Introduction to Pharmacognosy

Introduction to Pharmacognosy
Presented By :Mr. N. V. Thorat

Pharmacognosy
Definition
Crude Drugs
Crude drugs are the drugs, which are obtained form natural sources like
plant, animals, minerals & they are used as such as they occur in nature
without any processing except, drying & size reduction.
Pharmacognosy
The word pharmacognosy is derived from two words, pharmakon means
medicine (drug) and gignosco means to acquire knowledge of something..
pharmakon = medicine (drug)
gignosco= to acquire knowledge of something
“Pharmacognosy is systematic study of crude drugs obtained from natural
origin like plant, animal and minerals. Pharmacognosy can be defined as
branch of science which involves detail study of drugs obtained from natural
origin including name, habitat, collection, cultivation, macroscopy, microscopy,
physical properties, chemical constituents, therapeutic actions, uses and
adulterants.”

Historical development
In the early period, primitive man went in search of food and ate at random,
plants or their parts like tubers, fruits, leaves, etc.
As no harmful effects were observed he considered them as edible materials
and used them as food.
If he observed other effects by their eating they were considered inedible, and
according to the actions he used them in treating symptoms or diseases. If it
caused diarrhoea it was used as purgative, if vomitting it was used as emetic
and if it was found poisonous & death was caused, he used it as arrow poison.
The knowledge was empirical and was obtained by trial and error.
He used drugs as such or as their infusions and decoctions. The results were
passed on from one generation to the other, and new knowledge was added in
the same way.

Pharmacognosy in Ancient Times (Before the Nineteenth Century)
The medicines originated in Egypt and India.
Medicines were recorded both in Papyrus Ebers of Egypt about 1,500 bc and
later in Ayurveda of India. In papyrus, crocus, dried ox-bile juice, castor oil,
and so on were mentioned. In about 77 ad, Dioscorides, a Greek doctor, kept a
record of about 600 kinds of crude drugs in his compiled book De Materia
Medica, a book that had played an important role in pharmacology and botany by
the fifteenth century.
Charaka made fifty groups of ten herbs each of which, according to him, would
suffice an ordinary physician's need. Similarly, Sushrutha arranged 760 herbs in
7 distinct sets based on some of their common properties. A large portion of the
Indian population even today depends on the Indian System of Medicine -
Ayurveda, 'An ancient science of life'. The well known treatises in Ayurveda are
Charaka Samhita and Sushrutha Samhita.
Ancient Rome also promoted it development. The Historia, written by Pliny
(23–79 ad ), gave a brief account of nearly 1,000 species of plants, most of
which could be used for medicines.
From ancient times to the middle of the nineteenth century, pharmacology had
been in its traditional stage for all countries in the world. At that time, knowledge
about medicines came mainly from senses and practical experiences.

Pharmacognosy in Early Modern Times (1815–1930)
It was at the beginning of the nineteenth century that pharmacognosy came into
its real being. In 1815, C.A. Seydler, a German who used the word
“pharmakognosie” in his book named Analecta Pharmacognostica.
In 1806, Serturner, a German, clarified the cell to be the basic unit of plant
structure, and then microscopes were used to research the internal structure of
crude drugs.
In 1803, the French pharmacist, Derosne isolated narcotine from opium. In
1806, Sertuerner isolated morphine from opium and its role in alleviating pain
was recognised.
Meanwhile, the qualitative and quantitative methods of chemistry were used
in crude drug identification. Fluorescence analysis and chromatography
were used in sequence in the latter half of the nineteenth century .
All in all, the reason why pharmacognosy has become an independent subject
is closely related to the development of international traffic and trade at that
time. In the first half of the nineteenth century, the rapid progress in international
trade gave rise to an increase in variety of medicines and resulted in enlarging
scope of raw materials and medium products.

Pharmacognosy in Modern Times (1930 to the Late 1990s)
Since the 1930s, development of biology and chemistry enriched methods and
ways of studying goods pharmacognosy. The development of the bioassay of
intensity of drug action (biological potency) advanced the study of active
ingredients of crude drugs and strengthened quality evaluation of them.
Chemical and physical methods, such as colorimetry, spectrophotometry, and
fluorescence analysis, were all applied to identification of crude drugs
gradually.
Developmental events
1. Isolation of Penicillin in in 1928 by William Fleming and large scale
production in 1941.
2. Isolation of Reserpine from Rauwolfia root and confirming its hypotensive
and tranquilizing properties.
3. Isolation of Vinca alkaloids,especially vincristine & viinblastine.
Vincristine was found useful in the treatment of leukemia .These alkaloids also
have anticancer properties,
4. Steroid hormones like progesterone were isolated by partial synthesis from
diosgenin and other steroid saponins .

