Introduction

Editor's Notes

• #4: The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation. Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead. A specific instance of engaging in cognitive Cognition process is a mental event. The event of perceiving something is different from the entire process, or capacity of perception — one's ability to perceive things. In other words, an instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes those instances possible. BEHAVIOR  It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary
• #5: The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation. Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead. A specific instance of engaging in cognitive Cognition process is a mental event. The event of perceiving something is different from the entire process, or capacity of perception — one's ability to perceive things. In other words, an instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes those instances possible. BEHAVIOR  It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary -ABOUT DIVERSITY OF STUDYING BEHAVIOR OF PSYHCOLOGY The opinions of behaviorists and psychologists in the matter have always been divergent. 
• #6: https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/behavior/covert A huge majority of psychologists reason that behaviors are only external actions and behaviors which are observable. Covert behaviors are unobservable actions which can only be deduced (assumed,construed,reason) by oneself. However, behavior is psychophysical in origin, and both internal and external world play equal role in occurrence of the behavior. Anything that brings alteration in the environment can be categorized as behavior, which means even when the actions are unobservable, they are behaviors. Examples of these covert behaviors are; perceiving, remembering, reasoning, thinking, creating and dreaming among many more. Further explanations: In the broader sense, even hidden behaviors bring alteration to the environment and hence they must be classified as behaviors. Also, psychologists and behaviorists believe that covert behaviors are extremely important in the subject of psychology inquiry. These unseen actions are what influence any and all actions of the individual. Although the study of these covert behaviors aren’t easy to conduct, documentation and collective research can lead to significant discoveries of individual behaviors, state of mind in different circumstances, analyzing the behaviors and so on
• #7: https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/behavior/overt Many psychologists and behaviorists argue that only overt behaviors can be classified under behaviors as a whole, and any behaviors unobservable cannot qualify as behaviors. This theory has been tagged as narrow definition of behavior. Cooper, Heron, and Heward proposed certain conditions in order to recognize a phenomenon as behavior. The conditions were: That to be considered a behavior there must be an observable movement shown by an organism. That there must be an observable alteration in the environment as a result of the movement. ============ Further explanation about Overt Behavior American psychologists generally agree that the subject matter of psychology is largely the observable behavior of humans and other species of animals. The individuals, who study overt behaviors, or human behaviors, classify the observable actions by form, intensity, duration and frequency. Any and all observable behaviors such as whispering, walking, yawning and jumping are overt behaviors. Behaviorists analyze these observable actions to recognize the person’s feelings, emotions and mental conditions. Regardless of stimulus, any action such as laughter, rage, or activities like throwing off a desk, hitting someone, the behaviors that can be observed are overt behaviors. Observation and study of these behaviors helps behaviorists and psychologists to understand the core of the person, the inner feelings. For instance, if a person is observed to be yawning, it can be hypothesized that the person is either bored or sleepy. Likewise, anger, frustration and other emotions can also be observed by analyzing the overt behaviors.
• #8: Conscious Behavior:  Is a type of behavior is conscious or aware. It is an action you do from what you really wanted to do. Example of this is making breakfast. You make and eat breakfast because you are hungry. It is like you know what you're doing or action with purposive conduct.  Unconscious Behavior: A type of behavior where the person is unaware of what he's doing. It is because of the automatic response of the body such as breathing and the beating of our hearts. Unconscious behavior is doing anything without thinking of any motivation because it is automatically done. Screaming because of cockroaches, spiders of females are like examples of unconscious behavior.
• #9: Rational Behavior: A type of behavior that is reasonable and used to explain the choices that people make with regards to achieving satisfaction. It is like, people would rather be better off or have more than less. For example, a person is more likely to buy an item at a lower price like items on sale because they believe it is better.  Irrational Behavior: It is defined as unreasonable behavior or having no clear objective or meaning. Example of this based of what I've red is, you want to have a good day yet you punch the mailman in the face. It is senseless and meaningless.
