY 101 Danielle R. Picard and Nancy L. Chick 10. LEADERSHIP FOR A GLOBAL, CARING SOCIETY 112 Ed Taylor 11. THE INTERSECTION OF LIFE AND LEARNING 125 What Cultural Wealth and Liberal Education Mean for Whole Student Development Ashley Finley and Tia McNair CONCLUSION 137 Guiding Principles for Working at the Intersections Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS 141 INDEX 145 Barnett.indb viii Barnett.indb viii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 15. ix FOREWORD I n early 2015, I was invited to give a series of talks on diversity at the University of California–Los Angeles (UCLA), where I first heard the story of Rachel Beyda. Like all students, Rachel Bedya had many identities—a woman, a second-year student, an economics major, a leader in several Jewish organizations, and a 20-year-old who dreamed of a law career. Beyda’s professional aspirations led her to apply for a seat on UCLA’s prestigious Judicial Board. The application process involved an interview with representatives of the UCLA student government, and the interview itself involved a set of discussions on Beyda’s various identities. Interestingly, the focus of the interview had little to do with Beyda’s academic major and career goals, but focused heavily on her gender and religion. Furthermore, those two identities were treated very differently. Being a woman was viewed approvingly; the student-government representatives conducting the inter- view argued that the Judicial Board needed more strong women. But Beyda’s Jewish faith was regarded with suspicion. She was asked to respond to ques- tions like “Given that you are a Jewish student and very active in the Jewish community, how do you see yourself being able to maintain an unbiased view?” Beyda was then asked to leave the room so the student government could debate the issue in private. During the next 40 minutes of discussion, captured both on video and in written minutes, the student representatives decided that Beyda’s Jewish identity would in fact bias her in inappropriate ways, and they voted to reject her nomination. It was not until a faculty adviser pointed out the potential prejudice at play in viewing Jewish iden- tity as a negative mark that the students revisited the issue and ultimately approved a seat for Beyda. A few weeks later, the Beyda incident was on the front page of the New York Times (Nagourney, 2015) and became the most e-mailed story of that day. Barnett.indb ix Barnett.indb ix 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 16. x FOREWORD The Beyda case is instructive for anyone on a college campus seeking to understand and engage the variety of identities students bring to cam- pus. First, identity matters. Or, more accurately, identities matter—often in surprising ways. The student government representatives conducting the interview did not focus primarily on how Rachel’s coursework or leadership experience prepared her for the responsibilities of serving on the Judicial Board; rather, they wanted to discuss how her gender and religion might add to or detract from the manner in which she would carry out her responsi- bilities. It is easy to imagine similar conversations happening around race, nationality, geography, and/or sexuality. This, of course, is a central dynamic of intersectionality theory—none of us can be reduced to a single identity, and the most salient identities in any given situation can be surprising. It is interesting to note how gender played positively in this scenario and religion played negatively. It is hard to read this particular situation as any- thing other than prejudicial toward religious identity, perhaps even tinged with anti-Semitism. After all, why should the narratives, symbols, and soli- darities associated with being a woman be understood positively, while the narratives, symbols, and solidarities associated with being Jewish mark some- one as unfairly biased? In lifting up intersectionality, campus professionals have an opportunity to reflect on dimensions of identity they are more comfortable working with and on those with which they feel less comfortable engaging. After all, we all bring a variety of identities to the table, identities that interact with our students’ hybridity in ways that might confer privilege upon certain identi- ties and ignore or marginalize others. It is also useful to pay attention to how charged the issue became. Approv- ing a student to a leadership post on a campus happens tens of thousands of times a year, but when the process involves questions about certain dimen- sions of identity, the case can easily emerge as a front-page news story. One reason for the national scrutiny given to this story is that the issues at play are electric in the broader culture. National debates on gender issues, such as the dearth of women in positions of corporate leadership and the unequal pay given to men and women in similar professional roles, might well have played a part in the discussion of Beyda’s femaleness as an asset. Similarly, the rag- ing controversy over Middle East policy, and the polarization this has caused between Muslim and Jewish students on campuses, very likely played a role in the questions regarding Beyda’s Jewishness. These religious and political tensions were certainly present at UCLA, where the student government had recently passed a resolution urging divestment from Israeli companies. All of this can be boiled down to some insights that appear common- sensical while also being intensely complicated. All of us have a variety of Barnett.indb x Barnett.indb x 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 17. FOREWORD xi identities. Those identities matter, guiding patterns of belief, behavior, and belonging. Identities do not exist in vacuums but are made more or less sali- ent given larger contexts (policy debates, social movements, etc.). Different identities can lead to tension and conflict, most certainly within a diverse student body, but also within a single individual. Walt Whitman (1892) expresses this beautifully in his famous verse: Do I contradict myself? Very well then I contradict myself, (I am large, I contain multitudes). I love that this line can be read as both celebrating the joys of variety and being resigned to the inevitable tensions caused by diversity. If the primary business of campuses was to make furniture or cars, all of this might be viewed as an unwelcome distraction. But since our primary purpose is to fashion leaders for a diverse democracy, nurturing graduates who can engage these inevitable tensions in positive and proactive ways is essential to the work of a college campus. This work—as we all know—can range from difficult and frustrating one day to inspiring and heartwarming the next. The good news is that you hold in your hands a book that raises the right questions and casts light upon possible answers for shaping campus communities that serve as both labora- tories for our diverse democracy and launching pads for a new generation of leaders. May it enrich our work, our campuses, our students, and our shared future. Eboo Patel Founder and President Interfaith Youth Core Chicago, Illinois References Nagourney, A. (2015, March 5). In U.C.L.A. debate over Jewish student, echoes on campus of old biases. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes .com/2015/03/06/us/debate-on-a-jewish-student-at-ucla.html?_r=0 Whitman, W. (1892). Song of myself. Retrieved from http://www.poetryfoundation .org/poem/174745 Barnett.indb xi Barnett.indb xi 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 18. Barnett.indb xii Barnett.indb xii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 19. xiii I N T R O D U C T I O N Working at the Intersections Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten I ssues of diversity and inclusion are central in higher education today, and they will only become more important in the future as U.S. demograph- ics change and globalization accelerates. Many colleges and universities have developed elaborate programs and structures to support inclusive excel- lence. Nearly every campus has academic departments that study and teach human diversity, student life programs that welcome and support people with a range of identities, and human resource specialists to train faculty and staff in best (and in legal) practices. However, the people on our campuses—the students, faculty, and staff—do not encounter diversity in the fractured ways that match the organizational structures of our institutions. For instance, a student is not an accounting major in the classroom, a woman in her living-learning com- munity, a first-generation college student in her advising support group, and a visa-holding undergraduate when working with administrators on paper- work in preparation for a semester abroad. Instead, she is all of those things at once. Additionally, an individual’s identity is not fixed; it evolves over time, and different aspects of identity might be more or less salient in different contexts. Still, as Ruthellen Josselson (1996) explained in her book Revising Herself, we typically do not experience the world from the perspective of only one facet of our identity, but see ourselves as an integrated whole: “Living our identities is much like breathing. We don’t have to ask ourselves each morning who we are. We simply are” (p. 29). That unity is rarely supported on campus. Most higher education insti- tutions are structured in ways that make organizational sense but may not reflect the experiences and needs of our students. For example, a report pub- lished by the American Council on Education (ACE) critiqued the ubiqui- tous division between international and multicultural education programs on campuses across the United States (Olson, Evans, & Schoenberg, 2007). Students learn about diverse people and cultures, and about themselves, in remarkably similar ways through these two parallel structures. Almost a Barnett.indb xiii Barnett.indb xiii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 20. xiv INTRODUCTION decade ago, the ACE suggested that this division should be bridged, if not eliminated. Since that ACE report appeared, however, few institutions have adopted its recommendations; many programs, even excellent ones, operate within organizational silos. We believe that the time has come for institutions to move intention- ally toward intersections—of study abroad and multiculturalism, of race and gender and religion, and of other essential aspects of our educational pro- grams and our students’ identities. This will not be easy. Exploring the intersections is complex work that can create new (or exacerbate existing) social or political tensions, and it may prompt competition for scarce resources. However, a focus on intersections opens doors to new possibilities that better prepare our students for life in a diverse world. It also allows our institutions to become more efficient and effective as we strive not simply to do things better in our own separate spheres, but to do better things by working together across difference. To encourage such a shift, Sturm (2006) emphasized the need for “institutional mindfulness” to ensure that we are attending to the complex- ity of inclusion work on a college campus. This requires “creating institu- tional roles that place people with knowledge, influence, and credibility in positions to influence practice at pivotal locations” within an organization and a community (Sturm, 2006, p. 251). While being positioned at the institutional intersections is essential, it is not enough. We also need atten- tiveness to the plural, fluid, and intersecting identities of individuals on our campuses (students, faculty, staff, and others). Only by attending to all of these intersections will we ensure that both diversity across the uni- versity and diversity within and among groups are at the center of higher education. This book aims to help readers, no matter what position they occupy on campus, to develop the knowledge and capacities necessary to do this essential work. Throughout this book, chapter authors use intersectionality as a frame- work to examine how a particular topic affects individuals, groups, poli- cies, and programs on campus. Intersectionality is rooted in the premise that understanding identity, oppression, power, and marginalization can- not be accomplished by looking solely at single identities. This is not an entirely new idea. In the 1850s, for instance, Sojourner Truth asked, “Ain’t I a woman?” and challenged the reformers at a women’s convention to con- sider how gender and race intersect in American society (Painter, 1997). More than a century later, law professor Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989) coined the term suggested by Truth—intersectionality. Crenshaw used this frame- work to explain that various biological, social, and cultural identities interact Barnett.indb xiv Barnett.indb xiv 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 21. INTRODUCTION xv dynamically and must be critically examined to fully understand the basis of discrimination or oppression. Researchers and educators now use intersectionality to go beyond a single aspect of identity or inequality and analyze how multiple aspects of identities and inequalities factor into experiences with power, inequality, and difference (Dill, McLaughlin, & Nieves, 2007). Intersectionality, in short, “provides a critical analytic lens to interrogate racial, ethnic, class, physical ability, age, sexuality, and gender disparities and to contest existing ways of looking at these structures of inequality” (Dill & Zambrana, 2009, p. 1). Weber (1998) argued that prior to this emphasis on intersectionality, schol- arship generally treated identity as “assigned a single location along a dimension, which is defined by a set of presumably mutually exclusive and exhaustive cat- egories” (p. 18). This approach was and still is helpful for research and practice focused on single aspects of identity. The “single story” framework provides the basis of much of what we know, for example, about racial identity formation, and higher education researchers and practitioners commonly disaggregate data into distinct categories as a useful practice to ensure that variances across groups are understood. Yet such single-identity data rarely address the differences within groups or the impact of intersecting identities on students’ experiences in higher education (Bowleg, 2008; Jones & Abes, 2013; Jones & McEwen, 2000). Although intersectionality can provide a clarifying lens to focus on the complexities of diversity on campus, it is not without flaws; perhaps most importantly, some scholars have cautioned that attention to intersectionality in higher education can unintentionally obscure real differences by “flattening,” or inappropriately equating all aspects of identity (Luft, 2009 p. 104). While the perils of superficial analysis are real, we believe that the inter- sectional framework provides a helpful heuristic for exploring questions of diversity and inclusion in colleges and universities (Mitchell, Simmons, & Greyerbiehl, 2014; Ouellett, 2011). Like any heuristic, it is not perfect. However, focusing on the intersections helps us to be attentive to both the complexity of individual experiences on campus and the organizational structures that make it possible (or seemingly impossible) for us to engage deeply with difficult questions of diversity and inclusion. This book explores the practices and perspectives necessary for rethink- ing higher education to focus on the intersections of identity. Building on the emerging literature about intersectionality and on the rich scholarship about diversity and inclusion and rooted in the context of a range of dif- ferent campuses, this book includes chapters by an array of experts from different institutions and roles. Each chapter offers action-oriented analysis focusing on particular campus intersections, rather than attending to specific demographic groups. Chapter authors also build on their own local expertise Barnett.indb xv Barnett.indb xv 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 22. xvi INTRODUCTION of doing this work on campuses that often do not have deep pockets or rich histories of such efforts. The book is organized into three parts: 1. People focuses on the broad concept of diversity, considering how we recruit and engage the students, faculty, and staff in the campus community and how we work with governing boards and others to promote inclusive excellence. 