Period of Natural Pharmacognosy
(At the End of the Nineteenth Century to the Early Twenty-First Century)
Going through the first three stages of development, pharmacognosy became an
established applied discipline with advanced technology and theory. In 1970s and
1980s, many universities canceled the “pharmacognosy” course from their
curriculum.
However, at the end of this century, with humans “returning to nature” and
uprising of modern life science, pharmacognosy has presented a strong
vitality and broad prospects.
Progresses in separation of the chemical composition, structure
determination, and quantitative technology made 1H NMR, 13CNMR, DNA
fingerprint identification, etc. possible to be used in the identification of crude
drugs thus promoting its standardization and normalization.

Modern concept
Some of the important aspects of the natural products that led to the modern
development of drugs and pharmaceuticals are as follows:
Isolation of phytochemicals
Strong acting substances such as glycosides of digitalis, alkaloids of
hyoscyamus and belladonna, ergot, rauwolfia, morphine and other alkaloids
of opium were isolated and their clinical uses studied.
Structure activity relationship
Presence of a lactone ring is essential for the action of cardiac
glycosides. Likewise anthraquinone glycosides cannot have their action
without satisfying the positions at C1, C3, C8, C9 and C10.
Drugs obtained by partial synthesis of natural products
Oxytocic activity of methyl ergometrine is more than that of
ergometrine. In ergotamine, by 9:10 hydrogenation, oxytocic activity is
suppressed and spasmolytic activity increases. The preparation of steroid
hormones from diosgenin by acetolysis and oxi- dation and further preparation
of cortisone by microbial reactions. Steroid hormones and their semisynthetic
analogues represent a multimillion dollar industry in the United States.
Modern concept

Natural products as models for synthesis of new drugs
Morphine is the model of a large group of potent analgesics, cocaine for local
anaesthetics, atropine for certain spasmolytics, dicoumarol for anticoagulants
and salicin for salicylic acid derivatives. Without model substances from plants
a large number of synthetics would have been missed.
Drugs of direct therapeutic uses
Among the natural constituents, which even now cannot be replaced, are
important groups of antibiotics, steroids, ergot alkaloids and certain
antitumour substances. Further, drugs as digitoxin, strophanthus glycosides,
morphine, atropine and several others are known since long and have survived
their later day synthetic analogues.
Biosynthetic pathways
Biosynthetic pathways are of primary and secondary metabolites. Some of the
important pathways are
Calvin’s cycle of photosynthesis,
shikimic acid pathway of aromatic compounds,
acetate hypothesis for anthracene glycosides ,
isoprenoid hypothesis for terpenes ,
steroids via acetate- mevalonic acid-isopentyl pyrophosphate &
squalene.
Modern concept

Progress from 1960 onwards
During this period only a few active constituents mainly antibiotics, hormones
and antitumour drugs were isolated or new possibilities for their production were
found.
From 6-amino penicillanic acid, which has very little antibiotic action of its own,
important broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillins like ampenicillin and
amoxicillin were developed.
From ergocryptine, an alkaloid of ergot, bromocryptine has been synthesized.
Bromocryptine is a prolactin inhibitor and also has activity in Parkinson’s
disease and in cancer.
By applications of several disciplines, pharmacognosy from a descriptive subject
has again developed into an integral and important disciplines of pharmaceutical
sciences.
Modern concept

Scope of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
Pharmacognosy is critical in development of different disciplines of science.
The knowledge of plant taxonomy, plant breeding, plant pathology and plant
genetics is helpful in the development of cultivation technology for medicinal
and aromatic plants.
Plant chemistry (phytochemistry) has undergone significant development in
recent years as a distinct discipline. It is concerned with the enormous variety of
substances that are synthesized and accumulated by plants and the structural
elucidation of these substances.
Extraction, isolation, purification and characterization of phytochemicals
from natural sources are important for advancement of medicine system.
The knowledge of chemotaxonomy, biogenetic pathways for formation of
medicinally active primary and secondary metabolites, plant tissue culture and
other related fields is essential for complete understanding of Pharmacognosy.
One should have the basic knowledge of biochemistry and chemical engineering
is essential for development of collection, processing and storage
technology of crude drugs.