• #10: Voluntary Behavior:  Behavior that a person is naturally contributed to an action. It also means that you have a free will and able to make a decision to take a specific action. Taking a walk down the street is an example of voluntary behavior.  Involuntary Behavior: Behavior that can't be controlled over. Example of this is when being emerged into bright sunlight from a dark place, we usually blink several times often without even knowing it.
• #11: Phrenology - the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.
• #12: Reference: Understanding Psychology by Robert S. Feldman Grapple – tackle History of Psychology can be traced through centuries. It started at least during the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in ancient Greece These philosophers have debated psychological topics as where human knowledge comes from, the nature of mind and soul, the relationship of the mind and the body Scientific Psychology thus has its roots in philosophy and especially in the philosophical view called EMPIRICISM
• #13: Reference: Understanding Psychology by Robert S. Feldman History of Psychology can be traced through centuries. It started at least during the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in ancient Greece These philosophers have debated psychological topics as where human knowledge comes from, the nature of mind and soul, the relationship of the mind and the body Scientific Psychology thus has its roots in philosophy and especially in the philosophical view called EMPIRICISM Empiricism in 1600s – John Locke, Goerge Berkely, and David Hume argued that our MINDS are more like a blank slate BLANK SLATE – “TABULA RASA” (Latin Word) on which our experiences write a lifelong story. thus, knowledge comes to us only through our experiences and observations Empiricism the view that knowledge comes from experience and observation- sensory experience (PRIMARY EXPONENTS) Disclaim that knowledge is present at birth In philosophy, empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. ... Empiricism emphasises the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions. THUS, EMPIRICISM has guided psychologists in seeking knowledge about behavior and mental processes through observations governed by rules of science, rather than speculation, for more than 130 years
• #14: Note: Questions to ponder What was his study all about? At about the same time, William James was setting up his laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
• #15: Physiologists examine how the body works under abnormal and normal conditions at the cellular and molecular levels. These professionals study how different body parts work together, including the lungs, heart, and muscles. Physiologists also focus on the way the body reacts in various environments, including water and space. A physiologist analyzes these functions of the human body, at the whole organism, cellular, and/or molecular levels GOAL – is to study the building blocks of the mind -----to study consciousness PHILOSOPHY (Principle, Idea, viewpoint) Philosophy (from Greek philosophia, literally "love of wisdom") is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
• #16: Wundt, wanted to describe the basic elements of consciousness including how they are organized and how they relate to one another To determine how basic sensory processes shape our understanding of the world, Wundt and other structuralists used a procedure called introspection Wundt argued that by analyzing people’s reports, psychologists could come to a better understanding of the structure of the mind. Over time, psychologists challenged Wundt’s approach. They became increasingly dissatisfied with the assumption that introspection could reveal the structure of the mind. Introspection was not a truly scientific technique, because there were few ways an outside observer could confirm the accuracy of others’ introspections. Moreover, people had difficulty describing some kinds of inner experiences, such as emotional responses. Those drawbacks led to the development of new approaches, which largely replaced structuralism. INTROSPECTION – looking inward - his method to study conscious experience Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.[1]  In psychology the process of introspection relies exclusively on observation of one's mental state, while in a spiritual context it may refer to the examination of one's soul STIMULI – plural ============ WUNDT He stated that the only elements necessary to describe the conscious experience are sensation and affection (feeling). The thought process essentially was deemed an occurrence of sensations of the current experience and feelings representing a prior experience.
• #17: It was Titchener who called/used structuralism Wundt and Titchener, were not the only scientific researchers in psychology, their work was not universally accepted CRITICISM – method of study was too simplistic NOTE: William James, his emphasis on the functions of mental process encouraged other North American psychologists to look at how those processes work to our advantage and how they differ from person to person The perspective that replaced structuralism is known as functionalism. Rather than focusing on the mind’s structure, functionalism concentrated on what the mind does and how behavior functions. Functionalists, whose perspective became prominent in the early 1900s, asked what role behavior plays in allowing people to adapt to their environments. For example, a functionalist might examine the function of the emotion of fear in preparing us to deal with emergency situations.