2. Environment focuses on inclusion, including residence life, the local com- munity, the working and learning environment, and external factors, such as national and international news events or town-gown relationships. 3. Learning focuses on perspective taking and learning about difference in the core curriculum, the disciplines, and the cocurriculum, as well as professional development for faculty and staff. Part One: People Chapter 1: Student Recruitment and Retention at the Intersections: A Case for Capacity Building by Alta Mauro and Angela Mazaris This chapter explores innovative approaches to recruitment and retention of students, supporting identity without silos. It focuses on student identity formation and development and explores ways to ensure that an institu- tion’s strategy attends to the needs of current and future students while also navigating the legal and practical complexities of this work. Chapter 2: Recruitment and Retention at the Intersections: Colleagues by Paul Parsons This chapter considers maintaining staff for continuity and development, creating positive personal and professional environments. While the student population turns over with every admissions and graduation cycle, faculty and staff colleagues often spend many years at an institution. How can an institution address recruitment and retention in ways that create a workplace of choice for colleagues from all backgrounds? Chapter 3: Leadership at the Intersection: A Developmental Framework for Inclusive Leaders by Niki Latino This chapter explores a developmental model, grounded in critical race the- ory, of White inclusive leadership. The chapter considers the implications and applications of this framework for leaders who have majority status in Barnett.indb xvi Barnett.indb xvi 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 23. INTRODUCTION xvii other salient identity categories (e.g., religion or sexuality) in their campus context. Chapter 4: Leaders, Governing Bodies, and Advisory Boards by Jeff Stein and Leo M. Lambert This chapter offers concrete examples and practical advice to engage campus boards, advisers, and institutional leaders with the important work of diver- sity and inclusion. Chapter 5: It Takes a Campus: Building Capacity to Sustain the Diversity Journey by Michael A. McDonald, Sarah B. Westfall, and Eileen B. Wilson-Oyelaran This chapter uses institutional and personal stories to stress the importance of personal commitment and agency for everyone on campus—faculty, staff, and administration—to further the goals of diversity and inclusion. How do we cultivate the buy-in and develop change agents across a campus (not just among the likely subjects)? Part Two: Environment Chapter 6: Striving for an Inclusive and Nurturing Campus: Cultivating the Intersections by Jon Dooley and Lucy LePeau This chapter emphasizes the essential role of partnerships in the complex work of cultivating an inclusive campus climate for all students, faculty, and staff. Chapter 7: When Things Go Wrong: Avoiding and Managing Collisions in the Intersections by Leigh-Anne Royster This chapter focuses on creating and implementing bias and discrimination response and education teams that can function effectively across a range of identity and programmatic intersections. Chapter 8: Bringing Life to Learning: Civic Engagement, Intersections, and Transforming College Students by Amy Howard, Juliette Landphair, and Amanda Lineberry This chapter considers the location of the university, acknowledging it as both an asset and a challenge. How do you effectively cultivate the diverse assets within your local community, creating complementary intersections between town and gown? Barnett.indb xvii Barnett.indb xvii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 24. xviii INTRODUCTION Part Three: Learning Chapter 9: Diversifying Diversity, Diversifying Disability by Danielle R. Picard and Nancy L. Chick This chapter considers how ability and disability intersect in classrooms and shape the learning experience for all students. Chapter 10: Leadership for a Global Caring Society by Ed Taylor This chapter uses a single undergraduate course as a case study to explore how the diverse identities and experiences students bring to a classroom can prompt critical reflection on the larger purposes and practices of higher education. Chapter 11: The Intersection of Life and Learning: What Cultural Wealth and Liberal Education Mean for Whole Student Development by Ashley Finley and Tia McNair This chapter considers how the process of learning is central to students’ personal and civic identity formation. Conclusion: Guiding Principles for Working at the Intersections by Brooke Barnett and Peter Felten This final section synthesizes the essential principles and practices from the previous chapters while emphasizing the need for thoughtful assessment and strategic planning to put intersectionality into action in all aspects of the university. The practices and scholarship in these chapters capture some of the power of using intersectionality to think about and organize diversity and inclusion work on campus. Moving from theory to practice is rarely easy, but it is fundamental to the mission and purpose of higher education. References Bowleg, L. (2008). When Black + lesbian + woman ≠ Black lesbian woman: The methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative intersectionality research. Sex Roles, 59, 312–325. Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago legal forum, feminism in the law: Theory, practice and criticism, vol. 1989 (139–167). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Legal Forum. Barnett.indb xviii Barnett.indb xviii 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 25. INTRODUCTION xix Dill, B. T., McLaughlin, A. E., & Nieves, A. D. (2007). Future directions of femi- nist research: Intersectionality. In S. N. Hesse-Biber (Ed.), Handbook of feminist research (pp. 629–637). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dill, B. T., & Zambrana, R. E. (2009). Emerging intersections: Race, class, and gender in theory, policy, and practice. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Jones, S. R. (1997). Voices of identity and difference: A qualitative exploration of the multiple dimensions of identity development in women college students. Journal of College Student Development, 38, 376–386. Jones, S. R., & Abes, E. S. (2013). Identity development of college students: Advanc- ing frameworks for multiple dimensions of identity. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Jones, S. R., & McEwen, M. K. (2000). A conceptual model of multiple dimensions of identity. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 405–414. Josselson, R. E. (1996). Revising herself: The story of women’s identity from college to midlife. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Luft, R. E. (2009). Intersectionality and the risk of flattening difference: Gender and race logics, and the strategic use of antiracist singularity. In M. T. Berg & K. Guidroz (Eds.), The intersectional approach: Transforming the academy through race, class, and gender (pp. 100–117). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Mitchell, D., Jr., Simmons, C. Y., & Greyerbiehl, L. A. (Eds.). (2014). Intersectional- ity and higher education: Theory, research, and praxis. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Olson, C. L., Evans, R., & Schoenberg, R. E. (2007). At home in the world: Bridg- ing the gap between internationalization and multicultural education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education. Ouellett, M. L. (Ed.). (2011). An integrative analysis approach to diversity in the col- lege classroom. New directions for teaching and learning #125. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Painter, N. I. (1997). Sojourner Truth: A life, a symbol. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. Sturm, S. P. (2006). The architecture of inclusion: Advancing workplace equity in higher education. Harvard Journal of Law & Gender, 29(2), 247–334. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=901992 Weber, L. (1998). A conceptual framework for understanding race, class, gender, and sexuality. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 13–22. Barnett.indb xix Barnett.indb xix 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 26. Barnett.indb xx Barnett.indb xx 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:10 PM
  • 27. PART O NE PEOPLE Barnett.indb 1 Barnett.indb 1 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 28. Barnett.indb 2 Barnett.indb 2 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 29. 3 1 S T U D E N T R E C R U I T M E N T A N D R E T E N T I O N AT T H E I N T E R S E C T I O N S A Case for Capacity Building Alta Mauro and Angela Mazaris Conventional wisdom around the recruitment and retention of diverse students is founded on several assumptions: • Diversity is traditionally defined solely as students of color. • Success is measured by the number of students of color who enroll each year. • Responsibility for recruiting and retaining diverse students lies primarily with multicultural centers and offices of diversity and inclusion, and sometimes with women’s centers and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) centers. This chapter seeks to reframe the conversation around student recruitment and retention by focusing on institutional capacity building. We posit an institution-wide integrative model that acknowledges the many different identities of our students. By breaking down silos between departments and units, this approach strategically empowers divisions, departments, and offices throughout the institution to approach the day-to-day work of diver- sity and inclusion as part of their core organizational mission. The capacity-building model proposes an alternative framework for thinking about recruitment and retention. Tenets of this approach include the following: • The term diversity refers to a broad mix of potential identities, includ- ing race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, age, socioeconomic status, Barnett.indb 3 Barnett.indb 3 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 30. 4 PEOPLE gender, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, and disability, as well as differences in life experiences, intellectual back- ground, and political viewpoint. • Students from underrepresented groups often need specific forms of support, as not all identity categories shape student experiences in the same way. • Successful recruitment and retention of a diverse mix of students require broad-based cultural competence across institutional structures, including within offices, departments, and divisions that are not explicitly charged with “doing diversity.” • Our model of capacity building is specifically focused on building this cultural competence capacity in a range of spaces, including but not limited to academic departments, admissions offices, financial aid offices, and student affairs divisions. In this chapter we present a rationale for embracing the capacity-building model as a best practice for the recruitment and retention of students tra- ditionally defined as diverse. We also point to specific examples of how institutions have incorporated aspects of this model into their policies and practices. We hope this chapter will serve as a resource for institutions seek- ing innovative and cross-cutting strategies for diversity recruitment and retention. We define capacity building in this context as a system in which staff and faculty competence around diversity and inclusion is considered a core institutional value and a key indicator of success across departments and disciplines. Within a capacity-building model, staff diversity and inclusion competencies are regularly assessed, implemented or improved, and reassessed. Diversity and inclusion are explicitly articulated as values and are inextricably linked to the university’s mission. Efforts to expand institutional capacity typically include training, coaching, and mentoring. These efforts are measured as part of performance goals at the individual, departmental, and institutional level. Embedded in strategic planning cycles, a commitment to continual investment in professional develop- ment at this level has the potential for systemic, sustainable, and measur- able impact. Shifts in Support: Affirmative Action, Multiculturalism, and Inclusion Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, numerous shifts have occurred in the provisions made for women, people of color, and other Barnett.indb 4 Barnett.indb 4 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 31. STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 5 historically marginalized or underserved populations in higher education. Perhaps the most notable public policy is affirmative action, which emerged from the civil rights movement of the 1960s as a method of ensuring equal opportunities for women and members of minority groups in both education and employment. Universities adopted the policy upon President Lyndon Johnson’s 1965 executive order, after which African American and Latino college enrollment began to increase steadily (“Affirmative Action,” n.d.). As critical masses of students of color began matriculating, universi- ties moved to establish formal support and resources for underrepresented minority groups, primarily through offices of minority affairs. The role of such centers ranged from supporting efforts to recruit (mostly) Black stu- dents to providing safe and affirming spaces for those experiencing univer- sity life at the margins, both of which correlated to greater minority student retention. As enrollment of other ethnic minorities and international stu- dents increased, many staff and students called for an expansion of support services beyond those for Black students. In developing offices of multicul- tural affairs and/or cultural centers, university officials linked strategies for improved campus climate to specific administrative offices (Patton, 2012). While this anchoring provided direct points of contact and support for stu- dents of color, it situated accountability for them and the campus issues that were indicative of increasing structural diversity with the staff and faculty in those spaces. In short, the community work of achieving excellence in diversity was, in many cases, systematically siloed among a very few profes- sionals. Administrative offices designed to offer support for LGBTQ student communities have been similarly siloed. Positioning such rich resources within these narrow confines leaves administrators overburdened if they attempt to do such critical work alone. Additionally, these models limit the opportunities of colleagues in other functional areas to develop skills that support our most vulnerable stu- dents. While traditional understandings of diversity have focused on race and ethnicity as defining factors of identity, today’s students often consider themselves members of multiple identity groups. For example, a Black stu- dent may be aware of not only her racial identity but also her identity as a lesbian and first-generation college student. Particular attention must be paid to the experiences students bring to campus and the intersectionality of their identities in order to craft support systems that meet their varied needs. This shift from isolated support of specific demographic groups to a more integrated approach to inclusion is a critical adjustment that many universities have made in efforts to push beyond historically raced language and related tensions. Often, this shift results in the establishment of an office of equity, diversity, and inclusion. Such a unit is typically headed by a chief Barnett.indb 5 Barnett.indb 5 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 32. 