• Pharmacognosy is important branch of pharmacy which is playing key role in new
drug discovery and development by using natural products. Pharmacognosy
has given many leads for new drug discovery and development.
• It is an important link between modern medicine systems (allopathy) and
traditional system of medicine. It is part medicinal system which is affordable as
well as accessible to common man. As part of integrative system of medicine,
pharmacognosy can help to increase effectiveness of modern medicine
system.
• It is acting as bridge between pharmacology, medicinal chemistry and
pharmacotherapeutics and also pharmaceutics. It also bridges pharmaceutics with
other pharmacy subjects.
• More than 60 percent of world population is still using natural product for their
primary healthcare needs. Pharmacognosy can provide safe and effective drugs
in combination with modern medicine system.
• Pharmacognosy includes knowledge about safe use of herbal drugs including
toxicity, side effects, drug interaction thereby increasing effectiveness of
modern medicine

• Pharmacognosy is an important link between pharmacology and medicinal
chemistry. As a result of rapid development of phytochemistry and
pharmacological testing methods in recent years, new plant drugs are finding
their way into medicine as purified phytochemicals, rather than in the form of
traditional galenical preparations.
• Pharmacognosy is the base for development of novel medicines. Most of the
compounds obtained from natural product serve as prototype or base for
development of new drug which are more active and less toxic.
• By means of pharmacognosy, natural products can be dispensed, formulated
and manufactured in dosage forms acceptable to modern system of medicine.
• There are vast number of plant and animal species which are not studied
systematically.
• Development of pharmacognosy also leads to development of botany,
taxonomy, plant biotechnology, plant genetics, plant pathology,
pharmaceutics, pharmacology, phytochemistry and other branches of
science

Sources of drugs of natural origin (DONO)
Plants, animals, minerals, marines and plant tissue culture
Plants
Plant source is the oldest source of drugs.
Most of the drugs in ancient times were derived from plants.
Almost all parts of the plants are used i.e.leaves, stem, bark, fruits and roots etc
Leaves:
The leaves of Digitalis purpurea are the source of Digitoxin and Digoxin, which
are cardiac glycosides.
Leaves of Eucalyptus give oil of Eucalyptus, which is important component of
cough syrup.
Tobacco leaves give nicotine.
Atropa belladonna gives atropine.
Sources of drugs of natural origin

Flowers:
Clove gives eugenol
Vinca rosea gives vincristine and vinblastine
Rose gives rose water used as tonic.
Fruits
Senna pod gives anthracine, which is a purgative (used in constipation)
Calabar beans give physostigmine, which is cholinomimetic agent.
Seeds:
Seeds of Nux Vomica give strychnine, which is a CNS stimulant.
Castor seeds give castor oil.
Calabar beans give Physostigmine, which is a cholinomimetic drug.

Roots:
Ipecacuanha root gives Emetine, used to induce vomiting as in accidental
poisoning. It also has amoebicidal properties
Rauwolfia serpentina gives reserpine, a hypotensive agent.
Reserpine was used for hypertension treatment.
Bark:
Cinchona bark gives quinine and quinidine, which are antimalarial drugs.
Quinidine also has antiarrythmic properties.
Stem:
Kalmegh Hepatoprotective
Animal Sources:
Pancreas is a source of Insulin, used in treatment of Diabetes.
Sheep thyroid is a source of thyroxin, used in hypertension.
Cod liver is used as a source of vitamin A and D.
Blood of animals is used in preparation of vaccines.
Cochineal (dried full grown female insects) consist of carminic acid used as
colouring agent for foods, drugs and for cosmetic products

Mineral Sources
i. Metallic and Non metallic sources:
Iron is used in treatment of iron deficiency anemia.
Mercurial salts are used in Syphilis.
Zinc is used as zinc supplement. Zinc oxide paste is used in wounds and in
eczema.
Iodine is antiseptic. Iodine supplements are also used.
Gold salts are used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
ii)Miscellaneous Sources:
Fluorine has antiseptic properties.
Borax has antiseptic properties as well.
Selenium as selenium sulphide is used in anti dandruff shampoos.
Petroleum is used in preparation of liquid paraffin.