• #18: “The whole is different from the sum of its parts,” meaning that our perception, or understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful than the individual elements that make up our perceptions. Gestalt psychologists have made substantial contributions to our understanding of perception. Structuralism – the whole is equal to its parts????????? seeking to explain perceptions in terms of gestalts rather than by analyzing their constituents. a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole. Provide the modern study of perception ------------- In 1912 Wertheimer discovered the phi phenomenon, an optical illusion in which stationary objects shown in rapid succession, transcending the threshold at which they can be perceived separately, appear to move. The explanation of this phenomenon—also known as persistence of vision and experienced when viewing motion pictures—provided strong support for Gestalt principles. GESTALT MEANS an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts. a configuration or pattern of elements so unified as a whole that it cannot be described merely as a sum of its parts
• #19: Today, the field of psychology includes five major perspectives (summarized in Figure 2). These broad perspectives emphasize different aspects of behavior and mental processes, and each takes our understanding of behavior in a somewhat different direction.
• #20: The perspectives of psychology offer distinct outlooks and emphasize different factors. Just as we can use more than one map to find our way around a particular region—for instance, a map that shows roads and highways and another map that shows major landmarks—psychologists developed a variety of approaches to understanding behavior. When considered jointly, the different perspectives provide the means to explain behavior in its amazing variety. Today, the field of psychology includes fi ve major perspectives (summarized inFigure 2). These broad perspectives emphasize different aspects of behavior and mental processes, and each takes our understanding of behavior in a somewhat different direction.
• #21: Neuroscience perspective The approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions. Because every behavior ultimately can be broken down into its biological components, the neuroscience perspective has broad appeal. Psychologists who subscribe to this perspective have made major contributions to the understanding and betterment of human life, ranging from cures for certain types of deafness to drug treatments for people with severe mental disorders. Furthermore, advances in methods for examining the anatomy and functioning of the brain have permitted the neuroscientific perspective to extend its influence across a broad range of subfields in psychology.
• #22: Proponents of the psychodynamic perspective argue that behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control. They view dreams and slips of the tongue as indications of what a person is truly feeling within a seething cauldron of unconscious psychic activity. The origins of the psychodynamic view are linked to one person: Sigmund Freud. Freud was a Viennese physician in the early 1900s whose ideas about unconscious determinants of behavior had a revolutionary effect on 20th-century thinking, not just in psychology but in related fields as well. Although some of the original Freudian principles have been roundly criticized, the contemporary psychodynamic perspective has provided a means not only to understand and treat some kinds of psychological disorders but also to understand everyday phenomena such as prejudice and aggression
• #23: Whereas the neuroscience and psychodynamic approaches look inside the organism to determine the causes of its behavior, the behavioral perspective takes a very different approach The behavioral perspective grew out of a rejection of psychology’s early emphasis on the inner workings of the mind. Instead, behaviorists suggested that the field should focus on observable behavior that can be measured objectively
• #24: Whereas the neuroscience and psychodynamic approaches look inside the organism to determine the causes of its behavior, the behavioral perspective takes a very different approach The behavioral perspective grew out of a rejection of psychology’s early emphasis on the inner workings of the mind. Instead, behaviorists suggested that the field should focus on observable behavior that can be measured objectively
• #25: https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html
• #26: How it evolved and reacted to other perspective? Efforts to understand behavior lead some psychologists straight into the mind. Evolving in part from structuralism and in part as a reaction to behaviorism, which focused so heavily on observable behavior and the environment, ========================================= Many psychologists who adhere to the cognitive perspective compare human thinking to the workings of a computer, which takes in information and transforms, stores, and retrieves it. In their view, thinking is information processing . Psychologists who rely on the cognitive perspective ask questions on subjects ranging from how people make decisions to whether a person can watch television and study at the same time. The common elements that link cognitive approaches are an emphasis on how people understand and think about the world and an interest in describing the patterns and irregularities in the operation of our minds.