6 PEOPLE diversity officer who reports directly to the president. When appropriately established and utilized, such an office can provide institutional leadership around diversity and inclusion from an intersectional lens and help colleagues throughout the university to appreciate, engage, and practice empathy across lines of nationality, religion, ethnicity, race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and social location. The focus on both structural diversity and inclusive practice elevates our approach to student support from one focused on equality (i.e., equal representation vis-à-vis admissions and retention numbers) to an approach designed to achieve equity. This is a fundamental paradigm shift, in that efforts to maintain equality ignore social stratification, which relegates non- dominant groups to subordinate positions on the margins. Equity, however, acknowledges unequal access to full participation in the campus community, thus seeking acknowledgment and redress of historical barriers and creating opportunities for historically underserved groups to engage in meaningful and culturally relevant ways. Despite the viability of cultural centers and the additional reach of the diversity and inclusion paradigm, universities must take further steps to ade- quately recruit and retain diverse students. One method of bolstering such support is the adoption of a capacity-building model. Moving Beyond Silos in Recruitment and Engagement In many institutions, responsibilities for recruitment lie solely with admissions teams, largely unaffected by colleagues in offices of diversity and inclusion, multicultural centers, or other functional areas. Whereas it makes sense that staff in admissions work alone in estimating yield and other, more calculated aspects of the process, it is critical that a cross section of stakeholders work collaboratively to influence conversations about prospective student readiness and “institutional fit.” The latter concept may be the most critical, as “institu- tional fit” is often the language used to describe students whose identities do not match the majority of the student body, or whose cultural values require them to engage in behaviors that are sometimes foreign to those in the major- ity. It is not uncommon for staff and faculty who are engaged in efforts to support historically underserved students to be critical of admissions offices, the seemingly shrouded nature of their processes, and what appears to be ambivalence toward calls for greater student diversity. When silos are bro- ken down, however, and colleagues are invited to work in partnership with admissions officers, they can develop greater appreciation for the complexity involved in recruiting and admitting a class.These advocates may also educate Barnett.indb 6 Barnett.indb 6 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 33. STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 7 admissions staff on critical histories that affect student identity and the barri- ers prospective students may perceive between themselves and the university. This deeper understanding engenders wider institutional ownership over the recruitment-to-retention cycle, and it positions colleagues to commit to more genuine support of university efforts in this regard. Beyond facilitating greater institutional commitment to admissions work, this approach deepens the capacity of those working in admissions. As they expose their workflow and invite critique, they are able to devise new strategies for success through the lens of colleagues working across func- tional areas. Over time, the admissions officer who leaned on staff in an LGBTQ center to engage openly gay students comes to see herself as capa- ble of responding to student need appropriately as a result of her sustained engagement with colleagues in that area. That same admissions officer may have had initial reservations about supporting a growing, ethnically diverse Muslim student population. As a result of her exposure to identity develop- ment theories and the concept of intersectionality, the officer may be better equipped to engage these students and their families in authentic dialogue about their needs or reservations, as opposed to simply suggesting that the student connect with staff in the chaplain’s office. Similarly, partnering with faculty in history, sociology, or economics to educate financial aid staff on the complex history of class and access to wealth capitalizes on the university’s intellectual command and boosts the capacity of financial aid offices to offer nuanced approaches to student need. Just as a siloed understanding of identity limits us from admitting increas- ingly diverse cohorts and fully understanding their needs, a siloed approach to diversity and inclusion prevents us from meeting those needs adequately. For example, consider the student affairs professional who directs a univer- sity cultural center, supervising a small staff. Colleagues value the work the director has organized through the center, and they routinely call upon the director for support in ensuring that their own work is sensitive and cultur- ally relevant. In any given year, this individual can accurately report that between 20% and 30% of his or her time spent at work is dedicated to researching, troubleshooting, and otherwise negotiating sensitive cultural issues with—and often for—colleagues who lack cultural competence skills or who do not believe in their abilities to navigate such terrain more inde- pendently. For many middle managers, this translates to almost a full work day per week spent in significant operation in different functional areas. Imagine that same director being free to use that time to advance his or her departmental mission. A capacity-building model creates opportunities for the director to train or coach professional peers on cultural competence and culturally relevant pedagogy, empowering them to act more independently. Barnett.indb 7 Barnett.indb 7 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 34. 8 PEOPLE Rather than serving as a proxy employee in multiple functional areas, the director can operate as a consultant to colleagues, advising to a degree, but not becoming enmeshed in others’ work. In short, we should approach staff and faculty competence with the same high expectations we apply to other aspects of our work and provide support for the continual development of other competencies, with a challenge to achieve excellence. Capacity Building in Action Effectivecapacitybuildingtowardincreasedstudentengagementandretention requires assessing the breadth and depth of current efforts and understanding which schools, units, or departments are working intentionally toward the university’s equity goals. For example, in an attempt to determine the range of cultural/intercultural efforts already in place, New York University–Abu Dhabi staff have launched a heat-mapping project, in which staff and faculty across the university are asked to indicate how their work has encouraged student self-awareness related to culture, intercultural communication, or intercultural understanding. At the time of publication, student affairs staff were being asked to participate in focus groups by functional area in order to determine the degree to which their work addresses these topics, and to find ways to maximize the impact of these efforts. Initiated by the newly launched Office of Intercultural Education and Spiritual Life, this surveying method has revealed great opportunities for intentional collaboration to deliver more of what Kuh calls “high-impact educational practices” (Kuh, 2008, p. 21). The key project deliverable is a heat map, which will depict the col- leges, programs, and departments where intercultural efforts must be under- taken consciously versus those where the nature of the academic discipline necessitates the consideration of culture, globalization, and so forth (e.g., in political science departments or study abroad programs). An analysis of the map may reveal the institutional structures or practices that interact to reinforce either equity or bias. The heat map will also depict whether there are colleges, programs, and departments where there are no relevant efforts in place. Critically, this map could reveal that there are physical spaces on campus that are devoid of intercultural efforts, or that are otherwise a chilly climate for diverse students where microaggressions are common and psychological damage related to “-isms” is likely to occur (Sedlacek & Brooks, 1976). Armed with the information that there are certain stretches of campus where efforts toward intercultural education and equity are chal- lenged, administrators can strategize an appropriate institutional response. A commitment to continual campus audit work of this kind positions senior Barnett.indb 8 Barnett.indb 8 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 35. STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 9 leaders to focus energy and resources on boosting capacity in the least effec- tive areas. While we offer capacity building as a model for structural integration of student support, we recognize that many of us face challenges within our institutions because of structural silos, scarcity of resources, and student engagement. Here, we offer examples of institutions that have sought creative solutions to the challenges of recruiting and retaining a diverse student body. Structural Barriers There are numerous structural barriers to effective student recruitment and retention. First, from a social and economic perspective, we recognize that many students face structural challenges that are larger than our educa- tional institutions. Colleges and universities must grapple with the disparate impacts of race and socioeconomic status on their students, and the ways in which these and other identities impact both who applies to college and how they fare when they matriculate. Second, we recognize that within universi- ties themselves, organizational structures may hamper attempts at providing integrated support throughout the recruitment and retention process. The University of Texas at Austin (UT Austin) has adopted promising practices to lower some of these barriers. Faculty and administrators have used data from the Office of Institutional Research to create the UT System Dashboard to predict student success. By calibrating a number of factors that include SAT scores, high school class rank, family income, and first-generation status, the Dashboard identifies those students at the greatest risk of not com- pleting their degrees on time. Officials have used these data to create targeted supports, including smaller classes, additional mentorship and guidance, and leadership development programs aimed at raising both academic and profes- sional success (Tough, 2014; see also www.utsystem.edu/offices/strategic-initi atives/productivity-dashboard). Researchers at Stanford University, UT Austin, and elsewhere have also shown that offering at-risk students basic, positive messages about ability and belonging can significantly improve their chances of success. When stu- dents in a nondominant group (students of color, women, first-generation students, etc.) hear messages related to the following themes early in their academic career, they are statistically more likely to achieve results on par with their peers from dominant groups: • Belonging: Students from at-risk and nondominant groups often feel a profound sense of social and academic nonbelonging when they arrive on campus. Simple messaging stating that it is normal to feel Barnett.indb 9 Barnett.indb 9 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 36. 10 PEOPLE this way and that it is a temporary state helps prevent students from becoming alienated and derailed by this sense of difference. • Ability: At-risk students who experience failure early in their college careers (e.g., a poor test grade, a lower GPA than expected) often internalize this failure and consider it evidence of their lack of suitability for higher education. Early messaging to students that failure is a normal part of learning and that brains are malleable—and thus capable of growth and expansion—gives students the confidence to keep trying after early setbacks. While these interventions should not be seen as magic bullets—they cer- tainly do not undo the discrepancies in preparation and resources that exist between various groups of students—they have consistently been shown to positively impact student performance (Walton & Cohen, 2011; Yeager & Dweck, 2012). In a pilot experiment conducted at UT Austin, all incom- ing first-year students were exposed to one of four messages: a message that targeted either belonging, ability, belonging and ability, or a random control message. The at-risk students who received the combined messaging about belonging and ability were significantly more likely to complete at least 12 credits of coursework in their first semester than their at-risk peers who watched the control message (Tough, 2014). While not all colleges and universities have the capacity to develop a sophisticated data tracking system like the UT System Dashboard, incor- porating messaging to all incoming students about belonging and ability is a way to overcome some perceived barriers. At Wake Forest University, for example, as part of their training, all lower-division academic advisers are instructed to provide this messaging to their new advisees in group and indi- vidual advising sessions. This ensures that those students potentially at risk of noncompletion, regardless of whether they are identified early, receive these messages in their first days of university life. Staffing, Resources, and Silos As we have noted, a move toward a capacity-building model of diversity recruitment and retention requires working across silos to ensure that offices, departments, and divisions across the university are equipped to support a diverse range of students as part of their core mission. Using a capacity- building approach can also provide institutions with opportunities to strate- gically deploy resources for maximum impact. One method of increasing staff capacity to support inclusive excellence is a quarter-time, or collateral duty, system, in which employees in one Barnett.indb 10 Barnett.indb 10 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 37. STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 11 functional area are allowed to work on specific projects in another area for roughly a quarter of their weekly working hours. Lehigh University max- imizes this system among entry-level staff who have expressed interest in learning about various functional areas under the dean of students umbrella. These new professionals not only add competencies to their repertoire, but also become pseudo- or proxy staff in what are typically understaffed depart- ments. A small student affairs division could benefit from this form of cross- training while investing in its team’s development. Further, a rotating system allows for a continual newness that encourages employee engagement. In short, the opportunity to work a quarter-time position may lead to greater staff development, engagement, and retention, as well as create increased support for at-risk students. Bates College employs a different spin on job sharing with their “Swing Dean” program, in which two staff members share two traditionally separate roles, one in the admissions office and one in the dean of students’ office. Rather than having a diversity dean for admissions who helps to recruit students and a different diversity dean within the stu- dent affairs division who supports students once they matriculate, Bates has combined these two positions into a two-year rotating job, held by two staff members. Each dean spends one year recruiting a new class of students (with a particular focus on students of color and first-generation college students), and then moves into the dean of students’ office to serve as that group’s class dean for freshman year. The Bates program builds on the close relation- ships underrepresented students often form with the admissions representa- tives who recruit them and leverages those relationships to provide the kind of support that bolsters student retention—without creating new full-time positions. As these examples demonstrate, developing diversity and inclusion com- petence for staff in units across the university has a twofold value. First, it supports the institutional goals of recruiting and retaining a diverse student body, and second, it bolsters the missions of individual units across the cam- pus by providing added value to their core functions. Student Engagement and Intersectionality Supporting college students can be immensely rewarding work. It is espe- cially gratifying to witness students coming to identify who they are—and who they will be—in the world. Practitioners committed to being what Baxter-Magolda called “good company” take a special pride in mentoring young adults through identity formation (Baxter-Magolda, 2002, p. 3). The formative time from 18 to 23 years of age is typically marked by movement toward a more solidified identity, with most students consciously considering Barnett.indb 11 Barnett.indb 11 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 38. 