Marines
The greater part of the earth surface is covered by seas and ocean, which
contains about 5,00,000 species of marine organisms.
Many of these compounds have shown pronounced biological activity.
In the western medicine agar, alginic acid, carrageenan, protamine sulphate,
spermaceti & cod and halibut liver oils are the established marine medicinal
products.
Macroalgae or seaweeds have been used as crude drugs in the treatment of
iodine deficiency states such as goitre, etc. Some seaweed have also been
utilized as sources of additional vitamins and in the treatment of anaemia
during pregnancy.
During the last 30–40 years numerous novel compounds have been isolated from
marine organisms having biological activities such as antibacterial, antiviral,
antitumour, antiparasitic, anticoagulants, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory
and cardiovascular active products.
Ara-A Semisynthetic antiviral agent
Bryostatin Anticancer agents
Octopamine Cardiovascular agent
Bio-indol derivatives Antiinflammatory

Plant tissue culture
Tissue culture is in vitro cultivation of plant cell or tissue under aseptic and
controlled environmental conditions, in liquid or on semisolid well-defined nutrient
medium for the production of primary and secondary metabolites or to regenerate
plant.
This technique affords alternative solution to problems arising due to current
rate of extinction and decimation of flora and ecosystem.
The whole process requires a well-equipped culture laboratory and nutrient
medium.
This process involves various steps, viz. preparation of nutrient medium
containing inorganic and organic salts, supplemented with vitamins, plant growth
hormone(s) and amino acids as well as sterilization of explant (source of plant
tissue), glassware and other accessories inoculation and incubation.
Applications
Production of Phytopharmaceuticals
Biochemical Conversions
Clonal Propagation (Micro-propagation)
Production of Immobilized Plant Cell

Synthetic/ Semi synthetic Sources:
I. Synthetic Sources:
When the nucleus of the drug from natural source as well as its chemical structure
is altered, we call it synthetic.
Examples include Emetine Bismuth Iodide
II. Semi Synthetic Source:
When the nucleus of drug obtained from natural source is retained but the
chemical structure is altered, we call it semi-synthetic.
Examples include Apomorphine, Diacetyl morphine, Ethinyl Estradiol,
Homatropine, Ampicillin and Methyl testosterone.
Most of the drugs used nowadays (such as antianxiety drugs, anti convulsants)
are semisynthetic forms.

Microbiological Sources:
Penicillium notatum is a fungus which gives penicillin.
Actinobacteria give Streptomycin.
Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin and tobramycin are obtained from
streptomycis and micromonosporas.
Recombinant DNA technology:
Recombinant DNA technology involves cleavage of DNA by enzyme restriction
endonucleases.
The desired gene is coupled to rapidly replicating DNA (viral, bacterial or plasmid)
The new genetic combination is inserted into the bacterial cultures which allow
production of vast amount of genetic material.
Advantages: Huge amounts of drugs can be produced.
Drug can be obtained in pure form.
It is less antigenic.
Disadvantages: Well equipped lab is required.
Highly trained staff is required.
It is a complex and complicated technique.

Significance of Pharmacognosy in various systems of medicine
Ayurveda
Ayurveda is accepted to be the oldest medical system, . The word Ayurveda
means Ayur meaning life and Veda meaning science. Thus, Ayurveda literally
means science of life.
Theory & Basic principal
Pamchamahabhuta Sidhanta - Every substance in the universe is composed of
five basic elements viz. solid (pruthvi) ,liquid (Jal) energy (Agni), air (Vayu), and
space (Akash) (Panchamahabhuta ) . They exist in the human body in combined
forms like vata (space and air), pitta (energy and liquid) and kapha (liquid and
solid). Vata, pitta and kapha together are called Tridosha (three pillars of life).The
body has a perfect balance of these element and when balance is
disturbed,an unhealthy condition called illness developed.
Charaka Samhita (1900 B.C.) is the first recorded book with the concept of
practice of Ayurveda. This describes 341 plants and plant products used in
medicine.
Sushruta Samhita (600 B.C.) was the next ayurvedic literature that has special
emphasis on surgery. It described 395 medicinal plants, 57 drugs of animal
origin, 4 minerals and metals as therapeutic agents.
Significance of Pharmacognosy