• #27: What did Humanistic reject to other perspective? Rejecting the view that behavior is determined largely by automatically unfolding biological forces, unconscious processes, or the environment, What is their claim and how did they address understanding and studying human behavior? the humanistic perspective instead suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior. ============================================================================================== Conflicting thoughts to other perspective: free will stands in contrast to determinism (Freud), which sees behavior as caused, or determined, by things beyond a person’s control. people have the ability to make their own choices about their behavior rather than relying on societal standards (behavioral) ======= More than any other approach, it stresses the role of psychology in enriching people’s lives and helping them achieve self-fulfillment. By reminding psychologists of their commitment to the individual person in society, the humanistic perspective has been an important influence (Dillon, 2008; Robbins, 2008).
• #28: Nature vs. Nurture How much of people’s behavior is due to their genetically determined nature (heredity), and how much is due to nurture, the influences of the physical and social environment in which a child is raised? Furthermore, what is the interplay between heredity and environment? Psychologist’s take on this issue depends partly on which major perspective he or she subscribes to. EXAMPLE SITUATION OR FOCUS OF STUDY For example, developmental psychologists whose focus is on how people grow and change throughout the course of their lives, may be most interested in learning more about hereditary influences if they follow a neuroscience perspective. In contrast, developmental psychologists who are proponents of the behavioral perspective would be more likely to focus on environment (Rutter, 2002, 2006) However, every psychologist would agree that neither nature nor nurture alone is the sole determinant of behavior; rather, it is a combination of the two. In a sense, then, the real controversy involves how much of our behavior is caused by heredity and how much is caused by environmental influences.
• #29: The question on conscious or unconscious represents one of the great controversies in the field of psychology. Conscious vs. Unconscious How much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware, and how much is due to unconscious activity—mental processes that are not accessible to the conscious mind? EXAMPLE SITUATION For example, clinical psychologists adopting a psychodynamic perspective argue that psychological disorders are brought about by unconscious factors, whereas psychologists employing the cognitive perspective suggest that psychological disorders largely are the result of faulty thinking processes.
• #30: Observable Behavior vs. Internal Mental Process Should psychology concentrate solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers, or should it focus on unseen thinking processes? Some psychologists, particularly those relying on the behavioral perspective, contend that the only legitimate source of information for psychologists is behavior that can be observed directly. Other psychologists, building on the cognitive perspective, argue that what goes on inside a person’s mind is critical to understanding behavior, and so we must concern ourselves with mental processes.
• #31: Free Will vs. Determinism How much of our behavior is a matter of free will (choices made freely by an individual), and how much is subject to determinism , the notion that behavior is largely produced by factors beyond people’s willful control? EXAMPLE SITUATION some psychologists who specialize in psychological disorders argue that people make intentional choices and that those who display so-called abnormal behavior should be considered responsible for their actions. Other psychologists disagree and contend that such individuals are the victims of forces beyond their control. The position psychologists take on this issue has important implications for the way they treat psychological disorders, especially in deciding whether treatment should be forced on people who don’t want it.
• #32: Individual Differences vs. Universal Principles How much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, and how much reflects the culture and society in which we live? How much of our behavior is universally human? ====================================== Psychologists who rely on the neuroscience perspective tend to look for universal principles of behavior, such as how the nervous system operates or the way certain hormones automatically prime us for sexual activity. Such psychologists concentrate on the similarities in our behavioral destinies despite vast differences in our upbringing. In contrast, psychologists who employ the humanistic perspective focus more on the uniqueness of every individual. They consider every person’s behavior a reflection of distinct and special individual qualities.
• #33: Individual Differences vs. Universal Principles How much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, and how much reflects the culture and society in which we live? How much of our behavior is universally human? ====================================== Psychologists who rely on the neuroscience perspective tend to look for universal principles of behavior, such as how the nervous system operates or the way certain hormones automatically prime us for sexual activity. Such psychologists concentrate on the similarities in our behavioral destinies despite vast differences in our upbringing. In contrast, psychologists who employ the humanistic perspective focus more on the uniqueness of every individual. They consider every person’s behavior a reflection of distinct and special individual qualities.
• #34: Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. While you might understand what psychology is, many people are not quite so sure about what psychology does. What purpose does psychology serve? What are its goals? Let's take a closer look at the major goals of psychology, what psychologists strive to accomplish, and how psychology is used to solve real-world problems.