12 PEOPLE the ideological positions with which they will be aligned for the first time in their lives (Shaffer, 2005). As Shaffer noted, Erikson referred to identity for- mation as a “crisis,” arguing that the process to find oneself has the potential to induce great stress (p. 191). The process of learning (or claiming) one’s identity becomes more com- plicated when students realize that a single identity does not adequately encompass their sense of self. In many cases, when people determine that they identify with more than a single identity, the already complex path to personhood becomes a winding road. Our efforts to create and maintain spaces where today’s college student feels affirmed must reflect an acknowl- edgment of these intersections. Interdepartmental collaborations can provide necessary linkages between support services as students come to recognize the impact of their intersect- ing identities. For example, staff in Wake Forest University’s Office of Mul- ticultural Affairs and Office of Sustainability collaborated to present “My Neighborhood Is Killing Me,” a program focusing on environmental racism overwhelmingly affecting impoverished minority communities across the United States. In connecting issues of race, class, and systemic injustice, col- leagues encouraged students from different racial minority groups to see con- nections between their experiences as people of color. Perhaps most critically, many students from low-resourced communities expressed that their experi- ences as people who are poor positioned them to have more in common with other people who are poor—despite race or ethnicity—than with middle- class or wealthy people of the same race. This linkage may seem intuitive to some, but many have not considered that there are fundamental similarities between the ways in which they and others who don’t appear to be similar experience life. The organizers’ goal was not to minimize the differences in their lived experiences, but to begin to establish understanding, empathy, and, ideally, coalition building across these lines of difference. Leadership From the Top Facilitating holistic student identity development requires integrated ideo- logical and structural approaches, the most foundational being a shared value of inclusion at the board and cabinet levels. Trustees must understand that maintaining relevance in higher education means not only attracting a diverse student body but also ensuring that students feel safe embracing and per- forming the complexity of their identities. More so than structural diversity, it is students living as their authentic selves, presenting multiple perspectives and influencing each other, that actually delivers a rich learning environment. Barnett.indb 12 Barnett.indb 12 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 39. STUDENT RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 13 Practitioners can add value by positioning this rationale as the business case for maintaining progressive models of inclusion. Despite genuine com- mitment to the academic mission of the university, trustees and senior lead- ers may not always understand the correlation between diversity, inclusive excellence, and the retention of top talent from a wide array of backgrounds. Armed with data from across academic and administrative units, a wise prac- titioner can demonstrate linkages in staff and faculty diversity, recruitment efforts and targets, curricular offerings and cycles of curricular innovation, attrition among at-risk populations, and other critical points of concern. In return, trustees can reflect a sophisticated understanding by demanding that diversity and inclusion remain top university priorities, empowering admin- istrators to prioritize relevant action at every level of the university. Conclusion: Capacity Building as a Best Practice Recruitment and retention of the historically underserved in higher education are subjects of considerable public debate. As university officials consider strategic directions, it is important to reflect on both the history of these groups and current college-going trends. Further, it is essential to honor what decades of research on identity have taught us while also acknowledg- ing the shifting notions of personhood and identity politics that mark our current social reality. It is important to include room for considerations of race, nationality, class, gender, gender expression, and sexual orientation, as well as of religious and political affiliation, in our broad definitions of at risk. Considering the richness that students from these groups bring to our cam- puses is essential, as opposed to viewing them from the oft-adopted deficit perspective. Our approach to recruiting, engaging, and supporting college students must reflect our awareness of barriers to success as well as an insti- tutional commitment to collaborative solution building. If we are to craft new ways of achieving sustainable progress, we must think creatively about opportunities to lower the walls that separate administrative functional areas and bridge the gulfs between staff and faculty colleagues. We thus suggest a capacity-building approach, whereby ownership of university goals and responsibility toward underserved students become shared values. References Affirmative action. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/ affirmative-action-overview.aspx Barnett.indb 13 Barnett.indb 13 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 40. 14 PEOPLE Baxter-Magolda, M. B. (2002). Helping students make their way to adulthood: Good company for the journey. About Campus, 6(6), 2–9. Kuh, G. D. (2008). High impact educational practices: What they are, who has access to them, and why they matter. Washington, DC: AAC&U. Patton, L. D. (2012). Culture centers in higher education: Perspectives on identity, the- ory, and practice. Sterling, VA: Stylus. Sedlacek, W. E., & Brooks, C. C., Jr. (1976). Racism in American education: A model for change. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall. Shaffer, D. (2005). Social and personality development (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage. Tough, P. (2014, May 15) Who gets to graduate? NewYorkTimes Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/18/magazine/who-gets-to-graduate .html?_r=0 Walton, G., & Cohen, G. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331, 1447–1451. Yeager, D., & Dweck, C. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47, 302–314. Barnett.indb 14 Barnett.indb 14 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 41. 15 2 R E C R U I T M E N T A N D R E T E N T I O N AT T H E I N T E R S E C T I O N S Colleagues Paul Parsons T he student body changes with every admissions and graduation cycle, but the faculty and staff stay relatively constant. They will spend years, maybe even a career, at an institution, meaning that their selection and retention become decisions that can impact a university for decades. The importance of a workforce mirroring the demographics of society is arguably greater for some occupations and professions than others. Diversity among those who report our news and teach our children seems more impor- tant than diversity among those who build our houses or staff an accounting firm. Diversity in the workforce is particularly important in colleges and universities, where faculty and professional staff serve as role models and mentors in guiding the education of future generations. The value of diversity, though, sometimes encompasses words that are not really operational in a faculty or staff search. We want socioeconomic diversity, but do not explore a person’s background in that way. We may value religious diversity, but do not probe into matters of faith. Ideological diversity certainly seems appropriate in an academic setting, but how would we operationalize the concept—mount a hiring spree for liberals or conserva- tives, depending on which is in short supply? Diversity can be hard to achieve if you cannot see it or ask about it. As a result, diversity initiatives understandably tend to focus on gender, race, and ethnicity. In 1900, only 4% of students in high school went on to higher educa- tion, and these elites were almost all White males (Smith & Bender, 2008). Barnett.indb 15 Barnett.indb 15 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 42. 16 PEOPLE Today, 75% of high school students spend at least some time studying in a higher education setting, and more than 35% of undergraduate students across the nation are from minority populations (U.S. Department of Educa- tion, 2013). Compare that to the National Center for Education Statistics report (U.S. Department of Education, 2014), which noted that 19% of full- time college faculty are minorities (6% Black, 4% Hispanic, 9% Asian). As Matthew Lynch (2013) put it, “More Americans from every color and creed are now earning college educations, so college faculty should reflect that. While students can certainly learn from people outside their own sex, ethnic- ity and belief system, faculty with similar backgrounds provide stronger role models.” Similarly, female students now outnumber male students on college cam- puses, yet women hold only a third of full-time professorial positions (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). These numbers are an improvement from decades before, but because faculties change more slowly than other sectors of society, these discordant numbers highlight the importance of meaningful recruitment and retention processes. Lynch’s article on the Diverse: Issues in Higher Education website noted the following: Faculty positions are extremely competitive. . . . Sometimes sex and race are simply not part of the hiring equation. Facts and figures on a resume are tangible ways to show what a particular candidate can bring to the job. It is more difficult for higher education decision makers to gauge the benefit of a person’s background or life experience on the students that pay good money to learn at a particular institution. That being said, many colleges . . . try to piece together the most well-represented group of educa- tors possible. (Lynch, 2013) Recruiting a Diverse Faculty and Staff Meritocracy is a good thing; candidates should be evaluated primarily on their accomplishments. But a search is nuanced. The most accomplished researcher may be a poor teacher. The candidate with the most impressive set of credentials may not be the best fit for the needs of the department. Diver- sity is not an end in itself, but is important as a means to an end—having a faculty and staff better mirroring the composition of students on campus because they are at the forefront of preparing the next generation. Even before a position exists, a program can begin identifying prospec- tive colleagues. This involves taking initiative. Some universities urge faculty and staff members to “prospect” for potential female and minority candidates Barnett.indb 16 Barnett.indb 16 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 43. RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 17 at professional and academic meetings and, when vacancies occur, to recruit these individuals to the candidate pool. Another example, sometimes used as a screening device, is to create a brown-bag luncheon series or topical panel as a way of inviting minority academics to campus. The school will benefit from their presence and guest presentations even if the faculty decide not to pursue any of the individuals as future colleagues. For instance, a university invited a faculty member of color to be on a panel about entrepreneurship in the discipline. It went well, and she received a second invitation to campus a few months later. For the second meeting, she was scheduled to have an hour with the dean following the presentation. She wondered why. A few days before her trip, she received a revised agenda that included a tour of the city with a real estate agent at the end of the day. Very odd, she thought, because it appeared she was being recruited for a posi- tion she had not applied for. Still, why not see where this may be leading? In her meeting with the dean, she was offered an administrative position that was at the dean’s discretion, and she ultimately accepted the position. Many in the academy would find this veiled search process to be annoy- ing, and it poses the question of whether the person may be entering an environment where the faculty were not enthusiastic about the plan. In addi- tion, most openings are not at the discretion of an individual, but involve an appointed search committee. The formation of a search committee is the typical way of conducting a search. The composition of search committees, of course, should be diverse. This helps mitigate the very understandable tendency for search committee members to select people like themselves to be their future colleagues. If a department does not have sufficient female or minority representation to prevent one or two colleagues from the undue burden of always being asked to serve, think about drawing on a faculty member from a related discipline who can make the committee representationally diverse and also add a fresh perspective to the search process. Just as a course is organized through the creation of a syllabus, a faculty search needs an organizational structure. Start with the position description. The narrower the parameters, the narrower the search will be. In an age of increasing specialization, a faculty position can be constructed with such spec- ificity that it attracts only a handful of applicants. The first step in attracting a more diverse applicant pool, then, is to craft a position description as broadly as is feasible. Larger departments have an advantage here because their facul- ties are large enough to provide some flexibility. Still, a mind-set must exist that having a diverse faculty is as important to the well-being of an academic program as a specialization wish list. Barnett.indb 17 Barnett.indb 17 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 44. 