Unani
The Unani system of medicine is based on the Hippocratic theory of 4 humours
(blood,phlegm,yellow bile and black bile) and Pythogorian theory of 4
proximates qualities (hot,cold,moist and dry)
Health is decribed as primary state in which 4 humors are present in correct
proportion.
The Materia Medica of Unani system consist of drugs of vegetable ,animal and
mineral origin.Vegetable drugs include various morphological parts of plants or
the products such as latex,gums which are secretions.Around 3000 such drugs
are recognoised.Drugs of animal origin derived from living beings,animal organs
and their flesh,hair,hoofs,excreta or bones.Minerals includes metal like
gold,silver,lead,zinc,copper,iron,heavy metalslike arsenic and antimony.Minerals
such as talc,mica,precious stones suchas emerald,sapphire,are also used as
drugs

Homeopathy
The ‘Similia Similibus Curantur’ (lets like treated by likes is the basic principle of
Homeopathic medicine. It is system of treating ailments by administration of drugs
which has capacity to produce disease state in healthy individuals.This is known as
proving the medicine. If same symptoms are evelpoed in patient,then medicine act as
curative agent. Unique features of homoepatic medicine are its small dose amd
methodology of serial dilutionby which all the energy og drug is liberated and
transfered to the medium base suger or alcohol.
Seven principles :Principles of ,
Individualisation (No 2 individuals in the world are alike and therefore disease
affecting the 2 individuals cannot be similar) Similia Similibus Curantur ((the
treatment of the disease by medicine which produces similar symptoms in healthy
individuals by proving the drugs) ,Simplex (Only single simple medicine at one time
and no combination is allowed),Minimum dose,(Min.medicine at a time which is just
sufficient to arouse vital force as a dynamic power which preserves life force and its
normal state indicate good health) law of proving, law of dymamisation,and vital
force
Source of Homeopathic medicines
Plant Kingdom Various morphological plant parts,fungi etc.
Animal kingdom Secretion ,Saliva, poisons and whole animals etc.
Minerals and chemicals Inorganic salts,nonmetal acids and mixtures etc.

Siddha
The Siddha system of medicine is based on 3 principles of the body ,namely
Vata ,Pitta,Kapha which are known as Trigunas
Siddha physucians begins keeps the knoledge of thousansd of hebs .
Siddha formulary extensively incorporates drugs of vegetable,animal and mineral
origin.It decribes the drugs from metals and nonmetals. The use of
mercury,gold,silver,sulphur,zinc,copper sulphate, alu, borax,mica,asbetos and
arsenuc is widespread.Ut also mention drugs from secretions of animals like civet
and musk,shell and bones of aquatic animals,deer,horns aanimal flesh.

Introduction to the concept of phytomedicines
A drug or preparation made from a plant or plants and used to prevent and
treat diseases and ailments or to promote health and healing.
Phytomedicine obtained from herbal sources are in great demand in the
developed world as they are able to cure many infectious diseases. These
plant based drugs provide outstanding contribution to modern therapeutics. The
natural medicine are attracting renewed attention from both practical and scientific
view points. They have proved their efficacy for primary health care because of
their safety and lesser side effects. They also offer therapeutics for age-
related disorders like memory loss, osteoporosis, immune disorders, etc.
The newfound popularity is due to their almost miraculous success with cases
which were given up as hopeless by the allopathic doctors as their side-effect free
treatment.
The world is now moving towards the herbal medicine or phytomedicines
that repair and strengthening bodily systems (especially the immune system,
which can then properly fight foreign invaders) and help to destroy offending
pathogens without toxic side effects.
Phytomedicines

Drug Basic investigation
Codeine, morphin Opium the latex of Papaver somniferum used by ancient
Sumarians. Egyptians and Greeks for the treatment of
headaches, arthritis and inducing sleep.
Atropine,
hyoscyamine
Atropa belladona, Hyascyamus niger etc., important drugs in
Babylonium folklore.
Ephedrine Crude drug (astringent yellow) derived from Ephedra sinica,
used by Chinese for respiratory ailments since 2700 BC
Quinine Cinchona spp , used by Peruvian Indians for the treatment
of fevers
Emetine Brazilian Indians and several others South American tribes
used root and rhizomes of Cephaelis spp to induce vomiting
and cure dysentery.
Colchicine Use of Colchicum in the treatment of gout has been known
in Europe since 78 AD.
Digoxin Digitalis leaves were being used in heart therapy in Europe
during the 18th century.
Phytomedicines

Some of the phytochemicals that can be useful as plant based drugs
Alkaloids
Alkaloids contain a ring with nitrogen.
Caffeine is an alkaloid that provides a mild lift but the alkaloids in Datura cause
severe intoxication and even death. Some of the alkaloids are hyoscyamine
(Datura stramonium), atropine (present in Atropa belladonna, Deadly nightshade),
cocaine (present in Erythroxylon coca, the Coca plant), codeine and morphine
(present in Papaver somniferum, the opium poppy), tetrodotoxin (a microbial
product in Fugu and some salamanders), vincristine and vinblastine (mitotic
inhibitors found in the Rosy Periwinkle)
Phenols
Phenols are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group (-
OH) bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest of the
class is phenol (C6H5OH). The anthocyanins that give grapes their purple color,
the isoflavones, the phytoestrogens from soy and the tannins that give tea its
astringency are phenolics
Phytomedicines

Terpenoids
Terpenoids are built up from terpene building blocks. Each terpene consists of two
paired isoprenes. The names monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes and
triterpenes are based on the number of isoprene units. The fragrance of rose
and lavender is due to monoterpenes. The carotenoids produce the reds, yellows
and oranges of pumpkin, corn and tomatoes. Some of the terpenoids are
Azadirachtin, (Neem tree), Artemisinin (Artemisia annua Chinese wormwood),
tetrahydrocannabinol (Cannabis sativa), Steroids (Terpenes with a particular ring
structure), Saponins (glycosylated steroids)
Glycosides
Glycosides consist of a glucose moiety attached to an aglycone. Glycosides
are characterized by the glycone, by the type of glycosidic bond, and by the
aglycone. Some of the glycosides, by the type of aglycone are alcoholic
glycosides, anthraquinone glycosides, coumarin glycosides, cyanogenic
glycosides, flavonoid glycosides, phenolic glycosides (simple), saponins, steroidal
glycosides or cardiac glycosides, steviol glycosides and thioglycosides
Role of phytomedicine in human society
People on all continents have used hundreds to thousands of indigenous plants
for treatment of ailments since prehistoric times.
Phytomedicines

Organized Drugs
The morphological plant parts or the entire plant itself can be called as an
organized drugs.
Organized drugs consist of the organised cellular structure in the form of
anatomical features. Organized drugs comprise those crude drug materials which
represent a part of the plant and are, therefore, made up of cells.
Leaves - Senna, Adulsa,Datura Flowering part - Clove
Bark - Cinchona Wood - Sandalwood, Quassia
seed - Nux vomica Root - Rauwolfia.
Unorganized Drugs
The unorganized drugs do not have the morphological or anatomical
organization as such. These includes products like plant exudates as gums,
oleogums, oleogum resins, plant lattices like that of opium, aloetic juices
like aloes or dried extracts of black and pale catechu, agar, alginic acid, etc.,
are products coming under this group. Other products like essential oils, fixed
oils, fats and waxes obtained from vegetable or animal.These products may be
solid, semisolid or liquid and the physical, chemical and analytical
standards may be applied for testing their quality and purity.
Organized Drugs & Unorganized Drugs

Organized Drugs & Unorganized Drugs
Organized drug Unorganized drug
Cellular structure present Cellular structure is absent
Organized drugs are part of plant,
animal like, fruits, seeds, and roots etc.
Unorganized drugs are obtained from
parts of plant & animal by extraction,
distillation incision, expression or
exudates ,secretion etc.
To study organized drug properly T. S. or
L. C. is token & study under microscope.
For study of unorganized drug physical
constituent like density, viscosity,
refractive index, optical rotation &
chemical test are important criteria.
They are solid in nature They are solid, semi solid, or liquid
Ex. Clove, Fennel, Dill, digitalis Ex.Lemon oil, Starch, Catechu.

Unorganized Drugs
Latex
Latex is a product present in special tissue of plant it is white, aqueous,
suspension, the suspended particles are protein, sugar, minerals, alkaloid,
resin, or starch.
Under microscope-small particles of oil globules.
E.g. opium, papain,.
Unorganized Drugs

Dried juices
The juices obtained from fleshy leaves (aloes) or from the stems of the trees
(kino).
Dried extracts
Pharmacognostic origin drugs are obtained by treating the part of plant with
water or distillation followed by concentration.
Pharmaceutical origin drugs are obtained by alcoholic or hydro-
alcoholic solutions and adjusting the product to a standard strength.
e.g. Agar, black catechu, gelatin
Unorganized Drugs

Gums:
Amorphous substances, pathological products produced when the plant under
unfavorable conditions or injured.
Mucilage:
Thick, gluey substance produced by most plants and some microorganisms.
Unorganized Drugs
Gums Mucilage
Gums are produced by plant when it
injured , diseased or by aprocess "
Gummosis"
Mucilage is the normal products of
plant growth.
Gum is produced outside the plant
cell.
Mucilage is produced inside the cell.
Gums are soluble in water to form
adhesive solution.
Mucilage are not soluble in water, they
form slimy solution with water.
Gums are made up of sugar, salts of
uronic acid e.g. Gum acacia, gum
Tragacanth .
Mucilage is made up of ester &
Sulphuric acid. e. g. Mucilage is
present in Agar, Senna, Isapgol.