18 PEOPLE An institution may simply advertise a position in the Chronicle of Higher Education and through disciplinary organizations and, well, hope for a decent applicant pool. This unimaginative strategy can be ineffective if a program wants a diverse applicant pool. Think about ways to be proactive. Spread the word among professional and academic organizations representing persons of diverse backgrounds. Send special mailings to historically Black institutions with graduate pro- grams in the discipline. Make personal calls to friends and colleagues at other institutions. For example, a school with a growing Hispanic student body but few Hispanic faculty decided to be proactive. Faculty members called their own PhD-granting institutions to see if they had Hispanic doctoral candidates that year. One large state university did, and the school made a special invita- tion to a doctoral student to be part of a candidate pool. She impressed the current faculty, was offered a position, and three years later is an outstanding colleague. Frankly, she may not have emerged as the top candidate had the school been conducting a narrow disciplinary search. But by having more freedom with respect to disciplinary focus, the university identified her as an excellent faculty member who enhances diversity while contributing to the discipline overall. Ensure that every hiring pool contains diverse candidates before selec- tion of finalists is made. While exceptions may need to exist for highly spe- cialized positions that typically attract fewer applicants, the fact remains that when a hiring pool contains no women or minorities, the outcome is already predetermined in terms of gender and racial diversity. Some search committees appoint a member to serve as a “diversity advo- cate” so that the committee does not lose sight of the value of a diverse candidate pool as it begins to select finalists. At this stage, a committee’s focus often centers solely on credentials. Having someone at the table (ide- ally someone other than a minority) reminding the committee about other important considerations can be helpful. Some institutions would rather have every search committee member primed to see and value diversity in the candidate pool. The belief is that a diversity advocate might cause other members to close their eyes to diversity, relying instead on the advocate to bring forward a diverse candidate worthy of consideration. Here, however, is where an administrator can make a difference. Some- times a search committee has settled on its top two or three candidates based on credentials; who could argue with that? But if there is a worthy candi- date in the wider pool who would add to a program’s diversity, a dean could increase the number of finalists by one to ensure a campus visit by a diverse candidate. The diverse candidate may sweep the faculty off its collective feet Barnett.indb 18 Barnett.indb 18 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 45. RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 19 and receive the first offer, or may emerge as an attractive candidate in the finalist pool in the event the first choice does not accept an offer. The concept of “cluster hiring” is possible in larger university environ- ments. The cluster hiring of faculty members in multiple departments was originally designed to expand interdisciplinary efforts, but faculty clusters also have the potential to help diversify a university’s faculty and improve institutional climate. A report from the Urban Universities for Health rec- ommended being up-front about diversity goals when cluster hiring (Urban Universities for Health, 2015). Two alternatives to permanent faculty positions are visiting professors and adjunct faculty. Both can play an important role in adding to diversity. For instance, a school invited an Iraqi professor to come to the United States as a visiting professor for three years. The professor was not a perfect fit in terms of discipline, but was ideal for a general education course about global experiences. Students appreciated his expertise and international per- spective, colleagues learned from his vastly different professional experiences, and the university was able to make the faculty appointment permanent. Adjunct faculty are essential in higher education these days. In fact, the American Association of University Professors reports that adjunct faculty, defined as full-time and part-time faculty in non-tenure-track positions, make up three-quarters of the teaching force at U.S. colleges and universi- ties, totaling more than one million instructors (Salomon-Fernandez, 2015). Most programs do not conduct formal searches for adjunct faculty. Instead, they recruit locally for PhD holders in the discipline or working profession- als, depending on the discipline. Urban universities have a huge advantage in being able to hire women and minorities as adjunct faculty. Programs in areas with fewer available part-time faculty often lament their geographic realities that limit the diversity of adjunct pools, requiring greater proactivity on their part to attract a diverse applicant pool. Indeed, academic programs have multiple sets of goals in faculty selec- tion: educational credentials; professional experience (in professional pro- grams); the academic triumvirate of teaching, scholarship, and service; the ubiquitous institutional “fit”; and the need for diversity in gender, race, and ethnicity. In their diversity plans, some schools carefully add diversity aspects to the criteria that will be considered. Here is one example: “The school will use a candidate’s potential for increasing ethnic and cultural diversity in teaching perspectives, research interests and professional role models as a major criterion for recruitment, evaluation and selection.” Another school refers to a candidate’s racial diversity as a “non-traditional strength,” further describing it as “the ability to attract minority students or offer new and Barnett.indb 19 Barnett.indb 19 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 46. 20 PEOPLE different research ideas.” One school includes a blunt preferential statement in its diversity plan: “All other factors being considered equal, minorities and women will be given preference over male members of the majority” (ASJMC Diversity Committee, 2008, p. 11). Scheduling the campus visit offers another opportunity to attend to diversity. For instance, if a finalist is African American, he or she may want to visit with other African Americans on campus to gauge the community and campus environment and to ask questions in a risk-free way. A host uni- versity will show sensitivity to diverse candidates if it offers to schedule such a conversation. In fact, the best practice is to offer personalized conversation options to all candidates so that those less visible forms of diversity such as religion or sexual orientation can also be addressed. For example, this prompt may lead to questions about parental leave policies and balancing work and life with small children, or questions from single colleagues about commu- nity-building opportunities. Sometimes finalists themselves take the initiative on a sensitive point before the campus visit. For example, a few days before a finalist made his campus visit, he sent the department chair an e-mail letting her know that, for religious reasons, he would not be shaking her hand or the hand of any female faculty or staff member during his visit. This triggered a spirited dis- cussion among faculty about whether this was a custom to accept, or whether it might be indicative of a practice of treating women in the workplace as inferior. Upon the candidate’s arrival, faculty were surprised to discover the candidate was a Minnesotan of Irish descent who had recently converted to Islam. The debate over handshaking became a moot point when his teaching and scholarly presentations went poorly. Laws govern the faculty and staff search process. For example, it is illegal to ask questions regarding gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disabil- ity, and religion, to name a few factors. A search must be unbiased in regard to these factors, so it serves no useful purpose to know them. Nevertheless, the government requires state institutions to report statistics on applicant pools to the best of their ability. A number of institutions consider it less burdensome and more accurate to send personal data forms to the applicant pool rather than review each CV in an effort to determine the numbers of women and minorities in the applicant pool. In one search, for example, committee members assumed that a candidate whose research focused on African Americans and the media was African American. He was not. Search committees at many universities operate under affirmative action policies that require a broad and inclusive search process, with institu- tional officers looking over the shoulders of search committees. Lists must Barnett.indb 20 Barnett.indb 20 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 47. RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 21 be generated showing recruitment efforts to reach diverse populations, the diversity of the applicant pool, the diversity of those invited to interview on campus, and ultimately the one offered the position. On at least one campus, if no offer is made to a minority individual among the finalists, the affirma- tive action office requires a written report explaining the reason for not hiring the individual. If an offer is declined, a school may wish to conduct a follow- up interview with the diverse candidate to determine the reason, in hopes of learning something that will help the next search be more successful. In sum, consider the following best practices in recruiting: • Think of faculty and staff recruiting as continuous and proactive, not as periodic and occurring only when a position is available. This may involve a panel event or brown-bag lunch series to invite diverse aca- demics to campus. • Make a position description as broad as possible to attract a more diverse applicant pool. • Itemize search strategies beyond mere publication of a job announce- ment in order to help build a diverse applicant pool. • Make sure all search committees have female representation and, when possible, minority representation. • Ensure that the hiring pool contains diverse candidates before selection of finalists. • Add an additional candidate to the finalist list if the candidate is qualified and would enhance diversity. • Use visiting appointments or adjunct appointments to enhance faculty diversity if permanent faculty positions are unavailable. • Recruit minority professionals interested in making a transition to the academy and support their credentialing process in what universities call “grow your own” programs. Retention of a Diverse Faculty and Staff Building a diverse faculty is the first step; supporting and retaining that faculty is the second step. Institutions need to support and retain all good faculty—White males as well as Hispanic females—and prune away any faculty who do not meet standards of quality, regardless of gender or race. Broad-based faculty support strategies, such as faculty mentoring and flexible scheduling for those who are parents or primary caregivers, belong in a faculty development statement that applies to all. But some faculty support Barnett.indb 21 Barnett.indb 21 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 48. 22 PEOPLE strategies may be directly applicable to diversity rather than to the faculty as a whole—for example, monitoring faculty salaries for gender and racial ineq- uity or providing a private nursing area for a staff member who has a baby. It takes both right actions and right reactions to create an environment in which diversity and inclusiveness can flourish. In recruitment, the quest for better faculty and staff diversity has a required action (seek out and hire) and a required reaction (don’t discriminate). Similarly, building a culture that supports retention can involve action (encourage faculty and staff to be role models whose actions and attitudes demonstrate tolerance and respect for others) as well as reaction (respond appropriately and meaningfully to incidents and situations that are inappropriate). One idea for measuring actions and reactions is to have a standing com- mittee monitor a program’s culture and environment as they relate to diver- sity. An institution could periodically gather diverse faculty and staff members and ask them about the academic culture. A university could require all newly hired faculty and staff to attend a diversity training program early in their employment to learn how to work effectively in a multicultural organization. One institution schedules a session for adjuncts to discuss creative ways in which diversity issues can be effectively communicated in the classroom. The goal is to create an environment that embraces diversity rather than sees it as a matter of compliance. You want to not only attract diverse colleagues to your institution, but also help them be happy, comfortable, productive, and successful in navigating university life. All faculty would benefit from colleagues occasionally visiting a class and offering constructive feedback, in the same way that faculty would benefit from observing one another and seeing what works for others. Build this sort of interaction into the system so that new and minority faculty feel less isolated. A department chair who sees course evaluations should read those of new faculty and diverse faculty first because those faculty may be the most impacted by what students say, especially if a few students make negative comments about a teacher’s mannerisms, personal characteristics, body type, or dress. In fact, empirical studies have shown that minority faculty members tend to receive lower student evaluations than their White colleagues, some- times with direct references to gender, race, or ethnicity (Merritt, 2012). Department chairs can work closely with faculty to address student com- ments that appear to be based on inappropriate criteria for evaluation or unfair criticism. Pay attention to the diversity reflected on panels and in public settings. Diverse faculty and staff will be more likely to stay at an institution that Barnett.indb 22 Barnett.indb 22 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 49. RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION AT THE INTERSECTIONS 23 publicly recognizes and values its diversity. For instance, a university realized on the eve of a major campus event that everyone scheduled to be on the podium was a White male. By realizing this in advance, the school was able to modify the participant group to better reflect the diversity that actually existed. In sum, consider the following list of best practices for faculty retention: • Establish a culture that embraces diversity, which will require proper actions and reactions. • Monitor faculty and staff salaries for gender and racial inequities. • Have a standing committee periodically gather the perspectives of underrepresentedfacultyonwaystoimprovethecampusenvironment. • Create an expectation that all new faculty and staff will attend a diversity workshop within the first year or host one in your own unit. • Schedule a session for adjunct faculty to discuss creative ways to communicate diversity issues in the classroom. • Monitor student evaluations for harmful comments, and visit classes to offer useful feedback. • Be cognizant of the diversity (or lack of it) reflected in panels and public events. Conclusion The road to inclusion is really an intersection. The recruitment and retention of faculty and staff often fail to acknowl- edge the intersectionality among diverse communities. Rather than being singular dimensions, categories such as gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, disability, age, religious belief, and social class can overlap and intersect in dynamic ways that shape each individual (Kelly, 2014). A Bentley University report concluded that “if individuals cannot be their authentic selves in their organizations, they will not be as engaged, will not thrive, and may in fact leave” (Goux, 2012). The report added that millennials are particularly seen as valuing the multiplicity of their identities—the whole self—as opposed to just the conventional delineations to which they belong. In the end, the recruitment and retention of a diverse faculty and staff are about creating a place that is good for all—faculty, staff, students, and society. Barnett.indb 23 Barnett.indb 23 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM 12/16/2015 12:14:11 PM
  • 50. Random documents with unrelated content Scribd suggests to you:
  • 51. Fin dal 1893 uno degli alunni del Lattes, il dott. Bartolomeo Nogara, già citato, (cfr. pag. 118), raccolse calchi e disegni di iscrizioni etrusche da lui fatti nel Museo di Perugia, (1º viaggio epigrafico 1893), e un primo manipolo di iscrizioni messapiche depositate con quelle etrusche presso la R. Accademia Scientifico-Letteraria nel 1895 (2º viaggio epigrafico). Incoraggito dai premi Lattes, il dott. Nogara continuò le sue ricerche e le sue collezioni di calchi e disegni per gli anni successivi in altre città dell'Etruria fino all'anno scorso (3º viaggio 1896; 4º, 1897; 5º, 1898; 6º-7º 1899); ved. Relazioni nell'Annuario della R. Accademia Scientifico- Letteraria, dall'anno 1894 fino al 1900. 92. L. A. Milani, Museo topografico dell'Etruria. Firenze-Roma, Bencini, 1898. 93. Ved. Gellio, Nott. att., XVII, 21. 94. Ved. Orazio, Epistol. II. 1, 156-57. Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes Intulit agresti Latio. 95. Ved. Virgilio, Aeneis, VI, 843-853. 96. Ved. Livio, Stor. Rom., l. XXXIX, c. 4 (orazione di Catone per la legge Oppia). 97. Su Damofilo e Gorgaso, che lavoravano al tempio di Cerere (493 a. C.), ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXV, 154: Ante hanc aedem tuscanica omnia in aedibus fuisse auctor est Varro. Quindi i due artisti greci sono per lo meno anteriori a Fidia e a Polignoto. 98. Ved. Livio, I, 56: Fabris undique ex Etruria accitis. 99. Livio, I, 55: Arcem eam imperii caputque rerum fore. 100. Ved. intorno al tempio di Giove Capitolino la descrizione di Dionigi d'Alicarnasso, IV, 61, 3, 4, e la ricostruzione in Durm, Baukunst der Etrusker und Römer. Cfr. un suo disegno in un rilievo di Aureliano (Durm, op. cit., pag. 45); B. v. Köhne, Der Tempel des kapitolin. Jupiter nach den Münzen, Berlino, 1870. 101. Donaldson, Architect. num., pag. 6-11, tav. 3; Cohen, Méd. impér. I2, Vespas. n. 409; Domiz. n. 174 (?); cfr. Ephem. epigr. VIII 1892, tav. II, 5 (Dressel).