Oleoresins and Oleo- gum –resins
Oleoresins
Homogenous mixture of volatile oil & resin is called as oleoresin
e.g. Oleoresin of Ginger.
Oleo- gum- Resin
Homogenous mixture of volatile oil, gum & resin.
e.g.Myrrh, Asafoetida.
Unorganized Drugs

Official drugs
Any substance or drug (crude or prepared), which is included in the issue of
the pharmacopoeia of a country and is officially used for therapeutic
purposes, is called an official drug.
Whole plant Catharanthus and their active constituents (Vincristin and
vinblastin ) these compounds are used in treating Cancer diseases .
Latex of fruit of poppy plants (Papaver sp.) and its active constituents as
( Morphine ) used as narcotic .
Caffeine from the seeds of Coffee plants & thiamine from leaves of tea plants
are used as stimulants .
Unofficial drug
A drug, which has once been recognized as a drug in the pharmacopoeia, but
not included in the issue of the pharmacopoeia or any official drug literature, is
designated as an unofficial drug.
Official drugs & unofficial drugs

Classification of DONO
The most important natural sources of drugs are higher plant, microbes and
animals and marine organisms. Some useful products are obtained from minerals
that are both organic and inorganic in nature. In order to pursue (or to follow)
the study of the individual drugs, one must adopt some particular sequence
of arrangement, and this is referred to a system of classification of drugs.
A method of classification should be:
(a) simple,
(b) easy to use,
(c) free from confusion and ambiguities.
Because of their wide distribution, each arrangement of classification has its own
merits and demerits, but for the purpose of study the drugs are classified in the
following different ways:
1. Alphabetical classification 2. Taxonomical classification
3. Morphological classification 4. Pharmacological classification
5. Chemical classification 6. Chemotaxonomical classification
7. Serotaxonomical classification

Alphabetical Classification
Alphabetical classification is the simplest way of classification of any
disconnected items. Crude drugs are arranged in alphabetical order of their
Latin and English names (common names) or sometimes local language
names (vernacular names).
Some of the pharmacopoeias, dictionaries and reference books which classify
crude drugs according to this system are as follows:
1. Indian Pharmacopoeia 2. British Pharmacopoeia
3. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia 4. European Pharmacopoeia
5. United States Pharmacopoeia and National Formulary
Merits It is easy and quick to use.
There is no repetition of entries and is devoid of confusion.
In this system location, tracing and addition of drug entries is easy.
DemeritsThere is no relationship between previous and successive drug entries.
Examples: Acacia, Benzoin, Cinchona, Dill, Ergot, Fennel, Gentian,
Hyoscyamus, Ipecacuanha, Jalap, Kurchi, Liquorice, Mints, Nux vomica,
Opium, Podophyllum, Quassia, Rauwolfia, Senna, Vasaka, Wool fat, Yellow
bees wax, Zeodary.

Taxonomical Classification
All the plants possess different characters of morphological, microscopical,
chemical, embryological, serological and genetics. In this classification the crude
drugs are classified according to kingdom, subkingdom, division, class,
order, family, genus and species as follows.
Merits Taxonomical classification is helpful for studying evolutionary
developments.
Demerits This system also does not correlate in between the chemical
constituents and biological activity of the drugs.

Morphological Classification
In this system, the drugs are arranged according to the morphological or
external characters of the plant parts or animal parts, i.e. which part of the
plant is used as a drug, e.g. leaves, roots, stem, etc.
Organized drugs e.g. rhizomes, barks, leaves, fruits, entire plants, hairs & fibres.
Unorganized drugs .e.g. Aloe juice, opium latex, agar, gambir, honey, beeswax,
lemon grass oil, etc
Organized drugs
Woods: Quassia, Sandalwood and Red Sandalwood.
Leaves: Digitalis, Eucalyptus, Senna,, Tulsi, Vasaka, ,Tea.
Barks: Arjuna, Ashoka,, Cinchona, Cinnamon, Kurchi, Wild cherry.
Flowering parts: Clove, Pyrethrum, Saffron, Santonica, Chamomile.
Fruits: Amla,, Bael,, Capsicum, Caraway, Cardamom, Hirda, Senna pod,.
Seeds:Black Mustard, Cardamom, Ispaghula, Linseed, Nux vomica,
Roots and Rhizomes: Aconite, Ashwagandha, Ginger, Ginseng, Rauwolfia,
Turmeric, Valerian, Squill.
Plants and Herbs:Bacopa, Andrographis, Kalmegh, Vinca,Centella.
Hair and Fibres: Cotton, Hemp, Jute, Silk, Flax.

Unorganized drugs
Dried latex: Opium, Papain
Dried Juice: Aloe, Kino
Dried extracts: Agar, Alginate, Black catechu, Pale catechu, Pectin
Waxes: Beeswax, Spermaceti, Carnauba wax
Gums: Acacia, Guar Gum, Indian Gum, Sterculia, Tragacenth
Resins: Asafoetida, Benzoin, Colophony, Guggul, Tolu balsam, Storax,
Volatile oil: Peppermint, Sandalwood,, Lemon,, Dill, Clove, Eucalyptus,
Fixed oils and Fats: Arachis, Castor, Coconut, Linseed, Olive, Sesame, Almond,
Spermaceti wax, wool fat, musk, Lactose. Fossil organism and
Minerals: Bentonite, Kaolin, Kiesslguhr, Talc.
Merits
Morphological classification is more helpful to identify and detect adulteration.
This system of classification is more convenient for practical study especially
when the chemical nature of the drug is not clearly understood.
Demerits
The main drawback of morphological classification is that there is no correlation
of chemical constituents with the therapeutic actions. Repetition of drugs or
plants occurs.

Pharmacological Classification
Grouping of drug according to their pharmacological action or their therapeutic
use is termed as pharmacological or therapeutic classification of drug. This
classification is more relevant and is mostly a followed method. Drugs like
digitalis, squill and strophanthus having cardiotonic action are grouped
irrespective of their parts used or phylogenetic relationship or the nature of
phytoconstituents they contain.
Drug acting on G.I.T.
Bitter Cinchona, Quassia, Gentian
Carminative Fennel, Cardamom, Mentha
Emetic Ipecac
Laxative Agar, Isabgol, Banana
Purgative Senna, Castor oil
Drug acting on Respiratory system
Expectorant Vasaka, Liquorice, Ipecac
Antitussive Opium (codeine

Merits
This system of classification can be used for suggesting substitutes of drugs, if
they are not available at a particular place or point of time.
Demerits
Drugs having different action on the body get classified separately in more
than one group that causes ambiguity and confusion. Cinchona is antimalarial
drug because of presence of quinine but can be put under the group of drug
affecting heart because of antiarrhythmic action of quinidine.

Chemical Classification
Depending upon the active constituents, the crude drugs are classified. The
plants contain various constituents in them like alkaloids, glycosides, tannins,
carbohydrates, saponins, etc. Irrespective of the morphological or
taxonomical characters, the drugs with similar chemical constituents are
grouped into the same group. The examples are shown in this table.
Merits
It is a popular approach for
phytochemical studies.
Demerits
Ambiguities arise when
particular drugs possess a
number of compounds
belonging to different
groups of compounds.

Chemotaxonomical Classification
This system of classification relies on the chemical similarity of a taxon, i.e. it is
based on the existence of relationship between constituents in various plants.
There are certain types of chemical constituents that characterize certain
classes of plants. This gives birth to entirely a new concept of chemotaxonomy
that utilizes chemical facts/characters for understanding the taxonomical status,
relationships and the evolution of the plants. For example, tropane alkaloids
generally occur among the members of Solanaceae, thereby, serving as a
chemotaxonomic marker. Similarly, other secondary plant metabolites can
serve as the basis of classification of crude drugs. The berberine alkaloid in
Berberis and Argemone, Rutin in Rutaceae members, Ranunculaceae alkaloids
among its members, etc., are other examples. It is the latest system of
classification that gives more scope for understanding the relationship
between chemical constituents, their biosynthesis and their possible action.

Introduction to Pharmacognosy

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Introduction to Pharmacognosy