  • 52. 102. Su Turanius ved. Plinio, XXXV, 45. 103. Sul foedus latinum ved. Dionis. IV, 26; cfr. S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina, Milano, Hoepli, 1898, pag. 160-161. 104. Ved. per la tomba di Porsenna, Guhl-Koner-Giussani, op. cit. II, pag. 116. 105. Il trattato ci è conservato da Polibio nella sua storia romana, III, 22. 106. Cfr. pag. 196; ved. Plin., N. H., XXXV, 154. 107. Ved. Livio, Stor. rom., XLII, 3, Populum romanum ruinis templorum templa aedificantem. 108. Ved. S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina, Milano, Hoepli, 1898, pag. 144 e segg., tav. XXVI. 109. Ved. Livio, Stor. rom., XXVI, 27. 110. F. v. Quast, Die Basilika der Alten, Berlino, 1845; O. Mothes. Die Basilikenform bei den Christen der ersten Jahrhunderte. Lipsia, 1865: Holtzinger, Die römische Privatbasilika (in Repertorium für Kunstwerke): K. Lange, Excursus, II; Basilica Ulpia. — Lesueur, La basilique Ulpienne (Roma), Parigi, 1877; cfr. Donaldson, Architectura numismatica, 1859; utilissimo per lo studio delle monete rappresentanti basiliche romane. 111. Ved. Tacito, Annali, XIV, 21. 112. Ved. S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina, cit., p. 141 e segg. e tav. XXIII-XXV. A tav. XXV e pag. 143 si corregga “quonoro per quorum„ sfuggiti per errore, in “duonoro per bonorum„. 113. Cfr. Sui sarcofagi romani in confronto coi greci e coi cristiani, ved. Guhl- Engelmann, Matz, Über den Unterschied der griech und römischen
  • 53. Sarkophage, dall'Archäol. Zeitung, XXV, pag. 16 e segg.; René Grousset, Étude sur l'histoire des sarcophages chrêtiens. 114. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca cit., pag. 43. 115. Cfr. S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina cit., tav. LII. È ora nel Museo Kircheriano al Collegio romano in Roma. L'iscrizione in carattere del VI sec. di R. dice: Dindia Macolnia filea[i] dedit | Novios Plautios med Romai fecid. La dama prenestina Dindia Macolnia passò in regalo la cista alla figlia. Si corregga quindi al luogo cit. dell'Epigrafia latina la voce filea in filea[i], come richiede il senso. Ved. per la Cista Ficoroni inoltre: E. Braun, Die Ficoronische Cista, Lipsia, 1830; O. Jahn, Die Ficoronische Cista, 1852; cfr. Schône, in Ann. Istit. Corr. Arch., 1868, pag. 150; e inoltre Annali, 1864, pag. 356; 1866, pag. 357; 1876, pag 105. 116. Le tombe prenestine sono abbondanti di ciste e d'oggetti d'ornamento muliebre. Fra le varie ciste una per la rappresentazione sua singolarmente importante è quella in cui pare raffigurata l'unione di Enea con Lavinia, onde sarebbe indicata la piena e diffusa esistenza della leggenda già nel VI secolo di Roma. Degli oggetti di toletta muliebre contenuti nelle ciste molti sono orientali, cioè vasetti d'alabastro, smalti, oreficerie, e provano le relazioni commerciali che fra il Lazio e i paesi transmarini erano mantenute da mercanti fenicî. 117. Ved. Livio, Storia rom., VI, 29. 118. Ved. Plinio, H. N. XXXV, 22 e segg. 119. Ved. Livio, Stor. rom. XXXVI, 52. 120. Ved. Livio, itid. XXXIX, 5. 121. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 2; cfr. Guhl-Koner e Giussani, La vita dei Romani, Torino, Loescher, 1891; Borsari, Topografia di Roma, Milano, Hoepli, 1897, pag. 165, 271 e segg.; Friedländer, Sittengeschichte Roms, II, pag. 322 e segg. della 5ª ediz. (1881).
  • 54. 122. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 24. 123. Ved. sui teatri in generale: Fr. Wieseler, Theatergebäude und Denkmäler des Bühnenwesens bei den Griechen und Römern, Göttingen, 1851; Scip. Maffei, Dei teatri antichi e moderni, Verona, 1753; Öhmichen, Bühnenwesen nell'Handbuch di Iwan Müller; W. Dörpfeld-E. Reisch, Das griechische Theater, Roma, Loescher, 1895. Una bibliografia molto copiosa sui varî teatri ho cercato di riunire nel lavoro: S. Ricci, Il teatro romano di Verona, Venezia, 1895, Memorie dell'Istituto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. 124. Sugli anfiteatri leggasi, dopo i lavori di Giusto Lipsio, Antwerpen, 1528 e di Poleni e Montenari, Vicenza, 1735, le osservazioni del Nissen, Pompejanische Studien, e del Friedländer, in Marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, III2, 2, 556 e segg. — Sui circhi ved. G. L. Bianconi, Descrizione dei circhi, particolarmente di quello di Caracalla, Roma, 1789; cfr. Burgess, Descrizione del circo sulla Via Appia presso Roma, Roma, 1829; Friedländer, in Marquardt's, Staatsverwaltung, III2, 504 e segg. 125. Il testamento di Augusto essendo infisso su lastre di marmo del tempio d'Augusto e di Roma in Ancira, è detto il Monumentum Ancyranum: vedasi S. Ricci, Epigrafia latina, Milano, Hoepli, 1898, pag. 187, not. 1 e pagg. 195-203. L'opera capitale intorno a questo è del Mommsen, Res gestae divi Augusti ex monumentis Ancyrano et Apolloniensi, Berlino, Weidmann, 1883; alle pagg. 197-198 del mio Manuale precitato vi è unita tutta la bibliografia relativa. 126. Ved. Svetonio, Vit. Aug., 29: Marmoream se relinquere quam latericiam accepisset. 127. Borsari, Topografia di Roma antica, Milano, Hoepli, 1897, pag. 261-265. 128. Oltre il nostro Atlante, sulle tavole qui sotto citate hanno illustrazioni del Pantheon, come anche dei principali monumenti di Roma imperiale, che saranno in sèguito descritti: H. Strack, Baudenkmäler des Alten Rom, Berlino, Wachsmuth, 1890; A. Schneider, Das alte Rom. Entwickelung
  • 55. seiner Grundrisse und Geschichte seiner Bauten auf 12 Karten und 14 Tafeln dargestellt. Per uso didattico sono abbastanza utili, i Kunsthistorische Bilderbogen, zusammengestellt del Dottor Menge. Il nostro Melani ha pure illustrazioni della parte romana nei suoi Manuali, con speciale trattazione delle piante e degli stili degli edifizî nel volume dell'Architettura; delle riproduzioni romane di capilavori greci in quello della Scultura; degli affreschi soprattutto pompeiani in quello della Pittura (Milano, Hoepli, 1900). Il prof. Archinti di Milano ha pure edito un volume sulla storia dell'Architettura e degli stili con molte e belle tavole (Milano, Vallardi, 1889), e il Melani un altro sull'ornamento artistico. Cfr. per altre opere il mio indice bibliografico generale e speciale. 129. Virgilio, Eneide, I, v. 448-449. 130. Ved. Dione, l. III. 27. 131. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 24. 132. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, Milano. Hoepli, 1892, vol. I, pag. 83, 115. Cfr. Atlante, tav. LVII, LIX, LXXXIII. 133. Da questo fatto della fusione del bronzo per i pezzi d'artiglieria sorse il proverbio: Quod non fecerunt barbari fecerunt Barberini. I due piccoli campanili laterali che stettero un pezzo alla disapprovazione di tutti erano stati posti dal Bernini per ordine dello stesso papa Urbano VIII, ed erano detti gli orecchioni del Bernini. 134. Ved. Lanciani, Notizie degli Scavi, 1881, anche per la bibliografia. 135. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, Milano, Hoepli, 1883, pag. 87, 135-138, cfr. Atlante (parte greca) tav. LXIV-LXV; CV-CVIII. 136. Cfr. F. Cerasoli, Documenti inediti medievali circa le terme di Diocleziano in Bull. Comm., archeol. comunale. Roma, 1895, pag. 301 e seg.
  • 56. 137. Ved. Borsari, op. cit. pag. 87, 311-313; Cfr. Middleton, Ancient Rom II, 282, 288-292; Lanciani, Forma Urbis, t. 8. 138. Ved. O. Marucchi, Gli Obelischi egiziani in Roma, in Bull. Comm. Arch. com. Roma, 1896. 139. Ved. Guhl-Koner-Giussani, La vita dei Greci e dei Romani. Parte II, i Romani, pag. 120 e segg., fig. 101: Piramide di Cestio. 140. Cohen, Médailles imperiales, I2, pag. 252, 254, n. 25-29; 48. 141. Ved. intorno agli archi Bellorius e De Rubeis, Veteres arcus Augustorum, triumphis insignes, Roma, 1690, 1824; L. Rossini, Gli archi di trionfo degli antichi Romani, Roma, 1836. — Gräf, Triumphbogen, inserito nel dizionario di archeologia e di antichità del Baumeister, Denkmaeler, III, pag. 1865 e segg. 142. Ved. Bucoliche, Ecloga IV, 5. 143. Ved. Gentile, Atl. cit. (Parte romana), tav. XXXVIII; Porta Maggiore in Roma (acquedotto di Claudio imperatore). 144. R. Lanciani, Commentarii di Frontino intorno le acque ed acquedotti di Roma, Roma, 1880. In quest'opera è citata la bibliografia precedente, specialmente Raffaele Fabretti, De aquis et aquaeductibus veteris Romae, Roma, 1680; 2ª edizione, 1738; Castro, Corso delle acque antiche, Roma, 1757, 2 voll.; De Prony, Réchérches sur le systeme hydraulique de l'Italie; A. Secchi, Avanzi di opere idrauliche antiche nell'Alatri, Roma, 1865. 145. Intorno all'opinione che l'incendio debba veramente attribuirsi ai Cristiani ved. G. Negri, Nerone e il Cristianesimo (Rivista d'Italia, 1899, fasc. 8, 9); C. Pascal, L'incendio di Roma e i primi cristiani, Milano, 1900; A. Coen, La persecuzione neroniana dei cristiani (Atene e Roma, 1900, n. 21-23).
  • 57. 146. Ved. Tacito, Annali, XV, 425; Svetonio, Nerone, 31; cfr. per maggiori particolari Guhl e Koner cit. II, pag. 104 e segg.; Borsari, Topografia di Roma antica, Milano, Hoepli, 1897, pag. 130, 132, 143-145, 349. 147. Ved. le monete con l'Anfiteatro Flavio in Cohen, Médailles impériales, vol. I2, n. 399. È riprodotto anche su un conio del Padovanino; Cfr. C. Fontana, L'Anfiteatro Flavio, 1725; Haag, 1776; C. Wagner, De Flavii Anphithéatro, Marburg, 1829-31; cfr. anche A. Pompei, Studî intorno all'anfiteatro di Verona, Verona, 1877, che contiene ottime osservazioni per lo studio generale degli anfiteatri. Altri particolari sul Colosseo aggiunge il Borsari, op. cit., pag. 132, 134. 148. Intorno alle terme romane in generale ved., oltre il lavoro di Baccio sulle terme libr. VII, Venezia, 1588: Andrea Palladio, Les thermes des Romains, ediz. di Londra 1732, Vicenza, 1785: Ch. Cameron, The baths of the Romains, Londra, 1772; Mirri, Le antiche camere delle terme di Tito, Roma, 1776; id. Descriptions des bains de Titus, Paris, 1786; Ant. de Romanis, Le antiche camere Esquiline dette Terme di Tito, Roma, 1822. Delle Terme di Tito e adiacenze si tratta anche in S. Ricci, La Ξυστικὴ Σύνοσος e la “Curia athletarum„ presso S. Pietro in Vincoli, Roma, 1891, (Bullettino della Commissione Comunale di Roma: Lanciani, ibidem, 1891-1892). 149. P. es., il celebre gruppo del Laocoonte, ora nel Vaticano, fu rinvenuto nell'anno 1566 in una nicchia di queste stesse terme di Tito; il così detto Toro Farnese, cioè il celebre gruppo di Zetos ed Anfione, Dirce ed Antiope, che ora si ammira nel Museo nazionale di Napoli, fu rinvenuto nell'anno 1546 nelle terme di Caracalla: ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca; op. cit., pag. 171, 176; cfr. A. Häckermann, Die Laocoonsgruppe, Greifswald, 1856; Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture grecque, Parigi, Didot, II, 533. 150. Si osservi qui per incidenza quanti utili cimelî per la conoscenza dell'arte e della vita si traggano dai monumenti dissepolti. Intorno alla vita dei Romani, specialmente privata, per es., basti rammentare quanti documenti autentici siansi tratti appunto dalle rovine di Ercolano e di Pompei, e quanto ancora si tragga intorno alla condizione della ricca civiltà romana del I secolo dell'Impero. Ved. per queste città e per gli scavi relativi: Overbeck-Mau, Pompei, citato nell'Indice bibliogr.
  • 58. Di somma importanza per la storia della decorazione pittorica sono i ritrovamenti della Domus Vettiorum a Pompei, dei quali si occuparono, si può dire, tutte le Riviste d'archeologia e d'arte italiane e straniere. Cfr. A. Sogliano, La casa dei Vettii nei Monumenti antichi per cura della R. Accademia dei Lincei, VIII, 1898; Pasquale d'Amelio, Nuovi scavi di Pompei — Casa dei Vettii. Non meno importanti per gli affreschi e per l'uso di case alte più piani sono i ritrovamenti recentissimi di Boscoreale e di Ercolano (ved. tav. 57-61). Cfr. Mittheil. d. k. d. arch. Inst. Röm. Abth., 1894, p. 349 e segg.; 1896, pag 131-140, tav. III; A. Mau, Pompei in Leben u. Kunst, Lipsia, 1900. 151. Intorno all'Arco di Tito ved. S. Reinach, L'arc de Titus et les dépouilles du temple de Jerusalem, Parigi, 1890. Sugli archi trionfali, oltre le opere capitali del Bellorius e del De Rubeis, si studî quella già citata di L. Rossini, Gli archi di trionfo degli antichi Romani, Roma, 1836, e in particolare il lavoro del Mancini sull'arco d'Augusto a Fano, Pesaro, 1826; del Petersen sull'arco di Trajano a Benevento, Röm. Mittheil, VII, pag. 239 e segg.; del Massazza e del Ponsera sull'arco antico di Susa, Torino, 1750, 1841. 152. Ved. Cohen, Médailles impériales, II2, n. 545 fol., Circo; n. 542-544 pel ponte sul Danubio. 153. H. Thédenat, Le Forum romain et les forums impériaux, Parigi, 1898. Cfr. Melani, Archit., 3.ª ediz., tav. X (Ricostruzione). 154. Ved. Albertolli, Fregi trovati negli scavi del Foro Trajano con altri esistenti in Roma e in diverse altre città. Milano, 1838. Per la bibliografia intorno alla Colonna Trajana vedasi più innanzi; cfr. F. Cerasoli, I restauri alle colonne Antonina e Trajana ed ai cavalli marmorei del Quirinale al tempo di Sisto V, in Bull. comm. archéol. com. 1896, pag. 179 e segg. 155. Ved. Ammiano Marcellino, Rerum gestarum XVI, 10. 156. Ved. Cohen, Méd. impér., II2, n. 167-170. 157. Ved. A. v. Domaszewski, Die politische Bedeutung des Trajansbogen in Benevent in Jahresheft des österreisch. archäol. Instituts II, 2, pag. 173
  • 59. e seg.; Frothingham, Der Trajansbogen in Benevent in Academie des inscriptions et belles lettres VII, 30. 158. Si riferisce che Costantino anzi, ridendo, forse con mal simulata invidia, dicesse il nome di Trajano esser così benemerito e noto e ricordato dapertutto da parere l'erba parietaria che alligna sopra ogni parete. 159. Ved. Dione Cassio, LXV, 4. 160. Intorno alle ville romane ved. all'Indice nostro bibliografico speciale “Architettura„, i nomi Castell, Marquez, Moule, Mazois. 161. Ved. Ch. Lucas, L'empéreur-architecte Adrien, Parigi, 1869. 162. Ved. Borsari, Topografia di Roma antica, cit., pag. 241. Una delle opere più importanti nei lavori d'escavo del Foro Romano fu l'isolamento del tempio, dietro alla cui area si può ora liberamente passare fra il templum Sacrae Urbis e la Basilica di Costantino (Ved. l'Appendice sugli scavi del Foro romano). 163. Intorno alla colonna di Marco Aurelio è uscito un lavoro esauriente per cura del Petersen e del Domazewski con le contribuzioni del Mommsen e del Calderini: Die Marcussäule auf Piazza Colonna in Rom, herausgegeben von E. Petersen und von Domaszewski, mit Beiträgen von Mommsen und G. Calderini, Monaco, Bruckmann, 1896. Cfr. R. Schröder, Germanische Rechtssymbolik auf der Marcussäule (Neue Heidelberger Jahrbücher, VIII, 2 pag. 248 e segg.). 164. Ved. C. Reichel, De Isidis apud Romanos cultu. Berlino, Schade, 1849; L. Preller, Les dieux de l'ancienne Rome, trad. Dietz, II partie: Cultes égyptiens: Isis et Sérapis; G. Lafaye, Histoire du culte des divinités d'Alexandrie (Sérapis, Isis, Harpocrate et Anubis), Parigi, Thorin, 1884; A. Veyries, Les figures criophores dans l'art grec, l'art gréco-romain et l'art chrétien. Parigi, Thorin, 1884.
  • 60. 165. Sulla Scuola di Pergamo ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, Milano, Hoepli, 1883, pag. 164 e seg.; cfr. Atlante, id., tav., e Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture grecque, II, pag. 500. 166. In questo volume non si tien conto che delle statue e delle opere d'arte più specialmente romane, riservando lo studio degli originali e delle copie dei capilavori greci al volume della Storia dell'arte greca, che si sta preparando interamente rifatto sull'edizione del prof. Gentile, (Milano, Hoepli, 1883), e che ha già a sua illustrazione un Atlante di 149 tav. (Milano, Hoepli, 1892). 167. Cicerone in Verr., IV, 2. 168. Ved. Orazio, Satire, 3, 64: Insanit veteres statuas Damasippus emendo. 169. Occorre il detto di Trimalcione: Meum intendere nulla pecunia vendo, e l'osservazione di Stazio circa la bravura del riconoscere l'autore d'un'opera anche senza essere segnato: Silvae, IV, 6: Artificium veteres cognoscere ductus — et non inscriptis auctorem reddere signis. 170. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca cit., pag. 145. Cfr. Atlante id., tav. CXV. 171. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 155. 172. Ved. Plinio, N. H., XXXVI, 41. 173. Ved. Bernouilli, Römische Ikonographie, nell'Indice bibl. e in altri autori, p. es. in Camillo Serafini, L'arte nei ritratti della moneta romana repubblicana in Bull. Comm. arch. com. di Roma 1897, pag. 3 e segg., tav. I. Pei confronti con lo stile dei ritratti greci, cfr. R. Foerster, Das Porträt in der griech. Plastik. Kiel 1882. 174. Ved. Boll. dell'Ist. di Corr. Arch. di Roma, 1863.
  • 61. 175. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, Milano, Hoepli, 1883, pag. 136 e segg., con la bibliografia a pag. 137-138. Cfr. M. Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture grecque. Parigi, Didot, 1897, II vol. pag. 215 e segg. 176. Intorno alla Colonna Trajana. Ved. Alph. Ciacconi, columnae trajanae orthographia, Roma, 1773; Froehner, La colonne trajane. Parigi, 1872- 74; F. Boucher, Die Charakterköpfe der Trajanssäule, 1893; C. Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, herausgegeben und historisch erklärt. Berlino, Reimer, 1896. I Tafelband: Die Reliefs des ersten dakischen Krieges (gran folio 57 tavole in eliotipia) — II Text-band: Commentär dazu (8 gr). 177. Intorno ai sepolcri, ai sarcofaghi, ai monumenti sepolcrali in genere ved. all'Indice generale, Bianchini, Bartoli e Belloni, inoltre G. P. Campana, Illustrazioni di due sepolcri del secolo di Augusto scoperti tra la via Latina e l'Appia presso la tomba degli Scipioni, Roma, 1852, 2ª ediz. Per i monumenti sepolcrali etruschi ved. nell'Indice generale Bindseil e Orioli. 178. Per errore è stato considerato dal Gentile (tav. LXX cit., n. 2) quale imperatore in piedi uno schiavo giudeo con le mani legate, e fu per svista ripetuto l'errore nella mia Epigrafia latina. (Tav. LX, n. 2). 179. Intorno ai camei e alle gemme, ved. King, Antique Gems, their origin, uses, Londra, 1872; Chabouillet, Catalogue général des camées et pierres gravées de la Bibliothèque impériale. Quanto all'arte della vetreria, non si può tenerne special conto se non nell'archeologia propriamente detta: cfr. pertanto Deville, Histoire de l'art de la verrerie dans l'antiquité, Parigi 1873. 180. Ved. sui bronzi Guillaume, La sculpture en bronze, 1868; Friederichs, Kleiner kunst und Industrie in Alterthum, Berlino, 1871; Longpérier, Notices des bronzes antiques du Louvre, 1879. Vedi per l'argenteria e la gioielleria, Quaranta, Di quattordici vasi d'argento dissotterrati in Pompei, Napoli, 1835; Arneth, Die antiken Gold und Silbermonumente der k. k. Münz- und Antiken Cabinettes in Wien, 1850; Michaelis, Das Corsinische Silbergefäss, 1859; Wieseler, Hildesheimer Silberfund, Gottinga, 1869. Intorno ai tesori di Boscoreale presso Pompei, ved. Notizie degli scavi, 1894, pag. 385; 1895, pag. 109, 207, 235; 1896, pag. 204, 230; 1899,
  • 62. pagina 14. Uno studio a parte meriterebbe la ceramica, ma a chi non vuol dar polvere negli occhi occorre uscire dal tema per trattarne degnamente. Si confronti la letteratura nella parte greca e si aggiunga: Von Rohden, Die Terracotten von Pompei, Stuttgart, 1880. 181. Lavori d'indole generale sulle monete, i quali però possono dare un concetto esatto delle varie classi di monete antiche, sono: Mommsen, Histoire de la monnaie romaine, Parigi, 1865-1875, 4 volumi; Lenormant, La Monnaie dans l'antiquité, 3 vol., 1879; Imhoof-Blumer, Portraitköpfe auf römischen Münzen der Republik und der Kaiserzeit, Lipsia, 1879; Froehner, Les medaillons de l'empire romain, Parigi, 1878; Ch. Robert, Études sur les medaillons contorniates; S. Ambrosoli, Manuale di numismatica, Milano, Hoepli, 1895, 2ª ediz., pag. 79-145; Fr. Gnecchi, Monete romane, Milano, Hoepli, 1896. Di quest'opera è stampata ora la 2ª ediz. di molto accresciuta, anzi interamente rifatta dall'autore. Importantissimi articoli sulla numismatica romana sono anche inseriti nella Rivista italiana di Numismatica, diretta dai cavv. E. e Fr. Gnecchi. — Sulle relazioni che la storia dell'arte e l'architettura hanno con la numismatica, ved. Donaldson, Architectura numismatica, Londra, 1859, ove sono citati gli autori precedenti. Cfr. per le considerazioni d'indole artistica S. Ricci, Intorno all'influenza dei tipi monetari greci su quelli della repubblica romana. Introduzione al lavoro: L'arte greca nella numismatica romana della Repubblica e dell'Impero. Estratto dalle Mémoires du Congrès international de Numismatique del 1900, pp. 170- 204. 182. Di Timomaco scrisse F. Brandstätter, Timomachos' Werke und Zeitalter, Lipsia, 1889. 183. Plinio, H. N., XXXV, 20. 184. Léon Renier-Perrot, Les peintures du Palatin, in Rev. Archéol., serie XXI e XXII; F. Schwechten, Wanddekoration aus den Kaiserpalästen auf dem Palatin in Rom, Berlino, 1878. 185. Ved. Alte Denkmäler, Vol. I, 11; cfr. Sittl, Archeöl. d. Kunst, pag. 739, nota 10. Cfr. per gli affreschi nella villa “La Farnesina„ i Monumenti cit., vol. XI. tav. 44-48. XII, tav. 5-8; 17-34; cfr. Wand- und Deckenschmuch eines röm. Hauses aus der Zeit des Augustus. Berlino, 1891.
  • 63. 186. Degne di nota sono le opere del Mau intorno ai dipinti e agli scavi in genere di Pompei, le quali sono nella maggior parte inserite nella Römische Abtheilung delle Mittheilungen des deutschen. Archäolog. Instituts. Vi è anche una guida archeologica di Pompei curata recentemente dal Mau. Cfr. Presuhn, Die pompejanischen Wanddekorationen. Lipsia, 1882. 187. Ved. per Pompei: W. Helbig, Wandgemälde der von Vesuv verschutteten Städte Campaniens, Lipsia, 1868; O. Donner, Abhanlung über die antiken Wandmalereie in technischer Beziehung; ibidem, Appendice al libro precedente. Cfr. G. Boissier, Revue des deux mondes, ottobre, 1879; Fiorelli, Relazioni sugli scavi, dall'anno 1861 all'anno 1872; Pompei e la regione sotterrata dal Vesuvio. (Ved. Annali Ist. Corr. Arch.). A. Mau, Pompeji in Leben und Kunst, Lipsia, Engelmann, 1900. Per le varie piante e sezioni di case pompeiane, ved. tav. 314, 315, 316 (tav. 79- 81). 188. Ved. E. Petersen, I rilievi tondi dell'arco di Costantino. Mittheil. d. k. d. arch. Instit.: Röm. Abtheil. vol. IV (1889), pag. 314-339, tav. XII. Cfr. A. Monaci, Le sculture aureliane sull'arco di Costantino in Bull. Com. arch. di Roma, 1900, pag. 75 e segg. 189. Ved. Gentile, Storia dell'arte greca, op. cit., pag 171, 189, 190-91. 190. Sulle terme di Caracalla ved. Blouet, Restauration des thermes d'Antonin Caracalla. Parigi, 1828. Su quelle di Diocleziano ved. E. Paulin, Les thermes de Diocletien (Restauration des mon. ant.). Cfr. gli studi su altre terme, come p. es., su quelle di Civitavecchia: G. Torraca, Delle antiche terme taurine esistenti nel territorio di Civitavecchia. Roma. 1761; su quelle di Pisa: C. Lupi, Nuovi studi sulle antiche terme pisane. Pisa, 1885; per Pompei: Terme stabiane, in Nissen, Pompejanische studien. pag. 140 e segg. Ved. S. A. Iwanoff, Aus den Thermen des Caracalla. Mit Erlaüterungen von Chr. Hülsen. Berlino, 1891. 191. Cfr. Fr. Cerasoli, Documenti inediti medievali circa le terme di Diocleziano e il Mausoleo di Augusto, in Bull. Comm. arch. comun. di Roma 1895, pag. 301 e segg.
  • 64. 192. Cfr. C. F. Mazzanti, La scultura ornamentale romana nei bassi tempi, in Archivio Storico dell'arte, s. II, anno II, fasc. 1 e 2 p. 33 e segg.; fasc. 3, p. 161-185. 193. Tutto questo periodo dell'arte in Italia, che dalla decadenza dell'arte perfetta in Roma si estende fino al Rinascimento, è ora trattato egregiamente dall'illustre prof. Venturi nel suo recentissimo libro La Storia dell'arte in Italia (Milano, Hoepli, 1901), di cui è uscito il primo volume, che giunge fino a Giustiniano, opera ricca di tavole e di illustrazioni. Sono già in corso di stampa il secondo volume, che tratterà del periodo Dal tempo dei Longobardi all'inizio dello stile nazionale, e il terzo: Dal secolo XIII alla fine del Trecento. 194. Ved. Notizie degli Scavi di antichità comunicate alla R. Accademia dei Lincei. Roma, giugno 1900, pag. 220 e segg. 195. Ved. tavola allegata alle Notizie degli Scavi citate, a pag. 220-221: Sacra Via et continentia aedificia; cfr. Atti dei Lincei, Memorie della classe di Scienze mor., Serie 5ª, vol. VIII. 196. Ved. Reina, Triangolazione della città di Roma in Rivista di topografia e catasto. 1896. 197. Ved. l'arch. Boni, in Notizie degli Scavi, cit., pag. 229. 198. G. Tropea, La stele arcaica del Foro Romano, cronaca della discussione. III. Messina, tip. della Rivista di storia antica e scienze affini. 1900. Cfr. Parte Iª e IIª nella Rivista medesima, 1892. 199. Ved. Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità comunicate alla Regia Accademia dei Lincei, maggio 1889, pag. 151 e segg. 200. Ved. Nuova Antologia. 1 genn. 1900; cfr. 16 nov. 1900. 201. Ved. Notizie degli scavi, aprile 1900, pag. 143 e segg.
  • 65. 202. Il Pais ne discusse in varie riprese e recentemente nell'articolo: Le scoperte archeologiche e la buona fede scientifica inserito nella Rivista di storia antica e scienze affini di Messina; il Comparetti invece pubblica un lavoro a sè, intitolato: Iscrizione arcaica del Foro Romano. Firenze- Roma, Bencini. 1900. 203. A scanso di dimenticanze, ved. la cronaca citata dal prof. Tropea in op. e luogo citati. 204. Queste opinioni espressi già a suo tempo, nell'articolo di divulgazione dell'Almanacco italiano pel 1901, trattando delle Recenti scoperte archeologiche di Roma negli scavi del Foro Romano (ved. pag. 372 e segg.). 205. Da un articolo sul Popolo Romano del 23 maggio scorso il prof. Tropea trae un riassunto dei capisaldi dell'opinione del Milani, mentre si attende la sua pubblicazione nei Rendiconti della R. Accademia dei Lincei e nella seconda puntata dei suoi Studî e materiali di Archeologia e Numismatica. 206. Notizie degli Scavi d'antichità comunicate alla R. Accademia dei Lincei. Roma, maggio 1900, pag. 159 e segg. 207. Ved. in Bollettino della Commiss. archeologica comun. di Roma del 1900. Cfr. anche il Gatteschi nell'Indice bibliografico delle opere speciali.
  • 66. Nota del Trascrittore Ortografia e punteggiatura originali sono state mantenute, correggendo senza annotazione minimi errori tipografici. Grafie alternative o arcaiche sono state analogamente conservate (terramare/terremare, sacrifizio/sagrifizio). Nelle sezioni bibliografiche, i titoli non italiani sono stati riprodotti fedelmente, tranne nel caso di evidenti errori.
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